Co esponding au ho : Baba inde Tao eek Olajide
Copy igh © 2025 Au ho (s) e ain he copy igh o his a icle. This a icle is published unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion Liscense 4.0.
Quan i a i e de e mina ion o cellulose con en o peels o selec ed plan s g owing in
Enugu U ban
Enem Chukwudike E ic 1, Chikezie Kenechukwu Cosmas 2, Adeoye Kayode Abiodun 3, Baba inde Tao eek
Olajide 4, *, I eanyichukwu Blessed Chisom 5 and Ezenwa Nwaeze F anklyn 6
1 S uden / G adua e Assis an , Depa men o Chemis y and Biochemis y, College o A and Science, Lama Uni e si y,
P.O. Box 10022 Beaumon , Texas 77710, USA.
2 S uden / G adua e Assis an , Depa men o Chemis y and Biochemis y, Lama Uni e si y, P.O. Box 10022 Beaumon ,
Texas 77710, USA.
3 Depa men o Chemis y and Biochemis y, Lama Uni e si y, P.O. Box 10022 Beaumon , Texas 77710, USA.
4 Depa men o Ag icul u al Economics, Ladoke Akin ola Uni e si y o Technology, P.M.B. 4000, Ogbomoso, Nige ia.
5 Depa men o Biochemis y, Facul y o Biological Sciences, Imo S a e Uni e si y, Owe i, Imo S a e, Nige ia.
6 Depa men o Chemis y and Biochemis y Lama Uni e si y, P.O. Box 10022 Beaumon , Texas 77710, USA.
Wo ld Jou nal o Biology Pha macy and Heal h Sciences, 2025, 21(01), 250-267
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 29 No embe 2024; e ised on 08 Janua y 2025; accep ed on 10 Janua y 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wjbphs.2025.21.1.0034
Abs ac
Recycling ag icul u al was e in o indus ial aw ma e ials can lessen pollu ion in he en i onmen and encou age
en ep eneu ship among he inc easing numbe o unemployed li e science g adua es. This s udy c ea ed cellulose om
plan ain and cassa a peels ha had physicochemical cha ac e is ics simila o hose o cellulose ha a e made
comme cially. Fo 16 hou s, 90% e hanol was used o de a he powde ed cassa a and plan ain peels (CPP and PPP,
espec i ely), wi h spo adic shaking using a mechanical shake se o 150 pm. E e y de a ed PP was d ied o se en
hou s a 800C in a ho ai o en. Dep o eina ion was accomplished by soaking in 1mol o NaOH solu ion a a PH o 11.6
o 24 hou s a a a io o 1.10w/ (100g PP/1000ml). Fo h ee hou s, he de la ed and dep o eina ed PPP and CPP we e
imme sed in 15% hyd ogen pe oxide. Hausne 's Quo ien o CPC and PPC, bulk densi y, packed densi y, hyd a ed
densi y, emulsi ying ac i i y, and wa e and oil e en ion capabili ies we e all examined. Fo CPP and PPP, he peel
powde s ha e c ude a concen a ions o 3.20% and 2.18%, espec i ely, and p o ein con en s o 4.50% and 3.85%.
The bulk densi ies o CPC, PPC, and CC a e 0.52, 0.55, and 0.21, espec i ely, while hei packed densi ies a e 0.68, 0.73,
and 0.28. The CC (1.98) has a lowe wa e e en ion capaci y (WRC) han he CPC (3.09) and PPC (2.96). The ORC o 3.23
o he CC was highe han ha o he PPC and CPC (0.11).
Keywo ds: Quan i a i e de e mina ion; Cellulose con en ; Peels; Selec ed plan s; Enugu U ban; Cellulose analysis;
Plan peels; Biomass
1. In oduc ion
Was es de i ed om ag icul u al p oduc s a e known as ag icul u al biomasses. Mos commonly, biomass e e s o
plan s o plan -based ma e ials—speci ically, lignocellulose biomass— ha a e no u ilized o ood o eed. The
p ocessing indus y and pollu ion moni o ing o ganiza ions ha e challenges due o he seasonali y and high
pe ishabili y o ag icul u al biomass. (Emaga and o he s, 2006). Me hane and leacha e a e eleased by o ed
ag icul u al biomass, and ca bon (IV) oxide (CO2) and o he pollu an s a e p oduced when a me s bu n hei land in
he open (Heinimo, J. e al, 2009). The e o e, poo handling o ag icul u al biomass was e is causing local ai pollu ion,
wa e and soil con amina ion, and clima e change. A ound he wo ld, biomass is a enewable al e na i e ene gy sou ce.
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Fo es s, plan was e, and ag icul u al c ops a e examples o biomass esou ces. Ho icul u al and a able ield c ops ha e
yielded a numbe o le o e s du ing he ag icul u al p oduc ion o ui s and ege ables. Ene gy policies and planning
ha ensu e global ood secu i y should suppo he use o biomass o ene gy a he local, na ional, and in e na ional
le els (A cıoğlu e al., 2019).
