O iginal Resea ch
SAGE Open
Ap il-June 2024: 1–17
ÓThe Au ho (s) 2024
DOI: 10.1177/21582440241255737
jou nals.sagepub.com/home/sgo
Towa d a Mode n Gende Gap
in Le -Righ Sel -Placemen :
A S udy Case o he Popula ion
Aged O e 64 Yea s in Spain
Rosa Roig
1
, C is ina Ayba
1
, and Jose
´M. Pa ı
´a
1
Abs ac
The gende gap in poli ical/ideological sel -posi ioning li e a u e usually conside s ha Spain is s agnan wi hin adi ional pa a-
me e s, whe e women a e mo e igh -wing han men. Howe e , an analysis o mo e han 87,000 opinion polls collec ed by he
CIS o e a pe iod o almos 40 yea s shows ha Spain is mo ing owa d he mode n gende gap, al hough ollowing a pa icula
pa h condi ioned by i s own his o y o he 20 h cen u y. These indings disag ee wi h he conclusions eached by Ingleha and
No is abou Spanish women in hei s udy abou he de elopmen o mode n gende gap. Ou esea ch in es iga es he impac
o coho and pe iod e ec s on he popula ion aged o e 64, whose poli ical iden i y, in acco dance wi h he heo ies o poli ical
socializa ion, was o med in a con ex alien o he mode niza ion p ocess, la gely coinciding wi h he F anco dic a o ship in Spain.
Plain Language Summa y
Du ing he inal yea s o he wen ie h cen u y, Ingleha and No is p oposed a heo y ega ding he obse ed
e olu ion o he gende gap in poli ical/ideological sel -placemen in Wes e n coun ies ha le Spain ou o his end.
They a gued ha when democ acy, economic g ow h, and mode niza ion a e p esen , socie ies expe ience he
eme gence o new pos -ma e ialis alues ha lead o a ealignmen o women and men adi ional posi ions on he
ideological scale, wi h women ending o mo e owa ds he le and men owa ds he igh . They also sugges ha a
gene a ional eplacemen is necessa y o he ealignmen p ocess o be comple ed. This esea ch examines o e
87,000 opinion polls collec ed by CIS o e nea ly 40 yea s, demons a ing ha Spain is no una ec ed by his e olu ion
bu ollows i s unique ajec o y. I shows ha Spain has unde gone a s age o ealignmen in ideological p e e ences
along gende in acco dance wi h Ingleha and No is’s de elopmen al heo y o he gende gap. Ou s udy speci ically
in es iga es he impac o coho and pe iod e ec s on he popula ion aged o e 64, whose poli ical iden i y was shaped
be o e he ad en o cu en democ acy, aligning wi h heo ies o poli ical socializa ion. Con a y o Ingleha and
No is’s conclusions, ou indings posi ion Spain as a singula case. The analyses e eal ha he ealignmen p ocess
began wi hin a con ex o dic a o ship and la e expe ienced accele a ed changes, su passing he need o gene a ional
eplacemen by younge coho s bo n in a democ a ic e a. O e all, his esea ch con ibu es o ou unde s anding o
he poli ical sys em’s dynamics and he ole o women.
Keywo ds
gende inequali y, le - igh sel -placemen , longi udinal s udies, mode niza ion, olde women
In oduc ion: A Di e en Pa h
Since he 1950s, esea ch on he gende gap in poli ical
beha io has p oli e a ed (Almond & Ve ba, 1963; A.
Campbell e al., 1960; Du e ge , 1955; Lipse , 1960). The
gende gap concep ‘‘conce ns a mul idimensional
1
Uni e si y o Valencia, Valencia, Spain
Co esponding Au ho :
Rosa Roig, Depa men o Applied Economics, Uni e si y o Valencia, A
Ta onge s, s/n, Valencia 46022, Spain.
Email: osa. oig@u .es
Da a A ailabili y S a emen included a he end o he a icle
C ea i e Commons Non Comme cial CC BY-NC: This a icle is dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion-NonComme cial 4.0 License (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which pe mi s non-comme cial
use, ep oduc ion and dis ibu ion o he wo k wi hou u he pe mission p o ided he o iginal wo k is a ibu ed as speci ied on he SAGE
and Open Access pages (h ps://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-a -sage).
poli ical phenomenon ha can e e o any poli ical di -
e ences be ween men and women, such as in hei o ing
beha io , pa isanship, a i udes and opinions, o ci ic
engagemen , a mass o eli e le els’’ (Ingleha & No is,
2000). Mos o he ea ly esea ch, ocused on he elec-
o al gende gap (A. Campbell e al., 1960; Chaney e al.,
1998; Du e ge , 1955; Lipse & Rokkan, 1967; No is,
1996a, 1996b), concludes ha women adi ionally
exp ess mo e conse a i e posi ions h ough hei o ing
choices han men. Howe e , since he 1980s, a change in
he end o he emale o e has been obse ed in he
Uni ed S a es (Chaney e al., 1998; Manza & B ooks,
1998; Shapi o & Mahajan, 1986). A change which has
been ep oduced in o he Wes e n coun ies, such as he
Ne he lands o he o me Wes Ge many (Gige , 2009;
Ingleha & No is, 2000, 2003; No is, 1996a, 1996b,
1999, 2003). The emale o e g ew o he le , while he
male o e inc eased owa d he igh . A e a pe iod o
dealignmen , whe e he di e ences na owing be ween
men and women, he adi ional gende gap e e sed.
The mode n gende gap has begun o eme ge in which
women lean mo e o he le on he poli ical spec um
han men. Acco ding o a ious au ho s, howe e , Spain
seems obli ious o his e olu ion o he gende gap
(Gige , 2009; Ingleha & No is, 2000). In his pape ,
we s udy whe he his is ac ually he case.
