Co esponding au ho : Da shika Pa hi aje
Copy igh © 2025 Au ho (s) e ain he copy igh o his a icle. This a icle is published unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion Liscense 4.0.
Ha nessing die a y ibe om yellow passion ui peel in emulsi ied chicken mea
model
He i A achchillage Cha hu i Ji hmini He ia achchi and Da shika Pa hi aje *
Depa men o Food Science and Technology, Wayamba Uni e si y o S i Lanka, Makandu a, Gonawila, S i Lanka.
Wo ld Jou nal o Biology Pha macy and Heal h Sciences, 2025, 21(01), 043-055
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 11 No embe 2024; e ised on 28 Decembe 2024; accep ed on 30 Decembe 2024
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wjbphs.2025.21.1.1092
Abs ac
This s udy in es iga ed he ex ac ion and applica ion o die a y ibe (DF) om yellow passion ui peel (YPFP) o
enhance he nu i ional and unc ional p ope ies o mea p oduc s. The expe imen s ocused on analyzing he
physicochemical and unc ional p ope ies o DF- ich powde s ex ac ed using di e en me hods: wa e ba h hea ing-
assis ed acidic ex ac ion, ul asonica ion-assis ed acidic ex ac ion, and enzyma ic ex ac ion. The esul s showed ha
he o al die a y ibe (TDF) con en inc eased by 15.25–22.33% compa ed o whole peel powde , wi h he highes TDF
con en obse ed in he 2% ci ic acid- ea ed powde . The DF- ich powde s exhibi ed highe wa e - and oil-holding
capaci ies han he comme cial binde (whea lou ) in he emulsion mea model, enhancing hei po en ial as unc ional
ood ing edien s. Inco po a ing 2% and 4% DF- ich powde s in o mea models imp o ed cooking yield and educed
exp essible luid and a pe cen ages. Howe e , he addi ion o DF- ich powde s a ec ed he colo , educing L* and a*
alues, which may impac consume accep abili y. The s udy concluded ha YPFP-de i ed DF- ich powde s can
enhance he unc ional p ope ies o mea p oduc s, o e ing a sus ainable app oach o u ilizing ui byp oduc s.
Keywo ds: Chicken emulsion model; Die a y ibe ; Ex ac ion me hods; Passion ui peel; Physicochemical p ope ies
1. In oduc ion
Die a y ibe (DF) is de ined as plan pa s o simila ca bohyd a es ha esis diges ion and abso p ion in he small
in es ine and unde go e men a ion in he la ge in es ine. DF is classi ied in o soluble (SDF) and insoluble (IDF) ibe s,
each o e ing dis inc heal h bene i s. SDF, such as pec in and gums, dissol e in wa e , p olong gas ic emp ying, and
con ol glucose abso p ion, se um LDL choles e ol, and blood p essu e, enhancing ca dio ascula heal h. IDF, like
cellulose and lignin, does no dissol e in wa e and aids in gu ac i i y by inc easing s ool olume and educing bowel
ansi ime, lowe ing he isk o cons ipa ion and bowel diseases. Despi e hese bene i s, he e is a signi ican di e ence
be ween ac ual ibe in ake and ecommended daily allowances. To add ess his, in e es in he use o bo h con en ional
and noncon en ional sou ces o die a y ibe o inc ease ibe in ake while u ilizing indus ial byp oduc s is inc easing.
DF p ima ily comes om ce eals, legumes, ui s, and ege ables [1, 2]. Byp oduc s om he ui and ege able
p ocessing indus y, such as peels and pomace, a e also subs an ial sou ces o die a y ibe . Recen esea ch highligh ed
he po en ial o hese byp oduc s in de eloping unc ional oods, o e ing heal h bene i s, and educing was e [1].
The wo ldwide consump ion o mea is s eadily inc easing [3]. Al hough mea p o ides a ich sou ce o high-quali y
p o ein, s udies ha e linked i s sa u a ed a s o noncommunicable diseases such as co ona y hea disease [4]. In
esponse o consume p e e ences o heal hie ea ing, he mea indus y is e o ming p oduc s o educe a , sodium,
and calo ic con en s while inc easing ibe con en [5]. The inco po a ion o DF- ich byp oduc s in o mea p oduc s also
o e s echnological and economic bene i s, including educed cooking loss and inc eased s abili y [6]. Fo example, DF
om ice b an, o ange albedo powde , and amo phous cellulose has shown e icacy in enhancing wa e -holding
capaci y, educing sh inkage, and se ing as a a subs i u e in low- a mea o mula ions [7, 8, 9].
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Passion ui is a opical ui known o i s juicy, seed- illed in e io and many nu i ional and heal h bene i s. The
passion ui juice indus y gene a es subs an ial cop oduc s, including seeds, pulp, and especially a la ge olume o
peels [10]. These peels, ep esen ing 50–60% o he ui , a e a po en ial sou ce o DF [11]. Addi ionally, he annual
passion ui p oduc ion in S i Lanka is app oxima ely 976 me ic ons [12]. While s udies ha e explo ed a ious aspec s
o passion ui peel, he e is a gap in esea ch on DF ex ac ion and i s applica ions in mea sys ems.