One o he p ima y ui c ops cul i a ed in Nige ia is plan ains, o Musa Pa adisiaca, which is one o he op p oduce s
in he wo ld. Plan ains a e used mos ly un ipe, hei lesh is s a chy a he han swee , and i needs o be cooked. They
look like bananas ha ha en' ipened. Thi y pe cen o he ui is he peel, he main by-p oduc . This by-p oduc is
haza dous o he en i onmen because o i s high wa e con en , which lea es i open o mic obial modi ica ion, as well
as i s high le els o ni ogen and phospho us. Plan ain peel lou migh o e a new p oduc wi h a speci ic composi ion
o a a ie y o domes ic and comme cial uses, claim Emaga e al. (2007). The p ocess o making plan ain peel lou , how
he ipeness s age a ec s he plan ain peel's pec in, and nu i ional ibe componen s.
Nige ia has a la ge plan a ion o cassa a (Maniho esculen a), a woody sh ub ha is a membe o he spu ge amily
(Eupho bia cease). I is commonly plan ed as an annual c op in opical and sub opical na ions due o i s edible s a chy
ube ous oo , which is a subs an ial sou ce o ca bohyd a es. Fi y million onnes o cassa a a e p oduced annually in
Nige ia by abou h ee million households, he majo i y o which a e women. Abou 14 million onnes o he c ops' by-
p oduc s, such as peels and unde sized ube s, a e disca ded as was e, whe eas he majo i y o he c ops a e used o
human use (In e na ional Ins i u e o T opical Ag icul u e, IITA, 2016). Cassa a peels a e highe in p o ein and
cyanogenic glycosides han o he ube po ions (Tewe, 2014). Cassa a peels ha e h ee main disad an ages: hey spoil
quickly, con ain a lo o phy a e, and con ain cyanogenic glycosides. The p ocessing o cassa a gene a es a lo o ash
and is widely hough o be a majo cause o en i onmen al deg ada ion.
In Nige ia, cassa a was e is ypically bu ned o allowed o decompose, making oom o mo e was e heaps o o m.
Acco ding o A o e al. (2010), he heaps p oduce a s ong, unpleasan odo and elease ca bon dioxide. La ge
concen a ions o cyanogenic glucosides ound in cassa a peels ha e he po en ial o pollu e su ace wa e s, pa icula ly
i hey a e s o ed in a eas ha ecei e a lo o ain o a e jus dumped in su ace wa e s.
Since cellulose makes up he bulk o plan cell walls wo ldwide, i is cu en ly he mos well-known and p e alen
die a y ibe . The polyme o anhyd o-β-d-glucopy anose uni s, cellulose, is a o ed by β-1,4-glycosidic linkages.
Cellobiose, cello iose, and cello e aose a e he dime s, ime s, and e ame s o cellulose's oligosaccha ides, also
e e ed o as cellodex ins. Each bundle o ibe s in cellulose has hyd ogen bonds, which p o ide i s eng h and
esis ance o chemical and biological hyd olysis (Dhing a e al., 2012). I can abso b a la ge amoun o wa e molecules,
making i s wa e -holding capaci y one o i s no ewo hy cha ac e is ics. Because he enla ged cellulose makes he body
eel ulle , i can help wi h weigh con ol.
To op imize he heal h bene i s o cellulose, i s solubili y is inc eased h ough enzyma ic and chemical modi ica ions.
One o he byp oduc s o he hyd oly ic b eakdown o cellulose is glucose, along wi h cellodex ins and sho e -chain
cellulose polyme s. To make cellulose p oduc s mo e pu e, pa ial pu i ica ion is necessa y. The po en ial o wa e -
soluble cellulose as a e men able ibe is being in es iga ed u he . Recen esea ch indica es ha small cellulose
molecules can p omo e he g ow h o p obio ics (Nso -A indana e al., 2020). The s udy also disco e ed a small amoun
o cellulose ha was e y soluble in wa e , sugges ing ha i may ha e p ebio ic quali ies. The goal o he s udy was o
add ess he g owing need o unc ional ood ibe s by examining he po en ial o cellulose modi ica ion. The goal o he
s udy was o inc ease cellulose's solubili y by using hyd oly ic echniques. The inqui y was cen e ed on e alua ing he
capabili y o soluble cellulose and cellodex ins o unc ion as p ebio ics and se e as ca bon sou ces o p obio ics.
1.1. S a emen o he P oblem
Acco ding o he su ey eleased by he Uni ed Na ions De elopmen P og am, solid was e disposal p oblem was anked
as he second mos u gen u ban challenges su passed only by unemploymen and ollowed by po e y (Agagu, 2008).
In Nige ia, he peels cons i u e sizable po ion o solid was es wi h nega i e en i onmen al implica ions, howe e , ew
ypes o esea ch ha e been epo ed on he u iliza ion o cassa a peels as aw ma e ials o applica ion in indus ies,
especially in p oduc ion o cellulose o ood o pha maceu ical g ades. Recycling o hese peels in o economically iable
p oduc s will mi iga e en i onmen al haza ds associa ed wi h hem and add alues o he cassa a and plan ain
p oduc s. P oduc ion o cellulose om he peels is one o he many ways o sol e he p oblem o peels en i onmen al
pollu ion, and imp o e ene gy s uc u e and ag icul u al de elopmen .