The aim o his esea ch is o show ha Spain is ac u-
ally mo ing owa d he mode n gende gap by ocusing
ou analysis on ideological sel -placemen in he popula-
ion g oup aged o e 64 yea s. This olde g oup is heo-
e ically he mos eluc an o change, needing mo e ime
o abandon he adi ional gap model (C. Campbell & J.
Pea lman, 2013; Dassonne ille, 2021; Ha sgo, 2018;
Ingleha , 1991, 1993; Lo en e, 2017). We iew Spain as
a singula case in he Wes e n wo ld in i s e olu ion
owa d he mode n gende gap, acco ding o he de el-
opmen al heo y o he gende gap by Ingleha and
No is (2000, 2003). Ou main hypo hesis (H1) is ha in
Spain his change has s a ed la e , a he end o he 20 h
cen u y, bu i is much as e . This compa es o o he
Wes e n coun ies whe e as can be seen in Table 1 his
p ocess begins and culmina es soone . By showing ha
Spain does no emain aloo o he mode n gende gap,
his pape complemen s p e ious li e a u e, whe e his
p ocess is no iden i ied o Spain (see Table 1).
In addi ion, we also s a e ha he gene a ion aged
o e 64 has mo ed o he le wi hou a gene a ional
eplacemen by younge coho s. Younge coho s whose
poli ical socializa ion has been de eloping, acco ding o
he heo y o poli ical socializa ion o Mannheim’s
imp essionable yea s (1927), since he 80s, wi hin he
amewo k o mode niza ion o he coun y h ough
democ acy. This second hypo hesis (H2) conside s ha
his change o poli ical p e e ences be ween men and
women in old people in Spain has ollowed ano he p o-
cess ha is a om he gene a ional eplacemen . The
Spanish social change is he esul o he mode niza ion
p ocess ollowing Ingleha (1991), bu his p ocess ope -
a es di e en ly in Spain due o he ole o i s singula
his o ical and cul u al adi ion in his changing p ocess
(Ingleha & Welzel, 2006). In o he wo ds, H2 es ab-
lishes ha in Spain he change mechanism is no he a-
di ional gene a ional eplacemen (Ab amson &
Ingleha , 1992; No is, 1999; Sho ocks, 2018; Valle
´e-
Dubois e al., 2020) because o he social and poli ical
impac s o F ancoism egime.
To co obo a e o ejec hese hypo heses— ha is, o
con i m o e u e ha he gende gap in sel -placemen
in Spain is also ollowing he mode n pa ame e s, like
o he Wes e n coun ies—, we wo k on empi ical da a.
On he one hand, we s udy he e olu ion o poli ical p e-
e ences (measu ed by ideological sel -placemen ) by
analyzing a e ages and ull dis ibu ions by sex and pe -
o m ANOVA es s o iden i y signi ican ly di e ences,
also con olling by municipali y size. On he o he hand,
we use g aphical analysis o compa e o e ime educa-
ion and eligiosi y dis ibu ions o o al popula ion and
women o e 64 yea s o age o explain he s iking
change we obse e, wi hou a comple e gene a ional
eplacemen , in he ideological sel -placemen o he
olde emale coho s in Spain. Fu he mo e, all agg e-
ga e esul s a e con i med a he mic o le el using eg es-
sion models wi h ideological sel -placemen as esponse
a iable. Empi ical e idence is p o ided h ough he
analysis o 87,063 esponses collec ed in public opinion
su eys by he Sociological Resea ch Cen e (CIS) du -
ing he yea s 1982, 2000, and 2018. The choice o hese
yea s, which co e s a b oad pe iod o almos 40 yea s,
e lec s he in e es in knowing he possible in e ac ion
be ween gende and his o ical conjunc u e in he olde
popula ion g oup, co esponding o hose bo n be o e
1918, 1936, and 1954, espec i ely.
This Spanish singula i y es s on wo dis inc ions.
Fi s ly, unlike he Uni ed S a es, he Ne he lands, o
Ge many, no democ acy was es ablished in Spain a e
he Second Wo ld Wa . The na ional-Ca holic dic a o -
ship, which ose wi h he Ci il Wa o 1936, las ed un il
1975. The cu en democ a ic e a, wi h i s oo s in he
democ a ic ansi ion, began in he 80s and delayed he
ans o ma ion o he coun y in o a pos -mili a y indus-
ial na ion un il he 1990s (Ca , 2009; Cuad ado,
2016a, 2016b; Go
´mez, 1991), jus when mos Wes e n
coun ies had al eady consolida ed he mode n gende
gap (Dassonne ille, 2021; Gige , 2009; Ingleha , 1991,
1993; Sho ocks, 2018).
Secondly, he non-need o gene a ional eplacemen ,
which no mally accele a es he p ocess o change, is
hough o be because, om he yea 2000 onwa d, he
2SAGE Open
Table 1. Gende Gap Pa e ns Iden i ied by Decade in Wes e n Coun ies in P e ious Li e a u e.
