COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN RURAL WATER SUPPLY IN AKWA IBOM STATE, NIGERIA

In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, sp[email p o ec ed]m
273
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN RURAL WATER SUPPLY IN AKWA IBOM
STATE, NIGERIA
Ko i Ayadu Edwin and Usip Edidiong Elijah
Depa men o U ban and Regional Planning, Akwa Ibom S a e Poly echnic, Iko Osu ua
Co esponding Au ho : ✉ ayaduko [email protected]
ARTICLE
INFO
ABSTRACT
Pape ID: IJASTR-
68D31DC8D5458
Recei ed: 2025-09-05
Published: 2025-10-07
DOI:
h ps://dx.doi.o g
/10.5281/zenodo.17
330635
Page No: 273-293
Majo i y o u al Nige ian households do no ha e access o imp o ed wa e supply
despi e se e al policies and p og ammes by successi e adminis a ions. This s udy is
an a emp o assess he le el o communi y pa icipa ion in u al wa e supply in
Akwa Ibom S a e, Nige ia. The esea ch ocused on he u al pa icipa ion
app oaches, and he in luence o socio-economic ac o s o u al dwelle s in u al
wa e supply. The s udy adop ed combina ion o su ey and c oss – sec ional esea ch
me hods in he collec ion o da a in he s udy a ea. Nine y – h ee u al communi ies
we e andomly selec ed using he quad a sampling echnique. The ques ionnai e was
s a is ically adminis e ed o ou a ge ed popula ion: he household – heads, illage
heads, Local Go e nmen Council O icials and Communi y-Based O ganiza ions
(CBOs) on issues bo de ing on pa icipa ion in u al wa e supply p ojec s in he
s udy a ea. Tables and pe cen ages we e used o analysed da a a uni a ia e le el
while mul iple eg ession and ac o analysis we e used o he es ing o he wo
esea ch hypo heses a he bi a ia e le els. The esul o he s udy showed ha
echnical assis ance ac o (X3) con ibu ed he highes in p edic ing he app oaches
o u al pa icipa ion wi h (0.961) ac o sco e loading while labou in e ac ion ac o
(X8) con ibu ed he leas (0.484) ac o sco e loading in he explana ion o he u al
pa icipa ion app oaches in u al wa e supply in he s udy a ea. On he socio-
economic in luence; o mally educa ed and ma ied you h ac o (X2) con ibu ed he
highes ac o o (0. 531) while eligious income ac o (X6) con ibu ed he leas
ac o (0.450) in he explana ion o he socio -economic ac o s in luencing u al
wa e supply in he s udy a ea. The s udy, he e o e, ecommends ha he social-
economic s a us o he people should be alle ia ed by en o cing compulso y
educa ion a he junio seconda y le el and encou aging en ep eneu ial skills
acquisi ion among he you hs. This would make hem o e ec i ely pa icipa e in
u al wa e p ojec s and also he labou in e ac ion app oach should be s eng hened
o ensu e e ec i e pa icipa ion in u al o u al wa e p ojec s.
Keywo ds: Communi y Pa icipa ion, Ru al Wa e , Sus ainabili y, Ru al Dwelle s,
Nige ia.
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical
Resea ch
A ailable online on
h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml
ISSN 2249-9954
Ci e This Pape : Ko i Ayadu Edwin and Usip Edidiong Elijah (2025).
"COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN RURAL WATER SUPPLY IN AKWA
IBOM STATE, NIGERIA". INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL RESEARCH (IJASTR), ol. 15, no. 5,
2025, pp. 273-293. DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17330635
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, sp[email p o ec ed]m
274
1. In oduc ion
Global popula ion inc ease con inues o c ea e new and mo e challenges o he p oblem o clean
and po able wa e supply bo h in u al and u ban a eas. S udies by Chi onge (2014), Hopewell and
G aham (2014) and Gleick (2014) show ha he challenges will be mo e phenomenal in eme ging
ci ies in A ica whe e hese acili ies a e u gen ly needed. The daun ing ask acing local au ho i ies
is how o adequa ely supply clean po able wa e o he p edominan ly poo u al dwelle s (Bakke
e al., 2008). Expe s and p ac i ione s in he de elopmen s udies ha e p oposed a ied
managemen models a ge ed a imp o ing access o wa e supply in he de eloping wo ld (Ghai
and Vi ian 2014; W aigh , 2008, Mi chel, 2005; Wo ld Bank, 2004 and Gleick, 2003).
Repo s has es ablished ha billions o people wo ldwide a e li ing wi hou access o sa e
wa e wi h he as majo i y o hese people li ing in he u al communi ies (UNICEF and WHO,
2019). Poo quali y o wa e has been implica ed in 80% o all sickness and diseases wo ldwide
h ough inadequa e sani a ion, pollu ed wa e , o una ailabili y o po able wa e supply (WHO,
2019), and a any gi en momen i has been es ima ed ha hal he wo ld’s hospi al beds a e
occupied wi h pa ien s su e ing om wa e - ela ed diseases (UNICEF, 2021). One o he Uni ed
Na ion’s 2000 Millennium Goals (MDG’s) was o inc ease he p opo ion o he wo ld’s
popula ion ha has access o sa e d inking wa e and basic sani a ion (Uni ed Na ions, 2010).
