Actual Issues of Modern Science, ESeJ, 36 (2025)

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GLOBAL SCIENCES IN THE NAME OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
EUROPEAN SCIENTIFIC E-JOURNAL
ISSN 2695-0243
ISSUE 36
ACTUAL ISSUES OF MODERN SCIENCE
P oceedings o 2025 EIID In e na ional Con e ence
DOI 10.47451/col-036-2025
Eu opean Ins i u e o Inno a ion De elopmen
EU, Czech Republic
2025
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Ac ual Issues o Mode n Science. P oceedings o 2025 EIID In e na ional Con e ence.
Eu opean Scien i ic e-Jou nal, 36. Os a a: Eu opean Ins i u e o Inno a ion De elopmen ,
2025. — 159 p.
DOI 10.47451/col-036-2025
Scien i ic Supe iso o he Issue
Alexande Buychik
Doc o o Economics, Ph.D. in Social Sciences
Edi o -in-Chie o he Issue
Maksim Bakh in
Full P o esso , Doc o o Philosophy
Chie Re iewe o he Issue
I an P anens iel
Full P o esso , Doc o o Philosophy
Di ec o o he Issue
Anisiia Tomanek
Mas e o Social Sciences and Cul u al S udies
Designed by Eka e ina Rusako a
Design Pa ne : In e na ional Design

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Table o Con en s
Buychik, A., Tomanek, A. The applica ion o digi al g aphics so wa e in cul u al he i age
es o a ion: documen a ion, econs uc ion, and isualisa ion 7
Pe ko a, E. A sys em o indica o s o moni o ing sus ainable ou ism de elopmen o
ou ism des ina ions 44
Bakh in, M. V. Subjec o social memo y and he ansmission o his o ici y 59
Aida o , Z., Usupo a, Ch., Sa ybaldie a, R., Ba ynbae a, A., Kulzhano a, A. Bioe hics as
a esponsible a i ude o he echnical de elopmen o medicine 69
Dashuai, C., Usupo a, C., Abdyldae , M., Sa ybaldie a, R. P oblems o cul i a ing
ideological secu i y in he educa ional en i onmen 79
Solako , R. Gene al cha ac e is ics o p ope y p o ec ion 93
G igo iu, I. Meaning, ela ion, iden i y and gene ali y in he T ac a ian 107
Rybako , N. S., To uba o a, T. V., Ya molich, N. A., Tkach, E. N., Kochne a, L. V. Human
secu i y in digi al en i onmen 125
Kolyada, A. A. Fea u es o applying he cus ome sa is ac ion index (CSI) in business
modelling, s a egic planning, and s a egic managemen 137
Romano a, N. A. Elec omyog aphic signal as eedback o pel ic loo muscle
ehabili a ion and aining 145
Au ho s 155
Ci a ions in APA 157
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Buychik, A. [
a
][1], Tomanek, A. [
b
][2]
THE APPLICATION OF DIGITAL GRAPHICS SOFTWARE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
RESTORATION: DOCUMENTATION, RECONSTRUCTION, AND VISUALISATION [1]
Abs ac : The p ese a ion, documen a ion, and es o a ion o cul u al he i age p esen one o he mos
signi ican challenges in con empo a y schola ship, a ield ha in eg a es a chaeology, his o y,
a chi ec u e, and digi al echnologies. As angible and in angible he i age emains unde h ea om a
mul i ude o ac o s, including na u al deg ada ion, a med con lic , clima e change, and u ban
de elopmen , he de elopmen o inno a i e ools o documen a ion and econs uc ion has become a
c i ical necessi y. Wi hin his con ex , digi al g aphics so wa e has eme ged as a co ne s one o mode n
cul u al he i age esea ch, p o iding p o essionals wi h new me hods o eco ding, isualising, and
econs uc ing a e ac s and monumen s wi h an unp eceden ed deg ee o p ecision and accessibili y.
The dis inc ion be ween 2D and 3D g aphics applica ions is cen al o his ield, wi h bo h ypes o
so wa e se ing indispensable unc ions in he i age p ese a ion. The subjec o he s udy is a
comp ehensi e analysis o he cha ac e is ics, ad an ages, and applica ions o key 2D and 3D g aphics
p og ammes wi hin he con ex o cul u al he i age es o a ion. The objec o he s udy is he b oad
ange o cul u al he i age asse s, including a e ac s, monumen s, and his o ical s uc u es, as well as he
digi al ools used o p ese e hem. The s udy aims o explo e he ole o digi al g aphics so wa e in
ad ancing non-in asi e eco ding, p ecise econs uc ion, and e ec i e knowledge dissemina ion in
cul u al he i age es o a ion. The s udy demons a es ha digi al g aphics so wa e is a undamen al ool
o documen a ion, econs uc ion, and isualisa ion in cul u al he i age es o a ion. By analysing a ange
o 2D and 3D pla o ms, his pape has highligh ed hei capaci y o acili a e p ecise and non-in asi e
me hods o eco ding and p ese a ion. The ansi ion o digi al wo k lows no only enhances he
accu acy o documen a ion bu also democ a ises access o his o ical objec s, allowing o hei s udy
and app ecia ion by a wide audience, including he gene al public and in e na ional esea che s. The
c ea ion o de ailed 3D models om lase scans and pho og amme y, in pa icula , o e s a powe ul
means o digi ally es o ing s uc u es and a e ac s ha a e damaged o no longe exis . This capabili y
is i al o cul u al p ese a ion, as i sa egua ds his o ical da a agains u u e loss and p o ides new
a enues o schola ly inqui y. The au ho s conclude ha he applica ion o digi al g aphics so wa e
ep esen s a pa adigm shi in cul u al he i age es o a ion. I allows us o mo e beyond passi e
documen a ion o an ac i e, dynamic o m o p ese a ion ha is bo h scien i ically obus and widely
accessible. The digi al e olu ion o e s a powe ul and sus ainable means o ensu ing ha he na a i es
and ma e ial e idence o ou sha ed pas endu e o u u e gene a ions, se ing as an i eplaceable
esou ce o educa ion, esea ch, and cul u al app ecia ion.
Keywo ds: kli onomy, cul u al he i age es o a ion, g aphic p og ammes, digi al g aphics so wa e, 2D
g aphics p og ammes, 3D g aphics p og ammes, a chaeological si es, digi al documen a ion,
econs uc ion o cul u al he i age, isualisa iono cul u al he i age.
Abb e ia ions:
2𝐷 is wo-dimensional,
3𝐷 is h ee-dimensional,
𝐴𝑅 is augmen ed eali y,
a
Alexande Buychik, Doc o o Economical Sciences, Ph.D. in Social Sciences, Supe iso , Eu opean Ins i u e o Inno a ion
De elopmen , Tucula Holding. Os a a, Czech Republic. ORCID 0000-0002-2542-4198. E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
b
Anisiia Tomanek, Mas e o Social and Cul u al Sciences. Chie Di ec o , Eu opean Ins i u e o Inno a ion De elopmen ,
Tucula Holding. Os a a, Czech Republic. E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
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ende ing, in e ope abili y
wi h CAD/GIS
ea u es, simula ion o si e
condi ions, and in e disciplina y
collabo a ion
ZB ush
3D
Recons uc ion
Digi al sculp ing, high-
esolu ion de ailing,
ex u e mapping,
subdi ision modelling
Ideal o ec ea ing in ica e
a e ac s and elie s, p oducing
digi al eplicas o s udy, i ual
display, o 3D p in ing
Ske chUp
3D
Recons uc ion,
Visualisa ion
In ui i e in e ace, laye
managemen , CAD/GIS
in eg a ion, plugin suppo
Facili a es apid modelling o
buildings, a chaeological si es,
and landscapes o p elimina y
es o a ion planning and
educa ional pu poses
Rhinoce os
3D
Recons uc ion
NURBS modelling, 3D
p in ing compa ibili y,
p ecise su ace modelling,
plugin ex ensions
P o ides highly accu a e
a chi ec u al and a e ac
econs uc ions, suppo s digi al
ab ica ion, and ensu es
dimensional ideli y o
es o a ion
Thus, digi al g aphics so wa e—bo h 2D and 3D—has become indispensable o he
documen a ion, econs uc ion, and isualisa ion o cul u al he i age. I p o ides no me ely a
echnological enhancemen bu a me hodological shi , allowing o g ea e accu acy,
accessibili y, and sus ainabili y in he p ese a ion o humani y’s sha ed pas . The ollowing
a icle explo es he cha ac e is ics, ad an ages, and applica ions o key 2D and 3D g aphics
p og ammes in he con ex o cul u al he i age es o a ion, wi h pa icula emphasis on hei
ole in ad ancing non-in asi e eco ding, p ecise econs uc ion, and e ec i e dissemina ion o
knowledge.
Digi al Documen a ion: 2D Ras e and Vec o G aphics
Accu a e documen a ion o a e ac s, a wo ks, and a chi ec u al emains is a ounda ional
s ep in cul u al he i age p ese a ion (G een e al., 2016; Zhang e al., 2019). Ras e and ec o
g aphics so wa e acili a e high- esolu ion eco ding, de ailed analysis, and non-des uc i e
ep esen a ion o he i age objec s (Acke e al., 2021; Waas, 2014). Adobe Pho oshop, as a leading
as e g aphics edi o , p o ides laye -based edi ing, ad anced e ouching ools, and p ecise
colou co ec ion (Waas, 2014), enabling esea che s and conse a o s o econs uc aded
elemen s, emo e su ace con aminan s, and simula e es o a ion in e en ions digi ally. This
ensu es ha agile a e ac s emain unal e ed while p oducing eliable e e ence ma e ials o
u u e s udy.
Co elDRAW, a ec o g aphics pla o m, suppo s p ecise echnical illus a ion, scalable
diag ams, and accu a e geome ic ep esen a ions, making i pa icula ly sui able o
a chi ec u al documen a ion and a i ac econs uc ion whe e dimensional ideli y is essen ial.
Open-sou ce al e na i es such as GIMP o e compa able unc ionali y, including non-
des uc i e edi ing, plugin suppo , and high- esolu ion image handling, p o iding a cos -
e ec i e solu ion o smalle ins i u ions and independen esea che s (Waas, 2014; Zhang e al.,
2019). A ini y Pho o u he expands digi al documen a ion capabili ies by combining
p o essional-g ade e ouching, colou managemen , and high-speed p ocessing, allowing
accu a e eco ding o ex u es, ma e ials, and s uc u al de ails (Acke e al., 2021).

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These 2D ools collec i ely enable de ailed isual analysis, p epa a ion o schola ly and
educa ional ma e ials, and he c ea ion o digi al a chi es ha p ese e he isual in eg i y o
cul u al he i age o e ime. They also se e as p epa a o y pla o ms o subsequen 3D
econs uc ion, ensu ing ha he es o a ion p ocess is guided by scien i ically obus
documen a ion.
Adobe Pho oshop
Among he wide ange o digi al ools a ailable o cul u al he i age p o essionals, Adobe
Pho oshop occupies a unique and endu ing posi ion. O iginally de eloped as an image-edi ing
p og amme o pho og aphy and g aphic design, i has been widely adop ed in a chaeology, a
his o y, conse a ion science, and museology as a e sa ile pla o m o he documen a ion,
analysis, and isualisa ion o he i age objec s. I s ele ance lies no only in i s echnical capaci y
o manipula e as e images bu also in i s adap abili y o esea ch, conse a ion, and public
engagemen p ac ices (Waas, 2014; So o-Ma ín, 2013).
