The bene i s and applica ions o conso ium
sys ems o sus ainable ag icul u e
Lucas da Sil a de Ab eu1, Elias de Oli ei a Albuque que Júnio 1, Ilâine Benício dos San os1,
Filipe Augus o Leal Dan as1, Julio Cesa Sil a Ca alcan e1, José Viei a Sil a1
1 Depa men o Ag icul u al Sciences, Fede al Uni e si y o Alagoas (UFAL), A api aca 57309-005-AL, B azil
Co esponding au ho s: Lucas da Sil a de Ab eu (lucas.ab eu@a api aca.u al.b ); Elias de Oli ei a Albuque que Júnio (elias.junio @a api aca.u al.b )
Academic edi o : Hasan Gökhan Doğan♦Recei ed 25 Ma ch 2025♦Accep ed 16 Sep embe 2025♦Published 10 Oc obe 2025
Abs ac
Ag icul u al conso ium sys ems eme ge as a p omising s a egy o ackle he challenges o mode n ag icul u e. This
comp ehensi e e iew analyzes he main conso ium sys ems. The e o e, he aim o his esea ch is o p o ide a de ailed
unde s anding o in e c opping sys ems, hei p ac ical applica ions, and hei po en ial o con ibu e o mo e sus ain-
able ag icul u e. The me hodology in ol ed a sys ema ic e iew o ecen scien i ic a icles dealing wi h he six main
in e c opping sys ems ecu en in he li e a u e: g ains and legumes, ag o o es y, co e c ops, c op-li es ock in eg a-
ion, pe ennial annuals, and ege ables, including me a-analysis, wi h quali a i e and quan i a i e analyses adop ed o
unde s and he bene i s ha in e c opped sys ems e lec on soil quali y, as well as in p omo ing inno a ion in sus ain-
able managemen . The esul s, isualized h ough Sankey diag ams and boxplo s, e eal ha hese sys ems can inc ease
p oduc i i y, signi ican ly imp o e soil heal h, p omo e biodi e si y, imp o e esou ce use e iciency, and s eng hen
clima e esilience. No ably, he in e c opping o g ains and legumes and ag o o es y sys ems demons a ed he mos
comp ehensi e bene i s. Co e c ops had a pa icula ly s ong impac on soil heal h, while ag o o es y sys ems s ood
ou in e ms biodi e si y and clima e esilience. The s udy also sugges s a po en ial educ ion in he use o chemical
inpu s. We conclude ha he b oade adop ion o in e c opping sys em is an e ec i e s a egy o mo e sus ainable and
clima e esilien ag icul u e, al hough challenges o la ge-scale implemen a ion emain.
Keywo ds
Ag icul u al secu i y, biodi e si y, clima e esilience, consocia ion, soil heal h
In oduc ion
C ops in in e c opping sys ems highligh he inno a i e
ision o add ess he complexi ies imposed by con empo-
a y ag icul u e, encompassing he need o expand ood
p oduc ion, enhance sus ainabili y, and p ese e en i on-
men al bene i s. These sys ems a e de ined in a simul a-
neous cul i a ion o in e spe sing a ious plan species in
he same a ea, wi h he pu pose o aking ad an age o
he bene icial in e ac ions be ween species in he pu sui
o imp o emen s in esou ce u iliza ion wi h he aim o
inc easing o e all p oduc i i y (Li e al. 2001; Tambu ini
e al. 2020).
In ensi e ood p oduc ion sys ems, such as monocul-
u e, ha m he en i onmen , p ima ily h ough he exces-
si e use o ag ochemicals and e ilize s, which s ill need
o p o e hei abili y o e adica e hunge in de eloping
coun ies, as his g oup o ag icul u al p ac ices wi h
a ious limi a ions s ill esul s in low nu i ional quali y
o p oduc s in ended o human and animal consump-
ion, which can be ela ed o heal h p oblems (Singh e
al. 2022). Thus, he inc easing conce n om socie y e-
ga ding global ood secu i y, associa ed wi h he e ec s o
clima e change and he use o en i onmen al esou ces,
has spa ked in e es in mo e sus ainable and esilien ag-
icul u al p ac ices (Yu e al. 2022; Mai a e al. 2021).
Copy igh da Sil a de Ab eu, e al. This is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License (CC-BY 4.0), which
pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal au ho and sou ce a e c edi ed.
Emi a es Jou nal o Food and Ag icul u e 37: 1–12
doi: 10.3897/ej a.2025.153928
REVIEW ARTICLE
da Sil a de Ab eu, e al.: The bene i s and applica ions o conso ium sys ems o sus ainable ag icul u e2
Emi a es Jou nal o Food and Ag icul u e
Recen esea ch highligh s he g owing impo ance o
sus ainable ag icul u al p ac ices in add essing clima e
change. A 2024 s udy on he egene a i e ag icul u e
ma ke in Spain p ojec s signi ican g ow h, wi h he ma -
ke expec ed o each $948.69 million by 2029, g owing
a a CAGR o 14.88% since 2023 (Resea ch and Ma ke s
2024). This end is d i en by a commi men o es o ing
soil heal h and mi iga ing clima e change, demons a ing
he g owing ecogni ion o sus ainable ag icul u al me h-
ods as ele an ools in add essing global en i onmen al
challenges, while ensu ing ood secu i y. Thus, cu en
esea ch has ensu ed ha in e c opping sys ems ha e he
po en ial o signi ican ly educe he demand o chemical
inpu s, conside ing ha he excessi e use o ag ochemi-
cals and e ilize s conside ably ha ms he en i onmen
(Duchene e al. 2017; Rosa-Schleich e al. 2019).
