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Sus ainable In e io Fu ni u e om Recycled Vehicle Ty es wi h Timbe
Rein o cemen : Mechanical Pe o mance, Use Pe cep ion, and Economic Viabili y
Asukwo E im Iduk and Sunday Emmanson Udoh
Depa men o Ci il Enginee ing Technology, Akwa Ibom S a e Poly echnic, Iko Osu ua,
PMB. 1200
ARTICLE
INFO
ABSTRACT
Pape ID: IJASTR-
68DD600ECDE23
Pape ID: IJASTR-
68DC0AEFA5EE6
Recei ed: 2025-09-02
Published: 2025-10-05
DOI:
h ps://dx.doi.o g
/10.5281/zenodo.17
330471
Page No: 164-176
This s udy in es iga es he easibili y o p oducing sus ainable in e io u ni u e
s ools, no mal ables, and o oman co ee ables using ecycled ehicle i es
ein o ced wi h imbe . Employing mechanical es s (s a ic and cyclic loading) and
subjec i e panel e alua ions, he esea ch e alua ed s uc u al pe o mance,
du abili y, aes he ics, and economic po en ial. Key esul s indica ed he no mal able
achie ing a maximum load o 450 kg and 50,000 cycles be o e ailu e. The no mal
able exhibi ed supe io mechanical s eng h and minimal de lec ion, a ibu able o
i s geome y and imbe ein o cemen , which e ec i ely dis ibu es loads and
mi iga es a igue. The o oman co ee able excelled in aes he ics and com o ,
appealing o design-o ien ed use s, whe eas he s ool o e ed balanced unc ionali y
bu wi h highe de lec ion and mode a e du abili y. Panel a ings aligned wi h
mechanical ou comes, wi h he no mal able sco ing highes in pe cei ed du abili y
(4.7). Timbe ein o cemen signi ican ly imp o ed p o o ype pe o mance,
su passing ypical household equi emen s. The indings emphasize imbe 's
enhancemen o s eng h and longe i y in ecycled ma e ials. Implica ions include
cos -e ec i e p oduc ion ( $110-245 pe no mal able) o e ing 30-50% sa ings o e
adi ional u ni u e, suppo ing ci cula economy adop ion amid ising eco-demand
in 2025.
Keywo ds: Vehicle y es, house u ni u e, imbe ein o cemen , was e managemen ,
eco- iendly solu ion.
1. In oduc ion
The apid accumula ion o used ehicle y es poses signi ican en i onmen al and was e
managemen challenges globally, while simul aneously, he e is a g owing demand o
sus ainable and inno a i e in e io u ni u e solu ions. The global challenge o managing
was e, pa icula ly in he o m o used ehicle y es, has become inc easingly p essing in ecen
yea s (Fo mela, 2021; Dabic-Mile ic & Simic, 2023). As he au omo i e indus y con inues o
g ow, so does he olume o disca ded y es, p esen ing signi ican en i onmen al and disposal
conce ns. Simul aneously, he demand o sus ainable and eco- iendly solu ions in a ious
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical
Resea ch
A ailable online on
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ISSN 2249-9954
Ci e This Pape : Asukwo E im Iduk and Sunday Emmanson Udoh (2025).
"Sus ainable In e io Fu ni u e om Recycled Vehicle Ty es wi h Timbe
Rein o cemen : Mechanical Pe o mance, Use Pe cep ion, and Economic
Viabili y". INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED SCIENTIFIC AND
TECHNICAL RESEARCH (IJASTR), ol. 15, no. 5, 2025, pp. 164-176.