Coun y/Gende
gap pa e n Decade
USA 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s
T adi ional Almond & Ve ba, 1963;
Du e ge , 1955
Almond & Ve ba,
1963
Dealignmen Ingleha , 1977;
Ingleha &
No is, 2000
Mode n Ingleha & No is,
2000, 2003
Ingleha & No is,
2000, 2003
Dassonne ille,
2021
Wes e n coun ies
a
T adi ional Almond & Ve ba, 1963;
Du e ge , 1955
Almond & Ve ba,
1963
Dassonne ille, 2021;
Ingleha , 1977
Dealignmen Dassonne ille, 2021;
Jelen e al., 1994;
Oska son, 1995;
Rusciano, 1992;
Vowles, 1993
Dassonne ille, 2021;
Ingleha &
No is, 2000
Mode n Dassonne ille, 2021 Dassonne ille,
2021
Spain
T adi ional Ingleha & No is,
2000, 2003
Ingleha & No is,
2000, 2003
Dealignmen Dassonne ille,
2021
Mode n
a
Wes e n coun ies e e o di e en coun ies in each s udy. Belgium: Du e ge (1955); Ingleha (1977); Jelen e al. (1994); Ingleha and No is (2000); Ingleha and No is (2003); Dassonne ille
(2021). Canada: Ingleha and No is (2000). Denma k: Jelen e al. (1994); Ingleha and No is (2003); Dassonne ille (2021). F ance: Ingleha (1977); Jelen e al. (1994); Ingleha and No is (2000);
Dassonne ille (2021). I eland: Jelen e al. (1994); Ingleha and No is (2000); Dassonne ille (2021). [Wes e n] Ge many: Abendscho
¨n and S einme z (2014); Almond and Ve ba (1963); Ingleha (1977);
Rusciano (1992); Jelen e al. (1994); Ingleha and No is (2000, 2003); Bo ja and Muxı
´(2003). G eece: Jelen e al. (1994). I aly: Almond and Ve ba (1963); Ingleha (1977); Ingleha and No is (2000,
2003); Dassonne ille (2021). Luxembou g: Jelen e al. (1994); Bo ja and Muxı
´(2003). Mexico: Almond and Ve ba (1963). Ne he lands: Abendscho
¨n and S einme z (2014); Ingleha (1977); Jelen e al.
(1994); Ingleha and No is (2000, 2003); Dassonne ille (2021). New Zealand: Vowles (1993). No way: Abendscho
¨n and S einme z (2014). No dic coun ies: Oska son (1995). Swi ze land: Abendscho
¨n
and S einme z (2014). UK: Abendscho
¨n and S einme z (2014); Almond and Ve ba (1963); Ingleha (1977); Jelen e al. (1994); Ingleha and No is (2000, 2003); Dassonne ille (2021).
3
popula ion coho o o e 64 yea s o age includes hose
indi iduals who we e in ol ed in he s ee mobiliza ions
in de ense o eedom du ing he inal yea s o he dic a-
o ship, be o e he democ a ic ansi ion. As young
adul s hey socialized in a unique con ex o poli ical
p o es s and economic changes, cha ac e is ic o he end
o he F anco egime. This is a gene a ion ha g ea ly
alues eedom, being dep i ed o i in hei you h due o
a o ali a ian sys em. Despi e su e ing ma e ial de icien-
cies, ypical o an unde eloped coun y like Spain a he
end o he F anco egime, his is a gene a ion ha li es
be e han i s p edecesso s due o he economic g ow h
enjoyed h oughou he 60s omen ed by a new economic
policy. The p ocess o poli ical socializa ion a a ime o
change, which hey expe ienced as young adul s, in o-
duced pos -ma e ialism alues in a coun y unde going
economic, poli ical, and social de elopmen . These al-
ues modula ed hei pa e ns o poli ical beha io owa d
he le o he cen e -le and, acco ding o he imp es-
sionable yea s’ heo y, his would pe sis h oughou
hei li e (Dinas, 2010; Mannheim, 1927; To cal, 1989).
In sho , H1 conside s ha , in Spain, he mo e owa d
he mode n gende gap has s a ed, bu much la e in
compa ison wi h o he Wes e n coun ies. In Spain i
would be a he end o he 20 h cen u y, meanwhile in
o he Wes e n coun ies i was a e he Second Wo ld
Wa , in mid-cen u y. H2 o mula es ha his change p o-
cess is as e in Spain because i does no need he imple-
men a ion o he gene a ional eplacemen mechanism o
ans o m ma e ialis alues in o pos -ma e ialis ones
(Ab amson & Ingleha , 1992). Wi h his in mind, he
s udy is ocused on he popula ion o e 64 yea s o age.
Typically, hese people comp ise he indi iduals who
ake he longes o mo e om he adi ional gende gap
o a mode n one. In heo y, a poli ical shi gene ally
only comes abou when hese aged people die and a e
eplaced by younge gene a ions. Bo h hypo heses all
wi hin he pa adigm o de elopmen al heo y o he gen-
de gap by Ingleha and No is (2000, 2003), which
explains he ans o ma ion o he adi ional gende gap
in o he mode n gap as a consequence o he mode niza-
ion p ocess.
Un il now di e en s udies pe o med o Spain ha e
ocused on he gende gap in poli ical a i udes, poli ical
knowledge, and poli ical pa icipa ion, bu as a as we
know no one o hem analyzes he Spanish gende gap
o le - igh sel -placemen on people aged o e 64 om a
longi udinal pe spec i e and conside ing he mechanism
o gene a ional eplacemen . F aile and Go
´mez (2017),
F aile and Sa
´nchez (2019), and Fe ı´n e al. (2020) show
and explain he di e ences be ween men and women in
poli ics in e es . Fe ı´n and F aile (2014) and Roig e al.
(2020) ocus on he gende gap in poli ical knowledge.
Mo ales (1999) analyses and explains he ac o s
impac ing on he gende gap in poli ical pa icipa ion.
Jime
´nez (2009) is limi ed o s udy he ela ionship
be ween women and decision-making pa icipa ion
wi hin igh is pa ies in Po ugal and Spain. Ve ge and
De la Fuen e (2014) cen e on he ins i u ionalized poli i-
cal pa icipa ion and he ole o gende quo as.
Conce ning elde s and poli ics in Spain, Se a e al.
(2016) explo e hei poli ical pa icipa ion, bu in e ms
o poli ical o ganiza ions. This wo k p e ends o con ib-
u e o he exis ing li e a u e ocusing on he ole o he
mode niza ion heo y (Ingleha & Welzel, 2006) and he
imp essionable yea s’ heo y (Mannheim, 1927).