Howe e , a a ie y o conso ium sys ems ha e been
de eloped in di e en ag icul u al con ex s, including
he main ypes o conso ia such as g ains and legumes,
c op-li es ock, and ag o o es y. Each o hese sys ems, in
u n, p esen s a ious bene i s and challenges, con ibu ing
in di e en ways, in pa icula , o sus ainable ag icul u -
al c ops and esilience ecosys ems (Glaze-Co co an e al.
2020; Khanal e al. 2021). Recen compa a i e s udies show
ha he choice o he mos sui able in e c opping sys em
can a y signi ican ly depending on clima ic condi ions
and soil ype (B ooke e al. 2015; S omph e al. 2020).
The e o e, o exempli y he e ec i eness o in e c op-
ping sys ems in e ms o ag icul u al p oduc i i y, s udies
ha e shown ha g ain c ops, such as co n in e c opped
wi h legumes, can signi ican ly inc ease c op yields com-
pa ed o monocul u es, imp o ing nu ien use e iciency,
especially ni ogen (Dai e al. 2019; Chamkhi e al. 2022).
These sys ems p esen a a ie y o speci ic ad an ages
and challenges and can con ibu e di e en ly o he sus-
ainabili y o ag icul u e and he conse a ion o he en i-
onmen (Glaze-Co co an e al. 2020; Khanal e al. 2021).
Compa a i e esea ch demons a es ha his aspec can
be signi ican ly dependen on clima e and soil cons i uen
ype (B ooke e al. 2015; S omph e al. 2020).
The e ec i eness o in e c opping sys ems in op imiz-
ing ag icul u al p oduc i i y has been widely documen -
ed. An example o his is s udies p o ing ha he combina-
ion o some c ops wi h legumes can signi ican ly inc ease
c op yields compa ed o monocul u es, succeeding wi h
p ope managemen o make nu ien s a ailable in he soil
solu ion (Dai e al. 2019; Chamkhi e al. 2022). As well as
some in e c opping me hods ha ing he abili y o educe
g eenhouse gas emissions when compa ed o monocul-
u es (Senbay am e al. 2015; Vanlauwe e al. 2019).
The p oduc i i y o c ops is in e ela ed wi h he qual-
i y o soil cha ac e is ics, as hese in e c opping sys ems
can ha e a bene icial impac . Fo example, co e c ops a e
ela ed o changes in soil s uc u e, an inc ease in o ganic
ma e con en , and a posi i e e ec on soil biological ac-
i i y (Nyawade e al. 2019; Roohi e al. 2022; Akchaya e
al. 2025). Mo e ecen ly, esea ch has demons a ed hese
ad an ages by showing inc eases o 30% in soil o ganic
ma e con en o e i e yea s and inc eases o 40% in o e
i e yea s in he wa e e en ion capaci y in in e c opping
sys ems cul i a ed wi h co e c ops (Blanco-Canqui e al.
2015; Finney e al. 2017).
The p omo ion o biodi e si y cons i u es an essen ial
bene i o in e c opping sys ems. Ag o o es y sys ems
and ege able in e c opping, in pa icula , ha e been co -
ela ed wi h conside able inc eases in species di e si y,
bo h abo e g ound and in he soil, a o ing he s abili y
and esilience o ag icul u al ecosys ems (He e al. 2019;
Huss e al. 2022). Upda ed esul s om some s udies ha e
expanded his unde s anding, showing ha modi ied in-
e c opping sys ems can inc ease pollina o di e si y by
up o 50% and he numbe o na u al enemies by up o
60% (I e son e al. 2014; Lich enbe g e al. 2017).
The ex ensi e use o esou ces cons i u es an essen ial
quali y o conso ium sys ems. Th ough complemen a i y
and acili a ion in he in e ac ion be ween di e en spe-
cies, such sys ems a e capable o maximizing he use o
wa e , nu ien s, and sunligh , p e en ing dependence on
ex e nal inpu s and mi iga ing ad e se en i onmen al e -
ec s (Renwick e al. 2020; Zhang e al. 2021). Many s ud-
ies ha e measu ed hese ad ances, showing ha p ope ly
upda ed in e c opping sys ems can inc ease wa e use e -
iciency by up o 25%, as well as nu ien use e iciency by
up o 35%, compa ed o monocul u es (Mao e al. 2012;
Hauggaa d-Nielsen e al. 2016).
