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SOCIAL SCIENCES
BEYOND PRIVACY: FAMILY LAW AND NON-CONSENSUAL INTIMATE IMAGE REGULATION
Mihailo ic A.
PhD, Teaching Associa e
Facul y o Law
Uni e si y o Mon eneg o
h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17256215
Abs ac
The non-consensual dissemina ion o in ima e images o ideos, commonly e e ed o as " e enge po n," has
become inc easingly ecognized as a mani es a ion o gende -based iolence. The e m "image-based sexual
abuse" (IBSA) is used o unde sco e he iola ion o consen a he han any supposed mo i e o " e enge" when
someone eleases o h ea ens o elease p i a e, sexually explici pic u es wi hou pe mission. This abuse is espe-
cially ha m ul in amily o in ima e pa ne si ua ions because abuse s o en use us o coe ci e con ol o hei
ad an age, use images as le e age du ing di o ces o cus ody dispu es, and humilia e and blackmail hei ic ims.
Du ing he 2020–2025 pe iod, Eu opean law e ol ed apidly. The Eu opean Union adop ed i s i s di ec i e on
comba ing iolence agains women and domes ic iolence (Di ec i e 2024/1385), na ional legisla u es c ea ed o
expanded o ences, cou s issued landma k judgmen s and schola s highligh ed pe sis en gaps o e lapping ci il
and c iminal law amewo ks.
Keywo ds: non-consensual dissemina ion o in ima e images, image-based sexual abuse (IBSA), gende -
based iolence, coe ci e con ol, Di ec i e 2024/1385.
In oduc ion
Since 2019, legisla i e changes in EU Membe
S a es ha e demons a ed a end owa d implemen ing
laws ha make i illegal o sha e in ima e ma e ial wi h-
ou consen (IBSA), along wi h mo e se e e sanc ions
and explici ecogni ion o in ima e pa ne ela ion-
ships as con ibu ing ac o s. Coun ies like F ance and
I eland ha e made i illegal no only o do he ac i sel
bu also o h ea en o e eal such ma e ial. This is be-
cause ic ims o en epo being coe ced and ex o ed.
I aly, Spain, and F ance ha e added in ima e pa ne si -
ua ions as s a u o y agg a a ing ac o s, which means
ha he penal ies a e highe in hese cases. Addi ion-
ally, some Membe S a es ha e emo ed he bu den o
p oo o p o e speci ic in en o cause damage. This
makes i easie o he p osecu ion o p o e i s case and
makes en o cemen mo e e ec i e. Gaps emain: some
eas e n Eu opean ju isdic ions s ill ely on gene al p i-
acy laws, and Ge many lacks a speci ic o ence.
In May 2024 he EU adop ed Di-
ec i e (EU) 2024/1385 on comba ing iolence agains
women and domes ic iolence—i s i s binding legis-
la ion add essing online abuse. A icle 5 equi es Mem-
be S a es o c iminalise making in ima e images public
wi hou he depic ed pe son’s consen , c iminalise p o-
ducing o al e ing deep akes o he same pu pose, and
punish h ea s o sha e such ma e ial. (1) The Di ec i e
ecognises ha IBSA o en occu s in domes ic se ings
and ea s in ima e-pa ne ela ionships as agg a a ing
ci cums ances. I di ec s Membe S a es o p o ide
as - ack emo al mechanisms and suppo se ices o
ic ims and o conside cybe abuse an in eg al pa o
domes ic iolence in es iga ions. A icles 6–8 add ess
cybe -s alking, cybe -ha assmen and cybe -inci e-
men ; A icle 10 se s minimum maximum sen ences o
a leas one yea o IBSA o ences. This ha monisa ion
is signi ican because be o e 2024 Membe S a es used
a ied combina ions o p i acy, ha assmen and sex-
ual-o ence p o isions. The Di ec i e hus aises he
loo o p o ec ion ac oss he EU and acili a es
c oss-bo de coope a ion.