A cen al con ibu ion o Pho oshop o cul u al he i age lies in i s abili y o enhance he
legibili y o deg aded o damaged isual ma e ial. A chaeological documen a ion o en in ol es
pho og aphs o ain wall pain ings, e oded insc ip ions, o manusc ip s ha a e pa ially
obscu ed by age and en i onmen al condi ions (Howland e al., 2014; Jones & Chu ch, 2020).
Th ough unc ions such as onal adjus men , colou balancing, and mul ispec al image
enhancemen , Pho oshop allows conse a o s o highligh ain aces o pigmen , ink, o
su ace incisions ha a e o he wise in isible o he naked eye (Bo ns ein & Keep, 2023). This
echnique has been success ully applied, o ins ance, in he digi al es o a ion o he Dead Sea
Sc olls, whe e ca e ul manipula ion o high- esolu ion scans e ealed minu e ex ual de ails
wi hou he need o physical in e en ion. Simila ly, he B i ish Museum has employed
Pho oshop in he enhancemen o pho og aphic documen a ion o Assy ian wall elie s,
imp o ing bo h schola ly in e p e a ion and digi al a chi ing (Chapinal-He as e al., 2024).
Ano he signi ican ad an age o Pho oshop lies in i s capaci y o non-in asi e
econs uc ion. In conse a ion p ac ice, physical in e en ion is o en limi ed by e hical
conce ns, such as he need o p ese e he in eg i y o he o iginal objec and a oid i e e sible
al e a ions. Pho oshop p o ides a i ual en i onmen in which conse a o s can es
hypo he ical econs uc ions o missing deco a i e elemen s, colou pale es, o iconog aphic
de ails. Fo example, in he es o a ion o medie al s ained glass windows a Can e bu y
Ca hed al, digi al econs uc ions c ea ed in Pho oshop enabled schola s o isualise possible
o iginal colou schemes, guiding he physical conse a ion p ocess while main aining a clea
dis inc ion be ween o iginal and econs uc ed elemen s. Such applica ions unde sco e he ole
o Pho oshop as a me hodological b idge be ween documen a ion and conse a ion decision-
making.
Pho oshop also plays an impo an ole in he dissemina ion and public p esen a ion o
he i age. Museums and he i age ins i u ions inc easingly ely on digi al isualisa ions o
communica e complex na a i es o di e se audiences. By enabling he c ea ion o composi e
images, econs uc ions, and educa ional isualisa ions, Pho oshop suppo s he de elopmen
o exhibi ions ha balance schola ly accu acy wi h isual accessibili y. A no able example can
be ound in he econs uc ion o he ancien ci y o Palmy a, des oyed in pa du ing ecen
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con lic s in Sy ia. Digi al image y p ocessed and econs uc ed using Pho oshop o med he
basis o in e na ional exhibi ions and online esou ces, allowing global audiences o engage wi h
Palmy a’s cul u al signi icance despi e he physical damage o i s monumen s.
The e sa ili y o Pho oshop ex ends u he in o in e disciplina y in eg a ion. I s laye ed
edi ing en i onmen allows he seamless combina ion o pho og aphs, scanned d awings,
sa elli e images, and 3D ende ings, p oducing comp ehensi e da ase s o bo h academic and
applied he i age p ojec s. This has been pa icula ly aluable in a chi ec u al he i age, whe e
his o ical pho og aphs o buildings a e digi ally es o ed and combined wi h con empo a y
su ey da a o p oduce accu a e isual e e ences o econs uc ion p ojec s. In I aly, e.g.,
conse a ionis s ha e used Pho oshop o p ocess a chi al pho og aphs o Renaissance escoes,
in eg a ing hem wi h mode n condi ion epo s o plan phased conse a ion in e en ions.
In addi ion o conse a ion and documen a ion, Pho oshop con ibu es signi ican ly o
digi al a chi ing. The digi isa ion o manusc ip s, a wo ks, and a e ac s is a p io i y o
lib a ies, a chi es, and museums wo ldwide, and Pho oshop emains he indus y s anda d o
image pos -p ocessing. I ensu es ha digi ised he i age collec ions main ain bo h isual ideli y
and long- e m usabili y by co ec ing dis o ions, emo ing a e ac s om scanning p ocesses,
and s anda dising ile o ma s o sus ainable s o age. P ojec s such as he Eu opeana digi al
lib a y and he Wo ld Digi al Lib a y ha e bene i ed om Pho oshop’s image op imisa ion
ools, which gua an ee ha digi ised he i age ma e ials a e p ese ed in high quali y o u u e
gene a ions o schola s and he wide public.
Finally, Pho oshop suppo s collabo a i e and educa ional dimensions o he i age esea ch.
The so wa e’s wide a ailabili y and in ui i e in e ace enable no only p o essionals bu also
s uden s, olun ee s, and communi y he i age g oups o pa icipa e in documen a ion and
in e p e a ion p ojec s. T aining p og ammes in digi al he i age ou inely inco po a e
Pho oshop as a ounda ional ool, equipping u u e specialis s wi h p ac ical skills o
conse a ion-o ien ed image p ocessing.
Thus, Adobe Pho oshop exempli ies he ole o 2D g aphics so wa e in cul u al he i age
p ese a ion and es o a ion. By combining ad anced image manipula ion wi h accessibili y and
e sa ili y, i se es as a powe ul ins umen o enhancing documen a ion, enabling non-
in asi e econs uc ion, suppo ing public engagemen , and sa egua ding digi al a chi es. Real-
wo ld p ojec s such as he Dead Sea Sc olls, Can e bu y Ca hed al s ained glass, and he
econs uc ion o Palmy a demons a e i s capaci y o b idge scien i ic igou and cul u al
dissemina ion. I s endu ing ele ance wi hin digi al he i age p ac ice unde sco es how
es ablished design so wa e can be adap ed o mee he e ol ing challenges o p ese ing he
ma e ial and isual eco d o human ci ilisa ion.
Co elDRAW
Vec o -based design so wa e has become a c i ical asse in he digi al documen a ion and
conse a ion o cul u al he i age (Buna e al., 2014; Zhang e al., 2019), o e ing p ecision,
scalabili y, and adap abili y o complex in e disciplina y asks. Among he mos widely adop ed
pla o ms in his ca ego y is Co elDRAW, a p o essional ec o g aphics edi o ha has been
success ully in eg a ed in o wo k lows o he i age p ese a ion, a chaeological econs uc ion,
and museum communica ion. I s signi icance lies in i s abili y o c ea e accu a e, scalable
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d awings and econs uc ions ha suppo bo h schola ly analysis and p ac ical conse a ion
e o s (Buna e al., 2014).
One o he p incipal s eng hs o Co elDRAW in cul u al he i age applica ions is i s ec o -
based app oach, which allows o he p oduc ion o highly de ailed echnical d awings ha can
be scaled wi hou loss o esolu ion. This ea u e is especially aluable in he documen a ion o
a chi ec u al emains and a e ac s, whe e exac p opo ions and ela ionships be ween
s uc u al elemen s mus be eco ded. Fo example, in a chaeological p ojec s ac oss Cen al
Eu ope, Co elDRAW has been used o con e ield ske ches and su ey measu emen s in o
p ecise digi al d awings o exca a ion enches, bu ial layou s, and s a ig aphic diag ams. These
ec o illus a ions se e no only as accu a e esea ch eco ds bu also as essen ial esou ces o
u u e conse a ion planning.
Beyond a chaeological documen a ion, Co elDRAW has p o en indispensable in he
es o a ion o a wo ks and deco a i e he i age. I s sui e o illus a ion ools enables
conse a o s o ec ea e missing o damaged deco a i e pa e ns, insc ip ions, and mo i s in a
non-in asi e digi al en i onmen . In he es o a ion o illumina ed manusc ip s in he Aus ian
Na ional Lib a y, o ins ance, Co elDRAW was employed o econs uc missing o namen al
bo de s and le e o ms, based on compa a i e s udies o in ac manusc ip s om he same
adi ion. The esul ing digi al econs uc ions, ca e ully dis inguished om o iginal elemen s,
we e hen used bo h o schola ly in e p e a ion and o p oducing acsimiles ha p o ide he
public wi h an imp ession o he manusc ip s’ o iginal appea ance.
Co elDRAW also plays an impo an ole in he i age p esen a ion and communica ion.
Museums and cul u al ins i u ions ely on ec o g aphics o he design o exhibi ion panels,
didac ic illus a ions, and in e p e a i e econs uc ions ha engage isi o s while main aining
academic accu acy. Co elDRAW’s capaci y o in eg a e illus a ions wi h ex ual anno a ions,
maps, and pho og aphs acili a es he c ea ion o isually cohe en na a i es ha con ey
complex a chaeological and his o ical in o ma ion in an accessible manne . A no able example
can be ound in he UNESCO Wo ld He i age Si e o Pe a, Jo dan, whe e digi al
econs uc ions o Naba aean a chi ec u al ea u es p epa ed in Co elDRAW ha e been
inco po a ed in o educa ional ma e ials and exhibi ion ca alogues, enhancing public
unde s anding o he si e’s a chi ec u al sophis ica ion.
In addi ion, Co elDRAW has been employed in he c ea ion o digi al eplicas and 3D
p epa a ion wo k lows. While he so wa e i sel is 2D, i s abili y o gene a e ec o -based plans,
ele a ions, and sec ions makes i a c i ical p ecu so o 3D modelling. These d awings can be
impo ed in o 3D g aphics p og ammes such as Au odesk 3ds Max, Blende , o Ske chUp,
whe e hey se e as he ounda ion o olume ic econs uc ions o buildings, monumen s, o
a e ac s (Chapinal-He as e al., 2024; Bo ns ein & Keep, 2023). This in e ope abili y highligh s
Co elDRAW’s ole as an in eg a i e ool wi hin a b oade ecosys em o digi al he i age
echnologies.
Ano he a ea whe e Co elDRAW con ibu es signi ican ly is he i age conse a ion
planning. Conse a ion p ojec s o en equi e de ailed documen a ion o exis ing condi ions,
including damage mapping, s uc u al de o ma ions, and a eas equi ing in e en ion.
Co elDRAW enables he c ea ion o laye ed ec o maps whe e conse a o s can anno a e
damage pa e ns on high- esolu ion pho og aphs o pain ings, mosaics, o escoes. Such
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me hods we e applied du ing he conse a ion o Byzan ine mosaics in Thessaloniki, whe e
Co elDRAW acili a ed he o e lay o de ailed condi ion epo s on o a chi ec u al plans, hus
suppo ing decision-making in he es o a ion p ocess.
Finally, Co elDRAW has a long-s anding epu a ion o accessibili y and adap abili y,
making i a aluable educa ional ool. T aining p og ammes in digi al he i age equen ly employ
Co elDRAW o each s uden s he undamen als o ec o g aphics, echnical d awing, and
digi al econs uc ion. Because o i s ela i ely low sys em equi emen s and use - iendly
in e ace, Co elDRAW is o en mo e accessible han complex enginee ing so wa e, ensu ing
i s u ili y ac oss a b oad spec um o ins i u ions, om majo esea ch cen es o small egional
museums.