Olde Coho s and D i e s o
Mode niza ion
Mode niza ion is unde s ood as he economic de elop-
men p ocesses linked o poli ical and cul u al changes
ha a e causally in e ela ed. The ansi ion om a a-
di ional socie y o a mode n socie y, and e en ually o a
pos mode n socie y, b ings abou a se ies o socio-
s uc u al changes ha ha e a p o ound impac on cul-
u al pa e ns. These changes, in u n, in luence poli ical
alues and beha io s. No able ans o ma ions include
he inc eased pa icipa ion o women in he labo ma -
ke , hei access o highe educa ion, he eme gence o
al e na i e amily o ganiza ion, such as single pa en ing,
and he p ocess o secula iza ion. These ac o s con ib-
u e o he ise o pos -ma e ialis alues, which place
eedom, sel -exp ession, and gende equali y as p io i y
alues (Ingleha , 1991, 1993). Consequen ly, new gende
oles a e shaped o men and women wi hin bo h he
amily and socie y (Abendscho
¨n & S einme z, 2014).
New oles ha a e ansla ed in o new pa e ns o poli i-
cal beha io . This is d i en, di ec ly, by indi idual
changes and, indi ec ly, by collec i e ans o ma ions
(Roig e al., 2020), wi h a emale popula ion ha mo es
o he le while, on he con a y, he male popula ion
mo es o he igh .
T adi ionally, he sociological and poli ical pe spec-
i es main ain ha he olde popula ion is obli ious o
he s uc u al changes ha he mode niza ion o a coun-
y en ails, such as secula iza ion. Age appea s as a con-
se a i e ac o in he change o alues and, he e o e, in
he pa e ns o poli ical beha io . Acco ding o heo ies
o poli ical socializa ion, such as Mannheim’s imp es-
sionable yea s hypo hesis, ewe changes a e in oduced
a an olde age and he alues acqui ed in young adul -
hood pe sis ; hence he impo ance o delimi ing he
s udy o he popula ion o e 64 yea s o age, he one
mos impe ious o changes.
To lea n mo e abou he e ec s o mode niza ion on
he e olu ion o he gende gap in ideological sel -
posi ioning in Spain, we also s udy i s ela ionship wi h
4SAGE Open
o he indica o s o he mode niza ion p ocess. Classic
sociodemog aphic a iables such as he le el o educa-
ion, he deg ee o eligiosi y, o he size o he
municipali y.
The le el o educa ion p oxies he a ailabili y o cog-
ni i e esou ces, such as he analy ical capaci y o unde -
s and he complexi y o he poli ical sys em; which help
o shape a poli ical iden i y. Female access o uni e si y
s udies is iewed as a d i ing o ce o he de elopmen
o mo e libe al a i udes. F om he classical app oach,
he inc ease in o mal educa ion o he masses is consid-
e ed a mode niza ion synd ome. By s udying he a iable
eligion, he p ocess o secula iza ion o he coun y can
be assessed and he deg ee o openness owa d pos -
ma e ialis alues e alua ed. The size o he municipali y
is also in oduced as a a iable because i is assumed ha
u al en i onmen s end o be mo e conse a i e, while
u ban cen e s a e mo e open and p one o change. As
la ge u ban concen a ions in Spain g ow, pos -
ma e ialis alues a e expec ed o expand while, in u al
a eas, ma e ialism is likely o p edomina e, based on
Ingleha ’s heo y o social change (Ingleha , 1991,
1993). U baniza ion eme ges as ano he o he mode ni-
za ion synd omes. These h ee a iables, he e o e, can
p o ide in o ma ion on he deg ee o openness owa d
pos -ma e ialis alues and gende equali y (Ingleha &
No is, 2000, 2003).
In sho , his s udy aims o s udy whe he and how
he gende gap o adi ional ideological sel -loca ion in
coho s o e 64 yea s o age in Spain has e ol ed since
he end o he 20 h cen u y. Se e al agen s can be in e -
es ed in he answe s o hese ques ions. In e es is shown
in deciphe ing hese poli ical p e e ences by academics in
o de o unde s and he logic o he poli ical sys em, by
poli ical pa ies in o de o de elop hei elec o al s a e-
gies and go e nance, and by echnicians as an ins umen
ha allows hem o o mula e and implemen public pol-
icies. Bu pe haps he mos impo an conside a ion is
he chance o acknowledge he oice o hese women in
he p ocess o building a sus ainable socie y a icula ed
a ound he p inciple o gende equali y, in acco dance
wi h SDG.5.4 o he UN 2030 Agenda. The poli ical
con ex ollowing he end o he F anco egime engen-
de s a poli ical gene a ion ha lies he lag o eedom
which, in he democ a ic pe iod, includes he oldes
g oup.
Ano he conside a ion is he accele a ed aging o he
demog aphic s uc u e o Spain. In 2020, adul s o e
64 yea s o age ep esen ed 20% o he popula ion and
p ojec ions indica e ha his could each mo e han 31%
by 2050 (INE, 2020). In e ec , his demog aphic weigh i-
ness caused by he olde g oup will condi ion he e olu-
ion o Spanish democ acy in he coming decades (Ayba
e al., 2020), hence he ele ance o ocusing s udies on
he poli ical beha io o hose people who will shape he
poli ical u u e.
The nex sec ion discusses he p ocess o mode niza-
ion o Spain and he gene a ional mechanism o change.
Then, he poli ical coho s a e de ined. Las ly, he
empi ical da a a e analyzed and a se ies o inal e lec-
ions p esen ed.
Theo e ical F amewo k App oach o
Mode niza ion
In o de o add ess he e ec s o mode niza ion on he
gende gap in poli ical sel -placemen , we i s need o
know how he mode niza ion p ocess ope a es acco ding
o Ingleha ’s heo y o social change (Ingleha , 1991)
o hen de e mine wha i s e ec is on he di e en poli i-
cal p e e ences be ween men and women (Ingleha &
No is, 2000, 2003).