Cu en ex ac ion me hods o DF include chemical and enzyma ic app oaches using sol en s such as wa e , acid, o
alkali [13]. These me hods and sou ces can signi ican ly a ec he chemical composi ion and physicochemical
p ope ies o die a y ibe s, impac ing hei unc ionali y as ood ing edien s [14]. This esea ch ocused on analyzing
he physicochemical and unc ional p ope ies o DF- ich powde s ex ac ed om yellow passion ui (Passi lo a edulis
la ica pa) peel (YPFP). The expe imen s we e conduc ed o e alua e he e ec i eness o di e en ex ac ion me hods
o ex ac insoluble and soluble DF con en s and explo e hei applica ion in a mea model sys em o unde s and hei
unc ional p ope ies. Ex ac ing DF om passion ui peel and inco po a ing i in o mea p oduc s p esen p omising
oppo uni ies o inc ease en i onmen al sus ainabili y and human heal h.
2. Ma e ials and me hods
• Raw ma e ials: Peels o yellow passion ui we e collec ed om a ui juice p ocessing acili y, and chicken
high mea was pu chased om a comme cial supplie .
• Chemicals: Alpha-amylase, p o ease, alpha-glucosidase, choles e ol, e hanol, ammonium e ic sul a e, glacial
ace ic acid, phospho ic acid, 2,2-diphenyl-1-pic ylhyd azyl (DPPH), gallic acid, Folin-Ciocal eu eagen , ci ic
acid, and bo ic acid we e pu chased om Sigma‒Ald ich Company L d. (New Delhi, India). All chemicals we e
o analy ical g ade.
3. Me hodology
3.1. Passion ui peel powde p epa a ion
The YPFPs we e washed wice wi h 30°C wa m wa e and hen cu in o uni o m pieces app oxima ely 1 cm × 1 cm in
size. These pieces we e d ied a 40°C o 24 hou s using a ay d ie (D-10/32609 model, USA). A e d ying, he samples
we e g ound and sie ed h ough a 0.475 mm sie e.
3.2. P epa a ion o DF- ich ibe powde s
3.2.1. Acidic ex ac ion
Wa e ba h hea ing-assis ed acidic ex ac ion
The me hodology ou lined by [15] wi h sligh modi ica ions was used o ex ac wo ypes o DF- ich powde s: 1% ci ic
acid- ea ed powde (AHE 1%) and 2% ci ic acid- ea ed powde (AHE 2%). B ie ly, he peel powde s we e ea ed
wi h 1% and 2% ci ic acid solu ions a a 1:30 (w/ ) a io. The samples we e hen incuba ed in a shaking wa e ba h
(LSB-030S model) a 40°C and 80 pm o 1.5 hou s. The supe na an and pelle we e sepa a ed using cen i uga ion
(GEMMYCO PLC-025, Taiwan) a 5000 pm o 15 minu es. The pelle was washed wi h 0.1% sodium ca bona e solu ion
o adjus he pH o 6–7 and hen d ied a 40°C o 24 hou s o ob ain an insoluble die a y ibe (IDF)- ich ac ion. The
supe na an was ea ed wi h 95% e hanol and le o e nigh . The mix u e was hen il e ed, and he p ecipi a e was
washed wi h absolu e e hanol. A e d ying a 40°C o 24 hou s, a soluble die a y ibe (SDF)- ich ac ion was ob ained.
Bo h he IDF and SDF- ich ac ions we e g ound and sie ed using a 0.60 mm sie e and hen combined.
Ul asonica ion-assis ed acidic ex ac ion (AUE)
Ul asonica ion-assis ed acidic ex ac ion ollowed he same p ocedu e ou lined o wa e ba h hea ing-assis ed
ex ac ion excep o he incuba ion me hod. Ins ead o wa e ba h incuba ion, ul asonic ba h incuba ion (DCG-120H
model) was pe o med a 40°C wi h an ul asonic powe o 100 W o 1.5 hou s.
3.2.2. Enzyma ic ex ac ion
The me hodology es ablished by [15], wi h sligh modi ica ions, was applied o enzyma ic ex ac ion. Peel powde s
we e ea ed wi h phospha e bu e (pH 8.2 ± 0.1) a a 1:30 (w/ ) a io. Hea -s able alpha-amylase (500 µL) was added
o he mix u e, which was subsequen ly incuba ed in a shaking wa e ba h a 40°C and 80 pm o 1.5 hou s. The pH
was hen adjus ed o 7.5 ± 0.1, and p o ease (500 µL) was added, ollowed by incuba ion in a wa e ba h a 40°C o one
Wo ld Jou nal o Biology Pha macy and Heal h Sciences, 2025, 21(01), 043-055
45
hou . The pH was subsequen ly adjus ed o 4.5 ± 0.1, and 200 µL o amyloglucosidase enzyme was added, wi h ano he
wa e ba h incuba ion a 40°C o one hou . Finally, he same p ocedu e as acidic ex ac ion was ollowed o ob ain
enzyma ically ex ac ed DF- ich powde (EE).