Thus, Co elDRAW exempli ies he con ibu ion o ec o -based design ools o cul u al
he i age p ese a ion and es o a ion. By enabling he p ecise documen a ion o a chaeological
emains, he non-in asi e econs uc ion o a wo ks, he p epa a ion o educa ional ma e ials,
and he in eg a ion wi h 3D modelling, i demons a es a unique e sa ili y (Zhang e al., 2019).
Real-wo ld p ojec s such as he documen a ion o exca a ion plans in Cen al Eu ope, he
econs uc ion o illumina ed manusc ip s in Aus ia, and he conse a ion o Byzan ine mosaics
in Thessaloniki illus a e i s capaci y o combine echnical igou wi h in e p e a i e c ea i i y.
As a esul , Co elDRAW emains an indispensable pla o m wi hin he b oade digi al oolki
o sa egua ding and communica ing cul u al he i age.
GIMP
GIMP ep esen s one o he mos signi ican open-sou ce con ibu ions o he digi al
humani ies and cul u al he i age sciences. As a ee and highly cus omisable as e g aphics
edi o , GIMP p o ides a iable al e na i e o comme cial image-edi ing pla o ms such as
Adobe Pho oshop, making ad anced digi al es o a ion echniques accessible o ins i u ions,
schola s, and communi ies wi h limi ed inancial esou ces (Waas, 2014). I s open-sou ce na u e,
lexibili y, and adap abili y o specialised wo k lows ha e posi ioned i as an impo an ool in
he documen a ion, conse a ion, and dissemina ion o cul u al he i age.
One o GIMP’s p incipal ad an ages lies in i s abili y o enhance and eco e isual
in o ma ion om deg aded o damaged he i age objec s. Many a chaeological and a chi al
ma e ials su e om ading, discolou a ion, o e osion, which hampe s schola ly in e p e a ion.
GIMP o e s a comp ehensi e ange o colou co ec ion, onal adjus men , and il e ing ools
ha enable esea che s o highligh ain de ails o insc ip ions, manusc ip s, and a wo ks. In
digi isa ion p ojec s o medie al manusc ip s in Eas e n Eu ope, GIMP has been employed o
adjus con as and eco e aded sc ip , enabling palaeog aphe s o deciphe ex s ha we e
o he wise inaccessible. Simila ly, GIMP’s laye -based edi ing en i onmen acili a es he
sepa a ion o o e lapping isual elemen s, allowing conse a o s o digi ally econs uc wall
pain ings o elie s whe e he o iginal pigmen laye s ha e de e io a ed.
Beyond documen a ion, GIMP is pa icula ly aluable o non-in asi e digi al es o a ion.
E hical p inciples in conse a ion demand ha physical in e en ions should be minimal and
e e sible. By wo king in a digi al en i onmen , conse a o s can es hypo heses ega ding
missing iconog aphic elemen s, colou schemes, o deco a i e pa e ns wi hou al e ing he
o iginal objec . An illus a i e example is he i ual econs uc ion o ea ly mode n ca og aphic
19
ma e ials wi hin he Mapi e p ojec , whe e GIMP was used o digi ally epai o n o missing
sec ions o his o ical maps. These econs uc ions, while clea ly dis inguished om he
au hen ic ma e ial, p o ide esea che s and he public wi h a mo e cohe en unde s anding o
he maps’ o iginal appea ance and in ended use.
GIMP’s ole also ex ends o he p epa a ion o public- acing he i age ma e ials. Museums
and cul u al ins i u ions inc easingly ely on isual econs uc ions o con ex ualise a e ac s and
monumen s o audiences. GIMP enables he c ea ion o composi e images, in e p e a i e
o e lays, and illus a i e econs uc ions ha combine a chaeological e idence wi h schola ly
in e p e a ion. Fo example, in communi y he i age p ojec s in he Balkans, GIMP has been
employed o p oduce isualisa ions o econs uc ed medie al chu ches, combining a chi al
pho og aphs wi h mode n condi ion su eys. These digi al ou pu s a e used bo h in exhibi ions
and in online pla o ms, he eby enhancing accessibili y o he i age esou ces o local and
in e na ional audiences alike.
Ano he s eng h o GIMP is i s ex ensibili y h ough plugins and sc ip ing. Because i is
open sou ce, de elope s and esea che s can c ea e cus omised ools ailo ed o he needs o
he i age documen a ion and analysis. In conse a ion science, bespoke plugins ha e been
de eloped o acili a e spec al image analysis and au oma ed de ec ion o su ace anomalies.
Such applica ions a e pa icula ly aluable in la ge-scale digi isa ion p ojec s, whe e e iciency
and ep oducibili y a e pa amoun . Mo eo e , he abili y o in eg a e GIMP in o au oma ed
wo k lows makes i compa ible wi h b oade digi al ecosys ems, including GISs and
pho og amme ic so wa e, he eby enhancing in e disciplina y esea ch (Zhang e al., 2019; Acke
e al., 2021).
Impo an ly, GIMP also suppo s he i age p ese a ion h ough i s ole in digi al a chi ing.
Digi ised a e ac s, manusc ip s, and a wo ks equi e pos -p ocessing o ensu e ha hey a e
bo h isually accu a e and sui able o long- e m s o age. GIMP p o ides he necessa y ools o
clean scanning a e ac s, co ec dis o ions, and s anda dise ile o ma s o a chi ing. In
p ojec s such as he DLC, GIMP has been employed o p ocess housands o scanned
documen s, ensu ing bo h hei legibili y and hei compliance wi h a chi al s anda ds (Waas,
2014). This demons a es i s signi icance no only o schola ly in e p e a ion bu also o he
sus ainable sa egua ding o cul u al he i age collec ions.
Finally, GIMP con ibu es o he democ a isa ion o digi al he i age. Because i is ee and
open sou ce, i can be adop ed by ins i u ions and communi ies ha migh o he wise lack access
o expensi e p op ie a y so wa e. This accessibili y empowe s local he i age g oups, educa o s,
and smalle museums o pa icipa e in he digi al p ese a ion o hei cul u al esou ces. I also
p omo es inclusi i y in aining p og ammes, whe e s uden s and olun ee s can gain p ac ical
skills wi hou inancial ba ie s.
Thus, GIMP exempli ies how open-sou ce so wa e can play a ans o ma i e ole in
cul u al he i age p ese a ion and es o a ion. I s unc ions in image enhancemen , non-in asi e
econs uc ion, public communica ion, and digi al a chi ing a e complemen ed by i s
adap abili y and accessibili y. Real-wo ld applica ions, such as he eco e y o medie al
manusc ip s, he i ual epai o his o ical maps, and he p ocessing o la ge-scale a chi al
collec ions, demons a e i s ele ance ac oss di e se he i age con ex s. As bo h a esea ch ool

20
and a communi y esou ce, GIMP no only suppo s he sa egua ding o cul u al he i age bu
also os e s wide pa icipa ion in he collec i e e o o p ese e humani y’s sha ed pas .
Digi al Recons uc ion: 3D Modelling and Pho og amme y
3D modelling so wa e has become indispensable in econs uc ing damaged o missing
ea u es o a e ac s and his o ical s uc u es. Au odesk 3ds Max and Maya p o ide ad anced
modelling, anima ion, and ende ing capabili ies ha allow p ecise econs uc ion o complex
o ms and a chi ec u al spaces. These pla o ms enable he c ea ion o pho o ealis ic
isualisa ions, simula ion o ma e ial p ope ies, and i ual es ing o es o a ion scena ios,
he eby minimising he isk o i e e sible in e en ions on o iginal objec s.
Blende , an open-sou ce 3D sui e, o e s ull pipeline unc ionali y, including sculp ing,
ex u ing, and anima ion, as well as in eg a ion wi h pho og amme ic and GIS da ase s. I s
lexibili y and accessibili y make i pa icula ly aluable o collabo a i e p ojec s and ins i u ions
wi h limi ed esou ces. ZB ush specialises in digi al sculp ing, allowing o he me iculous
eplica ion o in ica e su aces, such as sculp u es, elie s, and deco a i e a e ac s. I s
subdi ision and de ailing ools enable es o e s o econs uc missing componen s wi h
excep ional p ecision, p ese ing he aes he ic and s uc u al cha ac e is ics o o iginal objec s.
Ske chUp p o ides an in ui i e pla o m o apid modelling o buildings, landscapes, and
a chaeological si es, suppo ing p elimina y econs uc ion, planning, and educa ional
isualisa ion. Rhinoce os (Rhino), wi h i s NURBS-based modelling capabili ies, allows o
ma hema ically p ecise econs uc ion o a chi ec u al elemen s and a e ac s, which is essen ial
when p epa ing o physical es o a ion o 3D p in ing o eplicas. Pho og amme y pla o ms,
such as Agiso Me ashape and Reali yCap u e, ans o m pho og aphic da ase s in o high-
ideli y ex u ed 3D models, o hopho os, and digi al ele a ion models. These ools suppo
non-in asi e econs uc ion o a e ac s and si es while p ese ing hei physical in eg i y.
The combina ion o hese 3D modelling ools acili a es he simula ion o hypo he ical
es o a ion in e en ions, analysis o spa ial and olume ic p ope ies, and p oduc ion o digi al
eplicas sui able o i ual exhibi ions o educa ional dissemina ion. By in eg a ing mul iple
modelling pla o ms wi h geospa ial and his o ical da a, es o a ion specialis s can ensu e ha
econs uc ions a e bo h scien i ically obus and isually cohe en .
A ini y Pho o
A ini y Pho o, de eloped by Se i , has in ecen yea s es ablished i sel as one o he mos
sophis ica ed ye cos -e ec i e al e na i es o Adobe Pho oshop. While o iginally concei ed as
a p o essional image-edi ing p og amme o pho og aphy and design, i s p ecision ools, non-
des uc i e wo k low, and a o dabili y ha e made i inc easingly ele an in he domain o
cul u al he i age documen a ion, conse a ion, and es o a ion (Yang & Liu, 2024). I s pa icula
s eng hs lie in RAW image p ocessing, HDR edi ing, and he manipula ion o la ge da ase s,
which a e c ucial o enhancing, analysing, and econs uc ing isual in o ma ion om agile
o de e io a ed he i age ma e ials.
One o he mos signi ican ad an ages o A ini y Pho o is i s abili y o p ocess RAW
image iles a a p o essional le el. In a chaeological and museum con ex s, he use o high-
esolu ion RAW pho og aphy is indispensable o cap u ing minu e su ace de ails o a e ac s,
21
manusc ip s, and a wo ks. A ini y Pho o p o ides conse a o s wi h ad anced ools o adjus
exposu e, eco e shadow and highligh in o ma ion, and co ec colou dis o ions, he eby
allowing o mo e accu a e digi al ep esen a ions. In digi isa ion p ojec s such as he Eu opeana
ini ia i e and ins i u ional a chi es in he Uni ed Kingdom, A ini y Pho o has been employed
o e ine pho og aphic eco ds o manusc ip s and maps (Chapinal-He as e al., 2024), ensu ing
ha he digi al su oga es main ain bo h scien i ic accu acy and aes he ic cla i y. These
capabili ies di ec ly suppo conse a ion science, whe e p ecise isual documen a ion o ms he
basis o analy ical in e p e a ion and es o a ion planning.