While he in e na ional communi y has made ad ancemen s owa d his goal o e he pas decade,
p og ess in u al a eas is s ill lagging ela i e o u ban a eas (Uni ed Na ions, 2011). Wo ldwide,
80 pe cen o he people who ha e limi ed access o d inking wa e supplies li e in u al a eas
(Uni ed Na ions, 2010) The Wo ld Bank (2016) ecognised he lack o communi y pa icipa ion as
a eason o he ailu e o many communi y de elopmen a emp s in de eloping coun ies. Thus,
i should be no ed ha communi y pa icipa ion o en means he in ol emen o ‘ he membe s o
he communi y aking pa in shaping, planning, de eloping, implemen ing and e alua ing policies
and ac ions which a ec hei li es and he li e o hei communi y. I has been es ablished o e
he yea s ha in wa e supply p ojec s bes esul s a e ob ained only when communi ies a e
in ol ed in he planning and unning o he p ojec (Joseph, 2015, Ko i and Iku ekong 2020 and
Ananga e al., 2020).
O e he yea s successi e go e nmen s in Nige ia ha e in oduced a ious p og ammes o
a es p oblems mili a ing agains he de elopmen o u al Nige ia such as Ope a ion Feed he
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, sp[email p o ec ed]m
275
Na ion (OFN), Di ec o a e o Food, Roads, and Ru al In as uc u e (DFRRI) P og amme, Fa m
Se lemen Scheme o he hen Wes e n Region, Ri e Basin De elopmen Au ho i ies (RBDA)
p ojec s, and In eg a ed Ru al De elopmen (IRD) p ojec s among o he s (Simon e .al., 2014). All
hese p og ammes ha e ailed o con ibu e e ec i ely o he de elopmen o u al communi ies
especially he in oduc ion and implemen a ion o hand pumps wa e supply p ojec s by DFRRI o
a ious u al loca ions in Sou h-Eas e n Nige ia. One majo ac o has been iden i ied as he ailu e
o hese p og ammes; which is he lack o e ec i e communi y pa icipa ion o u al dwelle s a
a ious s ages in wa e p ojec execu ion (B ain and Robe 2016 and Muniu e al., 2017).
Resea ch has also p o ed ha lack o communi y pa icipa ion has been a eason o he
ailu e o many de elopmen p ojec s in de eloping coun ies ac oss he globe (Wo ld Bank,
2016). This is he ounda ion o he p oblem o his esea ch which conce ns he lack o e ec i e
pa icipa ion o u al dwelle s in wa e p ojec s in Akwa Ibom S a e. This may be a ibu ed o he
challenge o iden i ying and implemen ing he a ious app oaches o u al pa icipa ion in wa e
supply p ojec s. Howe e , mos de elopmen p ojec dono s iden i y communi y pa icipa ion as
one o he p e equisi es o imp o ed pe o mance in he wa e sec o . I soon u ned ou ha
sus ainable wa e supply se ices could no be achie ed wi hou in ol ing he communi y no jus
in manual wo k, bu also in he planning o p og ammes om he concep ualiza ion s age o he
inal implemen a ion s age (The kildsen, 1998).
Al hough, esea che s ha e conduc ed s udies on communi y pa icipa ion app oach in social
se ices deli e y (Felix, 2004; Elizabe h, 2008; Williams, 2008), none o hese s udies a emp ed
o p o ide empi ical e idence ela ed o he sus ainabili y o wa e supply unde communi y
pa icipa ion as an al e na i e app oach o p o iding wa e supply in he s udy a ea. Appa en ly,
he absence o e ec i e pa icipa ion in u al wa e p ojec s in he s udy a ea esul ed in many
p ojec s unce ain y in sus ainabili y, hey unc ion o sho pe iods and collapse a e unding
ins i u ions cease o p o ide suppo bo h inancially and echnically (Acha. J 2020). This has
esul ed in a decline in he wa e consump ion le el o he u al populace om he s anda ds
equi ed. The e o e, his s udy seeks o ill he esea ch gap by iden i ying an app oach o
combina ion o app oaches ha ensu es e ec i e u al pa icipa ion o sus ainable u al wa e
supply in u al Akwa Ibom S a e, Nige ia.
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, sp[email p o ec ed]m
276
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Empi ical Re iew
Schola s and de elopmen p ac i ione s ha e es ablished a ypology o pa icipa ion app oaches
whe e he le el o pa icipa ion is assessed on he in ol emen o communi y in he de elopmen
p ojec s. Among he schola s is A ns ein (1969) who pos ula ed eigh (8) ungs on he le el o
ci izen pa icipa ion and ca ego ized i in o h ee ca ego ies The op o he ladde acco ding o
A ns ein is a symbol o ull o genuine pa icipa ion, he wo bo om ungs o ladde ep esen non-
pa icipa ion; whe e people a e allowed o pa icipa e, bu i does no gi e hem any oppo uni y
o change p og ammes o hei own needs and as a esul main ains hei s a us quo.
The hi d ca ego y o pa icipa ion encompasses he deg ee o okenism, which allows he
pa icipa ion o be hea d, o ha e a oice. Thus, ci izen gains some deg ee o in luence hough i
is s ill a o m o okenism as adi ional powe - holde s con inue o ha e he igh o decide. I is
he illusion o a oice wi hou he oice i sel . Howe e , s udies by Taylo e al., (2008) Ci ed in
P es on e al., (2010) ou lined ou concep ual app oaches o communi y pa icipa ion which we e;
con ibu ion app oach, ins umen al, empowe men and de elopmen al app oach and diagnosis
how each o hese app oaches we e applied in communi y wa e supply p ojec s. Essen ially,
communi y pa icipa ion p omo es g ea e chances o success o de elopmen ini ia i es,
e iciency in he use o esou ces, e ec i eness, sel - eliance, empowe men , sus ainabili y and
owne ship o de elopmen ini ia i es (Bo es, 2013; Da ids, e al., 2009 Kuma , 2002; B ehanu,
2008). Nwankwoala (2011) e eals ha he e is no doub ha e icien and sus ainable wa e
esou ces managemen in Nige ia equi es he pa icipa ion o local communi ies. In addi ion, Njoh
(2003) con ends ha pa icipa ion had long been p ac iced by he indigenous communi ies be o e
he a i al o he Eu opeans. Speci ically, in a book i led Sel - help wa e supply in Came oon,
Njoh s a ed ha in p e-colonial A ica, i was common o communi ies o join hands in local
de elopmen p ojec s. Such p ojec s included building chie s’ palaces, ma ke cen e s, e ec ing
illage b idges, o building communi y cen e s (Ananga e . al 2020).