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Aim and Objec i e
The aim o he s udy is compa a i e e alua ion o some physicochemical p ope ies o cellulose p epa ed om wo
di e en ag icul u al biomass (cassa a and plan ain peels).
1.2. Speci ic objec i es
The speci ic objec i es a e
• To p oduce cellulose om cassa a peel.
• To p oduce cellulose om plan ain peel.
• To compa e some physicochemical p ope ies o he cellulose p oduced wi h hose o he comme cial cellulose.
1.3. Signi icance o he S udy
Tonnes o Ag icul u al was es a e disca ded in he en i onmen . To ecycle he andomly disca ded ag icul u al was e,
gi e alue o hem which can be essen ial o comme cial and indus ial pu poses and d as ically educe en i onmen al
pollu ion, p omo e en ep eneu ial oppo uni ies o he eaming unemployed g adua es o he li e sciences and enhance
public heal h
2. Li e a u e Re iew
2.1. Ag icul u al Biomass
Was e de i ed om ag icul u al p oduc s is known as ag icul u al biomass. Mos commonly, biomass e e s o plan s
o plan -based ma e ials—speci ically, lignocellulose biomass— ha a e no u ilized o ood o eed. The p ocessing
indus ies and pollu ion moni o ing o ganiza ions ace challenges due o he seasonali y and high pe ishabili y o
ag icul u al biomass. Du ing ag icul u al c op p oduc ion, biomass esidues and c op yield a e di ec ly co ela ed. The
mo e c ops p oduced, he mo e c op esidues he e a e because hey comp ise a ce ain pe cen age o he c op. The
le o e s om he cu ing and p uning o s ems, s aws, s alks, lea es, b anches, and o he ag icul u al ma e ials a e
he main c op ha es a e he biomass esidues ha a e being discussed he e. One can de e mine he biomass ene gy
po en ial by knowing hese pa ame e s. C op yield, biomass esidues, and hei ag onomic de elopmen a e also
impac ed by en i onmen al ac o s such as soil and clima e (A cıoğlu e al., 2019). Making ag icul u al was e in o a
esou ce ha can be used a he han simply h own away should be he goal. The main ways ha ag icul u al was es
can imp o e ood secu i y a e by p oducing ene gy, using hem as animal eed, and using hem as soil amendmen s and
bio e ilize . Many o hem a e isk- ee when added s aigh o he soil and con ain signi ican amoun s o o ganic
ma e .
The con e sion o ag icul u al was es, such as c op esidues and animal manu es, in o o ganic e ilize s ( h ough
compos ing) is one o he was e ea men echnologies ha makes i possible o use o ganic was e as e ilize , e en in
popula ed a eas. Technology is c ucial o inc easing soil e ili y and, in u n, c op p oduc i i y (Ha g ea es e al., 2008;
Sabii i e al., 2011). In he majo i y o A ica, whe e a lack o nu ien s poses a signi ican ba ie o ood p oduc ion, he
use o o ganic e ilize s is especially c ucial (Sabii i e al, 2011). Addi ionally, compos ing elimina es pa hogens, lowe s
weed ge mina ion in ag icul u al ields, elimina es odo s, and educes he olume o was e, all o which help o add ess
majo en i onmen al issues ela ed o he disposal o la ge amoun s o was e. The compos can be u ilized on he same
a m o sold o gene a e ex a income. Addi ionally, he g owing demand o o ganic p oduc s like maize and goa mea s
has led o an inc ease in he p oduc ion o compos o ag icul u al use (Sabii i e al, 2011).
Animal was e and c op esidues can bo h be u ilized as animal eed. Howe e , he kind o eed, bedding ma e ial, and
animal species all a ec how nu ien - ich he was e is. A common p ac ice in ca le eeding is he use o b oile li e . I
is impo an o emembe ha animals, pa icula ly uminan s, can help educe po en ial pollu an s by u ning c op
esidues in o ood. The only mic obial enzyme capable o b eaking down cellulose, he mos p e alen plan p oduc , is
ound in he umen (Sabii i e al. 2011). Nu ien s in byp oduc s a e used by uminan s and do no cause was e disposal
issues (Sabii i e al. 2011).
Di e en egions o he wo ld ha e used ag icul u al was e o p oduce ene gy o di e ing deg ees (Tumuhai we e al.,
2009). In addi ion o making money om he ene gy gene a ed, was e- o-ene gy p ojec s p o ide a di e en and
sus ainable way o dispose o was e. Fu he mo e, a aluable by-p oduc o he schemes is a high-quali y, almos
odo less ag icul u al e ilize . Anae obic diges ion is becoming mo e and mo e popula as a enewable ene gy sou ce
due o wo ies abou u u e ene gy sho ages and he ising p ices o con en ional uels and he elec ici y p oduced
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om hem. Due o he massi e amoun o was e gene a ed by cassa a p ocessing acili ies in Nige ia and he po en ial
o ca as ophic en i onmen al e ec s, app op ia e managemen and elease o hese was es.