Ano he c ucial con ibu ion o A ini y Pho o o he i age p ese a ion is i s non-
des uc i e edi ing sys em. Unlike olde as e g aphics edi o s, A ini y allows o he use o
li e adjus men laye s and masks, enabling esea che s o expe imen wi h es o a ion
hypo heses wi hou pe manen ly al e ing he sou ce ma e ial. This app oach is especially
aluable when digi ally econs uc ing damaged o incomple e objec s (So o-Ma ín, 2013). Fo
example, in communi y-led he i age p ojec s in Cen al Eu ope, A ini y Pho o has been used
o econs uc agmen ed pho og aphic a chi es, whe e aded image y and physical damage
obscu ed impo an his o ical de ails. By laye ing adjus men s and selec i ely es o ing missing
isual elemen s, conse a o s a e able o es po en ial econs uc ions while main aining
anspa ency be ween o iginal and in e p e a i e con en .
A ini y Pho o’s HDR edi ing capabili ies a e pa icula ly bene icial in he analysis o wall
pain ings, escoes, and o he a chi ec u al deco a ions. Une en ligh ing condi ions and aded
pigmen s o en complica e he eco ding o such su aces. Using HDR me ging and one-
mapping unc ions, esea che s can gene a e composi e images ha e eal sub le de ails in isible
in s anda d pho og aphs. This me hod has been adop ed in se e al conse a ion s udies o
medie al chu ches in Sou he n Eu ope (Bo ns ein & Keep, 2023), whe e A ini y Pho o was used
o enhance isibili y o iconog aphic elemen s and o documen conse a ion in e en ions o e
ime. By imp o ing legibili y, HDR p ocessing con ibu es no only o academic esea ch bu
also o he p epa a ion o educa ional and in e p e a i e ma e ials o public dissemina ion.
The so wa e also p o es aluable in la ge-scale digi isa ion wo k lows h ough i s ba ch
p ocessing capabili ies. Many cul u al he i age ins i u ions ace he challenge o digi ising
housands o pho og aphs, manusc ip s, o a chi al eco ds wi hin limi ed ime ames. A ini y
Pho o allows o he au oma ed applica ion o co ec i e adjus men s, he eby s anda dising
la ge collec ions o images and ensu ing consis ency in colou , esolu ion, and o ma . This
ea u e has been pa icula ly use ul in egional digi isa ion p ojec s in Scandina ia and he Bal ic
s a es, whe e smalle museums and a chi es ope a e unde budge a y cons ain s and canno
always ely on expensi e p op ie a y solu ions.
F om he pe spec i e o dissemina ion, A ini y Pho o suppo s he c ea ion o high-quali y
isual ou pu s o exhibi ions, digi al a chi es, and i ual econs uc ions. I s compa ibili y wi h
indus y-s anda d o ma s (TIFF, PSD, and o he s) ensu es in e ope abili y wi h o he he i age-
ela ed so wa e, such as 3D modelling pla o ms and GISs. In se e al museum-based p ojec s,
A ini y Pho o has been used o p oduce in e p e a i e panels, digi al econs uc ions o
a e ac s, and ou each ma e ials ha enhance public engagemen . Fo example, in local his o y
museums in I eland, A ini y was employed o econs uc his o ic pho og aphs o communi y
exhibi ions, s eng hening he connec ion be ween digi al he i age and public iden i y.
22
Equally signi ican is he accessibili y o A ini y Pho o compa ed o o he high-end
g aphics so wa e. I s one- ime licensing model makes i economically iable o small museums,
local a chi es, and g ass oo s he i age ini ia i es, many o which canno a o d subsc ip ion-
based al e na i es. This democ a isa ion o access ensu es ha p o essional-le el es o a ion
ools a e a ailable no only o majo ins i u ions bu also o smalle o ganisa ions and e en
independen esea che s. This ac o aligns closely wi h UNESCO’s emphasis on inclusi e
he i age p ese a ion, empowe ing communi ies o pa icipa e in sa egua ding hei cul u al
asse s.
Thus, A ini y Pho o demons a es how p o essional-g ade bu a o dable so wa e can
signi ican ly ad ance he ield o cul u al he i age p ese a ion and es o a ion. I s unc ions in
RAW edi ing, HDR p ocessing, ba ch wo k lows, and non-des uc i e econs uc ion ha e been
success ully applied in p ojec s anging om medie al manusc ip digi isa ion o chu ch esco
documen a ion and a chi al pho og aph es o a ion. By combining echnical p ecision wi h
accessibili y, A ini y Pho o has eme ged as a p ac ical ool o bo h ins i u ional and communi y
he i age e o s. I s g owing adop ion signals no only a shi owa ds mo e di e se echnological
ecosys ems in he i age p ac ice bu also a ecogni ion ha cos -e ec i e digi al solu ions can
mee he igo ous demands o scien i ic documen a ion, conse a ion, and cul u al
dissemina ion.
Below he au ho s p esen an expanded p og am able o 2D g aphic design wi h an
emphasis on use in he es o a ion and documen a ion o cul u al he i age si es (Table 2).
Table 2. An expanded p og am able o 2D g aphic design wi h an emphasis on use in he
es o a ion and documen a ion o cul u al he i age si es
So wa e /
Technology
Type
Pu pose in Cul u al
He i age
Ad an ages
P ac ical Examples
Adobe Pho oshop
2D
Image p ocessing,
digi al es o a ion o
a i ac s, escoes,
manusc ip s
Ex ensi e ools o
e ouching, laye ing,
colo co ec ion; high-
esolu ion suppo
Res o a ion o damaged wall
pain ings, e ouching
his o ical pho og aphs,
p epa a ion o museum
isuals
Co elDRAW
2D
C ea ion o diag ams,
maps, and echnical
illus a ions
Vec o g aphics,
scalabili y wi hou
quali y loss, p ecise line
wo k
Scien i ic illus a ions, si e
maps, museum in o ma ional
panels
GIMP
2D
Open-sou ce image
edi ing, digi al
es o a ion
F ee, plugin suppo ,
c oss-pla o m, suppo s
complex image o ma s
Re ouching o digi ized
manusc ip s, colo
econs uc ion o a i ac s
A ini y Pho o
2D
P o essional image
edi ing and es o a ion
A o dable, as
p ocessing, suppo s
RAW and HDR
Res o a ion o scanned
ancien documen s and p in s
Au odesk 3ds Max
Au odesk 3ds Max occupies a dis inc i e place in digi al cul u al he i age, se ing as one o
he mos ad anced pla o ms o 3D modelling, anima ion, and isualisa ion. Ini ially de eloped
o design, a chi ec u e, and en e ainmen indus ies, he so wa e has been widely adop ed in
he domain o a chaeology, a his o y, and he i age conse a ion due o i s abili y o gene a e
highly ealis ic and analy ically accu a e econs uc ions o monumen s, a e ac s, and his o ical
en i onmen s (Buna e al., 2014). I s con ibu ion o cul u al he i age lies in he dual po en ial o
23
suppo ing igo ous documen a ion and acili a ing e ec i e communica ion o scien i ic esul s
o bo h academic communi ies and he gene al public.
One o he mos signi ican ad an ages o 3ds Max in he i age p ac ice is i s capaci y o
handle complex geome ic and ex u al da a. This ea u e makes he so wa e pa icula ly sui ed
o he econs uc ion o a chi ec u al emains, such as emples, palaces, o u ban s uc u es
ha su i e only in agmen a y condi ion. By in eg a ing da a ob ained om pho og amme y,
lase scanning, o a chi al sou ces, specialis s can c ea e accu a e 3D models ha es o e he
spa ial and aes he ic quali ies o los o damaged he i age. A no able example is he digi al
econs uc ion o he ancien ci y o Palmy a in Sy ia, whe e 3ds Max was employed alongside
o he Au odesk ools o ec ea e key monumen s des oyed du ing a med con lic (Au odesk,
2024b). The esul ing models no only se e as a scien i ic eco d bu also p o ide a ounda ion
o po en ial physical es o a ion p ojec s.
Beyond a chi ec u al econs uc ion, 3ds Max plays an essen ial ole in he documen a ion
and isualisa ion o a e ac s and smalle -scale objec s (Cha bonneau e al., 2018). Museums and
esea ch ins i u ions inc easingly employ he so wa e o p oduce de ailed 3D models o s a ues,
ce amics, and deco a i e objec s, allowing bo h close analysis and i ual display. Fo ins ance,
he B i ish Museum has collabo a ed wi h Au odesk in p ojec s whe e 3ds Max was used o
e ine and p esen high- esolu ion 3D scans o a e ac s, c ea ing in e ac i e exhibi ions ha
make agile o inaccessible i ems a ailable o a global audience (G een e al., 2016). This digi al
accessibili y con ibu es no only o p ese a ion—by educing handling o o iginal objec s—
bu also o educa ion and cul u al dissemina ion.
The s eng h o 3ds Max lies in i s ad anced ende ing and anima ion capabili ies, which
enable ealis ic simula ion o ligh ing, ma e ials, and en i onmen al condi ions. This ea u e is
pa icula ly aluable in he i age con ex s, whe e esea che s seek o unde s and how his o ical
spaces we e expe ienced in hei o iginal s a e. Recons uc ions o medie al ca hed als, e.g., ha e
employed 3ds Max o simula e na u al ligh pene a ion h ough s ained glass, p o iding insigh s
in o li u gical p ac ices and spa ial pe cep ion. Such applica ions demons a e ha digi al
econs uc ion is no me ely illus a i e bu also analy ical, o e ing new pe spec i es on he
senso y dimensions o cul u al he i age.
Mo eo e , he so wa e suppo s in e disciplina y wo k lows by allowing seamless
in eg a ion wi h Geog aphic In o ma ion Sys ems, Building In o ma ion Modelling pla o ms,
and i ual eali y en i onmen s. This in e ope abili y ensu es ha 3ds Max models can be used
no only o academic analysis bu also o he i age managemen , conse a ion planning, and
public engagemen . Vi ual econs uc ions de eloped in 3ds Max a e inc easingly inco po a ed
in o imme si e exhibi ions and online pla o ms, expanding access o cul u al he i age beyond
he physical limi a ions o museums o a chaeological si es.
Impo an ly, 3ds Max con ibu es o me hodological anspa ency and ep oducibili y in
he i age esea ch. Digi al models c ea ed in he so wa e can be upda ed and e ined as new
e idence eme ges, he eby enabling dynamic a he han s a ic in e p e a ions o he pas . This
i e a i e app oach e lec s he e ol ing na u e o cul u al he i age s udies, whe e econs uc ion
is unde s ood as a p ocess o con inual nego ia ion be ween ma e ial e idence, his o ical
sou ces, and schola ly in e p e a ion.
30
Museum p o essionals ha e applied he so wa e o p oduce 3D models o exhibi ion layou s,
simula ing isi o expe iences and op imising he display o a e ac s. This logis ical unc ion
demons a es he so wa e’s e sa ili y in suppo ing no only he p ese a ion o he i age bu
also i s communica ion and accessibili y.