3.3. De e mina ion o he p oxima e composi ion and colo o DF- ich powde s
P oxima e analysis o ash, p o ein, and c ude ibe was pe o med acco ding o AOAC [16] me hodologies. The o al
ca bohyd a e con en was calcula ed as he di e ence. The DF con en o he DF- ich powde s was de e mined
acco ding o he modi ied o icial AOAC me hod 991.43 [17]. The CIE L*, a*, and b* colo alues we e e alua ed wi h a
ch omome e (Konica Minol a Ch oma me e CR-400). The ins umen was calib a ed wi h a s anda d whi e pla e.
3.4. De e mina ion o bulk densi y
The bulk densi y o he DF- ich powde s was de e mined acco ding o he me hod ou lined by P akongpan e al. [18].
In b ie , a 5 mL measu ing cylinde was illed wi h 1 g o sample, and he olume was eco ded. The bulk densi y was
calcula ed as ollows:
Bulk densi y = Sample weigh (g)
Sample olume (mL)
3.5. De e mina ion o o al phenolic con en and DPPH ee adical sca enging ac i i y
3.5.1. Sample p epa a ion
A 1.0 g sample o powde was combined wi h 20 mL o me hanol and subjec ed o incuba ion in a shaking wa e ba h
(LSB-030S model) a 25°C o one hou . The mix u e was subsequen ly cen i uged (GEMMYCO PLC-025 model) a 4000
pm o 10 minu es. The esul ing ex ac was hen il e ed h ough Wha man No. 1 il e pape and b ough up o a
olume o 25 mL wi h 80% me hanol [19].
3.5.2. De e mina ion o o al phenol con en
The o al phenolic con en o he DF- ich powde s was measu ed using he Folin‒Ciocal eu assay as desc ibed by
Pa hi aje e al. [20], wi h modi ica ions. A 0.5 mL aliquo o he ex ac was mixed wi h 0.1 mL o Folin–Ciocal eu eagen
and 3 mL o dis illed wa e . A e he mix u e was incuba ed in he da k o 5 minu es, 2.5 mL o 7.5% sodium ca bona e
was added, ollowed by a 30-minu e incuba ion in he da k. The abso bance was hen measu ed a 760 nm using a
UV/VIS spec ome e (EVOLUTION 201, China). Gallic acid was used o cons uc he s anda d cu e.
3.5.3. De e mina ion o DPPH ee adical sca enging ac i i y
The me hod desc ibed in Pa hi aje e al. [20] wi h modi ica ions was used o de e mine he DPPDH ee adical
sca enging capaci y o he DF- ich powde s. B ie ly, 100 µL o he ex ac was mixed wi h 3.9 mL o 1 mM me hanolic
DPPH solu ion. The mix u e was incuba ed o 30 min in he da k, and he abso bance was measu ed a 517 nm using a
UV/IS spec ome e (EVOLUTION 201, China) agains a blank (80% me hanol). A con ol sample was p epa ed using
80% me hanol ins ead o he DF- ich powde ex ac and DPPH adical sca enging ac i i y was calcula ed as he pe cen
inhibi ion.
3.6. De e mina ion o wa e holding capaci y (WHC) and oil holding capaci y (OHC)
The WHC o he DF- ich powde s was de e mined ollowing he me hod desc ibed by Robe son e al. [21] wi h
modi ica ions. A sample o 1.0 g was placed in o a p eweighed 15-mL cen i uge ube, and 12 mL o dis illed wa e was
added. The mix u e was o exed a high speed o 5 minu es and allowed o s and o 1 hou . The sample was hen
cen i uged (GEMMYCO PLC-025 model) a 4000 pm o 15 minu es. The supe na an was disca ded, and he weigh
o he p ecipi a e was measu ed. The p ocedu e o de e mining he WHC was adap ed o measu e he oil holding
capaci y (OHC) by using coconu oil ins ead o dis illed wa e . The WHC and OHC we e calcula ed as pe cen ages.
3.7. De e mina ion o choles e ol abso p ion capaci y (CAC)
To de e mine choles e ol abso p ion capaci y, a se ies o choles e ol s anda d solu ions (100–1000 ppm) we e
p epa ed ollowing modi ied me hods om Feng Hsien-wen e al. [22]. An ammonium e ic sulpha e colo ing eagen
was p epa ed by dissol ing 8 g ams o ammonium e ic sulpha e in 100 mL o 85% phospho ic acid and hen mixing
50 mL wi h 1 M sul u ic acid. Sample p epa a ion ollowed he me hod desc ibed by Hu and Zhao [23] wi h sligh
modi ica ions. The egg yolk was dilu ed 30 imes wi h dis illed wa e , and 1 g am o DF- ich powde was mixed wi h 20
Wo ld Jou nal o Biology Pha macy and Heal h Sciences, 2025, 21(01), 043-055
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mL o his dilu ed egg yolk. The pH was adjus ed o 2 ± 0.5 o simula e s omach condi ions, and he mix u e was
incuba ed a 37 °C o 2 hou s. A e cen i uga ion a 4000 pm o 10 minu es, he supe na an was collec ed. The
con ol samples we e simila ly p epa ed wi hou he DF- ich powde . Fo each es and con ol sample, 0.2 mL o he
supe na an was mixed wi h 2 mL o colo ing eagen and 2 mL o glacial ace ic acid, and he abso bance was measu ed
a 560 nm using a UV/VIS spec ome e .