DOI: h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17330471
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sec o s, including in e io design and u ni u e p oduc ion, has su ged. This con e gence o
challenges and oppo uni ies has led o inno a i e app oaches in epu posing was e ma e ials,
wi h he u iliza ion o used ehicle y es o he p oduc ion o in e io house u ni u e eme ging
as a p omising a enue o explo a ion (Keskin e al., 2024
;
Al-Saud e al., 2024),. The global
au omo i e indus y con inues o g ow, leading o an e e -inc easing olume o disca ded
y es. Acco ding o ecen es ima es, app oxima ely 1.5 billion y es each he end o hei li e
cycle annually, posing se e e en i onmen al isks. When dumped in land ills, y es occupy
la ge olumes o space and can ake hund eds o yea s o decompose. They also p esen i e
haza ds and can become b eeding g ounds o disease-ca ying insec s. Incine a ion o y es,
while educing olume, eleases ha m ul pollu an s in o he a mosphe e. Disca ded y es
con ain aluable ma e ials, including ubbe , s eel, and ex ile componen s. The cu en
disposal me hods o en ail o capi alize on hese esou ces, leading o ine icien use o
ma e ials and ene gy in es ed in hei p oduc ion (Abdullah, 2024). While some y e ecycling
me hods exis , such as using c umb ubbe in oad cons uc ion o spo s su aces, hese
applica ions a e limi ed and do no ully add ess he scale o y e was e gene a ion. The e is a
p essing need o inno a i e and di e se ecycling solu ions. Howe e , he in e io design and
u ni u e indus ies a e expe iencing inc easing demand o sus ainable, eco- iendly p oduc s.
Howe e , he e is a gap in he ma ke o u ni u e ha e ec i ely inco po a es ecycled
ma e ials wi hou comp omising on aes he ics o unc ionali y. On he o he hand, he
in eg a ion o used y es in o u ni u e design p esen s se e al echnical challenges. These
include ensu ing s uc u al in eg i y, de eloping e ec i e joining me hods be ween ubbe and
wood, and add essing po en ial sa e y and du abili y conce ns (Ishola e al., 2024). Mo eo e ,
while he use o ecycled ma e ials in u ni u e is gaining accep ance, he e emains a challenge
in c ea ing designs ha a e isually appealing and sui able o a wide ange o in e io s yles
using ma e ials as uncon en ional as used y es. The p ocess o ans o ming used y es in o
u ni u e componen s mus be economically iable o be adop ed on a la ge scale. This
in ol es conside a ions o ma e ial p epa a ion cos s, design and manu ac u ing p ocesses, and
ma ke accep ance (Goe e , 2024). In his con ex , he in eg a ion o used ehicle y es wi h
imbe ein o cemen o u ni u e p oduc ion ep esen s a no el and po en ially impac ul
applica ion o his p inciple. This app oach no only add esses he issue o y e was e
managemen bu also con ibu es o he c ea ion o unique, du able, and en i onmen ally
iendly u ni u e pieces o in e io spaces. The u iliza ion o used ehicle y es in u ni u e
p oduc ion o e s se e al ad an ages. Fi s ly, y es a e known o hei du abili y and esis ance
o wea and ea , cha ac e is ics ha can ansla e well in o u ni u e applica ions (Dasgup a &
Du a, 2024; Ba is a e al., 2021). Secondly, he ubbe composi ion o y es p o ides excellen
shock abso p ion p ope ies, which can enhance he com o and unc ionali y o ce ain
u ni u e pieces. Las ly, he dis inc i e aes he ic o y e eads and sidewalls can con ibu e o
c ea ing isually s iking and uncon en ional u ni u e designs. Howe e , he use o y es alone
may no p o ide su icien s uc u al in eg i y o aes he ic appeal o in e io u ni u e. This is
whe e he inco po a ion o imbe ein o cemen becomes c ucial. Timbe , as a adi ional and
e sa ile ma e ial in u ni u e making, o e s s eng h, wo kabili y, and a na u al aes he ic ha
complemen s he indus ial cha ac e o y es (Ichim e al., 2024). The combina ion o hese
wo ma e ials (used y es and imbe ) c ea es a syne gy ha can esul in u ni u e pieces ha
a e no only en i onmen ally esponsible bu also s uc u ally sound and isually appealing.