Impo an ly, Ske chUp’s balance be ween usabili y and echnical capabili y exempli ies how
digi al ools can democ a ise cul u al he i age p ese a ion. While ad anced pla o ms such as
Au odesk 3ds Max o Blende may p o ide highe le els o p ecision and pho o ealism,
Ske chUp o e s a p agma ic al e na i e ha can be employed e ec i ely by eams wi h limi ed
esou ces o echnical expe ise. In his espec , i complemen s mo e complex wo k lows,
ensu ing ha digi al he i age documen a ion and econs uc ion a e no con ined o highly
specialised en i onmen s.
Thus, Ske chUp has es ablished i sel as a p ac ical and adap able ool o cul u al he i age
p ese a ion, combining ease o use, lexibili y, and wide applicabili y. I s ole in a chi ec u al
documen a ion, in eg a ion wi h pho og amme ic da a, plugin-suppo ed unc ionali y, and
capaci y o educa ional and pa icipa o y p ojec s unde sco es i s alue ac oss mul iple domains
o he i age p ac ice. By enabling bo h expe s and non-specialis s o engage in he i age
modelling, Ske chUp no only suppo s conse a ion and es o a ion bu also s eng hens he
ela ionship be ween cul u al he i age and he wide communi y.
Rhinoce os (Rhino)
Rhinoce os, commonly e e ed o as Rhino, is a e sa ile 3D CAD so wa e enowned o
i s p ecision in modelling complex geome ies. In he con ex o cul u al he i age p ese a ion,
Rhino has gained signi ican p ominence due o i s abili y o accu a ely model a chi ec u al
s uc u es, a e ac s, and in ica e o namen al de ails, p o iding a eliable digi al en i onmen
o bo h esea ch and es o a ion ini ia i es. I s obus NURBS-based modelling engine enables
he c ea ion o ma hema ically p ecise su aces and cu es, making i pa icula ly aluable o
documen ing geome ically complex he i age objec s such as domes, aul s, sculp u al elemen s,
and deco a i e acades (Acke e al., 2021).
A key ad an age o Rhino in he i age applica ions is i s capaci y o in eg a e he e ogeneous
da a sou ces, including pho og amme y, LiDAR scans, e es ial lase scanning, and his o ical
bluep in s. This allows esea che s and conse a o s o c ea e highly accu a e digi al eplicas o
monumen s and a e ac s, which se e as essen ial e e ences o p ese a ion, es o a ion, and
i ual econs uc ion. Fo ins ance, in p ojec s in ol ing Go hic ca hed als in F ance and Spain,
Rhino was employed o econs uc complex ibbed aul s and o namen al acades, combining
lase scan da a wi h his o ical d awings o p oduce geome ically p ecise models sui able o
bo h analysis and es o a ion planning (Acke e al., 2021).
Rhinoce os’ p ecision is complemen ed by i s compa ibili y wi h pa ame ic design ools
such as G asshoppe , which allows o algo i hmic modelling and s uc u al simula ion. In
he i age con ex s, his unc ionali y enables esea che s o explo e al e na i e econs uc ion
scena ios, assess s uc u al s abili y, and simula e es o a ion in e en ions be o e physically
al e ing agile si es. Fo example, he digi al es o a ion o Renaissance a chi ec u al elemen s
in I alian palaces u ilised Rhino and G asshoppe o es ein eg a ion s a egies o missing o

31
damaged componen s, ensu ing ha conse a ion decisions we e guided by accu a e geome ic
analysis (Acke e al., 2021).
Beyond a chi ec u al applica ions, Rhino is also highly e ec i e o objec -le el modelling
and a e ac econs uc ion. I s p ecise con ol o e cu es and su aces makes i sui able o
econs uc ing ce amic essels, me alwo k, sculp u es, and deco a i e mo i s. Museums and
conse a ion labo a o ies ha e applied Rhino o digi ally es o e agmen ed a e ac s, gene a e
3D models o a chi al pu poses, and c ea e empla es o physical eplica ion ia 3D p in ing
o CNC milling. Fo example, in he econs uc ion o p e-Columbian ce amic essels in La in
Ame ica, Rhino enabled conse a o s o es o e symme y, su ace ex u e, and olume ic
in eg i y, p o iding bo h a esea ch ool and a digi al su oga e o agile o iginals (Acke e al.,
2021).
Rhinoce os’ in e ope abili y wi h o he digi al he i age ools signi ican ly enhances i s
applicabili y. Models p oduced in Rhino can be expo ed in mul iple o ma s o in eg a ion
wi h GIS, VR/AR en i onmen s, and pho o ealis ic ende ing pla o ms such as V-Ray o
Blende . This lexibili y allows he i age p ac i ione s o combine he geome ic p ecision o
Rhino wi h ad anced isualisa ion and imme si e echnologies, acili a ing bo h schola ly
analysis and public dissemina ion. P ojec s in ol ing his o ical u ban landscapes ha e le e aged
Rhino o model building en elopes and s ee layou s accu a ely, subsequen ly in eg a ing hese
models in o VR applica ions ha p o ide in e ac i e, educa ional expe iences o isi o s.
Ano he no able ea u e o Rhino is i s sui abili y o documen a ion and long- e m
p ese a ion o cul u al he i age. Digi al models c ea ed in Rhino se e as p ecise eco ds o
cu en condi ions, enabling moni o ing o s uc u al changes, en i onmen al impac s, and
deg ada ion o e ime. This capabili y is pa icula ly impo an o si es a isk om na u al
disas e s, u ban de elopmen , o clima e change, p o iding he i age au ho i ies wi h eliable da a
o in o m p o ec i e measu es and conse a ion s a egies (Acke e al., 2021).
Rhinoce os’ combina ion o ma hema ical accu acy, lexible modelling en i onmen , and
compa ibili y wi h pa ame ic and isualisa ion ools makes i a powe ul ins umen in cul u al
he i age. By suppo ing p ecise econs uc ion, s uc u al analysis, and i ual isualisa ion,
Rhino con ibu es o bo h he p ese a ion o physical a e ac s and monumen s and he
in e p e a ion o his o ical and a is ic knowledge. I s applica ion ex ends om a chi ec u al
monumen s o in ica e a e ac s, b idging he gap be ween echnical documen a ion, scien i ic
esea ch, and public engagemen .
Thus, Rhinoce os (Rhino) exempli ies how ad anced CAD echnologies can se e he
mul i ace ed needs o cul u al he i age p ese a ion. I s p ecision, adap abili y, and
in e ope abili y make i indispensable o documen ing, econs uc ing, and isualising he i age
asse s, ensu ing ha bo h schola ly esea ch and public dissemina ion a e suppo ed by accu a e
and eliable digi al ep esen a ions. Rhino’s capabili ies enable conse a o s, a chaeologis s, and
educa o s o sa egua d he ma e ial and in angible dimensions o cul u al he i age o u u e
gene a ions.
Below he au ho s p esen an expanded p og am able o 3D g aphic design wi h an
emphasis on use in he es o a ion and documen a ion o cul u al he i age si es (Table 3).
32
Table 2. An expanded p og am able o 3D g aphic design wi h an emphasis on use in he
es o a ion and documen a ion o cul u al he i age si es:
So wa e /
Technology
Type
Pu pose in Cul u al
He i age
Ad an ages
P ac ical Examples
Au odesk 3ds Max
3D
De ailed 3D modeling
and anima ion o
a i ac s and
monumen s
Ad anced modeling,
ex u ing, ende ing;
in eg a ion wi h CAD
and pho og amme y
Vi ual econs uc ion o
emples, s a ues, and
his o ical si es
Blende
3D
3D modeling,
ende ing, and
anima ion
F ee, sculp ing, ex u e
mapping, la ge plugin
communi y
C ea ing in e ac i e i ual
museum exhibi s,
econs uc ing a chaeological
si es
Au odesk Maya
3D
Complex 3D
modeling and
simula ion
P o essional anima ion
and ende ing; suppo s
in eg a ion wi h
pho og amme y
Recons uc ion o his o ical
s uc u es, isual simula ion
o si e es o a ions
ZB ush
3D
Digi al sculp ing o
a i ac s
High- esolu ion
polygonal modeling,
p ecise su ace de ailing
Recons uc ing s a ues,
elie s, and in ica e
deco a i e objec s
Ske chUp
3D
A chi ec u al
modeling, i ual
exca a ion and
landscapes
In ui i e in e ace, as
isualiza ion, sui able
o educa ion
Vi ual econs uc ion o
a chaeological buildings and
his o ical landscapes
Rhinoce os
3D
P ecise modeling o
a i ac s and s uc u es
NURBS modeling,
CAD/CAM in eg a ion,
high compa ibili y
C ea ing models o 3D
p in ing o eplicas, s uc u al
analysis o es o a ion
Digi al Tools and So wa e o A chaeological Si e De ec ion and Documen a ion
The in eg a ion o digi al echnologies in o a chaeological esea ch has conside ably
expanded he me hods a ailable o si e disco e y, documen a ion, and in e p e a ion. GISs,
such as A cGIS and QGIS, ha e become indispensable o spa ial analysis, enabling
a chaeologis s o combine mul iple da ase s and p edic he loca ion o po en ial si es (Lock &
Pounce , 2017; Menéndez-Ma sh e al., 2023; Conolly, 2012). Simila ly, sa elli e image p ocessing
so wa e like ENVI p o ides powe ul ools o iden i ying sub le landscape anomalies, o en
in isible o he naked eye, ha may indica e ancien human ac i i y (Luo e al., 2022; Luo e al.,
2023).
Equally impo an a e echnologies ha allow p ecise eco ding and econs uc ion.
Pho og amme y ools such as Agiso Me ashape (Chapinal-He as e al., 2024; Jones & Chu ch,
2020) and design so wa e like Au oCAD (Buna e al., 2014; G een e al., 2016; Zhao & Lyu, 2021)
suppo he c ea ion o highly de ailed 3D models o exca a ion si es, a e ac s, and a chi ec u al
emains. In pa allel, LiDAR-based applica ions (e.g., LAS ools, CloudCompa e) ha e
e olu ionised ieldwo k by e ealing hidden s uc u es benea h dense ege a ion (Casana e al.,
2021; Inoma a, 2024; Vilbig e al., 2020), leading o disco e ies on a scale p e iously unimaginable.
A no able example is he unco e ing o as ne wo ks o Maya ci ies in Gua emala, which had
emained unde ec ed o cen u ies benea h ain o es canopies (Vilbig e al., 2020).
Non-in asi e me hods, including d one-based su eying pla o ms (D oneDeploy, Pix4D)
(Documen ing…, 2017; Using…, 2022; Mapping megali hs…, 2025) and geophysical so wa e
(Geoplo , Te aSu eyo ) (GeoPlo : Abou , 2007; Sensing…, 2015; New Philadelphia…, n.d.),
complemen hese app oaches by o e ing apid, accu a e, and minimally des uc i e echniques
o explo ing a chaeological landscapes. Fo ins ance, d one su eys ha e been employed o
33
map Roman oads ac oss B i ain, while geophysical p ospec ion has enabled he disco e y o
I on Age and medie al bu ial g ounds in Cen al and Eas e n Eu ope wi hou dis u bing he
soil (K amme, 2018). Toge he , hese digi al ools ep esen a shi owa ds mo e sus ainable and
comp ehensi e a chaeological p ac ices, whe e disco e y, p ese a ion, and in e p e a ion a e
igh ly in e linked.