In he cu en scena io o clima e change, he esilience
o ag icul u al sys ems is becoming inc easingly impo -
an . In e c opping sys ems, especially hose ha inco po-
a e pe ennial c ops, ha e shown g ea e esilience o ex-
eme wea he e en s and be e adap a ion o changes in
en i onmen al condi ions (Cle mon -Dauphin e al. 2018;
Ga dne e al. 2023).
The aim o his e iew is he e o e o p o ide a de ailed
unde s anding he h ee main ypes o ag icul u al cul i-
a ion sys ems, hei p ac ical applica ions, and hei po-
en ial o con ibu e o mo e sus ainable ag icul u e.
Me hodology
The p esen s udy was ca ied ou by means o a hema ic
li e a u e e iew, based on he p emise ha quali a i e e-
sea ch, when s udying c ops in a conso ium sys em aimed
a main aining soil quali y and used as sus ainable man-
agemen , is capable o achie ing he es ablished objec i e.
The me hod used was o sea ch o and collec in o ma ion
on he opic unde s udy, in o de o syn hesize and p es-
en he in o ma ion p oduced on he esea ch opic.
The e iew was based on 55 a icles wi h obus me h-
odologies, including expe imen al s udies, me a-analyses,
and sys ema ic e iews ha we e consul ed om di e en
sou ces (MDPI, Scopus, Web o Science, Google Schola ,
and SciELO). The sea ch e ms included he ollowing
keywo ds: conso ium, sus ainable ag icul u e, c op di-
e si y, esou ce use e iciency, p oduc i i y imp o emen ,
soil heal h, biodi e si y, clima e esilience, ag oecology,
Emi . J. Food Ag ic ⋅ Volume 37 ⋅ 2025 3
Emi a es Jou nal o Food and Ag icul u e
and ecosys em se ices, along wi h hei espec i e ans-
la ions in o English.
The compila ion o da a om he selec ed a icles was
suppo ed by he sys ema ic li e a u e e iew we conduc -
ed on ag icul u al conso ium sys ems. The c i e ia adop -
ed o his compila ion we e a icles ha add essed he six
main in e c opping sys ems ecu ing in he li e a u e:
g ains and legumes, ag o o es y, co e c ops, c op-li e-
s ock in eg a ion, pe ennial annuals, and ege ables. Ca -
ego ized acco ding o he main bene i s analyzed ( o ex-
ample, p oduc i i y, soil heal h, biodi e si y, esou ce use
e iciency), allowing o a mo e ocused analysis o each
conso ium sys ems aspec . Fo each analysis, was e al-
ua ed he epo ed bene i in ensi y o each conso ium
sys em on a scale o 0 o 10, whe e 0 indica es no signi -
ican bene i and 10 indica es a e y s ong bene i . We
con e ed quali a i e desc ip ions in o nume ical alues
when necessa y (e.g., “high bene i ” = 8–10, “mode a e
bene i ” = 5–7, “low bene i ” = 1–4).
In me a-analysis con ex , we compiled he da a om
all he s udies, calcula ing a e ages and a ia ions o
each combina ion o in e c opping sys em and bene i .
In his way, in each s udy, we ex ac ed quan i a i e da a
on i e main bene i s o in e c opping sys ems: Ni o-
gen ixa ion (N_Fixa ion), Inc ease in soil o ganic ma -
e (Soil_OM_Inc ease), educ ion o g eenhouse gases
Figu e 1. Visual compa ison o he h ee main ypes o ag icul u al cul i a ion sys ems: (a) Monocul u e: Cul i a ion
o a single plan species in a speci ic a ea; (b) Mul iple c opping – mixed c opping: Simul aneous g ow h o wo o
mo e c ops in he same a ea wi hou a speci ic ow pa e n; (c) Mul iple c opping – in e c opping: Cul i a ion o wo
o mo e c ops in he same a ea using speci ic ow pa e ns. This igu e illus a es he di e ences in he a angemen
and di e si y o c ops be ween monocul u e, mixed c opping, and in e c opping sys ems, highligh ing he unique
cha ac e is ics o each ag icul u al app oach (Bio Rende 2025).
da Sil a de Ab eu, e al.: The bene i s and applica ions o conso ium sys ems o sus ainable ag icul u e4
Emi a es Jou nal o Food and Ag icul u e
(GHG_Reduc ion), wa e e iciency (Wa e _E iciency),
and inc ease in yield (Yield_Inc ease). When he s ud-
ies epo ed anges o mul iple alues, we calcula ed he
a e age alue o ou analysis. Fo all da a analyses and
isualiza ions, R So wa e ( e sion 4.4.1) was used (R
Co e Team 2024). The ollowing R packages we e used:
idy e se (Wickham e al. 2019) o da a manipula ion,
ggplo 2 (Wickham 2016) o c ea ion o isualiza ions
and ne wo kD3 (Allai e e al. 2017) o gene a ing he
Sankey diag am.