Mo eso, e iew o li e a u es ag ees ha socio-economic ac o s ha e in luence on communi y
pa icipa ion in u al wa e supply in bo h de eloped and de eloping coun ies. Fo ins ance,
Bauma e al., (2000) a gue ha he le el o pa icipa ion is signi ican ly in luenced by indi idual
socio-economic s a us and o he demog aphic cha ac e is ics. Acco ding o Jones (2011), a s udy
conduc ed on communi y pa icipa ion in wa e supply in Mali e ealed ha ci izenship we e
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, sp[email p o ec ed]m
277
a ec ed by ou key s uc u al ac o s namely age, le el o educa ion, gende and geog aphic
loca ion. The s udies o Hassan e al., (2019), Gaboyan (2010), Ha is (2006) and Tone and
Cle e , (2006) all ag ees ha age has a signi ican in luenced on u al people pa icipa ion in u al
wa e supply p ojec . Young and ac i e age b acke be ween 18 – 55 yea s ends o pa icipa e
mo e han he old people om 60 yea s and abo e. Ne e heless, John, (2009) opined ha
educa ional le el o he ci izen y has a signi ican co ela ion in he le el o pa icipa ion in u al
wa e supply. Simila ly, Joshi and Hou zage (2012) con ends ha educa ion has a high posi i e
co ela ion wi h publics engagemen in u al wa e supply, while Mugizi e al., (2017) a gued ha
educa ion is essen ial in enhancing long- e m pa icipa ion o local communi y in any de elopmen
ini ia i es. The le el o educa ion in he communi y a ec s he le el o communi y pa icipa ion
in wa e p ojec s (Do sne 2004). Spee e al., (2013 and Shamiyulla and Ramu (2010) es ablished
in hei sepa a e indings ha he le el o educa ion is a signi ican a iable in luencing communi y
pa icipa ion in u al wa e supply in u al communi ies. Lack o adequa e knowledge and skills
by he communi y membe s due o he high le el o illi e acy ha e limi ed he scope o communi y
pa icipa ion in u al wa e de elopmen and hus pe pe ua ing con inues lack o sa e and clean
wa e wi hin many communi ies.
Howe e , he s udy o Awo wi (2012) in A ica and La in Ame ica concluded ha income
le els ha e posi i e ela ionships as a ac o in luencing communi y pa icipa ion in u al wa e
supply. In u al Kenya, i was es ablished ha he weak inancial posi ion o local communi ies
no only educes hei capaci y o pa icipa e in de elopmen p ojec s, bu also a ec hei abili y
o pay o wa e se ices (Kakumba and Nsingo, 2008). In addi ion, Phillip and Abdillahi (2003)
epo ag ees wi h Awo wi (2012) indings ha he ela i ely high le el o pa icipa ion depends
on he household income ea ned pe mon h. The e o e, a dec ease in household income pe mon h
is associa ed wi h a dec ease in he le el o communi y pa icipa ion in u al wa e p ojec s in
e ms o mone a y con ibu ion. Simila ly, indings o Ezenwaji e al., 2016 on ac o s in luencing
communi y pa icipa ion in u al wa e p ojec s in Ma e e Sub-Coun y Kakamega Coun y e ealed
ha he low-income o he communi y a ec ed hei abili y o gi e mone a y con ibu ion owa ds
planning and implemen a ion o communi y wa e p ojec s in he s udy a ea. The communi y
membe s who ha e high income le els we e able o con ibu e owa ds wa e p ojec
implemen a ion han hose wi h lowe income le el. F om Gende Pe spec i e, Hassan e al.,
(2019) es ablished ha men end o show g ea e pa icipa ion in wa e de elopmen ac i i ies han

In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, sp[email p o ec ed]m
278
hei emale coun e pa s. Gende has been widely no ed as an impo an ac o in luencing
pa icipa ion, pa icula ly in u al wa e supply p ojec s (Clea e , 2002; Clea e and Tone , 2006;
Singh, 2008; Sul ana, 2009).
3. METHODOLOGY
Geog aphically Akwa Ibom S a e is loca ed in he coas al sou h-sou he n pa o he coun y, lying
be ween La i ude 4˚ 32' and 5˚ 31.1’ No h o Equa o , and Longi udes 7˚ 25’ and 8˚ 25’ Eas . I
has in e -s a e bounda ies wi h C oss Ri e o he eas , Abia o he no h and no h-wes and Ri e s
o he sou hwes and o he sou h is he Gul o Guinea The s udy adop a combina ion o su ey
and c oss – sec ional me hods because i allows he esea che o collec da a om di e en g oups
o people/indi iduals a a pa icula poin in ime. The su ey app oach was used o collec da a
h ough ques ionnai es on ou di e en a ge ed popula ion ha made he s udy a ea Akwa Ibom
S a e. P ima ily, da a equi emen o he s udy was sou ced h ough he use o p e – es ed
s uc u ed ques ionnai e, and pe sonal obse a ions on he exis ing wa e supply p ojec s in he
s udy a ea while books, jou nals, and ele an epo s / publica ions on he subjec ma e we e
consul ed o bee - up he seconda y me hod o da a collec ion. The popula ion da a o u al
dwelle s in he s a e was ex ac ed om he 1991 Na ional Popula ion Census igu e. The
popula ion igu e o each o he se lemen s in he s a e was p ojec ed o he yea 2024, using 2.83
pe cen popula ion g ow h a e. Howe e , he selec ion o he u al household – heads om he
sample communi ies was acili a ed by d awing a map o Akwa Ibom S a e on a scale o 1cm o
ep esen 1km, and di iding same in o quad a s o 0.025km
2
which was clea ly and se ially
numbe ed. The quad a sys em allows o andom selec ion o a equi ed numbe o poin s o cases
wi hin a quad an . A able o andom numbe s was used o selec u al communi ies as uni s o
obse a ion om sampled quad a s because he g id maps con ain he names o communi ies hus,
i was easy o know he communi ies wi hin each quad a .