The CAC was calcula ed as ollows:
CAC =Weigh o choles e ol in he con ol sample (mg) − Weigh o choles e ol in he es sample(mg)
sample weigh (g)
3.8. Applica ion o DF- ich powde in a mea emulsion model sys em
Fou di e en mea emulsion model p oduc s we e o mula ed (Table 1). The mea was minced h ough a g inde wi h
a 3 mm pla e. The mea and o he ing edien s we e added and mixed wice in a ood p ocesso o 2 minu es each ime.
The inal empe a u e was less han 10 °C. App oxima ely 25 g po ions o each sample we e placed in o 50 mL Falcon
ubes. These ubes we e hen hea ed in a wa e ba h a 70 °C o 30 minu es. A e hea ing, he samples we e allowed o
cool o oom empe a u e.
Table 1 Mea model o mula ions
T ea men
Chicken
mea
Wa e
Spices
Sal
Whea
lou
Peel
powde
DF- ich
powde
No-binde Con ol
75%
14.5%
1%
2%
7.5%
-
-
Peel powde added (P)
75%
14.5%
1%
2%
-
7.5%
-
DF- ich powde 2% added (F-2)
75%
14.5%
1%
2%
4.0%
-
2.0%
DF- ich powde 4% added (F-4)
75%
14.5%
1%
2%
3.5%
-
4.0%
3.8.1. De e mina ion o cooking yield
The weigh s o he mea emulsion model we e eco ded be o e and a e cooking, and he cooking yield was calcula ed
as he di e ence be ween he p ecooked sample and he cooked sample and cooking yield was exp essed as a
pe cen age [24].
3.8.2. De e mina ion o o al exp essible luid and exp essible a pe cen age
The o al exp essible a and luid con en s we e de e mined acco ding o he me hods o Se da oğlu e al. [24], wi h
sligh modi ica ions. A sample (3 g) o cooked mea was cen i uged a 1000 pm o 1 minu e. The exp essible luid was
hen sepa a ed in o a p eweighed c ucible. The o al exp essible luid pe cen age was calcula ed on he basis o he
weigh di e ence be ween he aw mea sample and he cooked mea sample a e he exp essible luid was emo ed.
The c ucibles wi h exp essible luid we e o en-d ied a 105 °C o e nigh , and he o al exp essible a pe cen age was
calcula ed on he basis o he weigh di e ence be o e and a e o en d ying.
3.8.3. De e mina ion o CIE colo o cooked mea models
The colo o he cooked mea samples was measu ed on he ou e and inne su aces by using a ch omome e (CR-400
Minol a Ch omame e , Japan). The colo was exp essed as CIE L* (ligh ness), CIE a* ( edness), and CIE b* (yellowness).
The ins umen was calib a ed wi h a s anda d whi e pla e.
3.8.4. De e mina ion o ex u al p ope ies
A sample app oxima ely 5 cm in leng h wi h a diame e o 1 cm was aken om each o mula ion, and iplica e
measu emen s we e aken. The ha dness (N) and cu ing shea ing o ce (J) we e measu ed using a ex u e analyze (Ez-
SX, China) a a cons an speed o 2 mm/second, and ex u e p o ile analysis measu emen s we e pe o med in e ms o
cohesi eness (N), gumminess (N), and chewiness (N) using a ex u e analyze (TX-700, F ance).
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3.9. Da a analysis
All he expe imen s we e conduc ed in iplica e, and he s a is ical analysis was pe o med using SPSS e sion 25.
ANOVA, ollowed by Tukey’s es o mean compa isons, was used o e alua e he ea men e ec s, wi h P < 0.05
conside ed s a is ically signi ican .
4. Resul s and discussion
4.1. P oxima e composi ion o YPFP
The p oxima e analysis o YPFP e ealed ha ca bohyd a es we e he mos abundan componen , accoun ing o 77.04
± 0.17 g/100 g. The p o ein and a con en s we e ela i ely low a 1.49 ± 0.07 g/100g and 1.24 ± 0.20 g/100g
espec i ely, while he ash con en was 8.08 ± 0.11 g/100 g and ha ing 12.15 ± 0.42 g/100g mois u e con en . In a
sepa a e s udy conduc ed in B azil, he a , p o ein, ash, and o al ca bohyd a e con en s o YPFP powde we e epo ed
o be 1.24 ± 0.20, 2.13 ± 0.16, 7.28 ± 0.11, and 89.33 ± 2.66 g/100 g, espec i ely which a e compa able o he esul s o
he p esen s udy [25]. In compa ison, d agon ui peel and mango peel p esen ed ela i ely high a con en s o 2.34 ±
0.18 g/100 g and 5.9 ± 0.05 g/100 g, espec i ely [26]. Simila a con en s we e obse ed in pineapple and gua a peels
[26]. In e ms o ash con en , he YPFP o he p esen s udy was 8.08 ± 0.11 g/100 g, which was highe han hose
epo ed o mango and pineapple peels. Fu he mo e, he p o ein le el in YPFP powde was lowe han ha in
pineapple and mango, which con ain 4.0 g and 8.0 g o p o ein pe 100 g, espec i ely [26]. Mo eo e , Ajila e al. [27]
epo ed mo e p o ein in mango peel powde (3.6 ± 0.6 g/100 g) han in YPFP.