Ag icul u al was es can be a use ul esou ce o inc easing ood secu i y, bu i hey a e no handled, s o ed, o disposed
o app op ia ely, hey may pollu e he en i onmen o e en endange human heal h (Sabii i e al., 2011). This
necessi a es aising public awa eness o he ad an ages and possible isks associa ed wi h ag icul u al was e,
pa icula ly in de eloping na ions.
2.2. Plan ain (Musa Pa adisiaca)
Nige ia is one o he wo ld's op p oduce s o plan ains (Musa Pa adisiaca), a majo ui c op. Plan ains a e bigge and
ha e s a chy lesh, much like un ipe bananas. 30% o he ui is made up o he peel, a p ima y by-p oduc ha p esen s
en i onmen al p oblems because o i s high wa e , phospho us, and ni ogen con en , which makes i ulne able o
mic obial modi ica ion. Acco ding o Emaga e al. (2007), plan ain peel lou o e s he possibili y o p oducing
s anda dized goods o a ange o comme cial and esiden ial uses. In addi ion o a ho ough e iew o banana and
plan ain cul i a s wi h an emphasis on Paci ic Island cul i a s (Ploe z e al., 2007), esea ch has examined alue addi ion
o plan ain peel, including lou p oduc ion and he e ec o ipeness on die a y ibe and pec in con en (Emaga e al.,
2008).
2.3. Use o Plan ain Peels
Wi h a p oduc ion o o e 165 million onnes in 2011, plan ains a e a ui ha is consumed all o e he wo ld. Once
peeled, he ui can be ea en aw o cooked, bu he peel is usually h own away, adding signi ican ly o o ganic was e
(FAOSTAT 2011). In some a eas, especially on small a ms ha g ow bananas, plan ain peels a e used as eed o a
a ie y o animals, such as ca le, goa s, pigs, monkeys, poul y, ish, and zeb as. Bu he e a e issues wi h he peels'
annins and how hey a ec he heal h o he animals (Heuze e al., 2017). Plan ain peels' nu i ional makeup a ies
depending on he cul i a and ma u i y; o example, hey ha e less ibe han desse plan ain peels, and as hey ipen,
hei lignin con en ises om 7% o 15% d y ma e . Peels om plan ains ypically make up 6-9% d y ma e o p o ein
and 20-30% ibe (measu ed as NDF). G een plan ain peels ha e 40% s a ch, which con e s o suga s upon ipening.
Wa e pu i ica ion (A. Chapa adza e al., 2012), e hanol p oduc ion (Obe ol e al., 2011), cellulose ex ac ion (Hai-Yan
Sun e al., 2011), lac ase p oduc ion (N. Pa eek e al., 2011), e ilize , and compos ing a e jus a ew o he many uses
o plan ain peels ou side o animal eed (F. Kalemelawa e al., 2012).
2.4. Peeling me hod
Enzyma ic and chemical echniques a e used o al e he solubili y o cellulose in o de o inc ease i s heal h bene i s.
The gene al hyd olysis o cellulose esul s in he p oduc ion o glucose, cellodex ins, and di e en kinds o sho e -
chain cellulose polyme s. Pa ial pu i ica ion is necessa y o p oduce mo e pu e cellulose p oduc s. Fu he esea ch is
being done on he use o wa e -soluble cellulose as e men able ibe . A small amoun o cellulose can help p obio ics
g ow, pe a ecen s udy (Nso -A indana e al., 2020). Bu acco ding o he s udy's indings, he small amoun o cellulose
was highly soluble in wa e , sugges ing ha i migh ha e p ebio ic p ope ies.
2.5. Cassa a (Maniho esculen a)
Because o i s s a chy ube ous oo s, which a e an impo an sou ce o ca bohyd a es, cassa a (Maniho esculen a), a
woody sh ub o he Eupho biaceae amily, is widely g own in Nige ia as an annual c op in opical and sub opical
egions. Fi y million onnes o cassa a a e p oduced annually in Nige ia by abou h ee million households, mos o
which a e made up o women. Abou ou een million onnes o by-p oduc s, such as peels and unde sized ube s, a e
h own away as was e e en hough humans ea he majo i y o he c op (In e na ional Ins i u e o T opical Ag icul u e,
2016). Al hough cassa a peels ha e a highe p o ein con en and cyanogenic glycoside con en han o he ube pa s
(Tewe, 2014), hey ha e h ee majo d awbacks: hey spoil quickly, hey con ain phy a es, and hey ha e a high
cyanogenic glycoside con en . P ocessing cassa a p oduces a lo o was e, which g ea ly con ibu es o pollu ion in he
en i onmen .