In he con ex o his esea ch, whe e a quad a con ained wo o mo e communi ies, only
one wi h he highes popula ion was selec ed o ep esen such quad a . Howe e , whe e a quad a
con ained a communi y wi h a popula ion o 20,000 and abo e, such quad a was skipped
conside ing he u al ocus o he s udy. The s udy adop ed 10% sample ac ion and a o al o 93
ou o 930 quad a s om a p elimina y analysis was andomly selec ed using he able o andom
numbe s. To de e mine he sample size o he u al household – heads in he sample communi ies,
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, sp[email p o ec ed]m
279
he esea che adop s S oud and Boo h (2007) o mula in de e mining he sample size which is
s a ed below;
 =  − ()

whe e S = Requi ed sample, P = Expec ed alue a 70% base (Cons an )
N = The o al wo king popula ion size, n = Numbe o wo king a ea ( illages)
 = [(358433) − (0.7 358433)]
93
 = 107530
93 = 1156
This implies ha 1156 u al household–heads was selec ed om 93 se lemen s o wa e supply
and communi y pa icipa ion su ey in Akwa Ibom S a e as shown in Table 1.
Sample Size: Table 1
S/N Assigned no Names o Villages LGA Popula ion
(2024)
Household
Pop.
Sample
Size
1
457
Iko Akpaya
E inan
3594
599
12
2
639
Iko Umiang Ede
E inan
3539
590
12
3
701
Akpasak E a
E inan
5849
975
17
4
550
Iko Ananga
E inan
2390
398
8
5
215
A an Aya
Ibiono
1928
321
7
6
242
A aha Nsai
Ibiono
3388
565
12
7
I68
Iko Idem
Ibiono
2470
412
9
8
266
Iko Ada Idem
Ibiono
5816
969
17
9
933
Usuk Aka
Ibono
3497
583
12
10
244
Odiok I am
I u
4125
688
14
11 198 Iko An uen I u 3006 501 10
12
199
Iko O iong
I u
6033
1006
17
13
114
Ndiya E uk
Ikono
3665
611
12
14
092
I ak Iko Akpan Edem
Ikono
3057
510
11
15
117
Iko Onwong
Ikono
2404
400
8
16
163
Ekpen Obom Nkuo o
Ikono
2464
410
8
17
138
Iko E e
Ikono
1855
309
7
18
061
E ok I on
Ikono
1571
262
7
19
210
U u Edem Usuk
Iko Ekpene
7679
1280
20
20
049
Ndo Nkpe
Ini
4242
707
14
21
048
Ibam Ede
Ini
3297
550
11
( able con inues)
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, sp[email p o ec ed]m
280
22
195
Iko Ukap
I u
2677
446
9
23
032
Edem Idim
Ini
2097
350
7
24
645
Idikpa Nsi
Nsi A ai
2604
434
9
25
558
Iko Uyo
Nsi A ai
2281
380
8
26
709
Iko
Okpudo
Nsi Ubium
4230
705
14
27
516
Minya N ak
Mkpa Enin
6397
1066
18
28
586
Minya
Mkpa Enin
4622
770
15
29
763
Iko E e ia
Mkpa Enin
3268
545
11
30 461 Iko Annung Ibesikpo
Asu an
2659 443 9
31 431 Iko Obio Odongo Ibesikpo
Asu an
5214 869 16
32 285 Iko Akpasia Ibesikpo
Asu an
2379 397 8
33
583
Ekpene Ukpa
E inan
9034
1506
25
34
868
Odio
Eke
4738
790
15
35
835
Esi U ua
Eke
7795
1299
21
36
768
Iko Abia
Eke
6147
1025
17
37
870
Ndi ia
Eke
1819
303
7
38
285
A aha Esang
Abak
5871
979
17
39
264
Iko Obioko
Abak
3796
633
13
40
314
Ikwek
Abak
3801
634
13
41
341
Iko Akpa Edem
Abak
2692
448
9
42
443
Iko Udo
-
Obong
E im Ekpo
5158
860
16
43
359
N o Obio
E im Ekpo
6020
1003
17
44
360
Iko Akpapan
E im Ekop
2466
411
9
45
474
Ndo
E im Ekpo
2246
374
8
46
237
Iko Abia
Essien Udium
2990
498
10
47
205
N o Nsek
Essien Udim
5793
966
16
48
261
Iko Akpan Essang
Essien Udim
2848
475
10
49
236
Iko N uen
Essien Udim
2661
444
9
50
228
Iboho
Essien Udim
2286
381
8
51
284
Mkpa ak
Essien Udim
2150
358
8
52
831
Aba
Onna
5098
850
16
53
117
Iko Onwon
Onna
5720
953
16
54
224
Iko Nya
I u
1972
329
7
55
678
U ue I a
Okobo
4882
814
16
56
468
Esuk Inwang Ekeya
Okobo
4167
695
14
57
563
Ebighi Anwa
Okobo
3350
558
11
58
562
Eyo Nko
Okobo
2615
436
9
59
564
Nda
Okobo
1951
325
7
60
010
Obo Ndom
Ini
2519
420
9
61
109
Iko Abia
Obo Aka a
2861
477
10
62
749
Uda
Mbo
5596
933
16
63
717