The Concep o Mode niza ion
Acco ding o Ingleha (1993), he concep o mode niza-
ion e e s o socio-economic de elopmen ha implies a
change in he alue sys em om ma e ialism o pos -
ma e ialism. In hose coun ies whe e a high le el o eco-
nomic p ospe i y has been achie ed, wi h a ma e ial secu-
i y o he majo i y o he popula ion o he o eseeable
u u e gua an eed, he p e ailing alue and belie sys em
is ans o med. In his scena io, people place emphasis
on quali y o li e, on he di e en social, poli ical, eco-
nomic, and aes he ic aspec s o li e, ins ead o wo ying
abou mee ing he basic ma e ial needs o hei physical
and economic su i al. Mo e ele ance is gi en o ee-
dom o choice, au onomy, and human c ea i i y. The
alue sys em is edi ec ed owa d sa is ying o he non-
ma e ial needs. The alues o sel -exp ession p e ail,
which ques ions au ho i y, and au onomy is pu sued.
This mu a ion om ma e ialism o pos -ma e ialism
di ec ly a ec s gende oles and poli ical beha io , he
impac o which is e lec ed in he modula ion o poli i-
cal p e e ences acco ding o gende (Ingleha & No is,
2000, 2003; Ingleha , 1991; No is, 1996b, 2003). Pos -
ma e ialism acili a es an unde s anding o women’s
desi e o sel - ul illmen beyond he scope o he amily
uni , as well as owa d equali y be ween men and women
(Be gh, 2007).
F om Ma e ialism o Pos -Ma e ialism
This ans o ma ion occu s in wo phases. Fi s , he
mo e is om adi ional o indus ial socie y, whe e he
change om an ag icul u al economy o an indus ial
one leads o new wo ld iews, a icula ed a ound secula -
a ional alues. Ma e ial sho ages ansla e in o
Roig e al. 5
en husiasm o economic g ow h as a way o achie ing
he physical secu i y necessa y o su i e.
In a second s age, he indus ial socie y is eplaced by
he pos -indus ial socie y, wi h a g ea e emphasis on
he se ice sec o . This change is e lec ed in a new sys-
em o alues and belie s, which emphasizes indi idual
au onomy, sel -exp ession, and ee choice. The eme -
gence o pos -ma e ialis socie y engende s a new pe cep-
ion o he wo ld ha p io i izes human emancipa ion
and he alues o sel -exp ession o e he alues o physi-
cal and economic secu i y, ypical o indus ializa ion.
High le els o economic g ow h educe he p e ious con-
s ain s on ma e ial su i al while ma e ial, social, and
cogni i e esou ces inc ease. Hand- o-mou h exis ence is
inc easingly a hing o he pas , as is he sho age o ood
and goods. This is he so-called Cul u al Re olu ion
om ma e ialism o pos -ma e ialism.
In e ela ionships Be ween Economic De elopmen
and Cul u al and Poli ical Changes
The e is a cohe en in e -causal ela ionship be ween eco-
nomic de elopmen and cul u al and poli ical changes.
Socio-economic de elopmen leads o a se ies o changes
in he alue sys em which, in u n, has a ecip ocal e ec
on he economic and poli ical sys em. Mode niza ion is
linked o he so-called Change Synd ome ha encom-
passes u baniza ion, indus ializa ion, labo specializa-
ion, mass o mal educa ion, bu eauc a iza ion, and
communica ion de elopmen (Dı´ez & Ingleha , 1994),
which modi ies he poli ical, economic, and cul u al
sys em.
While i is ue ha a s ong ela ionship is es ablished
be ween economic de elopmen and pos -ma e ialism,
a ious s udies also show ha his is insu icien .
Economic de elopmen and cul u al and poli ical change
a e closely ela ed h ough a ecip ocal causal ela ion-
ship. All economic, cul u al, and poli ical ac o s a e
decisi e and iewed as making up an in e dependen sys-
em o causes.
The Role o he His o ical and Cul u al T adi ion
The e ised e sion o mode niza ion heo y by Ingleha
himsel oge he wi h Welzel (Ingleha & Welzel, 2006)
se ed o unde line he ole o he his o ical and cul u al
adi ion o each socie y in his p ocess o change in he
alue sys em. A Ca holic, P o es an , Con ucian, o
Communis he i age, o name bu a ew examples, lea es
i s ma k on he wo ld iew o ha socie y. Cul u al his-
o y de e mines and shapes he mode niza ion p ocess.
While a shi owa d pos -ma e ialism may be desi able,
he pace o socie al ans o ma ion owa d his new belie
sys em can a y due o dis inc his o ical and cul u al
ac o s inhe en o each coun y. These ac o s con ib-
u e o he unique backg ound ha shapes he p ocess o
change.
The Sca ci y and Socializa ion Hypo heses and he
Gene a ional Gende Gap
Ingleha ’s mode niza ion heo y explains he p ocess o
change o he p e ailing alue sys em om ma e ialism
o pos -ma e ialism based on he sca ci y hypo hesis and
he socializa ion hypo hesis. Ma e ial sca ci y can be
summed up as he na u al conce n o any human being
o his/he physical and economic su i al. The second
hypo hesis poin s ou ha he younge coho s a e hose
wi h he highes le els o pos -ma e ialism because hei
g ow h akes place in a con ex o economic and physical
secu i y. The abundance o ma e ial esou ces and he
absence o wa mean hey do no eel exposed o isk.
Gene a ional exchange eme ges as he engine o
change in he sys em o alues and belie s (Valle
´e-Dubois
e al., 2020). The younge gene a ions, whose socializa-
ion akes place in a e y di e en en i onmen o ha o
he olde gene a ion, gene a e new alue p io i ies ha
p og essi ely eplace he alues held by olde people.
Gene a ional eplacemen explains he consolida ion o
new p io i ies, alues, and beha io s which lead o he
new gende gap model (Ha sgo , 2018; No is, 1996b,
1999, 2003; Sho ocks, 2018). ‘‘Those gene a ional di e -
ences o igina e in he ac ha ideological change e lec s
changing alues in socie y and a end owa d mo e pos -
ma e ialism’’ (Dassonne ille, 2021). This phenomenon is
known as he ‘‘gene a ional gende gap’’ (Dassonne ille,
2021; Ingleha & No is, 2000, 2003; Ingleha , 1991;
Sho ocks, 2018). I explains how coho s con ibu e o
he o ma ion o poli ical posi ions by linking he di e -
ences be ween gene a ions o he his o ical con ex in
which poli ical socializa ion occu s (Lo en e, 2017).