Table 3. Digi al ools and so wa e o a chaeological si e de ec ion and documen a ion
So wa e /
Technology
Main Pu pose
Ad an ages
Use in A chaeology
A cGIS / QGIS
Geog aphic
In o ma ion Sys ems
(GIS)
Handles la ge da ase s,
3D maps, laye s; QGIS is
ee
Landscape analysis, p edic ion o
a chaeological si es, map c ea ion
Agiso Me ashape
Pho og amme y
and 3D modelling
High accu acy o 3D
models, easy p ocessing
o pho og aphs and ae ial
images
Recons uc ion o exca a ion a eas,
a e ac s, a chi ec u e
Au oCAD /
Au odesk ReCap
2D/3D design and
econs uc ion
Enginee ing p ecision,
in eg a ion wi h lase
scanning
Recons uc ion o buildings,
c ea ion o i ual models
ENVI
Sa elli e image
p ocessing
Wo ks wi h mul ispec al
and hype spec al da a,
de ec s hidden s uc u es
Iden i ica ion o se lemen s,
Roman oads, bu ial mounds
h ough ege a ion and soil changes
LiDAR (LAS ools,
CloudCompa e)
Lase scanning o
e ain
Re eals ea u es benea h
ege a ion, high-
esolu ion de ail
Disco e y o Maya ci ies in
Gua emala, bu ial mounds,
ampa s, hill o s
D oneDeploy /
Pix4D
Ae ial su eying
wi h d ones
Rapid mapping,
in eg a ion wi h 3D and
GIS
Mapping Roman oads in B i ain,
su eying emo e a eas,
documen ing he condi ion o
monumen s
Geoplo /
Te aSu eyo
Geophysical
p ospec ion
(magne ome y,
g ound-pene a ing
ada )
“Non-in asi e
exca a ion”, high
sensi i i y o anomalies
Disco e y o I on Age se lemen s
and medie al bu ials in Eu ope,
de ec ion o ounda ions,
unde g ound s uc u es
A cGIS and QGIS
GISs, ep esen ed by comme cial so wa e such as A cGIS and i s open-sou ce coun e pa
QGIS, ha e become indispensable ools in con empo a y a chaeology. Thei p incipal s eng h
lies in he abili y o in eg a e, manage, and analyse spa ial da a om a wide ange o sou ces,
including sa elli e image y, ae ial su eys, geophysical p ospec ion, and exca a ion eco ds
(Conolly, 2012; Menéndez-Ma sh e al., 2023; Ciccone, 2024; Dua e e al., 2018). By s uc u ing
a chaeological da a wi hin laye ed geospa ial amewo ks, hese sys ems allow esea che s o
unco e pa e ns ha would o he wise emain hidden when using con en ional mapping
echniques.
One o he key ad an ages o A cGIS is i s comp ehensi e sui e o analy ical ools, anging
om spa ial s a is ics and p edic i e modelling o sophis ica ed 3D isualisa ion. QGIS, while
being ee and open-sou ce, has de eloped in o a compa ably powe ul pla o m, pa icula ly
h ough i s ex ensi e lib a y o communi y-d i en plugins (Dua e e al., 2018; Ciccone, 2024). This
makes i highly adap able o di e en esea ch con ex s, including ield su ey, cul u al he i age
managemen , and p edic i e modelling o se lemen pa e ns. The possibili y o in eg a ing
34
his o ical ca og aphy wi h mode n emo e-sensing da a enhances he accu acy o si e
localisa ion, while empo al analysis enables a chaeologis s o explo e changes in landscapes
o e cen u ies o millennia.
F om a p ac ical pe spec i e, GIS echnologies signi ican ly imp o e e iciency in bo h
esea ch and conse a ion. They allow he c ea ion o de ailed digi al maps o a chaeological
landscapes, which can be con inuously upda ed as new da a eme ges. In cul u al esou ce
managemen , GIS is widely employed o assess he po en ial impac o mode n in as uc u e
p ojec s on a chaeological he i age, he eby con ibu ing o i s p ese a ion. Mo eo e ,
p edic i e models gene a ed in GIS en i onmen s ha e acili a ed he iden i ica ion o si es in
egions ha ha e no ye been sys ema ically exca a ed, educing he need o in asi e
explo a ion (Menéndez-Ma sh e al., 2023; Nicu e al., 2019).
Thus, A cGIS and QGIS ep esen mo e han mapping ools: hey se e as in eg a i e
pla o ms o da a-d i en a chaeology. By enabling esea che s o isualise, analyse, and
in e p e complex spa ial ela ionships, hey p o ide c i ical insigh s in o human-en i onmen
in e ac ions, se lemen dynamics, and cul u al landscapes. In doing so, hey ha e ans o med
a chaeological p ac ice in o a mo e p ecise, sys ema ic, and p edic i e discipline.
Agiso Me ashape
Agiso Me ashape, o me ly known as Agiso Pho oscan, is one o he leading
pho og amme ic so wa e packages employed in a chaeology. I s p incipal unc ion lies in he
gene a ion o accu a e 3D models om 2D pho og aphic da a (Chapinal-He as e al., 2024; Jones
& Chu ch, 2020; Kos zewa e al., 2025), a echnique ha has become cen al o mode n
a chaeological documen a ion and in e p e a ion. By using o e lapping se s o pho og aphs,
cap u ed ei he om he g ound o h ough ae ial pla o ms such as d ones, Me ashape
econs uc s he geome y o a chaeological si es, ea u es, and a e ac s wi h a le el o p ecision
ha i als, and in many cases su passes, adi ional su eying me hods.
A signi ican ad an age o Me ashape is i s accessibili y: al hough highly sophis ica ed, i is
ela i ely use - iendly and does no equi e ad anced echnical knowledge o p oduce
scien i ically aluable esul s (Howland e al., 2014). The so wa e is capable o gene a ing
o hopho os, DEMs, and ex u ed 3D meshes ha can be in eg a ed in o wide GIS
en i onmen s o used independen ly o analy ical and p esen a ion pu poses. These ou pu s
p o ide a chaeologis s wi h no only de ailed isual eco ds bu also measu able da ase s,
enabling accu a e assessmen o spa ial ela ionships and olume ic p ope ies o ea u es and
objec s.
The applica ion o Me ashape in a chaeology ex ends om ield exca a ion o he i age
conse a ion. A exca a ion si es, i allows he c ea ion o daily o weekly 3D upda es o
enches, he eby o e ing a dynamic eco d o s a ig aphic changes ha can be e isi ed long
a e ieldwo k is comple ed. In he con ex o a e ac s, Me ashape acili a es he c ea ion o
digi al eplicas, which can be sha ed wi h he global schola ly communi y o exhibi ed in i ual
museums, con ibu ing o b oade accessibili y o cul u al he i age. Fu he mo e, he non-
in asi e na u e o pho og amme y ensu es ha agile s uc u es o objec s can be documen ed
wi hou physical in e e ence.
35
Me ashape’s s eng h also lies in i s adap abili y o di e en scales. I can be used o model
indi idual a e ac s, a chi ec u al emains, o en i e landscapes su eyed by d ones. This
lexibili y makes i an indispensable ool o p ojec s anging om small-scale exca a ions o
la ge e i o ial s udies. By b idging p ecision eco ding wi h isual communica ion, Me ashape
has eshaped a chaeological me hodology, enabling he discipline o mo e owa ds mo e
anspa en , ep oducible, and collabo a i e esea ch p ac ices (Bo ns ein & Keep, 2023; Kingsland,
2020).
Au oCAD and Au odesk ReCap
Au oCAD and Au odesk ReCap occupy an impo an niche wi hin digi al a chaeology,
pa icula ly in he domain o a chi ec u al documen a ion, s uc u al analysis, and 3D
econs uc ion (Buna e al., 2014; G een e al., 2016; Zhao & Lyu, 2021). Au oCAD, o iginally
de eloped as a design and enginee ing ool, has long been adap ed o a chaeological pu poses
because o i s capaci y o p oduce p ecise echnical d awings and models o ancien s uc u es.
Au odesk ReCap complemen s his p ocess by enabling he ans o ma ion o lase scans and
pho og amme ic da a in o wo kable 3D models, which can hen be e ined and analysed in
Au oCAD. Toge he , hese ools p o ide a chaeologis s wi h he means o documen and
econs uc a chi ec u al emains wi h an accu acy ha was p e iously una ainable.
The s eng h o Au oCAD lies in i s p ecision and s anda disa ion. A chaeologis s and
he i age specialis s can c ea e de ailed 2D and 3D ep esen a ions o exca a ion a eas, s anding
a chi ec u e, o econs uc ed monumen s. These d awings a e no me ely illus a i e bu se e
as analy ical esou ces, allowing schola s o es s uc u al hypo heses, measu e a chi ec u al
componen s, and compa e cons uc ion echniques ac oss si es. Au odesk ReCap adds alue by
p ocessing aw da a collec ed om e es ial lase scanne s o d ones, con e ing millions o
spa ial poin s in o s uc u ed poin clouds and meshes. This in eg a ion s eamlines he
wo k low om ield da a collec ion o echnical modelling.
In a chaeological p ac ice, hese applica ions ha e p o en in aluable o he econs uc ion
o collapsed o e oded buildings, emples, and u ban layou s. They suppo he i age
conse a ion e o s by o e ing de ailed baseline documen a ion, which can la e be used o
es o a ion p ojec s o digi al p ese a ion in cases whe e he o iginal s uc u es a e endange ed.
Mo eo e , 3D econs uc ions p oduced wi h Au oCAD and ReCap enhance public
engagemen by enabling imme si e isualisa ions o museums, exhibi ions, and educa ional
pla o ms.
Pe haps mos impo an ly, he combina ion o hese ools ad ances me hodological
anspa ency. Digi al econs uc ions can be e isi ed, e ised, and en iched as new e idence
eme ges, c ea ing dynamic a he han s a ic in e p e a ions. By b idging enginee ing-le el
p ecision wi h a chaeological in e p e a ion, Au oCAD and Au odesk ReCap signi ican ly
con ibu e o he p ese a ion, s udy, and communica ion o ancien buil en i onmen s.
ENVI
ENVI is a specialised so wa e pla o m designed o he p ocessing and analysis o sa elli e
and ae ial image y, wi h pa icula ele ance o a chaeological esea ch in emo e sensing (Luo
e al., 2022; Luo e al., 2023). I s co e capabili y lies in he manipula ion o mul ispec al and

36
hype spec al da a, enabling he de ec ion o sub le anomalies in ege a ion, soil composi ion,
and opog aphy ha a e indica i e o pas human ac i i y. By ans o ming spec al in o ma ion
in o in e p e able isualisa ions, ENVI allows a chaeologis s o iden i y si es and ea u es ha
a e o en in isible o he naked eye o obscu ed by na u al o mode n landscape changes.