4.2. E ec o ex ac ion me hod on he IDF, SDF, and TDF con en s in DF- ich powde s
This s udy e ealed ha he IDF, SDF, and TDF con en s o YPFP powde we e 44.12±3.22%, 10.57±1.10%, and
54.69±2.91%, espec i ely (Table 2). Simila ly, a s udy conduc ed in Mexico epo ed compa able alues o YPFP, wi h
IDF, SDF, and TDF con en s o 46.18 ± 3.76%, 11.75 ± 1.21%, and 57.93 ± 2.72%, espec i ely [28]. In con as , a s udy
om Abidjan epo ed highe alues, wi h IDF a 60.8 ± 0.5%, SDF a 11.6 ± 0.2%, and TDF a 73.5 ± 1.2% in alcohol-
insoluble ma e ial om YPFP [11].
Table 2 Die a y ibe con en s o yellow passion ui peel powde s
Sample
Insoluble Die a y Fibe (%)
Soluble Die a y Fibe (%)
To al Die a y Fibe (%)
Whole peel powde
44.12 ± 3.22 c
10.57 ± 1.10 c
54.69 ± 2.91 c
AHE – 2%
54.67 ± 0.36 b
22.35 ± 1.84 ab
77.02 ± 1.83 a
AHE - 1%
56.59 ± 0.55 ab
13.35 ± 0.52 c
69.94 ± 1.03 b
AUE – 2%
45.23 ± 0.98 c
26.72 ± 2.71 a
71.95 ± 2.47 b
AUE - 1%
58.89 ± 0.16a
10.9 ± 1.48 c
69.79 ± 1.62 b
EE
53.03 ± 0.16b
18.20 ± 0.19 b
71.23 ± 0.19b
a,b,c Means wi h di e en supe sc ip s wi hin he same column a e signi ican ly di e en (p<0.05). Values a e exp essed as mean ± S anda d
de ia ion (n=3). AHE 2%: Wa e ba h hea ing- assis ed 2% acid ex ac ed powde , AHE 1%: Wa e ba h hea ing- assis ed 1% acid ex ac ed powde
, AUE 2% : Ul asonica ion - assis ed 2% acid ex ac ed powde ; AUE 1%: Ul asonica ion- assis ed 1% acid ex ac ed powde , EE: Enzyma ic
ex ac ed.
The esul s o he p esen s udy indica ed ha , compa ed wi h whole peel lou , bo h acidic and enzyma ic ex ac ion
me hods inc eased he TDF con en by 15.25–22.33%. The AHE 2% powde esul ed in he highes TDF con en ,
whe eas he AUE 2% powde esul ed in he highes SDF con en . IDF was highes in he AHE 1% powde . Con e sely,
Wang e al. [29] epo ed ha acidic ex ac ion o die a y ibe om Rubus chingii Hu. F ui ex ac ion esul ed in lowe
SDF yields compa ed o enzyma ic ex ac ion. This di e ence could be due o he acidic medium b eaking down
polysaccha ides and hyd olyzing SDF in o oligosaccha ides and monosaccha ides, which a e no p ecipi a ed by
e hanol. Addi ionally, hey no ed ha enzyma ically ex ac ed SDF con ains high amoun s o p o ein due o esidual
enzymes, po en ially a ec ing he SDF con en .
Table 3 shows ha bo h acid concen a ion and physical ea men signi ican ly a ec ed he con en s o IDF, SDF, and
TDF. The acid concen a ion had a no able e ec on all h ee ibe ypes (p<0.05), whe eas he physical ea men
signi ican ly in luenced he IDF and TDF con en s (p<0.05). The in e ac ion be ween hese ac o s also a ec ed he ibe
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con en s. Abboud e al. [30] epo ed ha app oxima ely 92% o he SDF in YPFP is pec in. S udies by Kulka ni &
Vijayanand [31] indica ed ha lowe ing he pH inc eased he pec in yield, sugges ing ha inc easing he acid
concen a ion om 1% o 2% inc eases he SDF yield. Howe e , esea ch on he combined e ec s o acid concen a ion
and physical ea men s is limi ed. To u he in es iga e hese e ec s, 2% AHE and 2% AUE powde s we e selec ed o
hei physicochemical and unc ional p ope ies.
Table 3 E ec s o acid concen a ion, physical ea men , and hei in e ac ion on insoluble, soluble and o al die a y
ibe con en
Die a y ibe
P alues
Physical T ea men (PT)
Acid Concen a ion (AC)
PT * AC
Insoluble die a y ibe
P = 0.000
P = 0.000
P = 0.000
Soluble die a y ibe
P = 0.319
P = 0.000
P = 0.005
To al die a y ibe
P = 0.014
P = 0.001
P = 0.019
4.3. Physical and chemical p ope ies o DF- ich powde s
Bulk densi y is in luenced p ima ily by pa icle shape and size, wi h highe bulk densi y indica ing smalle pa icle sizes.