The p ocess o c ea ing u ni u e om used y es and imbe in ol es se e al s ages, including
y e selec ion and p epa a ion, design concep ualiza ion, imbe ein o cemen in eg a ion, and
inishing (Beale & Mo gan, 2019;
Maake e al., 2025). Each o hese s ages p esen s i s own
se o challenges and conside a ions, om ensu ing he cleanliness and sa e y o he ecycled
y es o de eloping joine y echniques ha e ec i ely combine ubbe and wood. Mo eo e ,
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he u iliza ion o used y es in u ni u e p oduc ion aligns wi h b oade sus ainabili y goals and
ci cula economy p inciples. By di e ing y es om land ills o incine a ion acili ies, his
app oach educes he en i onmen al impac associa ed wi h y e disposal. I also con ibu es o
esou ce e iciency by ex ending he li ecycle o ma e ials ha would o he wise be conside ed
was e
(
Tusha e al., 2022
;
La ah & Abdul ahman, 2025). Despi e he po en ial bene i s, he
use o used ehicle y es in in e io u ni u e p oduc ion is a ela i ely new ield, and as such,
i aces se e al challenges and a eas o u he esea ch (Balmo i e al., 2023). These include
op imizing he cleaning and p epa a ion p ocesses o used y es, de eloping s anda dized
me hods o in eg a ing y e componen s wi h imbe s uc u es, and assessing he long- e m
du abili y and sa e y o such u ni u e pieces in domes ic se ings. This s udy se s he s age o
a comp ehensi e explo a ion o he u iliza ion o used ehicle y es o he p oduc ion o
in e io house u ni u e using imbe ein o cemen .
2. Resea ch Me hodology
This s udy employed an expe imen al esea ch design, combining ma e ial collec ion and
p ocessing, ab ica ion, mechanical es ing, and quali a i e e alua ion o comp ehensi ely
assess he iabili y o he p oposed p oduc .
a. Ma e ial Collec ion and P epa a ion
i. Used Vehicle Ty es: As shown in Figu e (), a consis en ba ch o used passenge ca
y es (e.g., size 195/65 R15) was collec ed om local y e e aile s o ensu e uni o mi y.
ii. Timbe Rein o cemen : Kiln-d ied so wood (e.g., Pine) and ha dwood (e.g., Oak o
Me an i) was be p ocu ed o compa e hei pe o mance as a ein o cing amewo k.
The imbe was planned o s anda d dimensions (2"x2" and 1"x2").
iii. Fas ene s & Adhesi es: High-s eng h co osion- esis an sc ews (e.g., decking sc ews)
and a high-s eng h, lexible polyu e hane adhesi e sui able o ubbe - o-wood
bonding was selec ed.
i . Cleaning: Ty es we e ho oughly cleaned wi h high-p essu e wa e and a de e gen o
emo e di , g a el, and embedded deb is.
. Cu ing and Sec ioning: Using a sha p u ili y kni e, jigsaw wi h a me al-cu ing blade,
o an angle g inde , he y e beads (s eel wi e ings) we e emo ed. The y es we e cu
along he ead o c ea e la shee s o ubbe o sec ioned in o speci ic shapes (e.g.,
s ips o wea ing, ull ci cles o able bases).
Figu e 1: Was e y es collec ed om local y e e aile s
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b. Fu ni u e Design and Fab ica ion
i. CAD Design: Concep ual designs o 2-3 u ni u e i ems will be d a ed (e.g., a low
s ool, a side able, a small o oman). AUTOCAD so wa e was be used o speci y
dimensions, and in eg a ion poin s o he imbe ame.
ii. Timbe F amewo k Cons uc ion: The s uc u al amewo k (e.g., leg assembly,
in e nal suppo b aces) was cons uc ed om imbe using joine y echniques (e.g.,
mo ise and enon, hal -lap join s), ein o ced wi h sc ews. Figu e (a) and b, ep esen s
he amewo k o bo h s ool and able, while Figu e (c) ep esen s he op laye a e
he y e migh ha e placed and clo h o lea he is lined on i .
iii. Rubbe Componen Assembly: P ocessed y e ubbe was a ached o he imbe ame.
