Co esponding au ho : Ibanga, Felix Isido e
Copy igh © 2025 Au ho (s) e ain he copy igh o his a icle. This a icle is published unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License 4.0.
Assessmen o To al Suspended Pa icula e Ma e (TSPM) Emissions om Sawmills
in Akwa Ibom S a e, Nige ia
Felix Isido e Ibanga 1, *, Uduak Isido e Udoh 1, Sa iou Ibanga Enyieke e 2 and Ubong Be na d Essien 3
1 Depa men o sus ainabili y and en i onmen al managemen , acul y o enginee ing, compu ing and en i onmen ,
Uni ed Kingdom.
1 Depa men o sus ainabili y and en i onmen al managemen , acul y o enginee ing, compu ing and en i onmen , Uni ed
Kingdom.
2 Depa men o Geog aphy and En i onmen al Sciences, Facul y o En i onmen al Sciences, Uni e si y o Calaba , Calaba .
Nige ia.
3 Depa men o Animal and En i onmen al Biology, Uni e si y o Uyo, Facul y o Biological Sciences, Uni e si y o Uyo,
Akwa Ibom S a e, Nige ia.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 2599-2609
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 14 Ap il 2025; e ised on 11 May 2025; accep ed on 13 May 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.26.2.1879
Abs ac
This esea ch e alua ed he o al suspended pa icula e ma e (TSPM) emissions and o he pollu an s in sawmills
loca ed wi hin Akwa Ibom S a e, Nige ia as well as he occupa ional heal h e ec s on he wo ke s. The s udy u ilized
eal- ime ai quali y assessmen ools alongside s uc u ed ques ionnai es which we e implemen ed in a mixed
me hods c oss sec ional app oach. These ools oge he wi h Geog aphic In o ma ion Sys ems (GIS) we e used o ga he
spa ial, en i onmen al, and demog aphic in o ma ion om a o al o 384 sawmill wo ke s in 12 sawmills ac oss he
h ee sena o ial dis ic s o he s a e. Findings indica ed ha pa icula e ma e concen a ions a he sou ces o wood
dus almos always su passed WHO limi s wi h measu emen s be ween 2.08 mg/m³ o 3.12 mg/m³ especially in a eas
such as Idu U uan and Iko Ekpene. Se e al wo kplaces also b eached he OSHA’s 85 dB (A) limi o noise wi h some
exceeding 110 dB (A). Mos o he wo ke s we e men aged be ween 31 o 45 yea s, poo ly educa ed, and had mo e han
six yea s o wo k expe ience which indica ed ch onic exposu e coupled wi h low heal h li e acy and inadequa e
p o ec i e measu es. All hese ac o s unde line he need o o dinances pe aining o social go e nance in occupa ional
heal h and sa e y, en i onmen al p o ec ion, and didac ic policy. This s udy calls on heal h policymake s, occupa ional
heal h expe s, and sawmill owne s o ake comp ehensi e measu es o sus ainable policy o con ain pollu ion and he
heal h isk among wo ke s o he wood p ocessing indus y in Nige ia.
Keywo ds: Assessmen ; Emissions; Ma e ; Akwa Ibom; Sawmills; Suspended pa icles
1. In oduc ion
The heal h consequences o ai pollu ion, pa icula ly conce ning public heal h, should be o g a e conce n. Pa icula e
Ma e (PM) is one o he mos dange ous among ai pollu an s because i has he po en ial o in il a e he deepes
ecesses o human espi a o y sys ems and e en ge in o he bloods eam. PM consis s o a complex mix u e o solid
and liquid pa icula es suspended in he a mosphe e, and i esul s om indus ial wo ks, au omobiles, and bu ning
biomass. The Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion (WHO) has epo ed ime and again he oubling PM exposu e e ec s, known
o cause espi a o y and ca dio ascula diseases, including p ema u e mo ali y (WHO, 2021). In he wood p ocessing
indus y, wo ke s ace he isk o inhaling la ge quan i ies o wood dus . Wood dus is one o he majo componen s o
PM. I is p oduced du ing saw, sand, and mill ope a ions. Exposu e o wood dus has been shown o esul in mul iple
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 2599-2609
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heal h complica ions, such as espi a o y p oblems, lowe lung unc ion, and highe chances o de eloping pa icula
cance s o e ime. Acco ding o he In e na ional Agency o Resea ch on Cance (IARC), wood dus is a G oup 1 human
ca cinogen, which means he e is adequa e e idence o i s ca cinogenici y in humans (IARC, 1995). The wood
p ocessing indus y in Nige ia is a i al pa o he economy as i o e s job oppo uni ies and aids in he de elopmen
o in as uc u e. In he Sou h-Sou h egion o Nige ia, Akwa Ibom S a e has a lo o o es s, which makes i home o
many sawmills. Un o una ely, a lo o hese sawmills a e poo ly moni o ed ega ding wa e and ai pollu ion, as well
as he heal h and sa e y s anda ds a he wo kplace. Resea ch shows ha such wo ke s ace highe - han-no mal isks
o acqui ing espi a o y diseases due o cons an exposu e o wood dus and o he con aminan s (Tobin e al., 2016).