I is also a ec ed by he ai olume wi hin he sample, he d ying echnique used, and he ma e ial in eg i y [32]. As
shown in Table 4, he DF- ich powde s p esen ed a signi ican ly g ea e bulk densi y han he whole peel powde ,
sugges ing ha he DF- ich powde s ha e smalle pa icle sizes. The no able dec ease in he bulk densi y o he
ul asonic ba h-incuba ed powde compa ed wi h ha o he wa e ba h-incuba ed powde indica es inc eased po osi y
and su ace a ea due o ul asonica ion. Fu he mo e, bulk densi y is linked o he unc ional p ope ies o mea
p oduc s, whe e highe bulk densi y enhances wa e and a e en ion, he eby imp o ing mois u e and juiciness in
p oduc s such as sausages [10, 33].
The colo o a powde is an impo an pa ame e , especially when i is inco po a ed in o ood p oduc s, as i a ec s
appea ance and consume accep abili y. Fo example, Zaini e al. [34] epo ed ha adding banana peel powde o
sausages esul ed in a da ke colo , which nega i ely impac ed consume accep abili y. Simila ly, Sánchez-Zapa a e al.
[35] epo ed ha inco po a ing da e pas e in o mea p oduc s led o a da ke colo , educed b igh ness, and a pink hue
due o dec eased ligh ness and inc eased edness alues. Con e sely, López-Va gas e al. [10] epo ed ha adding
passion ui albedo powde o po k bu ge s caused only sligh colo changes, wi h no signi ican di e ences compa ed
wi h he con ol.
The CIE L*, a*, and b* colo alues e ealed ha he DF- ich powde s had highe L* alues han did he whole peel
powde , indica ing g ea e ligh ness. Howe e , he edness (a*) and yellowness (b*) alues we e signi ican ly lowe
han hose o he whole peel powde . YPFP is ich in ca o enoid pigmen s, wi h o en-d ied peel con aining 2.21 mg/100
g o powde [28]. Ca o enoids a e uns able because o hei unsa u a ed na u e and a e suscep ible o oxida ion, which
is accele a ed by hea , ligh , and oxygen, leading o au oxida ion du ing p ocessing [36]. These obse a ions sugges
ha he DF ex ac ion p ocess can lead o ca o enoid deg ada ion.
The e was a signi ican di e ence in he o al phenol con en among he h ee ypes o DF- ich powde s. Sonica ion,
which is p ima ily a ibu ed o ca i a ion, in ol es he o ma ion and collapse o bubbles, inducing physical, chemical,
and mechanical e ec s. This p ocess acili a es he ex ac ion o polyphenolic compounds om he ma e ial ma ix in o
he sol en by b eaking down he ma e ial s uc u e [37]. The esul s e ealed ha he o al phenolic con en o he
ul asonica ion-assis ed DF- ich powde was lowe han ha o he wa e ba h-assis ed DF- ich powde , sugges ing ha
mo e phenolic compounds we e emo ed om he peel powde du ing ul asonica ion. The enzyma ically ex ac ed
powde had he lowes o al phenolic con en . Esc ibano-Bailon [38] epo ed ha highe empe a u es esul in mo e
ex ac ion o polyphenols, bu empe a u es abo e 25°C cause he deg ada ion o phenolic compounds. The e o e, in
his s udy, high empe a u es and luc ua ions in he acidic and basic en i onmen du ing enzyma ic ex ac ion migh
ha e caused mo e deg ada ion o emo al o polyphenol compounds om he DF- ich powde compa ed wi h acid
ex ac ion me hods.
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Table 4 Bulk densi y, colo , o al phenolic con en and an ioxidan ac i i y o yellow passion ui peel powde s
Pa ame e
Peel lou
AHE 2%
AUE 2%
EE
Bulk densi y (g/mL)
0.35 ± 0.01 c
0.74 ± 0.01 a
0.68 ± 0.01 b
0.75 ± 0.01a
Colo
L*
a*
b*
70.8 ± 0.60c
72.8 ± 0.75b
72.5 ± 0.15b
75.9 ± 0.17a
3.2 ± 0.38a
0.27 ± 0.01b
0.33 ± 0.06b
0.33 ± 0.02b
22.9 ± 0.16a
19.3 ± 0.44c
20.6 ± 0.06b
20.5 ± 0.06b
TPC con en
ND
1.149 ± 0.01a
0.95 ± 0.02b
0.75 ± 0.03c
DPPH sca enging ac i i y
ND
33.6 ± 0.97a
30.1 ± 1.01b
27.4 ± 0.77c
a,b,c Means wi h di e en supe sc ip s wi hin he same aw a e signi ican ly di e en (p<0.05). Values a e exp essed as mean ± S anda d de ia ion;
AHE 2%: Wa e ba h hea ing- assis ed 2% acid ex ac ed powde , AUE 2%: Ul asonica ion - assis ed 2% acid ex ac ed powde , EE: Enzyma ic
ex ac ed powde ; TPC con en : To al Phenolic con en (GAE mg/g o d y weigh ), ND: No de e mined
4.4. Wa e and oil holding capaci ies o DF- ich powde s
As shown in Figu e 1, compa ed wi h ha o whea lou , he WHC o all h ee DF- ich powde s was signi ican ly g ea e ,
anging om 4.37 ± 0.09 o 5.75 ± 0.18 g/g powde . Whea lou , which is commonly used as a binde in mea p oduc s,
enhances wa e e en ion p ope ies. A ela i ely high WHC is bene icial o iscosi y de elopmen and eshness
p ese a ion in cooked mea p oduc s [26]. The alcohol-insoluble ma e ial in YPFP has a sligh ly lowe WHC o 3.7–4.1
g/g [11] han he WHC o he DF- ich powde s in he p esen s udy.