Asak Ikang
Mbo
3701
617
13
64
813
Iyesin
Mbo
2652
442
9
65
847
Ibe e
Mbo
2923
487
10
66
384
Iko Inyang
Ika
4076
679
14
67
903
Mkpanak
Ibeno
16318
2720
48
68
567
Esuk Mbiam
O on
2288
381
8
69
605
Mbiaso
O uk Anam
2655
443
9
70
756
Iko Inuen
O uk Anam
4381
730
15
71
940
Obianga
Eas e n Obolo
2377
396
8
72
483
N ak
Ibesi
O uk Anam
3252
542
11
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, sp[email p o ec ed]m
281
73
759
Iko Osudu
Iko Abasi
2468
411
9
74
791
Iko Akpa Idiang
Iko Abasi
2868
478
10
75
827
A an Obom
Iko Abasi
3083
514
11
76
792
Iko Ukpong Ekwe e
Iko Abasi
3590
598
12
77
063
A an Ukwuk
Ini
2008
335
7
78
327
Akani Obio U uan
U uan
4130
688
14
79
478
Iko Akpaidem
Ukana un
5764
961
16
80
510
A aha Obo
Ukana un
4282
714
14
81
713
Ubodung
U ue O ong
3992
665
14
82
684
Eyo Eyekip
U ue O ong
1888
315
7
83
692
O o
O uk Anam
2879
480
10
84
686
Eyo Nsek
Udung Uko
2599
433
9
85
773
Ekpene Obo
Esi Eke
11547
1925
33
86
742
Uquo Iso Edoho
Esi Eke
4412
735
15
87
838
Ine Ukpana
Esi Eke
4036
673
14
88
810
N ak Inyang
Esi Eke
4036
673
14
89
806
Akpa a
Esi Eke
2815
469
10
90
393
Ibesi
Okpoko o
O uk Anam
4296
716
15
91
610
I ung
O uk Anam
2102
350
8
92
609
E eben
O uk Anam
2386
398
8
93
482
N ak Obio Akpa
O uk Anam
3783
631
13
358433
59739
1156
Sou ce: NPC, 1991.
The second a ge popula ion was he o al numbe o communi y leade s/ illage heads o he
sample u al se lemen s in he s udy a ea. Ques ionnai e was adminis e ed o he selec ed 93
communi y leade s on hei le el o pa icipa ion in wa e supply in he a ea. The hi d g oup was
he numbe o Local Go e nmen Council O icials in- cha ge o communi y de elopmen
p ojec s. Finally, he ou h was he numbe o Communi y-Based O ganiza ions (CBOs) in he
u al se lemen s ha make up he s udy a ea.
3.1 Da a P esen a ion and Analysis
Two esea ch app oaches we e p esen ed and analysed on communi y pa icipa ion in u al wa e
supply in he s udy a ea. Howe e , hypo heses one s a e ha he u al pa icipa ion app oaches do
no signi ican ly in luence he u al wa e supply op ions in he s udy a ea. To analysed his
hypo hesis, ac o analysis was used o educe 17 independen (x) a iables o pa icipa ion
app oaches in o nine (9) ex ac ed componen s wi h hei ac o sco e as shown in Table 2. while
dependen a iable (y) is wa e supply op ion.
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, sp[email p o ec ed]m
288
Table 6: Ro a ed componen ma ix o socio – economic ac o
Va iables 1 2 3 4 5 6
Seconda y. School .795 .101 .181 .038 -.005 .211
T ading .752 .376 .166 -.060 .019 -.104
Business .751 .047 .290 .108 .160 -.078
Single .745 .231 -.049 .395 .287 .112
Age: 19 -37y s .659 .184 .230 .304 .253 .116
Age: < 18y s .557 .249 -.133 .412 .241 .016
Male .553 .475 .331 .353 .256 .117
Income: N 36-72 .515 .428 .647 .042 -.006 .412
Female .494 .429 .592 .273 .190 .148
Age: >57 y s .133 .800 .030 .056 .203 .068
De oiced .212 .654 .267 .056 -.020 .211
Widowed .192 .649 .184 .087 -.009 .369
Income: N 72-108 .299 .624 .072 .535 -.073 -.215
P ima y Educa ion .345 .567 .689 .155 .086 -.137
Faming -.065 .566 .533 .035 .550 .026
No o mal Edu. .267 .543 .153 .278 .444 .201
Age: 38-56 .193 .248 .836 .182 .004 .171
Ma ied .286 .206 .744 .296 .278 -.107
Public Se ice .167 .253 .186 .807 -.076 .219
Pos Educa ion .017 -.092 .204 .658 .518 .117
Poly/Uni. Educa ion .389 .290 .349 .513 .060 .171
Income le el > N 144 .340 -.003 .291 .409 .507 -.181
Income le el N 108 -
144
.358 .110 .041 .106 .768 .125
Cle gy .062 .201 .029 .182 .137 .874
Sou ce: Resea che s’ S a is ical Analysis (2025)
Key:
1.