Acco ding o he me hodology ha was implemen -
ed, o he bene i s quan i a i e analysis o conso ium
sys ems, wo da a isualiza ion me hods we e used, he
Sankey diag am (Fig. 2) and Box Plo (Fig. 3). These we e
de eloped based on a da a me iculous analysis ex ac ed
om he selec ed a icles. Thus, he equency and in ensi-
y o he epo ed ela ionships be ween sys ems and ben-
e i s we e used o de e mine he lows hickness (Fig. 2).
Thus, a ma ix o connec ion s eng hs be ween in e -
c opping sys ems and bene i s was c ea ed. The s eng h
o each connec ion was calcula ed as:
S eng h o he connec ion = (F equency o he epo ed
bene i / To al s udies) * (A e age alue o he epo ed
bene i / Maximum alue o he epo ed bene i )
On he o he hand, he da a we e also o ganized in a
long o ma , wi h columns o Sys ems, Bene i , and Value
(Fig. 3), since o each combina ion o in e c opping sys em
and bene i , we calcula ed he ollowing s a is ics: Median:
calcula ed using he median unc ion in R; In e qua ile
ange (IQR): calcula ed as Q3 - Q1, whe e Q1 and Q3 a e
he i s and hi d qua iles, espec i ely; Ou lie s: iden i-
ied using he 1.5 * IQR ule. Any da a poin below Q1 - 1.5
* IQR o abo e Q3 + 1.5 * IQR was conside ed an ou lie .
A quan i a i e analysis was also conduc ed (Fig. 4) on
he ce eal-legume in e c opping sys em bene i s, whe e
hese da a we e gene a ed o ep esen ou in e c opping
sys ems: co n-soybean, whea - a a bean, ba ley-pea, and
so ghum-bean. Fo each ce eal-legume in e c opping sys-
ems, i e obse a ions we e made, co e ing i e pe o -
mance me ics: ni ogen biological ixa ion (45–150 kg N/
ha/yea ), inc ease in soil o ganic ma e (5–15%), educ-
ion o g eenhouse gases (13–30%), wa e use e iciency
(13–24%), and inc ease in p oduc i i y (12–29%). The
a iabili y wi hin each sys em was in oduced o assess
eal ield condi ions, conside ing ac o s such as clima e,
soil, and managemen p ac ices.
In addi ion, mo e ecen analyses epo inc eases in
p oduc i i y (up o 35%), wa e use e iciency (20–25%),
nu ien e en ion (25–30%), and educ ions in pes dam-
age (20–25%) (Akchaya e al. 2025). The in eg a ion o
ce eals and legumes has also been associa ed wi h e-
duc ions in g eenhouse gas emissions (10–35%), soil
conse a ion, and imp o emen s in soil o ganic e ili y
(P ajapa i e al. 2025).
The s udies ha did no mee hese condi ions we e
no conside ed o de elopmen in his pa o he wo k.
Howe e , some a e men ioned in o he sec ions because hey
con ain c i ical poin s ega ding he p ope de elopmen o
in e c opping sys ems ha aim o imp o e ood secu i y.
Resul s and discussion
Conso ium o g ains and legumes
The conso ium o g ains and legumes s ands ou in his
aspec (Fig. 3), p esen ing a high median and a dis ibu-
ion concen a ed in he uppe po ion. This ac is in ac-
co dance wi h cu en esea ch ha shows subs an ial in-
c eases in o al p oduc i i y when ce eals and legumes a e
cul i a ed oge he , especially due o he ni ogen ixa ion
ca ied ou by he legumes.
This sys em shows s ong connec ions wi h he en-
hancemen o p oduc i i y, he e iciency in he use o
a ailable esou ces, and he a ibu es o he soil. The
in e ac ion be ween ce eals and legumes imp esses wi h
a ious ad an ages, such as he abili y o legumes o ix
ni ogen p esen in he a mosphe e, which bene i s g ain
c ops, esul ing in signi ican inc eases in p oduc ion ac-
o s. Howe e , he in e c opping o whea wi h co n o
whea wi h soybeans, in s ips, no only inc eased p oduc-
i i y bu also imp o ed nu ien use e iciency. Thus, such
success becomes essen ial o educe he dependence on
a i icial e ilize s, he eby p omo ing he sus ainabili y
o ag icul u al sys ems (Li e al. 2001).
The in o ma ion ega ding he inc ease in p oduc i i y
(Fig. 4) shows signi ican a iabili y be ween he sys ems,
wi h co n-soybean and whea - a a p esen ing highe me-
dians and wide in e qua ile anges. The mos signi ican
p oduc i i y inc eases ound in he sys ems con aining
maize-soybean and whea - a a we e co ela ed wi h he
g ow h pa e ns o he complemen a y plan s and he e -
icien use o esou ces by hese c ops (Li e al. 2020). A
mode a e g ow h o soil o ganic ma e was obse ed in
all sys ems, and he co n-soybean sys em showed a me-
dian and an uppe qua ile. This obse a ion is in line
wi h a s udy by long du a ion, inding ha he con inuous
o a ion be ween co n and legumes p o ided sus ainable
inc eases in soil o ganic ca bon. The ela i ely educed
in e qua ile anges ega ding he inc ease in soil o ganic
ma e in all sys ems indica e a consis en , albei mode -
a e, bene i in his aspec o soil heal h (Tak i i e al. 2018).