Despi e he heal h conce ns, e y ew comp ehensi e s udies ocus on measu ing and mapping ou he pa icula e
ma e concen a ion ound wi hin he sawmills in Akwa Ibom S a e. Filling his gap is impo an o de eloping p ope
occupa ional heal h amewo ks o p o ec he employees wi hin he wood p ocessing indus y. The pu pose o his
esea ch is o de e mine he pa icula e ma e concen a ion in selec ed sawmills in Akwa Ibom S a e and examine he
heal h e ec s o such exposu e on he employees. The use o geospa ial analysis in combina ion wi h ield measu emen s
aims o de e mine he pollu ion ho spo s and o e guidance o policymake s o enhance occupa ional heal h ad ances
wi hin he egion.
2. Ma e ials and me hods
2.1. S udy A ea
As shown in Figu e 1, Akwa Ibom S a e is placed wi hin 5° 53’N 'n and 4° 32’ la i ude and 7°25’ and 8°25’ Eas longi ude.
The s a e is bounded on he eas by C oss Ri e S a e, Ri e s and Abia S a e on he Wes , and he A lan ic Ocean o he
Sou h, ex ending in leng h om Iko Abasi in he wes o O on in he eas o 129 kilome es. The name o he s a e
o igina es om he Qua Iboe Ri e ha lows wi hin he s a e and emp ies in o he Bigh o Bonny (Onyeakagbu, 2021).
The en i e a ea o he s udy is he Qua Iboe Ri e Basin, which has an a ea o 8,412 km2. I he wes e n pa o he lowe
C oss Ri e basin in combina ion wi h he eas e n egion o he Imo Ri e basin, his egion is wha de ines he s a e.
Fla , low-lying lands is one o he h ee dis inc i e e ains ound in Akwa Ibom s a e. The second e ain is an expansi e
ele a ed egion deco a ed wi h hills ha s unningly con as wi h he la plains. The al i ude o Akwa Ibom S a e anges
om 45 o 70 me e s abo e sea le el. I has h ee sena o ial dis ic s made up o 31 Local Go e nmen A eas (Pe e s
e al. 1994).
Figu e 1 Map o Akwa Ibom S a e showing loca ions o he sampled sawmills
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 2599-2609
2601
2.2. Resea ch design
The esea ch design employed in e alua ing he s udy o iden i y and map he spa ial dis ibu ion o sawmills in Akwa
Ibom S a e was a c oss-sec ional s udy wi h a mixed-me hods app oach.
2.3. Sou ce o da a
To success ully achie e he s udy objec i e, a combina ion o quan i a i e and quali a i e da a was ob ained.
Quan i a i e da a includes coun s and s a is ical analyses, while quali a i e da a in ol es desc ip ions, in e iews, and
obse a ions. The esea ch also paid a en ion o e hical issues when collec ing, s o ing, and analysing sensi i e da a
ela ed o indi iduals, hei heal h, and sa e y. The e o e, codes such as SMW (Sawmill Wo ke s) wi h numbe s such as
(001-00384) we e used o ep esen he sampled sawmill wo ke s in each o he sampled sawmills wi hin he h ee
Sena o ial Dis ic s o he s udy a ea.