The echniques employed included:
Wea ing: Cu ing y es in o long s ips and wea ing hem ac oss he imbe ame
o c ea e a sea o able- op su ace.
Laye ing and Bonding: S acking and gluing la sec ions o ead ubbe o c ea e
a hick, s able su ace.
Di ec Moun ing: Secu ing a ull y e sec ion (e.g., he sidewall) on o he ame as
a p e- o med design elemen .
i . Finishing: The imbe componen s was sanded and inished wi h a nish o pain . The
ubbe componen s was cleaned and po en ially ea ed wi h a UV-p o ec an sealan o
p e en deg ada ion and dus ing.
Figu e 2: Wood amewo k o bo h s ool and able
c. Mechanical Tes ing
i. Load-Bea ing Tes : P o o ypes (e.g., he s ool) will be subjec ed o inc emen al s a ic
loads using weigh s in a con olled se up. De lec ion will be measu ed un il a
p ede e mined maximum load (e.g., 150% o expec ed use) o ailu e is eached.
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ii. Du abili y Tes (Cyclic Loading): A dynamic load es will simula e epea ed use (e.g.,
10,000 cycles) using a pneuma ic ac ua o o assess a igue esis ance o bo h he ubbe
and he wood- ubbe in e ace (Tang e al., 2024).
iii. Adhesion/Shea Tes : Samples o he wood- ubbe bond will be es ed in a uni e sal
es ing machine o de e mine he shea s eng h o he adhesi e join .
d. Physical and Aes he ic E alua ion
The physical and aes he ics e alua ion p ocedu es in ol ed assessing he angible and isual
aspec s o a p oduc , design, o sys em. B eakdown o he p ocedu es a e as ollows:
i. Physical E alua ion
Du abili y Tes ing: Assessing he p oduc 's abili y o wi hs and wea and ea , s ess,
and en i onmen al ac o s.
Pe o mance Tes ing: E alua ing he p oduc 's unc ionali y, e iciency, and
e ec i eness.
ii. Aes he ics E alua ion
Visual Inspec ion: Assessing he p oduc 's appea ance, including ex u e, and inish.
Design Consis ency: E alua ing he consis ency o design elemen s, such as
ypog aphy, and layou .
Use Expe ience: Assessing he p oduc 's emo ional appeal, use engagemen , and
o e all expe ience.
E gonomics E alua ion: Assessing he p oduc 's usabili y, com o , and use
expe ience.
E alua ion and es ing me hods included ga he ing eedback om use s o unde s and hei
expe iences and pe cep ions. I also in ol ed expe s e iew and e alua ing he inished
p oduc design and pe o mance. The goal o physical and aes he ics e alua ion is o ensu e
ha he p oduc mee s use needs, is unc ional, and isually appealing, ul ima ely enhancing
use sa is ac ion.
3. Resul s and Discussions
3.1. P esen a ion o P o o ypes
This sec ion p esen s he indings om he expe imen al wo k conduc ed o e alua e he
easibili y o u ilizing used ehicle y es ein o ced wi h imbe o in e io house u ni u e
p oduc ion. The esul s a e p esen ed based on he es ing phases ou lined in he me hodology.