Complemen a y EU ins umen s include he Digi-
al Se ices Ac (2022), which obliges majo pla o ms
o emo e illegal con en p omp ly, and he Gene al
Da a P o ec ion Regula ion (GDPR), which ic ims
ha e used o eques akedown o hei images. (2) In
p ac ice, GDPR emedies a e slow; hence he Di-
ec i e’s explici c iminal-law app oach o IBSA. (3)
The Council o Eu ope’s Is anbul Con en ion (2011)
and he Second P o ocol o he Budapes Con en ion
(2021) also encou age Membe S a es o c iminalise
echnology- acili a ed iolence. (4) A 2022 ecommen-
da ion om GREVIO ( he moni o ing body) u ged
s a es o adop he e m “image-based sexual abuse”
and emphasised ha i disp opo iona ely a ec s
women. (5)
C iminal jus ice challenges
One o bigges challenge is unde - epo ing and
he need o gende -sensi i e policing. Vic ims o IBSA
by pa ne s o en ea e alia ion, u he dissemina ion
o images, o no being belie ed. In Bu u ugă Roma-
nia (2020) he Eu opean Cou o Human Righ s (EC-
HR) condemned Romanian au ho i ies o igno ing a
woman’s complain s ha he husband had hacked he
accoun s and s o ed he p i a e da a; he Cou empha-
sised ha domes ic iolence includes psychological and
cybe elemen s and ha ailu e o in es iga e cybe io-
lence neglec s a s a e’s posi i e obliga ions. (6)
Addi ionaly, p o ing who uploaded ma e ial and
wi h wha in en is di icul . Fo ins ance, pe pe a o s
may use anonymous accoun s, some laws s ill equi e
p oo o in en o cause damage, placing bu dens on
ic ims and ic ims wo y ha legal p oceedings will
e-expose hei in ima e images as e idence. The e o e,
Jou nal o science. Lyon №70/2025 22
digi al e idence mus be collec ed wi hou b eaching
p i acy laws.
Image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) equen ly con-
s i u es an elemen wi hin a b oade con inuum o coe -
ci e con ol. In p osecu o ial p ac ice, howe e , in-
s ances o physical iolence and echnology- acili a ed
abuse a e o en add essed in isola ion, leading o a ag-
men ed app oach o ic im p o ec ion and o ende ac-
coun abili y. The EU Di ec i e on comba ing iolence
agains women calls o he sys ema ic inco po a ion o
echnology- acili a ed abuse in o he e iden ia y and
in es iga i e amewo k o domes ic iolence cases.
Signi ican ly, in Volodina . Russia, he Eu opean
Cou o Human Righ s held ha he Russian au ho i-
ies’ delayed and inadequa e esponse o he non-con-
sensual dissemina ion o a woman’s in ima e images by
he o me pa ne cons i u ed a iola ion o A icle 8
o he Eu opean Con en ion on Human Righ s. The
Cou unde sco ed he posi i e obliga ion o s a es o
adop imely and e ec i e measu es agains cybe io-
lence, explici ly ecognising i as a o m o gende -
based abuse.
Family-law challenges
Ci il cou s can issue o de s equi ing he pe pe-
a o o dele e images and e ain om u he dissem-
ina ion. Howe e , ic ims may s uggle o con ince
amily judges ha h ea s o pos pho os cons i u e do-
mes ic iolence, hough awa eness is inc easing.
Vic ims can sue o in asion o p i acy o emo-
ional dis ess. Ci il sui s may p o ide mone a y elie
bu can be expensi e and expose ic ims o u he sc u-
iny. Wi hou obus e iden ia y p o ec ions, de end-
an s may a emp o blame he ic im o a gue implici
consen . I eland’s law cla i ies ha consen o c ea e an
image does no imply consen o dis ibu e i , s eng h-
ening bo h c iminal and ci il claims.
IBSA o en in e sec s wi h di o ce and cus ody
dispu es. Abuse s may use image h ea s as ba gaining
chips. Cou s mus p o ec he ic im’s con iden iali y
while conside ing he implica ions o child wel a e.
Some ju isdic ions allow amily cou s o ac o IBSA
in o cus ody decisions; o example, UK judges (ou -
side he EU) ha e sugges ed ha a pa en ’s a emp o
shame he o he wi h in ima e images could coun
agains hei sui abili y o cus ody.
Vic ims may a oid legal ac ion o keep he ma e
p i a e, especially in conse a i e communi ies. Ac-
cess o legal aid is c ucial, as many su i o s lack unds
o pu sue ci il emedies. The EU di ec i e calls on
Membe S a es o p o ide ee legal aid in io-
lence-agains -women cases.
Case law and human igh s de elopmen s
Eu opean cou s, especially he EC HR, ha e
shaped he unde s anding o IBSA as a human- igh s
iola ion. Two cases illus a e he e ol ing
ju isp udence.
1. Bu u ugă Romania (2020): A woman al-
leged ha he husband physically abused he and
hacked in o he accoun s, copying p i a e messages and
pho os. Romanian au ho i ies p osecu ed only he phys-
ical iolence. The EC HR ound iola ions o A icles 3
and 8 o he Eu opean Con en ion on Human Righ s. I
held ha domes ic iolence includes psychological and
cybe elemen s and c i icised Romania o ailing o in-
es iga e cybe iolence. The Cou no ed ha igno ing
cybe -abuse e lec ed “excessi e o malism” and ne-
glec ed he s a e’s posi i e obliga ions. The judgmen
unde sco es ha s a es mus ea digi al abuse as pa
o he domes ic- iolence con inuum.