Me hod o da a collec ion: Da a we e collec ed using he Geog aphic In o ma ion Sys em App oach, semi-s uc u ed
ques ionnai es, checklis s, Key In o man In e iews (KII), ield obse a ions, and scien i ic measu emen s, which we e
done in si u.
Techniques o da a analysis: The da a collec ed om he ield we e analysed using bo h desc ip i e and in e en ial
s a is ical echniques, and he ollowing p ocedu es and me hods we e employed o p oduce conclusions pe inen o
he s udy's goals. Desc ip i e analysis, which included simple a e ages, pe cen ages, ables, maps, and cha s, was used
o show he summa y o de ails om a ibu e da a. Con en ional and geo-s a is ical in e en ial s a is ical echniques
we e adop ed o es he o mula ed hypo hesis. Fu he , he pho o-elucida ion echnique was also employed o show
he medical examina ion p ocesses ca ied ou wi h sawmill wo ke s du ing he ieldwo k exe cise. The echniques
adop ed o es ing he hypo heses a e as ollows:
• Hypo hesis one: H0: The loca ional pa e n o sawmills in Akwa Ibom S a e is no andom.
• H1: The loca ional pa e n o sawmills in Akwa Ibom S a e is andom.
The analysis o he spa ial dis ibu ion o sawmills in Akwa Ibom S a e was ca ied ou using A e age Nea es Neighbo
(ANN) spa ial analy ic ool. This ool measu es “a e age nea es neighbo dis ance” which is he dis ance om each
ea u e cen oid o i s nea es neighbo cen oid. The a e age is less han ha o a andom dis ibu ion, clus e ed
dis ibu ion is a ibu ed o ea u es being analyzed. I he a e age dis ance is highe han andom dis ibu ion, ea u es
a e said o be dispe sed. In ANN analysis, he c i e ion o he z-sco e and p- alue gi es measu es o s a is ical
signi icance, hus, he decision o ejec he null hypo hesis (En i onmen al Sys ems Resea ch Ins i u e, (ESRI), 2013).
While collec ing he ield da a, a Ga min E ex 10 po able Global Posi ioning Sys em (GPS) was used o eco d he X
(longi ude), Y (la i ude), as well as Z (name and a ibu e) coo dina es o he sawmills in he h ee sena o ial dis ic s
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 2599-2609
2602
o Akwa Ibom S a e. These coo dina es we e subsequen ly p ocessed using Mic oso Excel and hen we e p epa ed o
mapping and spa ial analysis using GIS.
Two se s o da a we e collec ed: one consis ed o wel e majo sawmill b anches ac oss he egions, wi h wo sawmills
sampled om each local go e nmen a ea, and ano he desc ibed he spa ial dis ibu ion o sawmill machines wi hin
hese b anches. Using A cGIS, he da a we e mapped and isually ep esen ed o show he dis ibu ion o sawmills and
machines. Sawmill wo ke s’ exposu e o machines conce ning he hea ing, sigh , and lung heal h o wo ke s was
e alua ed wi h mean cen e analysis e alua ed in A cToolbox ocusing on hei dis ances o he machines. This analysis
inds a geog aphic cen e p oduced by a e aging he X and Y coo dina es o ea u e cen oids, calcula ing a cen e o
concen a ion among ea u es.
2.4. Sampling echniques
The s udy sawmills we e pu posi ely selec ed, and he esea ch adop ed a s a i ied andom sampling me hod o selec
32 sawmill wo ke s ( esponden s) om he a ge popula ion (sawmill wo ke s) wi hin he 12 sawmills ac oss he
wel e 12) LGAs wi hin he h ee 3) sena o ial dis ic s o Akwa Ibom S a e. The lis o sawmill wo ke s was ob ained
om he wo ke s egis e ed a he Akwa Ibom S a e Sawmill Associa ion Sec e a ia a I am Sawmill, and esponden s
we e chosen based on he di e en sec ions ha hey wo ked in.