The esul s ga he ed om mechanical es s, physical e alua ions, and aes he ic assessmen s a e
p esen ed and discussed o e lec hei signi icance. The p o o ypes p oduced we e O oman
Co ee Table, No mal Table, and S ool which desc ibed as ollows:
3.1.1. O oman Co ee Table
The o oman co ee able ep esen s an inno a i e usion o ecycled y e ma e ials and imbe
ein o cemen . P o o ypes o he cons uc ed o oman co ee ables is a e p esen ed in Figu e
3. The base o he o oman is cons uc ed om a la ge uck y e, cleaned and ea ed o ensu e
sa e y and du abili y. The ci cula shape o he y e o ms he ounda ion o he piece, p o iding
s abili y and a unique aes he ic. The op su ace o he o oman is c ea ed using eclaimed
imbe , cu and i ed o o m a ci cula able op ha si s lush wi h he uppe im o he y e
(Ma ques e al., 2020). This imbe op is sanded and inished o a smoo h su ace, sui able o
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use as a co ee able. The wood g ain adds wa m h and na u al beau y, con as ing nicely wi h
he indus ial look o he y e base. Inside he y e, imbe ein o cemen s a e s a egically
placed o p o ide addi ional suppo o he able op and o c ea e an in e nal s o age space. This
hidden s o age compa men can be accessed by li ing he hinged wooden op, adding
unc ionali y o he piece. The ex e io o he y e is le pa ially exposed, showcasing i s eads
and pa e ns, which con ibu e o he piece's unique cha ac e . Howe e , sec ions o he y e's
sidewall a e co e ed wi h wo en o b aided ecycled ma e ials, such as ab ic o ope, adding
ex u e and isual in e es . The o oman co ee able s ands a a s anda d heigh o abou 16-18
inches, making i sui able o bo h sea ing and able use. I s dual unc ionali y as bo h an
o oman and a co ee able makes i a e sa ile piece o a ious in e io se ings.
Figu e 3: P o o ypes o o oman co ee ables p oduced
3.1.2. No mal Table
The no mal able design inco po a es used ehicle y es as s uc u al elemen s, combined wi h
a imbe op and ein o cemen s. P o o ypes o he no mal ables p oduced om ehicle y es
a e p esen ed in Figu e 4. The able ea u es ou y e sec ions as legs, cu om la ge y es and
cleaned ho oughly. These y e legs a e posi ioned a each co ne o he able, p o iding a s able
base. The able op is cons uc ed om eclaimed imbe , cu and joined o o m a ec angula
o squa e su ace. The wood is ea ed, sanded, and inished o c ea e a smoo h, du able su ace
sui able o e e yday use (Hassan e al., 2025). The na u al g ain and colou o he wood
p o ide a pleasing con as o he black ubbe o he y e legs. Timbe ein o cemen s a e used
o connec he y e legs o he wooden op, ensu ing s uc u al in eg i y. These ein o cemen s
a e pa ially isible, adding o he able's indus ial-chic aes he ic. The in e sec ion o wood and
ubbe c ea es in e es ing isual lines and ex u es. The y e legs a e le pa ially exposed,
showcasing hei ead pa e ns. Howe e , he uppe po ions o he legs, whe e hey mee he
able op, a e w apped in complemen a y ma e ials such as lea he o ab ic, p o iding a inished
look and so ening he ansi ion be ween ma e ials. This able s ands a a s anda d dining o
wo k able heigh o abou 30 inches, making i sui able o a ious uses in home o o ice
se ings. I s unique design se es as a con e sa ion piece while p o iding unc ional su ace
space.
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Figu e 4: P o o ypes o no mal ables p oduced
3.1.3. S ool
The s ool design c ea i ely epu poses a single ca y e as i s p ima y s uc u al elemen .
P o o ypes o he cons uc ed s ools a e p esen ed in Figu e 5. The y e o ms he base and
sea ing su ace o he s ool, wi h i s ci cula shape p o iding a na u al sea o m. The y e is
ho oughly cleaned and ea ed o ensu e sa e y and longe i y. I s ex e io is le pa ially
exposed, allowing he ead pa e n o con ibu e o he s ool's aes he ic. Po ions o he y e's
sidewall may be co e ed wi h complemen a y ma e ials like wo en ab ic o lea he o added
com o and isual appeal. A ci cula wooden sea is i ed inside he uppe im o he y e,
p o iding a la , com o able sea ing su ace. This wooden inse is sanded smoo h and inished
o wi hs and egula use. I 's secu ely a ached o he y e using obus adhesi es and
mechanical as ene s. To ele a e he s ool o a sui able sea ing heigh ( ypically a ound 18
inches o a s anda d s ool), imbe legs a e a ached o he base o he y e. These legs a e
designed o p o ide s abili y and can be c a ed in a ious s yles - om sleek and mode n o
us ic and chunky - o sui di e en in e io aes he ics. The imbe legs a e ein o ced wi h
c oss-b aces o added s abili y, which also se e as oo es s. These wooden elemen s con as
beau i ully wi h he da k ubbe o he y e, c ea ing an in e es ing in e play o ma e ials and
ex u es. The s ool's design allows o easy s acking when no in use, making i a p ac ical
choice o spaces whe e lexible sea ing a angemen s a e desi ed. I s compac size and unique
appea ance make i sui able o a ious se ings, om casual home ba s o endy ca es.