A he same ime, a se ies o s udies ha e shown ha in-
e c opping sys ems no only inc ease p oduc i i y bu can
also imp o e he nu i ional quali y o c ops. Acco ding o
one o he s udies, he p oduc i i y and addi ional p o ein
con en o co n g ains inc ease wi h he combina ion o
co n and soybeans. The imp o emen o nu i ional qual-
i y h ough he syne gis ic e ec o co n and soybeans in
such s a egic p oduc s is o pa icula impo ance in he
con ex o ood secu i y (Xue e al. 2016).
When examining he ecological ounda ions ha sup-
po he inc ease in p oduc i i y in in e c opped ce eal and
legume cul u es, especially in o ganic a ming sys ems,
Emi . J. Food Ag ic ⋅ Volume 37 ⋅ 2025 5
Emi a es Jou nal o Food and Ag icul u e
he in e ac ions be ween di e en species a e planned
o op imize esou ce use e iciency, wi h an emphasis on
ni ogen. This inc ease (Fig. 2) s ands ou o he obus
connec ion be ween ce eal and legume sys ems and he
e iciency in esou ce u iliza ion (Bedoussac e al. 2015).
The ela ionship wi h soil heal h, al hough no as in-
ense as obse ed in co e c ops, emains ele an , as in-
e c opping inc eases ca bon and ni ogen le els in he
soil, p omo ing long- e m e ili y and imp o ing soil
s uc u e (Cong e al. 2015).
I has he e o e become e iden ha concen a ion ix-
a ion ep esen s a signi ican bene i in legumes (Fig. 4),
wi h he molecules o co n, soy, and a a bean showing
pa icula ly high median alues, in addi ion o expanded
in e qua ile anges. Such a s a emen con e ges wi h he
conclusions o se e al s udies in ou analysis. Consequen -
ly, ano he s udy indica ed ha legumes in in e c opping
sys ems a e capable o ixing be ween 100 and 300 kg/ha o
ni ogen pe yea , which is e lec ed in he high alues and
a iabili y obse ed in he same igu e (Peoples e al. (2009).
The high e iciency o he co n-soybean and whea - a a sys-
em in Ni ogen ixa ion demons a ed ha he associa ion
o peas wi h ba ley educed he need o ni ogen e ilize s
by up o 40% (Hauggaa d-Nielsen e al. 2009).
The a iabili y, pa icula ly ega ding ni ogen ixa ion
and p oduc i i y inc ease (Fig. 4), emphasizes he ele-
ance o conside ing local condi ions and managemen
s a egies when implemen ing he selec ion o a mo e p o-
ec ed in e c opping sys em, which may di e and bene i
depending on clima ic condi ions and soil ype (B ooke
e al. 2016; S omph e al. 2020).
When conduc ing a compa a i e analysis be ween he
sys ems, i is obse ed ha co n-soybean and whea - a a
consis en ly p esen highe medians and expanded in e -
qua ile anges o mos ad an ages, especially ega ding
ni ogen ixa ion and inc eased p oduc i i y. Thus, such
sys ems can p o ide mo e signi ican and di e si ied
ad an ages compa ed o o he in e c opping sys ems.
Figu e 2. Bene i Flow in Ag icul u al Conso ium Sys ems. The Sankey diag am illus a es he ela ionships be-
ween six conso ium sys ems (on he le ) and i e ca ego ies o bene i s (on he igh ). The hickness o he con-
nec ions ep esen s he in ensi y o he bene i obse ed in each sys em, based on he analysis o ecen published
s udies (Au ho s 2025).
da Sil a de Ab eu, e al.: The bene i s and applica ions o conso ium sys ems o sus ainable ag icul u e6
Emi a es Jou nal o Food and Ag icul u e
Howe e , i becomes e iden ha all in e c opping sys-
ems show posi i e e ec s in all e alua ed pa ame e s,
alida ing he impo ance o in e c opping g ains and leg-
umes in sus ainable ag icul u e.
Al hough he esul s (Figs 2, 3) show subs an ial ad-
an ages o soil heal h, i is impo an o highligh he
long- e m impac s o he sys ems, whe eby he con inu-
ous p ac ice o in e c opping co n and legumes p o ided
a las ing inc ease in soil o ganic ca bon and mic obial ac-
i i y, p esen ing bene icial e ec s ha pe sis ed e en a e
he esump ion o monocul u e. This indica es ha he
ad an ages o in e c opping sys ems o soil heal h may
pe sis beyond he pe iod o hei implemen a ion (Cong
e al. 2018).
The bene i s esul ing om he educ ion o G een-
house Gases a e gene ally consis en ac oss all in e c op-
ping sys ems in ol ing g ains and legumes (Fig. 4), wi h
he co n-soy sys em s anding ou o showing a median
sligh ly abo e 20% in he emissions o hese gases in as-
socia ions wi h he ce eal and legume sys em, compa ed
o monocul u es o g ain c ops. The consis ency in GHG
educ ion ac oss all sys ems emphasizes he capaci y o
his ype o conso ium as a solu ion o mi iga ing g een-
house gas emissions (Senbay am e al. 2015).