To make oom o mo e was e, cassa a was e in Nige ia is equen ly bu ned o allowed o decompose, which eleases
ca bon dioxide and has a s ong odo (A o e al., 2010). Because hey con ain high le els o cyanogenic glucosides,
cassa a peels can pollu e su ace wa e , pa icula ly when hey a e le ou in he ain o dumped in bodies o wa e .
Peeling and washing he ube s mechanically yields was e peels, which make up a ound 15% o he oo (A o e al.,
2010) (O ache e al., 2017). The ube s may be ha med by imp ope handling du ing ha es (O ache e al., 2015). The
pe ide m, co ex, and pulp a e he h ee sepa a e laye s isible in a ans e se sec ion o he cassa a oo (Whea ley e
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al., 2008; O ache e al., 2017). Cassa a oo s a e compa a i ely ich in i amin C and con ain signi ican amoun s o
mine als such as calcium, phospho us, and i on (O ache e al., 2017). Ne e heless, he hyd ocyanic acid con en o
cassa a peels, which can impede g ow h and de elopmen , limi s hei use as eed o non- uminan animals (Apa a e
al., 2012). To inc ease cassa a's eeding alue, p ocessing me hods like sun-d ying, pa boiling, soaking, and e ing ha e
been used (Ekwe e al., 2011; Ooye e al., 2014). Smallholde s in Nige ia who use he le o e cassa a peels o aise goa s
ha e begun o pay mo e a en ion o d ying hem on black plas ic shee s (Adebayo e al., 2008).
Ga i and s a ch p ocessing acili ies gene a e he majo i y o he was e om cassa a p ocessing, and i won' be use ul
un il he peels can be used o make animal eed. Reducing he cos o aising ca le and add essing he issue o hei
was e disposal a e wo bene i s o using cassa a peels o animal eed. P ocessing esul s in he p oduc ion o la ge
quan i ies o liquid pulp and cassa a peels (Jideo o e al, 2015). Mos o hese was es a e used as animal eed, hough
some become solid municipal was e (Adesanya e al, 2008). Fu he mo e, he liquid esidue ha emains a e
p ocessing cassa a can be ga he ed and con e ed in o bioe hanol, and he muck deposi s ha esul can be u ilized as
manu e o aise he nu ien alue o he soil.
Na u al ibe s made om wood, annual plan s, and ag icul u al was e a e p ima ily composed o cellulose. Cellulose is
a plen i ul, sus ainable esou ce. In a single plane, he chains a e made up o β-D-glucopy anose uni s connec ed by 1-
4-glycosidic bonds (Fig. 1.1). Acco ding o Mo an e al. (2008), cellulose is a linea polyme (Fig. 1.2). The e a e h ee
OH g oups in e e y glucose ing, which a e he unc ional g oups ound in cellulose chains. Depending on whe e he OH
g oups a e loca ed a he glucose uni , cellulose molecules can o m wo di e en kinds o hyd ogen bonds.
In amolecula and in e molecula hyd ogen bonds a e wo di e en kinds.
Figu e 1 Cellulose and D-glucose
Figu e 2 Cellulose molecules
Bo h c ys alline and amo phous egions a e c ea ed when cellulose molecules g oup oge he . The c ys alline a eas a e
inaccessible o wa e due o hei highly o de ed s uc u e, which is p ese ed by hyd ogen bonds. The no able elas ic
modulus o na i e cellulose ibe s, app oxima ely 150 GPa, is p ima ily due o he ex ended chain s uc u e o c ys alline
cellulose. The longi udinal ensile s eng h o c ys alline cellulose is app oxima ely 10 GPa. The deg ee o
polyme iza ion o cellulose, a na u ally occu ing polyme , is oughly 10,000 glucopy anose uni s in wood and 15,000
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in co on. Cellulose comes in h ee di e en a ie ies: cellulose I, also known as na i e cellulose, cellulose II, cellulose
III, and cellulose IV. Na i e cellulose and cellulose II di e in wo signi ican ways despi e hei many simila i ies. Fi s ,
cellulose II has a "an i-pa allel" chain di ec ion a angemen and a s agge ed, an ipa allel cen e chain (G ans om
2009).
Along wi h an ipa allelism, one o he hyd ogen bonding pa e ns ha is di e en om cellulose I is a clea hyd ogen
bond be ween he cen e chain and he dis an co ne chains be ween O2 and O2. Because cellulose II's c ys al s uc u e
is mo e he modynamically s able han na i e cellulose's, cellulose I can be ans o med in o cellulose II bu no he
o he way a ound. Ano he cellulose allomo ph, cellulose III, is p oduced when cellulose Iβ and cellulose II a e ea ed
wi h liquid ammonia o pa icula amines. Acco ding o Yui e al. (2010), cellulose III can e u n o i s pa en o ms.
Figu e 3 Cellulose s uc u e o cellulose I and II
Mos o he egene a ed cellulose ha is cu en ly a ailable o consume s is composed o cellulose II. Cellulose II can be
made in a ew easy s eps. The mos popula me hod is simple me ce iza ion using a s ong alkali solu ion. Fo ins ance,
ayon ibe s a e widely used. They consis o a polyme o β-1,4-linked D-glucopy anose, in which no mo e han 15% o
he hyd ogen o he hyd oxyl g oups has been subs i u ed by pigmen s, i e e a dan s, and manu ac u ing impu i ies.