Figu e 5: P o o ypes o cons uc ed s ools
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3.2. S a ic Load-Bea ing Tes
Figu e 6 p esen s he esul s o s a ic load-bea ing es conduc ed on h ee u ni u e componen s
cons uc ed om ecycled used ehicle i es ein o ced wi h imbe : a S ool, a No mal Table,
and an O oman Co ee Table. The es e alua es wo key me ics unde load. This included
maximum load be o e ailu e (This measu ed he ul ima e comp essi e s eng h o each
componen , i.e., he highes load i can sus ain be o e s uc u al ailu e o pe manen
de o ma ion). The o he me ic was
de lec ion a load (This measu ed he e ical de o ma ion
o "sag" o he componen when subjec ed o he speci ied load). The s ool componen exhibi s
mode a e load-bea ing capaci y a 280 kg be o e ailu e, which is su icien o ypical sea ing
use (e.g., suppo ing an adul 's weigh plus some dynamic load).
The ailu e is indica ed by
sligh spli ing o pine ame join . I shows he highes de lec ion o 12.5 mm indica ing
signi ican lexibili y unde load. This could be due o he s ool's compac design and eliance
on i e sidewalls o cushioning, which p io i ize com o o e igidi y. While unc ional o
sho - e m use, he high de lec ion sugges s po en ial o accele a ed wea in high- a ic a eas.
Howe e , he no mal able componen ou pe o ms he o he s wi h load bea ing capaci y o
450 kg, sugges ing excellen comp essi e s eng h likely enhanced by he imbe ein o cemen
dis ibu ing o ces e enly ac oss he i e base. I s de lec ion o 2.1 mm highligh s supe io
s i ness, making i ideal o s able su ace applica ions like dining o wo k. The e was no
ailu e indica ion, as
he es hal ed a maximum load. The low de o ma ion implies minimal
s ess on ma e ials du ing use, con ibu ing o be e a igue esis ance. On he o he hand, wi h
a maximum load bea ing capaci y o 380 kg, he O oman Co ee Table alls be ween he s ool
and no mal able in s eng h, sui able o mul i-pu pose use (e.g., as a oo es o low able).
Failu e occu s a ound he adhesi e bond shea be ween ubbe laye s. The de lec ion (15.5
mm) is high, simila o he s ool, e lec ing a design ha inco po a es mo e i e ma e ial o a
so e , mo e o gi ing p o ile, bene icial o com o bu indica i e o highe s ain unde
epea ed loading. In e ms o de lec ion a load, he No mal Table has he lowes (2 mm),
indica ing he highes igidi y and leas "bounce" o ins abili y unde 450 kg, ideal o p ecision
asks. The S ool and O oman Co ee Table show compa ably high de lec ions (16 mm and 14
mm), sugges ing hey a e mo e complian and be e sui ed o cushioned, e gonomic
applica ions bu p one o no iceable sagging. In e ms o highe loading capaci y, he No mal
Table suppo s he hea ies loads (abou 60% mo e han he s ool). Fo design s eng h and
se ice pe o mance, i again excels due o i s balanced s eng h- o-de lec ion a io, ensu ing
eliable daily use wi hou excessi e de o ma ion. Rega ding longe i y, he No mal Table is
p ojec ed o ha e he longes li espan, as lowe de lec ion co ela es wi h educed cyclic a igue
on he i e ubbe and imbe join s, po en ially ex ending se ice li e by 50-100% o e he
mo e lexible s ool and o oman unde equi alen use.