Ano he aspec ha dese es a en ion is he po en-
ial o conso ia sys ems o ca bon seques a ion. Some
s udies ha e e ealed a signi ican inc ease in soil ca bon
s ocks om maize cul i a ion in conso ium wi h leg-
umes, in con as o monocul u e maize. In his way, his
bene i con ibu es o he e icien main enance o soil e -
ili y and quali y in he long e m (Cong e al. 2015).
Simul aneously, ano he signi ican ac o ha dese es
a en ion is he imp o emen s in wa e e iciency, as he
da a showed a uni o mi y among he di e en in e c op-
ping sys ems, wi h he a a bean and whea sys em p e-
sen ing a highe median (Fig. 4). This ac is in line wi h
he demons a ions p esen ed in ela ed esea ch, which
indica e ha p ope ly designed in e c opping sys ems can
inc ease wa e consump ion e iciency by up o 25%. The
uni o mi y in imp o emen s ega ding wa e e iciency
among he sys ems indica es ha such an ad an age con-
s i u es a solid cha ac e is ic o in e c opping g ains and
legumes, ega dless o he speci ic combina ion o c ops
(Mao e al. 2012; Hauggaa d-Nielsen e al. 2016).
Figu e 3. Dis ibu ion o Bene i s by Ag icul u al Conso ium Sys em. The boxplo g aph p esen s he a iabili y o
he bene i s obse ed in each conso ium sys em. The boxes show he in e qua ile ange, wi h he cen al line ep-
esen ing he median. The whiske s indica e he minimum and maximum alues, excluding ou lie s. This isualiza ion
allows o a de ailed compa ison o he e ec i eness o each sys em in ela ion o he i e main bene i s iden i ied
in he li e a u e (Au ho s 2025).
Emi . J. Food Ag ic ⋅ Volume 37 ⋅ 2025 7
Emi a es Jou nal o Food and Ag icul u e
Ag o o es y sys ems
Ag o o es y sys ems and ege able in e c opping s and
ou wi h he highes bene i s o biodi e si y, wi h high
median sco es and echnical dis ibu ions a he op
(Fig. 3). Bo h sys ems show he ease o ensu ing he g ea -
es dispe sion o sco es o es ablish mo e a ied habi a s
and gene a e a wide ange o species no only on he su -
ace bu also unde g ound.
The s udy also depic ed he mo e equi able alloca ion
o ad an ages o ag o o es y sys ems wi h signi ican
connec ions o biodi e si y, soil quali y, and esilience o
clima e change (Fig. 2). This con i ms he ecologically na -
u al ad an ages o ag o o es y app oaches.
A me a-analysis published ha , compa ed o con ols,
ag o o es y sys ems inc eased biodi e si y and he en i e
ecosys em in Eu ope. The ees p esen hese p o ec ed
ecosys ems o a ious species (Fig. 2), which a y om
soil mic oo ganisms o bi ds and insec s, which highligh s
he close ela ionship wi h biodi e si y (To alba e al.
2016). Based on he abo e, upon obse ing ha he e was
an inc ease in soil o ganic ca bon le els in ag o o es y a -
eas in F ance, a econdi ioning o soil s uc u e was no ed,
esul ing om he con inuous inco po a ion o o ganic
ma e om li e and oo sys ems, as well as ac ing unde
he con ol o su ace soil e osion (Ca dinale e al. 2018).
Fu he mo e, ees in ag o o es y sys ems cap u e ca -
bon, p o ide shade, and also se e o p o ec o he species
om winds, in addi ion o con ibu ing o mi iga ing he
impac s o se e e clima ic condi ions (Mbow e al. 2014).
In e c opping o co e c ops
The co e c opping sys em exhibi s he g ea es bene i s
o soil heal h, as e idenced by bo h he median alues and
he uppe bound associa ed wi h his managemen p ac-
ice (Fig. 3). This inding unde sco es he c i ical ole o
co e c ops in enhancing soil s uc u e, inc easing o gan-
ic ma e con en , and s imula ing soil biological ac i i y.
No ably, co e c opping sys ems demons a e a s onge
associa ion wi h soil a ibu es and a e signi ican ly linked
o imp o ed esou ce-use e iciency and clima e adap a-
ion capaci y (Fig. 2).