2.5. Measu emen o Noise Le el, Pa icula e Ma e and Gaseous Pollu an s
The assessmen o noise le els among selec ed sawmill wo ke s was conduc ed h ough me iculous da a collec ion
using a sound le el me e . Using a sound le el me e o he D-1422C ype, noise le els we e measu ed a speci ic sawmill
loca ions du ing he day when ope a ions we e unde way. Field assis an s, unde he guidance o he esea che ,
employed a sys ema ic app oach o ensu e accu a e measu emen s. The esea che s used a comp ehensi e app oach
o gain a ho ough unde s anding o he noise le els expe ienced by sawmill wo ke s du ing hei daily wo kdays.
Be o e beginning any measu emen , he selec ed wo ke s we e in o med abou he pu pose and p ocedu es o he noise
assessmen and hei consen was ob ained. The sound le el me e, a calib a ed ins umen designed o measu e sound
in ensi y, was hen s a egically placed in he wo k en i onmen . Measu emen s we e aken a a ious loca ions
Highly sensi i e digi al po able me e s, Gasman gas moni o and HAZ-DUST Pa icula e Moni o , espec i ely, we e
used o he measu emen o gaseous pollu an s (NO2, SO2 and CO) and suspended pa icula e ma e (SPM) a
sawmills. The collec ion o pa icula e ma e om selec ed sawmills in ol ed a sys ema ic app oach u ilising ai
sampling equipmen . Resea che s and ield assis an s employed a po able pa icula e ma e sample equipped wi h
il e s o cap u e ai bo ne pa icles. Be o e he commencemen o sampling, he ield assis an s posi ioned he sample s
s a egically wi hin he sawmill p emises, aking in o accoun ac o s such as p oximi y o machine y, wo ks a ions, and
p e ailing wind di ec ions. The sample s we e le ope a ional o a p ede e mined pe iod o collec a ep esen a i e
sample o pa icula e ma e suspended in he ai . A e he sampling du a ion, he ield assis an s ca e ully e ie ed
he il e s om he sample s. These il e s we e hen anspo ed o a labo a o y o analysis, whe e he concen a ion
and composi ion o pa icula e ma e we e de e mined. This me hod allowed o an accu a e assessmen o he
pa icula e ma e le els in he sawmill en i onmen , allowing esea che s o assess any dange s o espi a o y heal h
om wo kplace exposu e and pu he app op ia e p e en i e measu es in place o sawmill wo ke s' sa e y.
3. Resul s
Table 1 Popula ion o Sawmills and Wo ke s in Akwa Ibom S a e
Sawmills in Akwa Ibom S a e
The popula ion o sawmill wo ke s
Abak Sawmill
1,250
Iko Ekpene Timbe Ma ke
900
Ikono Sawmill
750
Essien Udim Timbe Ma ke
1,300
O uk Anam Timbe Ma ke
620
Ini Timbe Ma ke
1,150
Ibiaku N uk Okpo Sawmill
800
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 2599-2609
2603
Ibesikpo Timbe Ma ke
985
Idu U uan Timbe
1770
I am Timbe Ma ke
1510
Mbiabong Sawmill
720
Mbiokpo o Sawmill
690
E inan Sawmill
450
Eke Timbe Ma ke
575
Uya O on Sawmill
400
Iko Abasi Timbe Ma ke
430
Ibaka Mbo Sawmill
500
Awa Sawmill
700
Mkpa Enin Sawmil
1,200
Ikpa Sawmill Esi Eke
1412
To al
18,112
Table 2 Sample Size
Sample sawmills
The popula ion o sawmill wo ke s
Sample size
I am Timbe
1,250
32
Idu U uan Sawmill
900
32
Ibesikpo Timbe Ma ke
750
32
Mbia-Obong Sawmill
1,300
32
Iko Ekpene Timbe Ma ke
620
32
Ikono Sawmill
1,150