Usually, ayon ibe s a e used o make ex iles. (Well and Le chik, 2008).
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Figu e 4 SEM image o egene a ed cellulose (Gho ani e al., 2013)
2.6. Cellulose Remaking
Cellulosic ibe s o e an en icing oppo uni y o ein o ce pe oleum-based polyme s and bioplas ics while also adding
mo e bio-based ma e ial o pe oleum-based polyme s due o hei biodeg adable na u e and ela i ely high mechanical
quali ies. Howe e , he e a e s ill limi a ions on using cellulose ibe s as a ein o cing agen . This es ic ion esul s
om cellulosics' high hyd oxyl g oup con en , which makes hem hyd ophilic and incompa ible wi h he polyme
ma ices' hyd ophobic beha io . Because hey a e eadily a ailable in he plas ics ma ke and ha e low mel ing poin s,
high densi y polye hylene (HDPE), low densi y polye hylene (LDPE), polye hylene (PP), and poly inyl chlo ide (PVC)
a e he polyme s mos equen ly illed wi h cellulosic ibe s. The p oduc 's poo in e ace and low esis ance o
mois u e adso p ion a e caused by he ibe /ma ix incompa ibili y. The in e ace is ac ually one o he mos impo an
pa s o he composi es. The composi e's esis ance o ailu e can be inc eased by ans e ing load o i when he ma ix
phase and he dispe sed ( ein o cing) phase a e su icien ly bonded.
Th ee echniques ha e been employed o dis ibu e cellulose e enly and s eng hen he in e ace be ween he
he moplas ic ma ix and he cellulose ein o cemen : compa ibilizing, g a ing, and chemical modi ica ion.
Compa ibili y es ing uses a co-polyme ha has a egion ha mimics he ma ix polyme chemically and ano he ha
can in e ac wi h he hyd oxyl g oups o cellulose. One example is maleic anhyd ide polyp opylene (MAPP) o
composi es made o na u al ibe and polyp opylene. S a k and Rowlands (2008) ound ha he composi es p oduced
wi h 3 weigh pe cen MAPP added o na u al ibe s ( ibe weigh a io: PP = 40:60) we e oughly h ee imes as s i
and wice as s ong as he composi e wi hou MAPP ea men s.
Using ibe s, he second s a egy, g a ing, gene a es adicals ha ini ia e he chain g ow h o polyme s ha complemen
he ma ix polyme s. Fo example, (S ens ad e al. 2008) used a ce ium-induced g a ing echnique o add epoxy g oups,
ca bon-ca bon double bonds, ca ionic g oups (amines), and anionic g oups (ca boxyls) o mic o ib ialla ed cellulose.
They also demons a ed how g a ing polyme b ushes and laye s can hyd ophobicize cellulose. These esul s imply
ha cellulose can o m composi es h ough in e ac ions wi h a po en ially wide ange o ma ix polyme s.
The al e na i e ac ic, chemical modi ica ion, in ol es changing he ibe s' hyd oxyl g oups o a hyd ophobic unc ional
g oup in o de o make hem compa ible wi h he hyd ophobic ma ix polyme . Ace yla ion and p opionyla ion a e wo
examples. Fo ins ance, ace yla ion causes cellulose o become hyd ophobic by eac ing wi h ace ic anhyd ide and
eplacing he cell wall's hyd oxyl g oups wi h ace yl g oups. (Li and o he s, 2007).
Polye hylene glycol (PEG) is also u ilized in ce ain applica ions o al e he cha ac e is ics o cellulose. Wa e -soluble,
lub ica ing, odo less, neu al, non ola ile, noni i a ing, and miscible wi h ionic liquid a e all p ope ies o polye hylene
glycol. PEG is used o plas icize o al e cellulose in he ield o ood science. In medical enginee ing, elec oac i e pape s
a e c ea ed by combining cellulose wi h polye hylene oxide (PEO) and polye hylene glycol (PEG). Cellulose
nanowhiske s a e dispe sed in polylac ic acid polyme using PEG in he nanocomposi e ield (Lijunbe g e al., 2005).
Fu he mo e, a s ong alkali sys em was used o dissol e cellulose in PEG (Han and Young 2009). The cellulose ha
p ecipi a ed om he solu ion a e washing was examined o he p esence o esidual PEG using he mog a ime ic
analysis (TGA) and dynamic scanning calo ime y (DSC). Fo pu e PEG, he DSC displayed a s ong peak a abou 58°C;
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howe e , he p ecipi a ed sample did no exhibi his peak (Fig. 1.5), indica ing ha he PEG in he sol en had been
ho oughly cleaned.