2. Volodina . Russia (2021) Anas asiya Vo-
lodina’s ex-pa ne hacked he social-media accoun s,
pos ed he in ima e images, c ea ed ake p o iles and
sen he dea h h ea s. Russian au ho i ies did no open
a c iminal in es iga ion o almos wo yea s. The EC-
HR held ha Russia b eached A icle 8 by ailing o
p o ec he igh o p i a e li e and c i icised he ine -
ec i e implemen a ion o exis ing laws.The Cou
cha ac e ised he non-consensual dissemina ion o in i-
ma e images as a o m o gende -based cybe iolence
and s essed ha s a es mus ake p oac i e measu es o
p e en and espond o such ha m. The judgmen d ew
on in e na ional epo s de ining cybe iolence and em-
phasised ha posi i e obliga ions include es ablishing a
legal amewo k, p e en ing o eseeable isks and con-
duc ing e ec i e in es iga ions. (7)
Vic imological indings
Resea ch on IBSA ic imisa ion e eals p o ound
psychological, social and economic consequences, pa -
icula ly when he pe pe a o is an in ima e pa ne . A
2023 s udy o 274 Po uguese women ound ha 16 %
had expe ienced IBSA. (8) Vic ims epo ed highe le -
els o humilia ion, anxie y and dep ession, and lowe
sel -es eem han non- ic ims. The be ayal by a us ed
pa ne compounds he auma and can lead o
long- e m us issues, social isola ion, los employmen
oppo uni ies and eloca ion. When he abuse is a
spouse o pa ne , ex ended amily membe s may see
he images, causing i s and s igma. In amily se ings
he ha m ex ends o child en: some ic ims’ child en
ha e been bullied a school a e pee s disco e ed he
pa en ’s images. The shame and epu a ional damage
can esul in ic ims lea ing jobs o d opping ou o ed-
uca ion.
S udies no e ha many ju isdic ions lacked p o i-
sions o deep akes, non-consensual eco ding o im-
ages, o h ea s o sha e images. Some laws s ill equi e
p oo o in en o ha m, hinde ing p osecu ions. Schol-
a s also highligh he need o c iminalise h ea s as a
s andalone o ence and o co e non-consensual c ea-
ion o images (e.g., hidden came as).
Legal commen a o s explo e using da a-p o ec ion
law and o law o hold pla o ms accoun able. Unde
he GDPR, ic ims can claim compensa ion when pla -
o ms ail o emo e epo ed con en . The EU’s Digi al
Se ices Ac will equi e pla o ms o ha e as no-
ice-and- akedown p ocedu es o IBSA.
Towa ds an in eg a ed legal esponse - b idging
c iminal and amily law
The 2020–2025 pe iod has seen meaning ul p o-
g ess in Eu opean IBSA legisla ion. The EU di ec i e
p o ides a baseline ha Membe S a es mus mee by
2026. Implemen a ion is c ucial: s a es mus adop spe-
ci ic o ences, including deep akes and h ea s; ensu e
ha penal ies e lec he g a i y o ha m; and ea
IBSA wi hin domes ic- iolence amewo ks. Coun ies
wi hou speci ic laws, such as Ge many, should enac
Jou nal o science. Lyon №70/2025 23
dedica ed s a u es. S a es should designa e agg a a ing
ci cums ances o pa ne -pe pe a ed IBSA and p o-
ide sen encing guidelines o a oid inconsis ency.
Because IBSA o en a ises du ing di o ce o cus-
ody dispu es, coo dina ion be ween c iminal and am-
ily cou s is essen ial. Specialised domes ic- iolence
cou s could handle c iminal cha ges, ci il p o ec ion
o de s and amily ma e s concu en ly, educing ag-
men a ion. In o ma ion abou c iminal con ic ions
should in o m cus ody e alua ions, and es aining o -
de s in amily cou should include p o isions agains
image dissemina ion.
Vic ims equi e in eg a ed se ices: legal aid, psy-
chological counselling, and echnical assis ance (such
as help wi h akedown eques s). Suppo o ganisa ions
should be ained on IBSA dynamics and a ailable em-
edies. The EU di ec i e’s p o isions on ic im suppo
mus be ansla ed in o na ional p og ammes. S a es
should und helplines and digi al-sa e y ools ( o ex-
ample, hash-ma ching sys ems). O ende s could be e-
qui ed o co e he cos o con en emo al and he apy
as pa o es i u ion. (9)
Addi ionaly, pla o ms play a c i ical ole. They
mus implemen obus , use - iendly mechanisms o
epo and emo e non-consensual con en p omp ly.