Se e al me a-analysis and e iews suppo he bene i s
o in e c opping ce eals and legumes. Fo example, in e -
c opping sys ems inc ease he p opo ion o biologically
ixed ni ogen in legumes by abou 14% and inc ease soil
Figu e 4. Dis ibu ion o bene i s in legume-ce eal in e c opping sys ems. This box plo illus a es he pe cen age
o imp o emen in i e key me ics (GHG Reduc ion, N Fixa ion, Soil O ganic Ma e Inc ease, Wa e E iciency, and
Yield Inc ease) in ou di e en ce eal-legume in e c opping sys ems (Ba ley-Pea, Co n-Soybean, So ghum-Bean,
and Whea -Fa a). The cha demons a es he a iabili y and median alues o each bene i o each ce eal-legume
in e c opping sys em, allowing o a compa a i e analysis o hei pe o mance.
da Sil a de Ab eu, e al.: The bene i s and applica ions o conso ium sys ems o sus ainable ag icul u e8
Emi a es Jou nal o Food and Ag icul u e
ni ogen up ake by ce eals by 61% compa ed o monocul-
u es; o al ni ogen used in he soil is 25% highe in in e -
c opped sys ems compa ed o legumes alone (Rod iguez
e al. 2020). On a global scale, i is es ima ed ha such
sys ems can educe he use o syn he ic ni ogen e iliz-
e s by app oxima ely 26%, while imp o ing yield s abili y,
p oduc i i y pe uni a ea, educing pes incidence, and
p omo ing biodi e si y (Jensen e al. 2020).
Howe e , hese c ops p omo e he ecological in ensi i-
ca ion o cul i a ion sys ems by con ibu ing o he inc ease
o o ganic ca bon in he soil, imp o ing i s s uc u e, and
enhancing nu ien cycling. These ad an ages explain he
s ong ela ionship wi h soil quali y in he g aph (Wi we
e al. 2017). These bene i s p o ided by co e c ops in em-
pe a e soils ha e imp o ed wa e quali y, ca bon cap u e,
and o he quali ies o he physical cha ac e is ics o he
soil. Howe e , hese indings (Fig. 2) o he imp o emen
o soil quali y and he e icien use o wa e a o he esil-
ience o ag icul u al sys ems (Blanco-Canqui e al. 2015).
Vege able conso ium
Vege able in e c opping sys ems a e linked o imp o ed
p oduc i i y and biodi e si y, showing mode a e connec-
ions wi h e iciency in esou ce u iliza ion (Fig. 2). This
highligh s he in ensi e na u e o a ious ege able cul i-
a ion sys ems, as well as he possibili ies o complemen-
a i y be ween speci ic species o hese plan s.
In e c opping inc eases p oduc i i y and p ese es soil
e ili y cha ac e is ics compa ed o he isola ed cul i a-
ion o hese ege ables (Fig. 2). This elucida es he in ense
ela ionship wi h he imp o emen o p oduc i i y (Wang
e al. 2014).
When examining he in luence o ag icul u al di e si-
ica ion on insec communi ies in c uci e ous c op plan-
a ions, i is ound ha in e c opping can educe he p es-
su e exe ed by delibe a ions and enhance he legisla ion
o bene icial insec s, he eby p omo ing bo h biodi e si y
and inc eased p oduc i i y (Hooks and Johnson 2003).
Pe ennial-annual in e cala ion
Pe ennial annual sys ems ha e he s onges link wi h cli-
ma e adap abili y, showing signi ican connec ions wi h
biodi e si y and inc eased p oduc i i y (Fig. 2). Al hough
alley c opping, a sys em in which pe ennial c ops a e in-
e plan ed wi h annual c ops, may seem unusual, he po-
en ial exe ed by his me hod allows o inno a ion in ag-
icul u e. Howe e , he abili y o hese sys ems o op imize
ce ain cha ac e is ics in ag icul u al a eas can ensu e
g ea e p o i abili y o he p oduce (Wolz e al. 2018).
When analyzing he po en ial o pe ennial g asses in
in e c opping sys ems, i was concluded ha such sys ems
could o e con inuous yields while simul aneously enhanc-
ing ecosys em se ices, elucida ing he ela ionships be ween
inc eased p oduc i i y and biodi e si y (C ews e al. 2016).
The Pe ennial-Annual and Ag o o es y sys ems e-
eal he g ea es bene i s in e ms o clima e esilience,
as demons a ed by he high medians and dis ibu ions
(Fig. 3). This indica es ha he inclusion o pe ennial el-
emen s in he ag icul u al sys em can cons i u e an e ec-
i e s a egy o enhance adap abili y o clima e change.
Al hough i has been indica ed ha pe ennial-annual sys-
ems ha e a s ong ela ionship wi h clima e esilience, i
is c i ical ha all conso ia subsys ems ha e he po en ial
o adjus o clima e changes (Fig. 2).
The di e si y wi hin conso ium sys ems c ea es a sense
o a “po olio e ec ,” howe e , he likelihood o encoun-
e ing ha es p oblems is inhe en ly lowe due o he a -
iabili y o specialized esponses speci ic o s ess ela ed
o clima e. Such conside a ion is especially ele an in he
con ex o ex eme clima e e en s ha ha e been occu -
ing equen ly in ecen yea s (Lin 2011). Fu he mo e,
ce ain sys ems (Fig. 3), such as he Pe ennial-Annual and
he Vege able sys ems, exhibi g ea e a iabili y in ce ain
bene i s, e idenced by boxes o la ge dimensions. This
indica es ha he esul s o hese sys ems may be mo e in-
luenced by si e-speci ic ac o s o managemen p ac ices.