32
Essien Udim Timbe Ma ke
800
32
Abak Sawmill/Wood Ma ke
520
32
Eke Timbe
770
32
Iko Abasi Sawmill
510
32
O on Timbe Ma ke
720
32
Mkpa Enin Sawmill
690
32
To al
10,040
384
Table 3 Demog aphic cha ac e is ics o sawmill wo ke s
Gende o sawmill wo ke s
F equency
Pe cen age (pe cen )
Male
264
68.7
Female
120
31.3
To al
384
100
The ages o sawmill wo ke s
F equency
Pe cen age (pe cen )
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 2599-2609
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18-30 yea s
84
21.9
31-45 yea s
176
45.8
46-60 yea s
108
28
60 yea s and abo e
16
4.2
To al
384
100
Ma i al s a us
F equency
Pe cen age (pe cen )
Single
117
30.5
Ma ied
182
47.4
Di o ced
48
12.5
Windowed
37
9.6
To al
384
100
Educa ional p o ile
F equency
Pe cen age (pe cen )
No Educa ion
12
3
FSLC/JSS/SSCE
118
30.7
OND/NCE
166
4.3
Deg ee
62
16
Pos g adua e
26
6.8
To al
384
100
A e age mon hly income
F equency
Pe cen age (pe cen )
Less han 100.000
41
10.7
100.000-200.000
125
32.6
201.000-300.000
149
38.8
301.000-400.000
38
9.9
Abo e 401.000
31
8
To al
384
100
Yea s o wo k expe ience
F equency
Pe cen age (pe cen )
Less han a yea
16
4.2
1-5 yea s
86
22.4
6-10 yea s
166
43
11-15 yea s
74
19.3
Abo e 15 yea s
42
10.9
To al
384
100
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 2599-2609
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Table 4 Weekly da a on he noise le el o he sampled sawmills in Akwa Ibom S a e
Sampled
Sawmill
Sub-a ea
wi hin
he
sawmill
WEEK I
Minimum/Maximum
(Noise Le el)
WEEK II
Minimum/Maximum
WEEK III
Minimum/Maximum
WEEK IV
Minimum/Maximum
Mbia-
obong
i.
ii.
iii.
i .
96.00
89.6
72.8
68.7
112.5
109.5
79.4
77.3
94.08
85.00
70.06
69.06
110.7
107.05
80.2
78.7
88.8
72.0
69.0
65.5
96.7
76.00
73.08
74.02
88.7
70.06
65.07
63.2
106.3
77.04
70.02
68.00
I am
Timbe
Ma ke
i.
ii.
iii.
i .
94.02
83.00
68.04
70.00
109.5
102.00
72.00
76.01
98.07
81.04
70.05
68.2
104.6
83.6
75.4
73.4
96.5
80.7
72.07
64.8
108.7
90.3
75.3
70.3
99.04
82.00
70.02
68.7
110.07
89.05
78.08
74.04
Ido U uan
Sawmill
i.
ii.
iii.
i .
94.00
86.04
70.06
67.05
108.7
96.3
81.02
74.5
95.07
73.4
69.5
64.7
102.7
81.3
73.00
70.8
98.7
80.6
70.06
68.4
112.4
89.2
77.00
73.7
95.4
82.3
75.02
64.3
106.00
86.05
82.09
69.02
Ibesikpo
Timbe
Ma ke
i.
ii.
iii.
i .
94.02
87.4
70.4
63.6
103.5
105.6
76.2
75.2
92.06
83.04
72.04
67.03
109.7
103.05
79.03
79.5
86.8
71.0
67.0
63.4
94.5
74.00
71.08
72.05
83.7
72.06
63.05
62.07
102.3
74.04
72.02
64.00
Abak
Timbe
Ma ke
i.
ii.
iii.
i .
91.04
82.3
71.2
64.5
101.6
103.2
74.1
73.3
90.04
81.02
70.03
65.02
106.7
102.5
74.05
78.3
85.6
73.0
69.0
65.6
92.4
72.00
70.08
70.03
81.5
70.03
62.04
61.05
101.1
72.04
74.03
62.02
Iko
Ekpene
Timbe
Ma ke
i.
ii.
iii.
i .
92.01
82.4
68.4
65.4
106.6
95.7
73.4
72.3
94.07
87.06
76.06
68.02
106.8
101.03
78.03
77.5
88.7
73.0
69.0
65.5
96.6
77.04
73.06
75.04
88.7
74.06
69.05
68.07
103.3
78.04
73.03
71.00
Ikono
Timbe
Ma ke
i.
ii.
iii.
i .
92.02
85.3
73.2
69.6
104.4
107.3
78.1
75.4
93.04
88.03
72.04
65.02
106.7
102.5
74.05
78.3
85.6
73.0
69.0
65.6
92.4
72.00
70.08
70.03
81.5
70.03
62.04
61.05
101.1
72.04
74.03
62.02
Essien
Udim
Timbe
Ma ke
i.
ii.
iii.
i .