The Lacuna o F ancoism
Ha ing de ined he heo e ical amewo k on mode ni y,
we now ake a close look a he mode niza ion p ocess
in Spain.
The O igin o he Spanish Singula i y
Di e en empi ical s udies (Dassonne ille, 2021; Gige ,
2009; Ingleha & No is, 2000, 2003) ha e shown ha ,
a e he pe iod o economic p ospe i y which began in
he Wes a he end o Wo ld Wa II, a change occu ed
in he dominan alue sys em. S ong economic g ow h,
oge he wi h he consolida ion o libe al democ acy and
he wel a e s a e, in luenced mos people’s pe cep ion
ha once gua an eed basic ma e ial needs, hey could
6SAGE Open
a o d o di ec hei a en ion owa d o he conce ns,
such as eedom o gende inequali y (Ingleha &
No is, 2000).
In Spain, howe e , a e he Ci il Wa (ended in
1939), a o ali a ian egime was es ablished. The new
egime, which las ed o almos 40 yea s, ook he coun-
y in a di ec ion away om mode niza ion. I was no
un il he dea h o he dic a o F ancisco F anco in 1975
ha he coun y se ou i mly owa d i s poli ical, eco-
nomic, and cul u al mode niza ion. This mode niza ion
culmina ed in he 80s, wi h he ans o ma ion o he
poli ical sys em in o a libe al democ acy, wi h i s own
wel a e s a e, simila o i s Eu opean neighbo s and ha
opened he way o Spain’s en y in o he Eu opean
Union in 1987.
The Fi s S ages o he F anco Regime
In he i s s age o he F anco egime, he au a chic pol-
icy oge he wi h he in e na ional isola ion su e ed by
Spain, due o i s posi ion in de ense o he Axis powe s
du ing Wo ld Wa II, plunged he coun y in o a se ious
economic and social dep ession. Po e y coexis ed along-
side a scena io o ha sh poli ical ep ession in which he
a my ac ed as en o ce s, silencing any c i ical oice o
he egime. Fea and hunge e u ned o Spanish socie y,
whose economic s uc u e e ol ed a ound ag icul u e
and a alue sys em based on adi ional and u al li e,
whe e ma e ial sca ci y p e ailed (Ca , 2009).
The 1950s ma ked a signi ican u ning poin (Ga cı´a,
1990a, 1990b) cha ac e ized by poli ical, economic, and
social ans o ma ions. This pe iod ep esen ed he end
o he au a chic pe iod and he ha dship ha began wi h
he Ci il Wa . In his pe iod, a new e a o de elopmen -
alism and apid economic g ow h s a ed.
The end o in e na ional isola ion was he ca alys o
economic openness, ad oca ed by he newly appoin ed
Minis e o Comme ce, A bu u´ a, coupled wi h he sign-
ing o he so-called Mad id Pac be ween Spain and he
Uni ed S a es in 1953. Th ough he Pac , he Uni ed
S a es included Spain in he g oup o allies which o med
he wes e n bloc agains communism, led by he o me
USSR. The e ision o he No h Ame ican s a egy
owa d Spain en ails he li ing o poli ical and economic
sanc ions in exchange o he es ablishmen o mili a y
bases in Spanish e i o y, opening he doo s o he econ-
omy o a ma ke economy (Pin
˜ei o, 2006).
The Economic Openness P ocess
This i s libe aliza ion succeeded in boos ing indus y,
which became he main economic sec o , elega ing ag i-
cul u e o second place. Howe e , he indus ializa ion
p ocess con inued o espond o he F anco egime’s
p o ec ionis and na ionalis p oduc ion model, embo-
died by he Na ional Ins i u e o Indus y (INI) wi h i s
policy o indus ializa ion by subs i u ion h ough
impo s. The p oblems o he Spanish economy wo -
sened. The huge de ici in he cu en accoun balance o
paymen s wi h massi e impo s and deple ing ese es,
oge he wi h exo bi an in la ion, we e cause o conce n
bo h wi hin he go e nmen and ou side he coun y.
Technoc a s in he execu i e au ho i ies de ended he
ma ke economy (Ga cı´a & My o, 2005) and he Uni ed
S a es lobbied o a change in he p oduc ion model.
Faced wi h i ual bank up cy in 1957 and he ea o
an economically and socially unsus ainable scena io,
he e was a poli ical shi in he egime (Ca alie i, 2019).
F anco inco po a ed ep esen a i es o he mos libe al
economic wing o he egime in his go e nmen . Wi h he
app o al o he Dec ee-Law o Economic Regula ion, o
July 21, 1959, he S abiliza ion Plan, which con ained a
p og am o s uc u al e o ms, he an i-libe al and p o-
ec ionis economic model was de ini i ely abandoned by
he F anco egime, showing, ins ead, a commi men o
economic openness (Chueca, 1989; Nu´ n
˜ez, & O ega,
2009).
The Mode niza ion o Spain
Economic libe aliza ion kick-s a ed a s age o excep-
ional economic g ow h in an expanding in e na ional
ma ke : Spain emb aced de elopmen alism. The a i al
o o eign capi al, he de alua ion o he cu ency, and
he eme gence o ou ism, among o he ac o s, esul ed
in an imp o emen in he s anda d o li ing o ci izens
b ough abou by an inc ease in wages and basic income.
This was accompanied by he eme gence o he middle
class.