Pos
-
seconda y you h/in o mal occupa ion
2. Non- o mally educa ed and ma ied you h
3. Lowly educa ed and ma ied you h
4. Highly educa ed and employed you h
5. Highly educa ed and high-income p o essionals
6. Middle income unma ied cle gy
A mul iple co ela ion/ eg ession analysis o he six (6) ex ac ed componen s om 24 o iginal
a iables on socio – economic indica o s we e eg essed wi h he u al wa e supply op ions. This
was wi h a iew o de ine he le el o associa ion o he wo se s o a iables as well as hei causal
ela ionships. Fo he Y1 a iable ( ain wa e supply op ions), a mul iple co ela ion coe icien
o R = 0.591 was ob ained indica ing ha abou 34.9% (
2
=.349) o his a iable is impac ed by
he six (6) ex ac ed ac o sco es (X- a iables). The squa e o he mul iple co ela ions co-
e icien R indica es he deg ee o p edic abili y o he alue o Y wi h all he X- a iables aken
oge he as inpu da a using simul aneous o s anda dized mul iple eg ession analysis. Using he
speci ic con ibu ions o each o he indi idual ac o s, X2 ( o mally educa ed and ma ied you h
ac o ) con ibu ed he highes in p edic ing he socio – economic ac o con ibu ions o (0.531)
while X6 ( eligious income ac o ) con ibu ed he leas (-. 045) in he explana ion o he socio –
economic ac o s in luence o u al wa e supply op ions in he s udy a ea. The e o e, he null
hypo hesis in his case is ejec ed as he o e all esul shows ha he socio – economic ac o s do
signi ican ly in luence he u al wa e supply op ions in u al Akwa Ibom S a e going by he

In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, sp[email p o ec ed]m
289
signi ican p- alue o .000 which is less han .05 es ablished o accep ing he null hypo hesis (see
Table 7.).
Table 7: Summa ized esul o mul iple eg ession analysis
Pa ame e s Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4
Mul iple R .591 .723 .604 .636
R Squa e .349 .523 .365 .404
Adjus ed R
2
.304 .490 .320 .362
S anda d E o 2.074 1.823 1.702 2.464
F 7.688 15.10 8.228 9.711
Sig F
Du bin-
Wa son
.000
1.574
.000
1.662
.000
2.053
.000
1.725
Sou ce: Resea che s analysis esul (2025)
4.Conclusion/ Recommenda ions
Nige ia is one o he de eloping coun ies o he wo ld ha a e in a e y poo s a e o he p o ision
o social ameni ies especially u al wa e supply despi e se e al policies and p og amme by
successi e adminis a ions. S udies ha e di e en ly con i med ha majo i y o u al communi ies
in Nige ia lack access o he imp o ed wa e supply. O en imes, hey ely on ee wa e supply
sou ces such as s eams and unp o ec ed wells o hei wa e needs which a e suscep ible o
wa e bo ne disease. This is a ue e lec ion in he s udy a ea as he majo i y o he u al dwelle s
indica ed ha hei sou ce o wa e supply was om bo ehole bu eg e ably hese sou ces we e
no unc ioning as he majo i y o he u al dwelle s s ill sou ce hei wa e needs om s eams and
unp o ec ed wells.
Me hods o u al pa icipa ion app oach in he p o ision o u al wa e supply o educe he bu den
o access o he imp o ed wa e supply was analysed and concluded ha ; labou in e ac ion ac o
pa icipa ion was low. This was due o se e al ac o s amongs which was he heal h and
educa ional le el o he u al dwelle s he eby limi ing hei pa icipa ion in u al supply p ojec s
in he s udy a ea. Howe e , eligious income ac o con ibu ed he leas in explaining he socio -
economic ac o s in luencing u al wa e supply in he s udy a ea. Thus, he s udy ecommends
ha he social economic s a us o he u al dwelle s should be s eng hened o enable hem
e ec i ely pa icipa es in u al wa e supply p ojec s while he echnical assis an app oach should
be sus ained
REFERENCES
Acha, J. (2020). Communi y sel -hel p ojec s as ca alys o sus ainable communi y de elopmen
p ojec s in Bekwa a, Nige ia. In e na ional Jou nal o Con inuing Educa ion and
De elopmen S udies, 2(1), 40 – 49.
Ananga, E., Agong, S.G., Acheampong, M. (2020). Examining he e ec o communi y
pa icipa ion on bene icia y sa is ac ion wi h he wo k o wa e managemen commi ee in
u ban communi y-based ope a ed wa e schemes. Jou nal o Sus ainable Wa e Resou ce
Managemen , (6), 49 – 57.
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, sp[email p o ec ed]m
290
A s ein, S. (1969). A ladde o ci izen pa icipa ion. A Jou nal o Ame ican Ins i u e o Planne s,
35 (4), 216 – 224.
Awo wi, N. (2012). The iddle o communi y de elopmen : ac o s in luencing pa icipa ion and
managemen in wen y-nine A ican and La in Ame ican communi ies. Jou nal o
Communi y De elopmen , 4(8): 89-104
Bakke , K., Kooy, M., Sho iani, N. & E ns -Jan, M. (2008). Go e nance ailu e: Re hinking he
ins i u ional dimensions o u ban wa e supply o poo households. Jou nal o Wo ld
De elopmen , 36(10), 1891-1915.
Bau ma, F,. Robe , A., Ca olyn, C. Cha lie, J. E a, M. Ka hy, M. and Robe , C. (2002)
Epidemiology o pa icipa ion: An Aus alian communi y S udy. Jou nal o Epidemiology
and Communi y Heal h, 5(4), 414 - 423.
Bo es, L. (2013). Communi y pa icipa ion in de elopmen : Nine plagues and wel e
commandmen s. Communi y De elopmen Jou nal, 35(1) 41-58.