93.04
82.03
69.05
72.04
107.4
101.5
73.00
78.00
99.07
84.05
73.05
69.02
102.3
84.5
73.3
72.4
94.4
82.7
71.05
66.8
107.4
94.4
76.5
72.7
99.04
80.00
71.02
67.03
109.04
87.05
79.08
77.06
Eke
Timbe
Ma ke
i.
ii.
iii.
i .
93.03
87.05
73.06
68.04
106.4
92.6
82.05
78.7
98.03
75.8
67.4
63.04
112.3
84.02
72.04
72.3
96.5
83.5
72.03
65.2
102.2
92.6
70.01
72.07
93.02
81.03
74.05
61.02
108.01
89.07
84.05
68.05
Iko Abasi
Sawmill
i.
ii.
iii.
93.02
84.05
70.03
104.5
102.0
72.04
94.02
85.02
69.04
104.2
109.3
77.04
81.5
68.0
66.0
94.5
75.06
74.03
87.03
68.03
64.05
102.1
73.06
75.02
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 2599-2609
2606
i .
61.7
75.03
64.03
75.5
64.5
72.08
63.02
69.04
O on
Timbe
Ma ke
i.
ii.
iii.
i .
91.02
87.5
69.2
67.3
107.6
93.5
72.2
74.02
97.04
85.06
75.08
69.06
108.5
102.02
79.03
79.4
83.4
71.03
67.05
66.06
95.02
75.03
76.03
74.02
89.6
72.05
66.03
64.05
104.2
79.02
72.05
73.03
Mkpa
Enin
Sawmill
i.
ii.
iii.
i .
93.03
87.03
76.02
67.06
102.2
101.03
81.02
76.04
96.03
89.02
70.00
67.03
104.6
101.3
72.07
75.02
84.04
72.03
63.02
64.06
93.2
78.00
71.02
69.03
87.5
67.03
63.02
59.05
99.01
74.02
70.03
63.02
Sou ce: Resea che ’s ieldwo k (2023)
Table 5 To al suspended pa icula e ma e om sampled sawmills in Akwa Ibom S a e
Sampled Sawmill
Sub-A ea wi hin he sawmill
Ins umen Readings (Mg/m3)
Mbia-Obong Sawmill
Sou ce o wood dus
Ope a ing spo wi hin sou ce o wood dus
Wood sales poin
Wood s o age spo
3.04
1.03
0.46
0.20
I am Timbe Ma ke
a. Sou ce o wood dus
b. Ope a ing spo wi hin sou ce o wood dus
c. Wood sales poin
d. Wood s o age spo
2.10
0.82
0.32
0.25
Idu U uan Sawmill
Sou ce o wood dus
Ope a ing spo wi hin sou ce o wood dus
Wood sales poin
Wood s o age spo
3.10
0.78
0.43
0.29
Ibesikpo Sawmill
Sou ce o wood dus
Ope a ing spo wi hin sou ce o wood dus
Wood sales poin
Wood s o age spo
3.05
2.03
0.77
0.28
Abak Timbe Ma ke
Sou ce o wood dus
Ope a ing spo wi hin sou ce o wood dus
Wood sales poin
Wood s o age spo
2.08
1.07
0.48
0.23
Iko Ekpene Timbe Ma ke
Sou ce o wood dus
Ope a ing spo wi hin sou ce o wood dus
Wood sales poin
Wood s o age spo
3.12
1.09
0.56
0.23
Ikono Timbe Ma ke
Sou ce o wood dus
Ope a ing spo wi hin sou ce o wood dus
Wood sales poin
Wood s o age spo
3.09
1.05
0.75
0.28
Essien Udim Timbe
Sou ce o wood dus
3.06
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 26(02), 2599-2609
2607
Ope a ing spo wi hin sou ce o wood dus
Wood sales poin
Wood s o age spo
1.05
0.33
0.22
Eke Timbe Ma ke
Sou ce o wood dus
Ope a ing spo wi hin sou ce o wood dus
Wood sales poin
Wood s o age spo
2.09
1.03
0.48
0.31
Iko Abasi Sawmill
Sou ce o wood dus
Ope a ing spo wi hin sou ce o wood dus
Wood sales poin
Wood s o age spo
3.07
2.02
0.34
0.23
O on Timbe Ma ke
Sou ce o wood dus
Ope a ing spo wi hin sou ce o wood dus
Wood sales poin
Wood s o age spo
3.06
2.01
0.33
0.22
Mkpa Enin Sawmill
Sou ce o wood dus
Ope a ing spo wi hin he sou ce o wood dus
Wood sales poin
Wood s o age spo
3.09
2.05
0.36
0.24
Sou ce: Resea che ’s ieldwo k (2023)
4. Discussion