Figu e 5 DSC cu es o PEG-2000 and all-cellulose composi e
Figu e 6 TGA cu es o cellulose, PEG-2000 and all-cellulose composi e
2.7. All-cellulose composi es
The c ea ion o g een composi es, which a e cha ac e ized by hei sus ainabili y, en i onmen al iendliness, and
compos abili y, can be accele a ed by using cellulose ibe s wi h a "g een" ma ix. Maya e al. (2007) p o ided a
comp ehensi e examina ion o g een composi es using biodeg adable ma ices such as poly(lac ic acid), poly(bu ylene
succina e), poly(hyd oxybu anoa e), and soy-based polyme s. They concluded ha his was a signi ican obs acle
because biodeg adable ma ices a e subs an ially mo e cos ly han con en ional ones. Cellulose is ano he p omising
ma ix ma e ial o composi es. When he ma ix and ein o cemen phases a e composed o he same polyme , such as
cellulose, he p oduc s a e e e ed o as sel - ein o ced polyme ic ma e ials (SRPMs) (Kme y e al., 2010). SRPMs
ou pe o m adi ional composi es and a e mo e economical. All-polyme composi es we e p e iously made by
imp egna ing polyme ibe s wi h a polyme ma ix ha had a lowe mel ing poin . A new manu ac u ing echnique o
all-polyme composi es called "ho compac ion" was c ea ed by Uni e si y o Leeds esea che s. This me hod in ol es
mel ing a po ion o he polyme ibe and hen ec ys allizing i in o a ma ix ha imp o es he in e ace and o i ies
he ibe s.
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Nishino e al. (2009) we e he i s o expand on he success o all-polyp opylene composi es (Cab e a e al., 2004) by
applying his echnique o cellulosic ma e ials. They p oduced all-cellulose composi es by dissol ing K a ibe s and
using he cellulose solu ion as a binde ma ix o amie ibe s ha we e aligned uniaxially. These composi es'
ema kable compa ibili y imp o es in e acial adhesion because he ein o cemen and ma ix a e composed o he
same ma e ial. As a esul , hese all-cellulose composi es had ensile s eng hs be ween 480 and 540 MPa. Addi ionally,
cellulose ma e ials can be selec i ely dissol ed o c ea e all-cellulose composi es. The ma ix is c ea ed by dissol ing
and egene a ing a su ace laye o cellulose, wi h he undissol ed co e se ing as ein o cemen . Duchemin e al.
(2009a) pa ially dissol ed mic oc ys alline cellulose in LiCl/DMAc and p ecipi a ed he dissol ed po ion o o m a
ma ix a ound he undissol ed co e. The cellulose ma e ials o his selec i e dissolu ion me hod can also be p e- o med
ma s such as il e pape (Nishino and A imo o, 2007) o egene a ed cellulose ibe s (Soykeabkaew e al., 2009) using
he LiCl/DMAc sol en sys em. Mo e ecen ly, Han and Yan (2010) employed a PEG/NaOH aqueous solu ion o dissol e
il e pape selec i ely.
All-cellulose composi es a e mo e mechanically sound han o he na u al ibe -based composi es. Fo ins ance, Gindl
and Keckes (2005) demons a ed ha all-cellulose composi es de i ed om MCC exhibi ensile p ope ies ha su pass
he ypical ange o andomly o ien ed bio ibe - ein o ced polyme composi es in e ms o elas ic modulus (1–13 GPa)
and ensile s eng h (15–140 MPa).
2.8. Cellulose Dissolu ion
Cellulose is insoluble in wa e and he majo i y o o ganic sol en s, al hough i can dissol e in ce ain sol en s.
Complexing agen s like cup ie hylenediamine (Cuene) and cadmium e hylenediamine (cadoxene) b eak down he
hyd ogen bonds in cellulose and acili a e dissolu ion by o ming complexes wi h i s hyd oxyl g oups. These chemicals
a e commonly used o dissol e pulp ibe s so ha capilla y iscosi y, a measu e o cellulose polyme iza ion deg ee, can
be de e mined. Fu he mo e, u ea dissol es cellulose mo e easily han s ong alkalis like NaOH, which keeps ee wa e
in he solu ion and s ops cellulose chains om o ming hyd ogen bonds. Recen sol en sys ems o he dissolu ion o
cellulose include N-me hylmo pholine N-oxide (NMMO) and li hium chlo ide/N,N-dime hylace amide (LiCl/DMAc).
Tencel ibe s, a ype o lyocell ibe , a e p oduced comme cially using NMMO. S ong cellulose-sol en in e ac ions and
li le in insic iscosi y loss o e ime make LiCl/DMAc an e icien sol en . An ea ly ins ance o he use o ionic liquids
o his pu pose was G aenache 's 1934 disco e y ha cellulose could be dissol ed by combining mol en N-
e hylpy idinium chlo ide wi h bases ha con ained ni ogen. Ionic liquids we e once hough o be imp ac ical, bu hei
po en ial o dissol ing cellulose has since been eassessed. Roge s and his eam a he Uni e si y o Alabama ha e
conduc ed ex ensi e esea ch on cellulose egene a ion and dissolu ion in ionic liquids. Cellulose can be dissol ed
wi hou de i a ion using hyd ophilic ionic liquids such as 1-N-bu yl-3-me hylimidazolium chlo ide (BMIMCl) and 1-
allyl-3-me hylimidazolium chlo ide (AmimCl).