B ain, J. & Rob , S. (2016). Planning o sus ainable wa e supply h ough pa ne ship app oach
in wuka i own Ta aba S a e, Nige ia. Jou nal o Wa e Resou ces and P o ec ion, 2(10),
916 – 922.
B ehanu, W. (2008). En i onmen al impac s o u al wa e sys ems & in eg a ed de elopmen o
wa e and sani a ion. Jou nal o he Cha e ed Ins i u e o Wa e and En i onmen al
Managemen , (13), 292 – 296.
Chi onge, H. (2014) Ci ies beyond Ne wo ks: The S a us o wa e se ices o he u ban poo in
A ican ci ies. Jou nal o A ican S udies, 73 (1), 58 – 83.
Clea e , F. (2002). Analysing gende oles in communi y na u al esou ce managemen :
nego ia ion, li ecou ses and social inclusion, Bulle in, 31: 60–71
Clea e , F. and Tone , A. (2006). The E olu ion o communi y wa e go e nance in Uchi a,
Tanzania: The implica ion o equali y o access, sus ainabili y and e ec i eness. Na u al
Resou ces Fo um, 30: 207 – 218.
Da is, J. & B ikke, F. (2009). Making you wa e supply wo k: Ope a ion and main enance o
small wa e supply sys em, IWSC, The Hague. 219p.
Damelin, E., Shami , U & A ad, N. (1972). Enginee ing and economic e alua ion o he eliabili y
o wa e supply. Jou nal o Wa e Resou ces, 8(4), 861 – 877.
Do sne , C. (2004) Social exclusion and pa icipa ion in communi y de elopmen p ojec s:
e idence om Senegal. Jou nal o Policy and Adminis a ion, 4(1): 366-382
Elizabe h, S. (2008). Analysis o a u al wa e supply p ojec in h ee communi ies in Malawi.
Pa icipa ion & sus ainabili y. UN Blackwell publishing L d. New Yo k, 294p.
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, sp[email p o ec ed]m
291
Ezenwaji, E., Edupu a, B. and Okoye, I (2016). In es iga ion in o he esiden ial wa e demand
and supply in Enugu me opoli an A ea. Ame ican Jou nal o Wa e Resou ces 4(1): 22 –
29.
Felix, E. (2004). Sus ainabili y o u al wa e supply & sani a ion se ices unde communi y
managemen app oach: The Case o six illages in Tanzania.
Gaboyan, M. (2010) Demog aphic ac o s a ec ing ci izen pa icipa ion in A menia.
h ps://www.c c.am/hos ing/ ile/_s a ic_con en / ellows/CELoG%20Fellowship/2016/
Ma ga i a%20 Gaboyan.%20Fac o s%20o %20pa icipa ion.pd (Re ie ed on 5
h
June
2016)
Ghai, D. & Vi ian, J. (2014). G ass oo s en i onmen al ac ion: People’s pa icipa ion in
sus ainable de elopmen : Rou ledge, London. 236p.
Gleick, P. (2003). Global eshwa e esou ces: So -pa h solu ions o he 21s cen u y Science.
Jou nal o Science and Technology, 3(5), 24 – 28.
Gleick, P. (2014). The Wo ld’s wa e olume 8. The Biennial epo on eshwa e esou ces Vol
8. Island P ess. 147p.
Golds ein J., Roge s, T. & Fox, R. (2018). Social mobiliza ion. Annual Re iew o Psychology.
69(1), 357 – 381.
Ha is, C. (2006). Doing de elopmen wi h men: Some e lec ions on a case s udy om Mali. IDS
Bulle in, 37(6): 47- 56
Hassan, O. and Oso e M, (2019). Assessing he In luence o Demog aphic Fac o s on Communi y
Pa icipa ion in a Demand D i en De elopmen P ojec : The Case o Hazina Ya
Maendeleo App oach in Coas al Kenya. Ru al De elopmen Bulle in, 4(7): 47 - 63
Hopewell, M. & G aham, J. (2014). T ends in access o wa e supply and sani a ion in 31 majo
sub-Saha an A ican ci ies: An analysis o DHS da a om 2000 o 2012. BMC Public
Heal h, 14(1), 20 - 31. h p://www.mil/de /goa/ ep/un/e /20/doc/h ml. (Re ie ed on 7 h
Feb ua y 2017)
John, P. (2009). Can ci izen go e nance ed ess he ep esen a i e bias o poli ical pa icipa ion.
Jou nal o Public Adminis a ion, 69(3): 494-503
Jones, S. (2011). Pa icipa ion as ci izenship o paymen . A case s udy o u al d inking wa e
go e nance in Mali. In e na ional Jou nal o Wa e Al e na i es 4(1): 67 – 84
Joseph O., Emah. W, & Ma in, M. (2015). Assessing Sus ainabili y o Ru al Wa e P ojec s in
Nai asha, Kenya, Case S udy: Ma aigushu Wa e P ojec . Jou nal o Business and Social
Sciences, 4(7), 52 – 83.
Joshi, A. and Hou zage , P. (2012). Widge s and Wa chdogs: Concep ual Explo a ions in Social
Accoun abili y. Public Managen Re iew, 14: 145 – 162.
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, sp[email p o ec ed]m
292
Kakumba, U. and Nsingo, S. (2008). Ci izen Pa icipa ion in Local Go e nmen and he P ocess
o Ru al De elopmen : The Rhe o ic and Reali y o Uganda. Jou nal o Public
Adminis a ion, (43)2: 107-123.
Ko i, A & Iku ekong E. (2020): Concep ual and Me hodological Pe spec i es on Ru al Wa e
Supply pp 626 – 657. In: Vic o . U and Jacob A (Edi o s) Land use Managemen and
En i onmen al Sus ainabili y in Nige ia. Pa enu Publishe s Nige ia. 746p.