In Akwa Ibom S a e, as illus a ed in Table 1, a conside able numbe o sawmills a e hos ed, employing a o al o 18,112
people. The la ges popula ions we e no ed in Idu U uan (1770 wo ke s), I am Timbe Ma ke (1510), and Ikpa Sawmill
Esi Eke (1412) which demons a es g ea e concen a ion o economic ac i i ies in hose a eas. These wo ke s may
be a highe exposu e isk o pa icula e ma e while employing g ea e amoun s o machines due o highe quan i ies
o wood being p ocessed and poo en ila ion. Ogunwande e al. (2013) no ed ha sawmills loca ed wi hin hea y
popula ed imbe ma ke s in Sou he n Nige ia end o lack su icien dus con ol sys ems and, as a esul , wo sen he
heal h isks o he employees. The exis ence o mo e han 18,000 wo ke s, in addi ion, p o ides compelling e idence
o he need o ac i e measu es in public heal h, especially conside ing ha suspended pa icula es in he ai o a long
ime can cause espi a o y and ca dio ascula issues (Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion, 2021). The inclusion o 384
esponden s om 12 majo sawmills p o ides ep esen a i eness om all h ee sena o ial zones o he Akwa Ibom
S a e in o he sampling s a egy. F om e e y sawmill, 32 esponden s we e selec ed, which ensu ed cap u e o di e se
exposu es needed o assess di e en ope a ional con ex s. The abili y o conduc compa a i e analysis ac oss loca ions
is enhanced by uni o mi y o sample dis ibu ion.
The applica ion o s a i ied sampling is in acco dance wi h C eswell and Plano Cla k’s (2018) ecommenda ions on
mixed-me hod esea ch whe e he c oss-si e exposi ion and esul s ela ionships a e c i ical. I also depic s he sample
male p edominan wo k o ce (68.7%), which co obo a es Adeniyi e al. (2015) inding on gende dispa i y wi hin
imbe occupa ions in Nige ia, s emming om he physically demanding na u e o he imbe - ela ed wo k. The age
dis ibu ion o he wo ke s shows ha mos o hem we e aged be ween 31 and 45 yea s (45.8%) which means he
wo k o ce is ela i ely young and economically ac i e. As ega ding educa ion, only 16 pe cen we e uni e si y deg ee
holde s and 30.7 pe cen we e seconda y school g adua es, which aises he suspicion o low heal h li e acy in ega d
o occupa ional sa e y issues. This is a c i ical inding o lowe educa ion h esholds which heigh ens he isk o
inadequa e PPE u iliza ion alongside misconcep ion o occupa ional haza ds (Choi & Pak, 2006). The a e age sala y
le els (whe e 38.8% ea n N201,000–300,000 a mon h) a e no commensu a e wi h he isks in ol ed; o e 43% o he
esponden s ha e wo ked o o e six yea s, indica ing ch onic exposu e. Pope & Docke y’s (2006) s udy asse s ha
his cumula i e exposu e inc eases he isk o PM- ela ed illnesses. Cap u ed du ing all sample sawmills, he noise le els
no only eached bu consis en ly su passed he 85 dB(A) ma k se by OSHA (2013) as he uppe limi o occupa ional
noise o p ope sawmill ope a ion. In places like Mbia-Obong and I am Timbe Ma ke s, peaks o o e 110 dB(A) we e
eco ded. Such le els o occupa ional noise exposu e ha e been associa ed wi h NIHL and g ea e s ain on