Figu e 6: Resul s o s a ic load-bea ing es
280 450 380
12.5
2.1
15.8
0
5
10
15
20
-50
50
150
250
350
450
S ool No mal Table O oman Co ee Table
De lec ion a Load (mm)
Maximum Load Be o e
Falu e (Kg)
In e na ional Jou nal o Ad anced Scien i ic and Technical Resea ch ISSN 2249-9954
A ailable online on h p://www. spublica ion.com/ijs /index.h ml olume 15, No. 5, 2025
O iginal A icle
©2025 RS Publica ion, [email p o ec ed]
172
3.3. Cyclic Loading (Du abili y) Tes
Figu e 7 illus a es he esul s o a cyclic loading es , which assesses he du abili y and a igue
esis ance o h ee u ni u e componen s cons uc ed om ecycled used ehicle i es
ein o ced wi h imbe : a S ool, a No mal Table, and an O oman Co ee Table. The es
simula ed epea ed eal-wo ld usage (e.g., si ing, placing i ems, o impac s) by applying cyclic
loads un il s uc u al ailu e occu s, such as c acking, de o ma ion, o collapse. The key me ic
is Cycles be o e Failu e (y-axis, anging om 0 o 50,000 cycles), ep esen ing he numbe o
load-unload cycles each componen can endu e be o e ailing. The s ool wi h app oxima ely
25,000 cycles be o e ailu e, demons a es mode a e du abili y. I s design, likely in ol ing
s acked o comp essed i e sec ions wi h imbe o suppo , allows i o handle epe i i e
e ical loads (e.g., om si ing and s anding) easonably well. Howe e , he ubbe 's inhe en
lexibili y may lead o p og essi e a igue in he i e walls, causing mic o- ea s o join
loosening o e ime. This makes i sui able o low- o-medium a ic a eas like home o ices,
bu i may equi e main enance a e ex ended use. The No mal Table componen s ands ou
wi h he highes endu ance a a ound 50,000 cycles, nea ly double ha o he s ool. The imbe
ein o cemen likely plays a c ucial ole he e, p o iding a igid ame ha e enly dis ibu es
cyclic s esses ac oss he b oade i e base, educing localized a igue. This sugges s excellen
long- e m pe o mance o s a ic and dynamic loads (e.g., placing hea y objec s epea edly),
making i ideal o high-use en i onmen s like li ing ooms o ki chens whe e s abili y is
pa amoun . A abou 18,500 cycles,
O oman Co ee Table shows he lowes du abili y among
he h ee. I s mul i unc ional design (combining sea ing and able elemen s) may in oduce
mo e complex s ess pa e ns, such as shea o ces om oo es use, accele a ing a igue in he
i e ubbe and imbe in e aces. While s ill iable o ligh -du y in e io applica ions, i could
ail soone unde equen cycles, po en ially due o he so e , mo e complian s uc u e
p io i izing com o o e obus ness. The No mal Table exhibi s he supe io a igue esis ance,
endu ing nea ly 2.7 imes mo e cycles han he O oman Co ee Table and abou 1.9 imes mo e
han he S ool. This indica es lowe suscep ibili y o cumula i e damage om epea ed loading,
likely due o i s la e geome y and ein o ced dis ibu ion o s esses, which p e en s c ack
p opaga ion in he ubbe . The S ool a es be e han he O oman, possibly because i s alle ,
na owe p o ile ocuses loads axially, educing bending-induced a igue compa ed o he
O oman's wide , lowe o m ha may expe ience mo e o sional s ains. Hence, he No mal
Table has he highes o e all du abili y, wi h a design ha op imizes longe i y unde cyclic
condi ions, po en ially las ing 2-3 imes longe in se ice li e. The O oman's lowe cycle coun
poin s o quicke ailu e modes, such as delamina ion a i e- imbe bonds, while he S ool
balances he wo.
Figu e 7: Resul s o cyclic loading (du abili y) es
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
S ool
No mal Table
O oman Co ee Table
Cycles Failu e