Kuma , S. (2002). Me hods o Communi y Pa icipa ion: A comple e guide o p ac i ione s.
London: ITDG Publishing. The Hague, Holland. 294p.
Ma ia, S., Va ouchakis E. & Ka a zas, G. (2015). Game heo y in wa e esou ces managemen .
Geophysical Resea ch Abs ac s, 17(1), 786 – 791.
Mi chel, B. (2005). In eg a ed wa e esou ce managemen , ins i u ional a angemen s, and land
use planning. Jou nal o En i onmen and Planning, 37(8), 1335 – 1352.
Mugizi, F., Ayo eki e, J. and Obua, J. (2017) Fac o s ha in luence local communi y pa icipa ion
in ou ism in mu chison alls conse a ion a ea. Jou nal o En i onmen al Science and
Enginee ing, 6(1): 209 - 223.
Njoh, J. (2003). Sel -help wa e supply in Came oon- Lessons on communi y pa icipa ion in
public wo ks p ojec s. The Edwin Mellen P ess. Lewis on, New Yo k. 249p.
NPC, (1991). Census 1991 Final Resul : S a is ical Tables o Akwa Ibom S a e, Na ional
Popula ion Commission, Abuja, Nige ia. 156p.
Nwankwoala, O. (2011). Localizing he S a egy o achie ing u al wa e supply and sani a ion
in Nige ia. A ican Jou nal o En i onmen al Science and Technology, (13): 1170 – 1176
Mugizi, F., Ayo eki e, J. & Obua, J. (2017) Fac o s ha in luence local communi y pa icipa ion
in ou ism in mu chison alls conse a ion a ea. Jou nal o En i onmen al Science and
Enginee ing, 6(1), 209 - 223.
Pahl-Wos l, C. (2007). T ansi ions owa ds adap i e managemen o wa e acing clima e and
global change. Jou nal o Wa e Resou ces Managemen , 21(1), 49 – 62.
Phillip, K. and Abdillahi, A. (2003). Popula pa icipa ion and communi y wo k e hic in u al wa e
de elopmen in Nandi Dis ic Kenya. Jou nal o social De elopmen in A ica, 18 (2): 10
- 15.
P es on G., Waugh H. & La kins, S. (2010). Communi y pa icipa ionin in u al p ima y heal h
ca e: In e en ion o App oach. Aus alian Jou nal o P ima y Heal h, 16(1), 4 – 16.
Shamiyulla, N. and Ramu, J. (2010). Pa icipa o y i iga ion managemen in he con ex o u u e
o i iga ion in India, Asian. Jou nal o De elopmen Ma e s, 4(1): 18-27.
Simon, O. Judi h, E. Es he , P. (2014). Ru al de elopmen policies in Nige ia: A c i ical app aisal.
In e na ional Jou nal o Educa ion and Resea ch, 2(9),307 – 320.
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, sp[email p o ec ed]m
293
Singh, U. (2008) Communi y pa icipa ion in he managemen o public good: My h o Reali y,
case s udy o wo illages in India, ISS Resea ch Pape , No 5. The Hague, Holland. 143p.
Spee , W., Pe e son, N., A ms ead, T. and Allen, C. (2013). The In luence o pa icipa ion, gende
and o ganiza ional sense o communi y on psychological empowe men : The mode a ing
e ec s o income. Ame ican Jou nal o Communi y Psychology, 5(1), 103-113.
Sul ana, F. (2009). Fluid li es: subjec i i ies, wa e and gende in u al Bangladesh. Gende ,
place, and cul u e. CRC P ess, Leiden, Ne he land. 122p.
Taylo , J. Wilkinson, D. Chee s, B. (2008). Wo king wi h communi ies in heal h and human
se ices: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess. London, 215p.
The kildsen, H. (1998). A s udy o he ac o s a ec ing sus ainabili y o u al wa e supplies in
Tanzania: Silsoe Ins i u e o Wa e and he En i onmen , Sep embe 1998. C an ield
Uni e si y, England. 218p.
UNICEF & WHO. (2019). Global Wa e Supply and Sani a ion Assessmen 2019 Repo on Wo ld
Heal h O ganiza ion and Uni ed Na ions Child en's Fund. New Yo k. 119p.
UNICEF, (2021). Wa e , Sani a ion and Hygiene p og amme in Nige ia.
h ps://www.unice .o g/nige ia/wa e -sani a ion-and-hygiene. (Re ie ed on 24 h Ap il
2021).
Uni ed Na ions, (2010a). Sus ainable De elopmen Goals. 17 Goals o T ans o m Ou Wo ld
h p://www.un.o g/sus ainablede elopmen /wa e -and-sani a ion/ (Re ie ed on 27 h
May 2018).
Wo ld Bank, (2004). Towa ds Wa e Secu e Kenya: Wa e Resou ces Sec o Memo andum.
Washing on D.C. London, 62p.
Wo ld Bank, (2016). Wa e Supply, Sani a ion, and Hygiene, Po e y Diagnos ic Ini ia i e.
h ps://www.wo ldbank.o g/en/ opic/wa e . (Re ie ed on 5 h Augus 2018)
Wo ld Bank, (2016). Wa e Supply, Sani a ion, and Hygiene, Po e y Diagnos ic Ini ia i e.
h ps://www.wo ldbank.o g/en/ opic/wa e . (Re ie ed on 5 h Augus 2018)
www.wssin o.o g.p o.wa .sup.san._ 40.doc/h ml (Re ie ed on 4 h Augus 2019)
W aigh , C. (2008). Rousseau’s he Social Con ac : A Reade ’s Guide. Con inuum books.
London. 136p