Along wi h economic de elopmen , he e we e majo
socio-demog aphic ans o ma ions, such as a u al exo-
dus, he de elopmen o a consume socie y, u baniza-
ion, and an awa eness o o he cul u es and li es yles
h ough con ac wi h in e na ional ou is s. The swi ch
o a se ice economy ad anced massi ely and, in he
mid-60s, he se ice sec o su passed he indus ial sec o
(Alcaide, 2003; Ga cı
´a & My o, 2005). The mode niza-
ion o Spain had esumed a e an in e up ion o some
wo decades ollowing he ic o y o he mili a y up ising
in 1936 (Mo adiellos, 2000).
Acco ding o Ingleha ’s social change heo y
(Ingleha , 1991, 1993), he imp o emen in he eco-
nomic and social si ua ion o he 1960s is likely o con-
ibu e o cul u al change in he younge gene a ions.
The eeling o be e economic and physical secu i y
ede ines people’s alue p io i ies, p e iously amed
wi hin a dic a o ship, and poli ical eedom is inc eas-
ingly desi ed acco ding o popula sen imen (Benedic o,
Roig e al. 7
1989; Lo
´pez, 1982; Lo
´pez & Buce a, 1975; Ma ı´n,
2004). Indeed, an i-F anco demons a ions p oli e a ed.
Opposi ion o he egime was o ganized h ough he
labo mo emen ( he CCOO union), he s uden mo e-
men ( he SEU union), o o he en i ies, such as neigh-
bo hood associa ions (A
´l a ez, 1994).
The Rise o New Pos -Ma e ialism Values
In he 1970s, he con adic ion be ween libe al economic
policy and he lack o poli ical eedom was inc easingly
unsus ainable (Del Campo, 2001; Julia
`, 1999). Social
imbalances we e widening wi hin la ge ci ies, and
be ween he u ban and u al wo ld. Social con lic mul i-
plied. The s uden p o es mo emen was also expand-
ing, pushing he F anco egime o decla e a s a e o
excep ion o 2 mon hs h oughou he coun y in 1969.
In he go e nmen , ha dline s, along wi h Vice
P esiden Ca e o Blanco, ad oca ed o he immobili y
o he egime and ep ession wi h summa y ials, such
as ha o he Bu gos Wa Council in 1970. The ou b eak
o he in e na ional oil c isis in 1973 again ep esen ed a
se back in F anco’s economic policy, and social un es
an h ough he s ee s o he main ci ies. The dea h o
he dic a o was a u ning poin . Socie y was c ying ou
o change, e idenced by he o e whelming demons a-
ions ha swep ac oss he coun y. A mo e p agma ic
pa o he go e nmen also a o ed economic and poli i-
cal mode niza ion (Ma eos, 2001; Mo adiellos, 2000;
Powell, 2001; Tussell, 1997). Bu he con e gence wi h
Eu ope did no a i e un il he 80s, a e a sho poli ical
and economic ansi ion. This ansi ion laid he g ound-
wo k o he es ablishmen o a consensus ha o med
he ounda ion o Spanish libe al democ acy, ans o m-
ing Spain in o a mode nized coun y and an o icial
membe s a e o he Eu opean Union.
In summa y, mode niza ion as an economic, social,
and poli ical change did no each Spain un il he end o
he 20 h cen u y. The F anco egime delayed his ans-
o ma ion in compa ison o o he coun ies, such as
Ge many whe e, a e he Second Wo ld Wa , a libe al
democ a ic sys em was ins alled, and Ge man socie y
was imme sed in mode niza ion (Ingleha , 1991;
Ingleha & Welzel, 2006). Consequen ly, Spain joined
he mode niza ion p ocess much la e . In ac , he da a
analysis sec ion poin s ou ha his p ocess in Spain
mo ed a a di e en pace and, consequen ly, he a e o
e olu ion in he gende gap in ideological sel -placemen
was also di e en .
Th ee Coho s
By ocusing he esea ch sample on he popula ion g oup
o e 64 yea s o age, ou in en ion is o co obo a e
whe he olde women place hei poli ical iden i y on he
igh o he ideological scale and, he e o e, whe he he
gende gap esponds o he adi ional model o his
coho . By doing his, he aim is o a oid unde es ima -
ing he di e ences be ween gende gaps by gene a ion.
As Sho ocks (2018) o Ingleha and No is (2000) poin
ou , an agg ega e-le el analysis o all gene a ions o men
and women uns he isk o canceling ou he di e ences
be ween gene a ions, wi h he younges ollowing he
mode n model and he olde ones he mo e adi ional
model.
To ob ain he global end o he gende gap in ideolo-
gical sel -placemen and gi en he insu iciency o empi i-
cal da a be o e he 1990s due o he sca ci y o opinion
poll eco ds, we choose h ee coho s whose poli ical
iden i y was o ged p io o con empo a y mode n soci-
e y, in h ee momen s o key his o ical change in Spain
du ing 20 h cen u y: he Ci il Wa , he economic open-
ing and de elopmen , and he end o he F anco egime
(see Table 2). ‘‘We de ine he ‘coho ’ as ha gene a ion
o indi iduals whose socializa ion and alues a e condi-
ioned by one o mo e his o ical e en s ha ma k i in a
unique way and ha , he e o e, di e en ia e i om he
o he s’’ (To cal, 1989). The analysis ocuses on hose
coho s o 64 yea s o age o olde , ali e once Spain
a i es o democ acy. The denomina ion o each
Table 2. De ini ion o he Th ee Coho s Unde Analysis.
Poli ical socializa ion con ex be ween he ages o 17–21
Coho name Bi h da e
Da e when passing he
age o 64 Pe iod His o ic e en s
Fea Gene a ion Be o e 1917 1982 1933–1942 Ci il Wa and poli ical sys em change: dea h, au a chy,
and po e y.
S abili y Gene a ion Be o e 1935 2000 1951–1960 Economic g ow h and poli ical s abili y: ou ism, incipien
indus ializa ion, u ban planning, e c.
Change Gene a ion Be o e 1953 2018 1969–1976 Poli ical p o es s o eedom and an end o dic a o ship:
s uden s, unions, opposi ion.
Sou ce. Compiled by he au ho s.