In e c opping pas u es wi h ag icul u al c ops
Pas u e-c op sys ems p esen ha monious bene i s, wi h
deep connec ions o esou ce e iciency, yield enhance-
men , and soil heal h (Fig. 2). This demons a es he syn-
e gies be ween c op p oduc ion and li es ock a ming in
in eg a ed sys ems.
The combined c op and li es ock sys ems in he Sou h-
eas e n Uni ed S a es ha e acili a ed ad ances in bo h
ag icul u al p oduc ion and li es ock a ming, as hese
sys ems ha e imp o ed soil quali y and enhanced nu i-
en cycling, elucida ing he in e ela ionships be ween soil
heal h and esou ce e iciency (F anzluebbe s and S uede-
mann 2014).
To achie e his syne gy, many s a egies ha e been de-
eloped, h ough which a ious c op-li es ock sys ems ha e
he po en ial o imp o e he nu ien cycle and educe de-
pendence on he consump ion o ex e nal inpu s (Fig. 2),
ealloca ing land use in a manne consis en wi h he ep-
esen a ion o bene i s and p oduc i i y (Peoples e al. 2009).
Fu he mo e, a isualiza ion o he ad an ages p o id-
ed by he a ious in e c opping sys ems in ela ion o ag-
icul u al sus ainabili y aspec s was p esen ed (Fig. 2). I is
also possible o highligh he abili y o a ied ag icul u al
sys ems when acing majo issues in ag icul u e, encom-
passing se e al ac o s ha a e pa o he soil-plan -en i-
onmen in e ac ion.
The equi able dis ibu ion o ad an ages among a i-
ous in e c opping sys ems indica es ha a planned ag i-
cul u al p oduc ion s a egy, which includes mul iple ap-
p oaches o his cul i a ion me hod, could o e a mo e
comp ehensi e solu ion o sus ainable ood p oduc-
ion. Howe e , he p ac ice o in e c opping cons i u es
a new G een Re olu ion, p o iding al e na i es o he
Emi . J. Food Ag ic ⋅ Volume 37 ⋅ 2025 9
Emi a es Jou nal o Food and Ag icul u e
sus ainable in ensi ica ion o ag icul u e, capable o mee -
ing he g owing demand o ood while p ese ing ecosys-
em se ices (Ma in-Guay e al. 2018).
In he p esen con ex , obus in e connec ions be-
ween a ious sys ems and he e ec i eness in esou ce
u iliza ion we e e idenced (Fig. 2), wi h an emphasis
on Pas u e-C op and Ce eal-Legume sys ems. Pa allely,
(Fig. 3) co obo a es his end, highligh ing bene icial
dis ibu ions o hese sys ems.
Sys em in eg a ion
The combined e alua ion (Figs 2, 3) sugges s ha di e -
en conso ium sys ems can be complemen a y o each
o he . An example o his was alida ed when he g ain
and legume conso ium showed imp o emen s in yield
and esou ce use e iciency, whe e Ag o o es y sys ems
ensu e supe io bene i s in e ms o biodi e si y and cli-
ma e esilience.
The p esen isual analysis o he da a co obo a es he
concep ion ha conso ium sys ems ha e designed an ap-
p oach o sus ainable ag icul u al p ac ice. The e o e, i
is emphasized ha he implemen a ion o a iable conso -
ium sys ems ailo ed o local speci ici ies can ep esen
an e icien app oach o dealing wi h he complex chal-
lenges o con empo a y ag icul u e, encompassing ood
secu i y, en i onmen al p ese a ion, and adap a ion o
clima e change.
Conclusion
This e iew demons a es ha he di e en in eg a ed ag i-
cul u al conso ium sys ems e alua ed o e nume ous com-
plemen a y and compe i i e ad an ages and ha e he po en-
ial o p o ide comp ehensi e solu ions o con empo a y
sus ainable and en i onmen ally esponsible ag icul u e.
Ag icul u al conso ium sys ems wi h g ains and leg-
umes, co e c ops, and ag oecosys ems p o ide posi i e
impac s and a g ea e numbe o bene i s o soil heal h
in e ms o op imizing he use o chemical inpu s and en-
i onmen al esou ces, as well as inc easing biodi e si y
and clima e esilience.
Ag icul u al conso ium sys ems, in addi ion o he p o-
p ie a y echnologies de elopmen , equi e a b oad knowl-
edge base o he in insic in e ac ions be ween c ops and he
en i onmen and cons i u e a p omising s a egy o achie -
ing he goals o ood secu i y, en i onmen al p ese a ion,
and adap a ion o clima e change. The e is also a need o as-
sess how in e c opping sys ems can be e ec i ely in eg a ed
in o ag icul u al policies and u al suppo p og ams
Au ho con ibu ions
Concep ualiza ion: FALD, JVS. Fo mal analysis: JVS,
EOAJ, LSSA. In es iga ion: JCSC, IBS. Supe ision: JVS.
Valida ion: JVS. Visualiza ion: IBS. W i ing – o iginal
d a : EOAJ. W i ing – e iew and edi ing: LSSA.
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