By choosing he igh ionic liquid ing edien s, i is possible o p ecisely con ol he solubili y o cellulose in hese liquids
as well as he cha ac e is ics o he inal solu ion. Al hough i can each up o 25 weigh pe cen wi h he use o
mic owa e hea ing, he dissolu ion capaci y usually alls be ween 10 and 15 weigh pe cen o he ionic liquid. BMIMCl's
high chlo ide ac i i y and concen a ion a e hough o be e y e ec i e a b eaking down he complex hyd ogen-
bonding ne wo k in cellulose, which is essen ial o i s dissolu ion. Howe e , because o compe i i e hyd ogen-bonding
wi h i s mic o ib ils, he wa e in BMIMCl d as ically dec eases he solubili y o cellulose. I is easy o p ecipi a e
cellulose in BMIMCl solu ion by adding ace one, e hanol, o wa e .
The egene a ed cellulose has nea ly he same deg ee o polyme iza ion and polydispe si y as he o iginal, despi e
ha ing a e y di e en mo phology due o he mic o ib ils used in o a ela i ely uni o m mac os uc u e. By al e ing
he egene a ion p ocedu es, cellulose can be c ea ed in a ange o s uc u al o ms, including powde , ubes, beads,
ibe s, and ilms. By al e ing he deg ee o c ys allini y o he dissol ed cellulose du ing egene a ion, amo phous o
c ys alline cellulose can be p oduced unde di e en condi ions. Addi ionally, he du a ion o s o age o he cellulose
ionic liquid solu ion a ec s he mic os uc u e o he egene a ed cellulose; a ew weeks o oom empe a u e s o age
can yield amo phous cellulose (Zhu e al. 2006).
Ionic liquids can be eco e ed and eused ollowing cellulose egene a ion, as demons a ed by Zhu e al. (2006). Among
he eco e y me hods a e e apo a ion, ionic exchange, pe apo a ion, e e se osmosis, and sal ing ou . Pu e cellulose
is a ailable comme cially in a numbe o o ms, each wi h dis inc pha macological and mechanical p ope ies. The
di e ences in he pa icles' size, shape, and c ys allini y (agglome a ed o ib ous) accoun o hese dispa i ies.
Mic oc ys alline cellulose (MCC) is a p e alen and ex ensi ely u ilized o m in he pha maceu ical indus y. MCC g ades
a e mul i unc ional excipien s ha inc ease iscosi y and hicken liquid dosage o ms, bind in we and d y g anula ion
Wo ld Jou nal o Biology Pha macy and Heal h Sciences, 2025, 21(01), 250-267
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science en ep eneu s. The physicochemical cha ac e is ics o cellulose we e p oduced in his s udy by p ocessing he
peels o plan ains and cassa a close o hose o comme cially sold cellulose.
Recommenda ion
App op ia e go e nmen agencies and p i a e indus y sec o s should s a aising public awa eness o he ad an ages
o using ag icul u al biomass. The p ocess o u ning plan ain and cassa a peels in o indus ial aw ma e ials like
cellulose will educe he en i onmen al ha m caused by hese was es, una oidably inc easing c op alue, gi ing a me s
mo e inancial le e age, and c ea ing jobs o li e science g adua es.
Compliance wi h e hical s anda ds
Acknowledgemen
I exp ess my p o ound g a i ude o God Almigh y o guiding me h ough he pe iod o my s udy and o a ou &
wisdom g an ed o me du ing my yea o s udies. My app ecia ion goes o my supe iso P o esso S ella Inya-Agha, my
head o depa men D C.E Achukanu, P ojec Supe iso , D Eze S e en Pe e , my Lec u es P o esso Okaka ANC,
P o esso S an, D F ank, Eneh F.U, D Ezenwali Moses, D Ujah I.I, M Nsude AC, M Okoli K.C, AnekeOnyTshi, C.E
Mamah, K.C Uzoigwe, C.C Ebuka and he Scien is D O uu, F ed, S a ech Labo a o y Enugu, ANSA Labo a o y Enugu.
The Depa men o Applied Biochemis y Labo a o y, ESUT P ojec De elopmen Agency Enugu, Depa men o Applied
Biochemis y UNN. My inne mos app ecia ion goes o my pa en s Eng and M s Paul and Eunice Enem o b inging me
in o his wo ld and o being he e always, and my siblings I echukwu, Chinenye, Ijeoma, Chide a, lo e you all in ini ely.
I also app ecia e Miss P ecious Ogbodo who helps in ypese ing and M Chukwuma Jahmobim Nwokwu and all my
iends who con ibu ed in making his hesis a eali y.
Disclosu e o Con lic o In e es
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known inancial o pe sonal con lic s o in e es ha could ha e appea ed o
in luence he wo k epo ed in his pape .
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