8SAGE Open
gene a ion is de e mined by he poli ical-economic con-
ex in which he poli ical iden i y o i s membe s is con-
igu ed (Ma ı
´n, 2004).
This delimi a ion is based on he imp essionable yea s’
heo y (Mannheim, 1927), acco ding o which poli ical
iden i y is o ged in ea ly adul hood and las s h oughou
li e. In his s udy, he p ocess o cons uc ion o poli ical
p e e ences, which a e de e mined by he poli ical, social,
and economic ci cums ances in which each indi idual
g ows up, akes place a ound he age o 17 o 21 yea s
(Dinas, 2010, 2013). F om ha age onwa d and wi h he
passing o ime, people a e inc easingly eluc an o
change hei poli ical posi ions. The his o ical e en s,
he e o e, a e di ec ly linked o he socializa ion p ocess
which condi ions p e e ed alues and, he e o e, he
ansi ion om ma e ialism o pos -ma e ialism. Be ween
each coho g oup he e is a di e ence o 18 yea s, which
lea es enough ma gin o no ice change despi e he sho
age span o 5 yea s, om 17 o 21 yea s o age, analyzed
in he li e a u e. This allows us o in oduce lexibili y
and conside ou coho s in a b oade sense. The h ee
coho s unde s udy a e delimi ed by his o ical and poli i-
cal c i e ia which help o de e mine when socializa ion
occu s and o iden i y he poli ical con ex s ha may
ha e in luenced he o ma ion o poli ical ideology.
The i s gene a ion unde s udy is wha we call he
Fea gene a ion, which su i es he d ama o wa and
ma e ial sca ci y ha ensues. Thei poli ical socializa ion
and p og ession o adul hood occu ed du ing he Ci il
Wa (1936–1939) and he i s yea s o he dic a o ship,
a ime ma ked by con lic , he eplacemen o democ acy
by a o ali a ian poli ical sys em, dea h, ma e ial sca -
ci y, and ailu e o he au a chic economic policy. Thei
alue p io i ies emain a he sca ci y end on he
ma e ial-wel a e axis o Ingleha ’s mode niza ion heo y
(Ingleha , 1991), who, acco ding o Maslow (1987), con-
side s ha wha is lacking is yea ned o and becomes a
necessi y. This gene a ion was bo n be o e he end o he
Fi s Wo ld Wa , u ning 64 o olde in 1982.
We call he second coho unde analysis he S abili y
gene a ion. I s membe s we e bo n be o e o in he mid-
dle o he Ci il Wa and eached 64 yea s o age o mo e
in he yea 2000. The economic opening o Spain inaugu-
a es a s age o g ow h and poli ical s abili y, no seen
since be o e he wa , and his ends he g ea economic
and social dep ession in which he coun y had been
imme sed since he beginning o he wa in he 30s.
In e na ional ou ism, incipien indus ializa ion, u bani-
za ion, and he de elopmen o he middle class, among
o he phenomena, ma k he beginning o poli ical socia-
liza ion o his coho , which expe iences g ea e ma e ial
secu i y han i s p edecesso s. This socio-economic de el-
opmen is linked o he s a o cul u al and poli ical
change ha c ys allizes in he eac i a ion o he
opposi ion o he egime unde he banne o g ea e
eedom (Benedic o, 1989; Lo
´pez, 1982).
The so-called Change gene a ion e e s o hese people
who eached 64 yea s o age in 2018 and we e bo n a
he beginning o he 1950s, which ma ks a pe iod ha
began wi h he signing o he so-called Mad id Pac o
1953 be ween he Uni ed S a es and Spain, conside ed
he i s s ep owa d he end o he coun y’s in e na-
ional poli ical and economic isola ion. Thei poli ical
socializa ion akes place be ween 1969 and 1976. I is
ano he his o ical momen , bu om a di e en pe spec-
i e. Poli ical p o es s o eedom and dic a o ship p o-
li e a e, led by ei he s uden s, unions, o he opposi ion.
This gene a ion also li es in he pe iod o g ea es eco-
nomic expansion o he F anco egime be o e he col-
lapse o he dic a o ship in he mid-1970s. Thei desi e
o eedom and poli ical change, oge he wi h a pe cep-
ion o be e physical and economic secu i y, modi ies
hei p e e ences o ma e ial alues owa d hose o
well-being, acco ding o Ingleha ’s pa adigm o cul u al
change (Ingleha , 1991).
Towa d he Mode n Gende Gap
His o ically, Spanish women ha e been conside ed o be
signi ican ly mo e o he igh han men. The adi ional
weigh o he Ca holic Chu ch and a u al socie y ha e
gene a ed his image o Spain. In ac , p io o he
app o al o women’s su age in Spain in 1931, he
Radical Socialis Pa y, wi h he pa liamen a y membe
Vic o ia Ken a i s head, opposed he ecogni ion o he
igh o o e o women on he g ounds ha women
we e unde he con ol o he conse a i e ecclesias ical
powe .
The endu ing egime o he F anco dic a o ship, wi h
a s ong Falangis -based pa ia chal ideology, also
helped o build his pe cep ion and ein o ced i o
40 yea s. The egime dedica ed eno mous e o s o
upholding he subo dina e posi ion o women wi h
espec o men and hei obliga ion o he amily a ena.
F om di e en ins ances and wi h di e en ins umen s,
such as he Women’s Sec ion o he Spanish Falange o
e en in school, a di e en ia ing and conse a i e gende
discou se was p ojec ed.
This discou se has a main axis a adi ional di ision
o labo based on gende in he amily uni . Thus, men
assumed he ole as b eadwinne s while women we e
assigned he ole o ca egi e s (Lewis, 2001). While he
male popula ion de eloped in he public space, he
emale popula ion was con ined o he p i a e space,
wi h amily and home, and whe e he mo als o he
Ca holic Chu ch go e ned unde he di ec ion o he
egime (Simo
´-Nogue a e al., 2020).
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