One o he key ad an ages o ENVI is i s sophis ica ed sui e o analy ical ools, including
spec al classi ica ion, change de ec ion, and e ain analysis. These unc ions acili a e he
sys ema ic examina ion o la ge a eas, making i possible o p io i ise ield su eys and a ge
a eas wi h high po en ial o a chaeological disco e y. Fo example, di e en ial ege a ion
pa e ns o e bu ied s uc u es o ancien oads can be quan i ied and mapped, p o iding
indi ec e idence o subsu ace emains. This p edic i e capabili y is pa icula ly aluable in
egions whe e exca a ion is limi ed by accessibili y, legal es ic ions, o p ese a ion conce ns.
ENVI’s u ili y ex ends beyond si e disco e y. I s in eg a ion wi h GISs enables he
combina ion o emo e sensing da a wi h his o ical maps, su ey da a, and en i onmen al
a iables, suppo ing comp ehensi e landscape analysis. A chaeologis s can examine spa ial
ela ionships be ween se lemen s, wa e sou ces, and anspo a ion ne wo ks, p o iding
insigh s in o ancien se lemen pa e ns, land use, and en i onmen al adap a ion. Addi ionally,
ENVI acili a es empo al s udies, allowing esea che s o moni o changes in landscapes o e
decades o cen u ies, which is ins umen al in unde s anding si e deg ada ion, u ban expansion,
o ag icul u al impac s.
In p ac ical applica ions, ENVI has been success ully used o de ec p e iously unknown
se lemen si es, map ancien ag icul u al sys ems, and ace his o ic oad ne wo ks. I s non-
in asi e na u e ensu es minimal dis u bance o sensi i e a chaeological con ex s while p o iding
obus , ep oducible da a. By combining quan i a i e spec al analysis wi h spa ial in e p e a ion,
ENVI exempli ies how ad anced emo e sensing echnology can enhance bo h he e iciency
and he scien i ic igou o a chaeological in es iga ions.
LiDAR (LAS ools, CloudCompa e)
LiDAR echnology has eme ged as a ans o ma i e ool in con empo a y a chaeology,
pa icula ly in he de ec ion and documen a ion o opog aphic and s uc u al ea u es ha a e
obscu ed by dense ege a ion o di icul e ain (Inoma a, 2024; Vilbig e al., 2020; Vinci e al.,
2024; Casana e al., 2021). LiDAR ope a es by emi ing lase pulses om ae ial pla o ms, such
as d ones o ai c a , and measu ing he ime aken o he pulses o e u n a e e lec ing o
he g ound o objec s. The esul ing poin cloud da a is hen p ocessed using so wa e such as
LAS ools and CloudCompa e, which enables he gene a ion o highly accu a e 3D digi al
models o he e ain, e ealing ea u es ha a e o he wise in isible h ough con en ional su ey
me hods.
One o he p ima y ad an ages o LiDAR is i s capaci y o pene a e o es canopies and
o he su ace co e , allowing a chaeologis s o de ec sub le ea hwo ks, ancien oads,
ampa s, bu ial mounds, and building ounda ions wi h ema kable p ecision (Vinci e al., 2024;
Vilbig e al., 2020). LAS ools p o ides an e icien sui e o algo i hms o he il e ing,
classi ica ion, and isualisa ion o massi e poin cloud da ase s, while CloudCompa e o e s
ad anced 3D compa ison and analysis unc ions, enabling de ailed mo phome ic and
37
olume ic measu emen s o iden i ied ea u es. This combina ion signi ican ly enhances he
analy ical powe o ield a chaeology and landscape s udies.
In p ac ice, LiDAR has e olu ionised a chaeological explo a ion in a eas p e iously
conside ed inaccessible o oo challenging o adi ional su ey echniques. A no able example
is he disco e y o ex ensi e Maya u ban ne wo ks in Gua emala, whe e LiDAR da a e ealed
housands o p e iously undocumen ed s uc u es hidden benea h dense ain o es canopies
(Casana e al., 2021). Simila ly, in Eu ope, LiDAR su eys ha e been employed o map
p ehis o ic hill o s, medie al ield sys ems, and Roman in as uc u e wi h unp eceden ed
de ail, acili a ing bo h he i age managemen and academic esea ch.
Beyond disco e y, LiDAR da a suppo s he long- e m p ese a ion and in e p e a ion o
a chaeological si es. Digi al ele a ion models de i ed om LiDAR allow esea che s o moni o
e osion, land-use changes, and o he en i onmen al impac s on cul u al he i age si es.
Fu he mo e, he high- esolu ion 3D models p oduced can be sha ed digi ally, p omo ing
b oade accessibili y and enabling i ual econs uc ion, educa ion, and public engagemen . By
in eg a ing LiDAR echnology wi h obus so wa e analysis, a chaeologis s ha e gained a
powe ul non-in asi e me hod o explo e, documen , and p o ec he wo ld’s a chaeological
he i age.
D oneDeploy and Pix4D
D one-based pho og amme y pla o ms, such as D oneDeploy and Pix4D, ha e become
inc easingly impo an in mode n a chaeological esea ch due o hei abili y o cap u e high-
esolu ion ae ial image y o e ex ensi e o inaccessible a eas (Digi al ools…, 2024; Documen ing…,
2017; Using…, 2022; Mapping megali hs…, 2025; Mapping he pas , 2023; D one Su eying…, 2024).
These so wa e pla o ms acili a e he p ocessing o d one-acqui ed images in o o hopho os,
DEMs, and 3D econs uc ions, o e ing a chaeologis s a apid and non-in asi e means o
su eying landscapes and si es. The combina ion o ligh weigh UAVs wi h sophis ica ed image-
p ocessing so wa e has signi ican ly expanded he scale and e iciency o ield in es iga ions.
One o he p ima y ad an ages o D oneDeploy and Pix4D is hei e sa ili y and
adap abili y o di e en su ey equi emen s. They allow o p ecise mapping o la ge e i o ies
wi hin ela i ely sho ime ames, while main aining high spa ial esolu ion and geome ic
accu acy. The gene a ed da a can be in eg a ed wi h GIS pla o ms o pho og amme ic ools
o analyse spa ial pa e ns, de ec sub le opog aphical anomalies, and iden i y p e iously
undocumen ed a chaeological ea u es. Fo example, c op ma ks, soil discolo a ion, o mic o-
elie a ia ions may indica e bu ied s uc u es o pa hways, which can hen be a ge ed o
u he in es iga ion (Fiz e al., 2022).
In addi ion o si e de ec ion, hese pla o ms play a c i ical ole in he i age documen a ion
and moni o ing. Repea ed d one su eys can p o ide empo al da ase s ha ack changes in
si e condi ions, e osion, ege a ion g ow h, o human impac . This capabili y is pa icula ly
aluable o endange ed o highly sensi i e si es whe e adi ional su ey me hods may be
in usi e o imp ac ical. Mo eo e , he ou pu s—o hopho os, 3D models, and geo e e enced
maps—can be sha ed digi ally, suppo ing collabo a i e esea ch, emo e analysis, and public
engagemen ini ia i es such as i ual ou s o educa ional ma e ials.
38
D oneDeploy and Pix4D also enhance sa e y and logis ical e iciency. A chaeologis s can
su ey di icul e ains, s eep slopes, we lands, o con lic -a ec ed egions wi hou physically
en e ing haza dous zones. By in eg a ing ae ial image y wi h o he geospa ial da ase s,
esea che s can conduc mul i-laye ed analyses, imp o ing he p edic i e modelling o si e
loca ions and landscape in e ac ions. O e all, d one-based pho og amme y pla o ms ep esen
a pa adigm shi in a chaeological me hodology, enabling comp ehensi e, p ecise, and non-
des uc i e in es iga ion o cul u al he i age ac oss di e se en i onmen al con ex s.
Geoplo and Te aSu eyo
Geophysical p ospec ion so wa e, such as Geoplo and Te aSu eyo , has become an
essen ial ool in non-in asi e a chaeological in es iga ion, allowing esea che s o de ec
subsu ace ea u es wi hou dis u bing he soil (GeoPlo : Abou , 2007; Sensing…, 2015; New
Philadelphia…, n.d.; Te aSu eyo 64, n.d.; K amme, 2018). These pla o ms a e designed o p ocess
and isualise da a collec ed om a a ie y o geophysical su ey echniques, including
magne ome y, GPR, esis i i y, and elec omagne ic induc ion. By con e ing aw geophysical
signals in o in e p e able isual ou pu s, he so wa e enables a chaeologis s o iden i y bu ied
s uc u es, pi s, walls, ombs, and o he ea u es ha a e no isible on he su ace.
A p incipal ad an age o Geoplo and Te aSu eyo lies in hei analy ical lexibili y. The
so wa e allows o he in eg a ion and compa ison o da ase s om mul iple su ey me hods,
enhancing he eliabili y and in e p e abili y o esul s. High- esolu ion g idded maps and 3D
models gene a ed om geophysical da a can e eal sub le anomalies co esponding o
a chaeological ea u es, p o iding a de ailed spa ial unde s anding o subsu ace con ex s.
Fu he mo e, ad anced il e ing, smoo hing, and s a is ical analysis ools help dis inguish
be ween cul u al ea u es and na u al geological a ia ions, educing alse posi i es and
imp o ing a ge ing o subsequen exca a ion.
In p ac ical applica ions, hese ools ha e acili a ed signi ican a chaeological disco e ies
ac oss a ange o en i onmen s. Fo example, magne ome y su eys p ocessed in Geoplo ha e
e ealed I on Age se lemen s and Roman illas in Eu ope, while GPR su eys analysed wi h
Te aSu eyo ha e loca ed medie al bu ials and ancien oad ne wo ks. Such disco e ies o en
occu wi hou any soil dis u bance, p ese ing he in eg i y o agile a chaeological con ex s.
Addi ionally, he non-in asi e na u e o geophysical p ospec ion suppo s he i age
managemen , pe mi ing apid assessmen o si e ex en , condi ion, and po en ial h ea s be o e
exca a ion o conse a ion in e en ions.
Beyond disco e y, he so wa e also enables long- e m moni o ing and documen a ion.
P ocessed geophysical da ase s can be in eg a ed in o GIS pla o ms o spa ial analysis,
compa ison wi h his o ical maps, o p edic i e modelling o unexca a ed a eas. By combining
p ecision, e iciency, and minimal en i onmen al impac , Geoplo and Te aSu eyo exempli y
how mode n geophysical so wa e con ibu es o sys ema ic, e idence-based, and sus ainable
a chaeological p ac ice.
Thus, he s udy and u ilisa ion o digi al ools and so wa e in a chaeological esea ch a e o
pa amoun impo ance o he p ese a ion, documen a ion, and in e p e a ion o cul u al
he i age. As demons a ed in he analysis, GISs such as A cGIS and QGIS p o ide
a chaeologis s wi h he capaci y o in eg a e, manage, and analyse spa ial da a om di e se
39
sou ces, enabling p edic i e modelling and comp ehensi e landscape assessmen s.
Pho og amme ic so wa e, including Agiso Me ashape, alongside design ools like Au oCAD
and Au odesk ReCap, ensu es p ecise 3D documen a ion o exca a ion si es, a e ac s, and
a chi ec u al emains, acili a ing bo h schola ly analysis and he c ea ion o i ual
econs uc ions accessible o he b oade public.