The OHC o he DF- ich powde s anged om 2.36 ± 0.187 o 2.45 ± 0.125 g/g, highe han hose o he mango, pineapple,
and gua a byp oduc s, which we e 1.6 ± 0.04, 0.7 ± 0.08, and 0.07 ± 0.05 g/g, espec i ely [26]. OHC is in luenced by he
su ace cha ac e is ics o he hyd ocolloid, o al elec ical cha ge densi y, and hyd ophobici y [39], sugges ing a g ea e
p opo ion o hyd ophobic g oups in hese DF- ich powde s.
CMC: Ca boxy Me hyl Cellulose, AHE 2%: Wa e ba h hea ing- assis ed 2% acid ex ac ed powde , AHE 1%: Wa e ba h hea ing- assis ed 1% acid
ex ac ed powde , AUE 2%: Ul asonica ion - assis ed 2% acid ex ac ed powde , AUE 1%: Ul asonica ion-assis ed 2% acid ex ac ed powde . a,b,c
Means wi h di e en supe sc ip s wi hin he same column a e signi ican ly di e en (p<0.05). Values a e exp essed as mean ± S anda d de ia ion
(n=3)
Figu e 1 Wa e (WHC) and oil (OHC) holding capaci ies o die a y ibe - ich powde s compa ed o whea lou and
Ca boxy Me hyl Cellulose (CMC)
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4.5. Choles e ol abso p ion capaci y o he DF- ich powde s
The DF- ich powde s ex ac ed wi h acid had highe choles e ol abso p ion capaci y alues (AUE 2%: 36.14 ± 0.58 mg/g
and AHE 2%: 35.25 ± 1.44 mg/g) compa ed o he enzyma ically ex ac ed powde (32.07 ± 0.76 mg/g). Ju e ičiū ė e
al. [40] epo ed ha c anbe y, lingonbe y, sea buck ho n, and black cu an powde s ha e choles e ol binding
capaci ies o 23.13 ± 0.47 mg/g, 22.61 ± 0.45 mg/g, 22.75 ± 0.46 mg/g, and 21.11 ± 0.42 mg/g, espec i ely. Addi ionally,
cassa a DF has binding capaci ies o 5.27 mg/g a pH 2 and 7.16 mg/g a pH 7 [41]. These indings indica e ha YPFP-
de i ed DF- ich powde s ha e signi ican ly g ea e in i o choles e ol abso p ion capaci ies. Fu he mo e, he esul s
o he p esen s udy e ealed a signi ican inc ease in SDF con en in acid-ex ac ed powde s compa ed wi h ha in
enzyma ically ex ac ed powde s, sugges ing a g ea e choles e ol abso p ion capaci y in he o me .
The applica ion o DF om YPFP o e s a sus ainable way o enhance he unc ional p ope ies o ood p oduc s. The
esul ing DF- ich powde s exhibi ed good wa e - and oil-holding capaci ies, making hem ideal o imp o ing mea
p oduc o mula ions. Howe e , u he analysis is needed o op imize he in eg a ion o hese powde s in o mea
p oduc s. The e o e, his s udy u he ocused on assessing he e ec s o DF- ich powde on he colo ex u e and
cooking p ope ies o mea p oduc s using a model emulsion mea sys em.
4.6. E ec o DF- ich powde on he CIE colo o he cooked mea model
Compa ed wi h he con ol sample wi h 7.5% whea lou , he addi ion o 4% DF- ich powde signi ican ly educed he
L* alue o bo h he in e nal and ex e nal su aces o he mea model (p<0.05). This educ ion in ligh ness could be due
o he yellowish colo o he DF- ich powde . In con as , adding 2% DF- ich powde did no a ec he L* alue. The L*
alue o mea is s ongly in luenced by i s pH and wa e -holding capaci y (WHC), which a e associa ed wi h s uc u al
changes such as p o ein dena u a ion o agg ega ion, sh inkage o muscle ibe s, and changes in he osmola i y o he
sa coplasm and ex acellula space [42]. Se e al o he s udies ha e shown ha he applica ion o DF- ich plan
ing edien s dec eases he L* alue o mea p oduc s [35, 43].
The CIE a* alues, which indica e edness, e ealed ha he applica ion o he DF- ich powde educed he CIE a* alue
compa ed wi h ha o he con ol samples. These indings a e in ag eemen wi h hose o p e ious s udies. Yilmaz [44]
epo ed a educ ion in edness wi h inc easing le els o whea b an, whe eas a 5–20% inc ease in oa b an esul ed in
dec eased edness in Tu kish mea balls [45].
The b* alue, which indica es yellowness, was no signi ican ly di e en among he inne su aces o he cooked mea
samples. Howe e , he e was a signi ican di e ence in he yellowness o he ou e su aces be ween he DF- ich
powde -added samples and he con ol samples. The ibe pe cen age did no a ec he yellowness alue. WHC also
in luences di e ences in yellowness. Fo example, a s udy on chicken sausages e ealed ha yellowness dec eases as
he pe cen age o banana peel powde inc eases due o i s high wa e - e aining capaci y [34].