The Digi al Se ices Ac manda es such p ocesses; eg-
ula o s mus en o ce compliance. A cen al EU po al
could s eamline c oss-pla o m epo ing. Pla o ms
should adop hash da abases o p e en e-uploads o
lagged images. T anspa ency epo s should de ail
how many IBSA epo s hey ecei ed and how quickly
hey esponded. Go e nmen s, schools and media
should emphasise ha sha ing someone’s in ima e im-
age wi hou consen is a se ious o ence. Public cam-
paigns should discou age ic im-blaming and highligh
he legal consequences o pe pe a o s. Educa ion p o-
g ammes should each digi al e hics and consen om
an ea ly age.
Conclusion
The unau ho ized sha ing o in ima e images may
gi e ise o liabili y unde bo h ci il and c iminal law.
(10) Non-consensual sha ing o in ima e images is no
an un o una e by-p oduc o mode n echnology bu a
iola ion o undamen al igh s. In amily se ings i be-
comes a ool o coe ci e con ol ha magni ies exis ing
powe imbalances and in lic s se e e auma on su i-
o s. The yea s 2020–2025 b ough signi ican ad-
ances: he EU’s Di ec i e 2024/1385 es ablishes a
comp ehensi e legal amewo k, na ional laws in
F ance, I aly, I eland and Spain ha e in oduced clea
o ences and inc eased penal ies, and cou s ha e ec-
ognised IBSA as pa o domes ic iolence. Ye chal-
lenges pe sis —une en implemen a ion, unde - epo -
ing, and gaps in ci il emedies. A ha monised, ic-
im-cen ed app oach is needed: c iminal law mus de-
e and punish, ci il law mus o e swi p o ec i e
measu es and compensa ion, and socie y mus os e e-
spec ul digi al beha iou . Only h ough coo dina ed
legisla i e, judicial, educa ional and echnological e -
o s can ic ims’ au onomy and digni y be es o ed.
Re e ences:
1. Eu opean Union. Di ec i e (EU) 2024/1385 o
he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o 14 May
2024 on comba ing iolence agains women and do-
mes ic iolence. O J Eu Union. 2024 May 24;L
2024/1385. A ailable om: h ps://eu -lex.eu-
opa.eu/eli/di /2024/1385/oj/eng
2. Eu opean Union. Regula ion (EU) 2022/2065
o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o 19
Oc obe 2022 on a Single Ma ke o Digi al Se ices
and amending Di ec i e 2000/31/EC (Digi al Se ices
Ac ). O icial Jou nal o he Eu opean Union. 2022 Oc
27; L 277:1–102.
3. Eu opean Union. Regula ion (EU) 2016/679
o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o 27
Ap il 2016 on he p o ec ion o na u al pe sons wi h e-
ga d o he p ocessing o pe sonal da a and on he ee
mo emen o such da a, and epealing Di ec i e
95/46/EC (Gene al Da a P o ec ion Regula ion).
O icial Jou nal o he Eu opean Union. 2016 May 4; L
119:1–88.
4. Council o Eu ope. Con en ion on Cybe -
c ime (Budapes Con en ion). CETS No. 185. Opened
o signa u e 23 No embe 2001, en e ed in o o ce 1
July 2004.
5. Council o Eu ope. G oup o Expe s on Ac-
ion agains Violence agains Women and Domes ic Vi-
olence (GREVIO). “Building T us by P o iding Sup-
po , P o ec ion and Jus ice” – Fi s hema ic e alua ion
ound launched Oc obe 2022 [In e ne ]. S asbou g:
Council o Eu ope; 2022 [ci ed 2025 Aug 26]. A aila-
ble om: GREVIO hema ic e alua ion p ocedu e
"Building T us by P o iding Suppo , P o ec ion and
Jus ice" launched Oc obe 2022.
6. Eu opean Cou o Human Righ s. Bu u ugă .
Romania, Applica ion No. 56867/15, judgmen o 11
Feb ua y 2020.
7. Eu opean Cou o Human Righ s. Volodina .
Russia (no. 2), Applica ion No. 40419/19, judgmen o
14 Sep embe 2021.
8. Umbach, Rebecca & Hen y, Nicola & Bea d,
Gemma. (2025). P e alence and Impac s o Image-
Based Sexual Abuse Vic imiza ion: A Mul ina ional
S udy. 10.48550/a Xi .2503.04988.
9. Romania V. Shame ul T aces and Image-
Based Sexual Abuse: The Case o Tiziana Can one. In:
Comunello F, Ma i e F, Sabe a L, edi o s. Wha Peo-
ple Lea e Behind. Ma ks, T aces, Foo p in s and hei
Rele ance o Knowledge Socie y. Cham: Sp inge In-
e na ional Publishing; 2022. p. 347–359. doi:
10.1007/978-3-031-11756-5_22.
10. Sha ma V. Unde s anding Non-Consensual
Dissemina ion o In ima e Images Laws in India wi h
Focus on In e media y Liabili y. NUJS Law Re iew.
2021;14(4):1-19.