4.7. Emulsion s abili y and cooking yield o he mea model
The whole peel powde - ea ed sample had he lowes amoun o exp essible luid a e cooking, and he amoun o
exp essible luid dec eased as he amoun o DF- ich powde inc eased (Table 5). Simila esul s we e ob ained when
pomeg ana e seed powde was added o chicken mea emulsions [24]. Addi ionally, he cooking yield inc eased wi h
he addi ion o he DF- ich powde . Compa ed wi h hose con aining 5% ibe , chicken nugge s con aining 10% ibe
om o ange albedo and eggplan pulp p esen ed signi ican ly g ea e cooking yields [7]. Yilmaz [44] epo ed he
lowes weigh loss in mea balls con aining 20% whea b an. In con as , low- a , low-sal chicken nugge s wi h apple
pulp p esen ed signi ican ly lowe cooking yields han he con ol samples [46]. Emulsion s abili y is ela ed o he
exp essible mois u e con en . The exp essible mois u e pe cen age o he con ol sample (7.5% whea lou included)
was no signi ican ly di e en om ha o he DF- ich powde -added samples. The e o e, hese esul s sugges ha he
addi ion o 2% o 4% DF- ich powde o he mea model has no signi ican e ec on he exp essible mois u e. Shand
[47] epo ed ha he addi ion o ca ageenan and soy p o ein concen a e in o po k bologna esul ed in he highes
exp essible mois u e, whe eas he lowes exp essible mois u e accoun ed o he waxy ba ley meal-added bu ge .
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Table 5 E ec o die a y ibe ich powde s om yellow passion ui peel on colo , luid holding and cooking a ibu s
o emulsi ied chicken mea models
A ibu e
No-binde con ol
P
F2
F4
Inne colo
L*
58.91± 0.066a
55.85 ± 1.01c
57.98 ± 0.194ab
56.79 ± 0.066bc
a*
5.05 ± 0.064a
3.91 ± 0.165b
2.06 ± 0.066c
1.95 ± 0.030c
b*
16.61 ± 0.152a
17.61 ± 0.548a
16.75 ± 0.115a
16.79 ± 0.061a
Ou e colo
L*
53.57 ± 0.170a
49.77± 0.803b
50.77± 0.106b
49.75 ± 0.536b
a*
3.44 ± 0.135a
3.79 ± 0.221a
2.57 ± 0.080b
1.90 ± 0.032c
b*
14.99 ± 0.116c
14.46 ± 0.068d
15.60 ± 0.030b
15.74 ± 0.090b
Exp essible luid (%)
3.50 ± 0.42a
0.077 ± 0.02d
2.47 ± 0.38b
1.67 ± 0.59c
Exp essible a (%)
0.67 ± 0.05a
0.098 ± 0.01b
0.57 ± 0.07a
0.29 ± 0.1b
Cooking yield (%)
96.49 ± 0.42d
99.55 ± 0.06a
97.53 ± 0.38c
98.55 ± 0.44b
a,b,c Means wi h di e en supe sc ip s wi hin he same ows a e signi ican ly di e en (p<0.05). Values a e exp essed as mean ± S anda d de ia ion.;
P: 7.5% Yellow Passion ui peel powde added, F 2: 2% Wa e ba h hea ing- assis ed 2% acid ex ac ed ibe - ich powde + 5.5% whea lou
added, F 4: 4% Wa e ba h hea ing- assis ed 2% acid ex ac ed ibe - ich powde + 2.5% whea lou added
4.8. Tex u e
Tex u e plays a c ucial ole in he senso y expe ience o emulsi ied mea p oduc s such as bologna. Figu e 2 shows he
ha dness, gumminess, cohesi eness, and chewiness alues o he mea model sys ems. Compa ed wi h he no-binde
con ol, he e was no signi ican di e ence in ha dness alues wi h inc easing DF- ich powde con en om 2% o 4%.
a,b,c Means wi h di e en supe sc ip s a e signi ican ly di e en (p<0.05). Con ol: 7.5% whea lou added, P : 7.5% Yellow Passion ui peel
powde added, F 2: 2% Wa e ba h hea ing- assis ed 2% acid ex ac ed ibe - ich powde + 5.5% whea lou added , F 4: 4% Wa e ba h hea ing-
assis ed 2% acid ex ac ed ibe - ich powde + 2.5% whea lou added
Figu e 2 Tex u e p ope ies o chicken mea emulsion models o mula ed wi h die a y ibe ich powde s om yellow
passion ui peel
The highes shea ing ene gy alue was obse ed in he whole peel powde -added sample (0.09 ± 0.001 J), while he
addi ion o DF- ich powde did no signi ican ly a ec he shea ing ene gy alues, which we e 0.06 ± 0.004 J, 0.06 ±
0.003 J, and 0.06 ± 0.002 J in he con ol, 2%, and 4% DF- ich powde -added samples, espec i ely. In emulsi ied mea
p oduc s, inc eased ha dness is caused by a dec ease in bound wa e wi hin he ba e when cooked [48]. The sample
wi h added peel lou had he highes ha dness alue. Simila ly, López-Va gas e al. [10] epo ed ha adding passion