Remo e sensing pla o ms, exempli ied by ENVI and LiDAR applica ions such as
LAS ools and CloudCompa e, e eal p e iously hidden o inaccessible s uc u es, signi ican ly
expanding he scope o a chaeological disco e y while p ese ing he in eg i y o si es. Simila ly,
d one-based su eying so wa e, including D oneDeploy and Pix4D, allows apid, high-
esolu ion mapping o ex ensi e o di icul - o-access a eas, gene a ing da ase s ha can be
in eg a ed wi h GIS and pho og amme ic ou pu s o mul i-laye ed analyses. Geophysical
p ospec ion ools, such as Geoplo and Te aSu eyo , u he complemen hese app oaches
by p o iding non-in asi e me hods o de ec subsu ace ea u es, educing he need o
in usi e exca a ion and suppo ing he i age managemen s a egies.
Collec i ely, hese digi al echnologies os e a shi owa ds sus ainable and e idence-based
a chaeological p ac ices. They no only enhance he e iciency, p ecision, and ep oducibili y o
esea ch bu also con ibu e o he long- e m p ese a ion o cul u al he i age by enabling
de ailed moni o ing, i ual econs uc ion, and in o med decision-making in conse a ion
e o s. The e o e, he in eg a ion o hese so wa e ools is essen ial o mode n a chaeology,
ensu ing ha disco e ies a e sys ema ically documen ed, isks o agile si es a e minimised, and
cul u al he i age is sa egua ded o u u e gene a ions.
Discussion
The cu en s udy has highligh ed he ans o ma i e impac o digi al g aphics so wa e on
he ield o cul u al he i age es o a ion. The ele ance o his opic canno be o e s a ed, gi en
he escala ing h ea s o bo h angible and in angible he i age wo ldwide. Digi al ools ha e
mo ed beyond me e suppo unc ions, becoming in eg al o he e y me hodology o
p ese a ion. The abili y o c ea e de ailed, non-in asi e digi al eplicas o e s a c ucial
al e na i e o adi ional, o en des uc i e, documen a ion me hods. This shi is pa icula ly
i al in si ua ions whe e physical access is limi ed o he objec is oo agile o di ec con ac .
Howe e , despi e hese ad ancemen s, he au ho o his pape encoun e ed se e al challenges.
A p ima y limi a ion is he inhe en bias owa ds widely used comme cial so wa e, which may
o e shadow he signi ican con ibu ions o open-sou ce al e na i es. The analysis, while
comp ehensi e in i s co e age o majo pla o ms, could ha e bene i ed om a mo e in-dep h
compa ison o hei cos -e ec i eness, accessibili y, and communi y suppo . Fu he mo e, he
pape ’s eliance on exis ing case s udies, while necessa y, p esen s a po en ial limi a ion. I does
no include an o iginal empi ical s udy, which could ha e p o ided di ec , i s -hand da a on he
e ec i eness and challenges o hese ools in p ac ice. The pace o echnological e olu ion is
ano he key challenge; new so wa e and upda es a e eleased equen ly, making a de ini i e,
long- e m assessmen di icul . This necessi a es a con inuous e iew o ools and echniques o
ensu e esea ch emains cu en .
Looking ahead, his s udy opens up se e al a enues o u u e esea ch. A c i ical ques ion
is he long- e m sus ainabili y o digi al a chi es. As so wa e becomes obsole e and ile o ma s
46
ele an o sus ainable ou ism in he a ge egion and o he speci ic cha ac e is ics o a gi en
ou is des ina ion. P. Sobhani e al. (2022) s a ed ha indica o s a e wo h selec ing conside ing
a ious equi emen s, including hei ele ance, scien i ic p ecision, measu abili y, anspa ency,
adap abili y, compa abili y, e iciency, e i o ial ep esen a ion, e c. Acco ding o O. M.
Ghoochani e al. (2020) he mos ele an indica o s should be selec ed ela ed o he impac o
ou is ac i i ies a he des ina ion. M. S. Islam e al. (2023) con i m ha he indica o s should
be ele an , easible, c edible, and clea ; hey should be ele an o he speci ic a ea o ou ism
ini ia i es. M. Chá ez-Co és and J. A. A. Maya (2010) s a ed ha he indica o s should p o ide
in o ma ion on he impac o ou ism ac i i ies; hey should be app op ia e and ele an o
sus ainabili y. Acco ding o A. Gallaghe and K. Pike (2011) one mechanism by which
sus ainabili y can be enabled is h ough he iden i ica ion o ele an indica o s such ha
in o ma ion can be collec ed and communica ed. S. Mu ana and G. Mukwada (2017) poin ed
ha iden i ying ele an indica o s o a des ina ion is essen ial; indica o s should be use ul o
measu ing and moni o ing ou ism sus ainabili y. H. He a al. (2023) s a ed ha indica o s
should measu e he pe o mance o ou ism esou ces and ou ism esou ce ca ying capaci y.
Acco ding o I. Spilanis a al. (2009) indica o s should be use ul o use s; hey should also be
eliable and based on sound scien i ic concep s; and hey should be measu able wi h da a ha
can be acqui ed and moni o ed wi h eliable p ocedu es. G. Ba zeka e al. (2011) claimed ha
indica o s should be based on hei ele ance, analy ical soundness, and measu abili y. A.
Reihanian e al. (2015) s a ed ha indica o s should mee he condi ion o measu abili y o e
ime; hey need o be unde s andable and dependen on da a ha is easily a ailable; hey should
add ess he equisi es o da a a ailabili y, c edibili y, simplici y, and he capaci y o show ends
o e ime. T. H. Lee e al. (2021) con i med ha indica o s should measu e he pe o mance o
sus ainabili y; hey should ensu e he eliabili y o he esul s. T. Dimoska and B. Pe e ska
(2012) s a ed ha o be use ul indica o s o sus ainable ou ism mus ul ill he equi emen s:
ele ance, a ailabili y, meaning, eliabili y, compa abili y, e c.; da a should be a ailable o he
indica o s. D. Vagiona and G. Doxopoulos (2014) con i med ha o measu ing indica o s o
moni o ing sus ainable ou ism de elopmen o des ina ions, da a should be a ailable; indica o s
should p oduce desi ed, compa able esul s; hey should be use ul o measu ing and moni o ing
ou ism impac s. Thus, i could be summa ized ha some o he essen ial equi emen s o he
indica o s a e hei ele ance and da a abili y o measu ing sus ainable de elopmen .
C i e ia o he Classi ica ion o Indica o s
Sui able c i e ia o classi ica ion o socio-economic and en i onmen al indica o s o
measu ing sus ainable ou ism de elopmen o des ina ions should be selec ed. The esul s o
li e a u e e iew e eal ha while some au ho s de ine c i e ia o economic, social, and
en i onmen al dimensions o sus ainable ou ism de elopmen , o he s de ine c i e ia o o e all
sus ainable ou ism de elopmen (Table 2). Thus, i could be concluded ha he speci ic
economic, social, and en i onmen al indica o s can be classi ied in g oups acco ding o ce ain
c i e ia o sus ainabili y.
Sample Indica o s o Moni o ing Sus ainable Tou ism De elopmen

47
The au ho s o he analyzed scien i ic publica ions ha e iden i ied many indica o s o
moni o ing sus ainable ou ism de elopmen . Below a e only some examples o economic,
social, and en i onmen al indica o s ha a e p esen ed in he analyzed publica ions (Table 3).
The analysis shows ha in o de a sys em o indica o s o moni o ing sus ainable ou ism o
be de eloped app op ia e socio-economic and en i onmen al indica o s should be selec ed and
classi ied acco ding o he chosen c i e ia. Thus, i could be concluded ha on he one hand,
he chosen indica o s should adhe e o speci ic equi emen s, such as a ailabili y and ele ance
o he in o ma ion ha hey p o ide, and on he o he hand, each indica o should be classi ied
in an app op ia e g oup in o de co espondence be ween indica o s and he gi en c i e ia o be
assu ed.
Resul s
De elopmen o a Sys em o Indica o s o Moni o ing Sus ainable Tou ism
De elopmen o Des ina ions
Requi emen s o he Indica o s
Indica o s o moni o ing sus ainable ou ism de elopmen o des ina ions should e lec
aspec s such as he cha ac e is ics o ou ism in gene al and he cha ac e is ics o he des ina ion
in pa icula . They also indica e he a ailable capaci y and load on esou ces. They a e a measu e
o ou ism demand and supply, oo. P ima ily hey e eal he social, economic, and
en i onmen al bene i s ealized by he in e es ed pa ies ( isi o s, local popula ion, s a , e c.).
Thus, i could be summa ized ha he sys em o moni o ing sus ainable ou ism de elopmen
o des ina ions should include indica o s ha e eal he key cha ac e is ics o ou ism
de elopmen and he speci ic ou is des ina ions, he s a e and sus ainable u iliza ion o ou ism
esou ces, a ious aspec s o ou ism supply and demand, as well as he cos s and bene i s o
he main in e es ed pa ies.
Below some essen ial c i e ia and indica o s o moni o ing sus ainable ou ism
de elopmen o des ina ions, de i ed by he analysis o scien i ic li e a u e a e p esen ed. The
p esen ed indica o s a e classi ied in g oups acco ding o he chosen c i e ia and hus a sys em
o indica o s o moni o ing sus ainable ou ism de elopmen o des ina ions is o med. The
c i e ia a e selec ed based on li e a u e e iew, he speci ics o sus ainabili y and he essen ial
cha ac e is ics o economic, social, and en i onmen al dimensions o sus ainable ou ism
de elopmen , as well as he undamen al heo ies and s a emen s o ou ism s udies. The
equi emen s o selec ing he indica o s o moni o ing sus ainable ou ism de elopmen a e
chosen on he basis o he analysis o he scien i ic publica ions ha a e p esen ed abo e. The
speci ic equi emen s o selec ing sus ainable ou ism indica o s a e ele ance, eliance,
measu abili y, a ailabili y, and objec i i y o he p o ided in o ma ion. The selec ed indica o s
a e ela ed o he economic, social, and en i onmen al aspec s o sus ainabili y o ou ism
des ina ions. The alues o he indica o s can be measu ed egula ly because in o ma ion is
a ailable o can be easily ob ained om s a is ical s udies, da a on he In e ne , om social
ne wo ks, om moni o ing h ough new echnologies, a ou ism si es, e c. The ob ained da a
is expec ed o be objec i e and ga he ed on a egula basis. Thus, i could be concluded ha he
48
app op ia e sys em o measu ing sus ainable ou ism de elopmen o des ina ions include
sui able indica o s ha bo h adhe e o ce ain equi emen , such as measu abili y, a ailabili y o
in o ma ion, e c. and ha co espond o p elimina y selec ed c i e ia ela ed o social, economic
and en i onmen al sus ainabili y o ou ism des ina ions.
Social and Economic Indica o s
Social and economic indica o s o moni o ing sus ainable ou ism de elopmen in
des ina ions a e ela ed o aspec s, such as he numbe and sa is ac ion o isi o s and local
popula ion, he sa e y o people in he espec i e e i o y, ou ism en e p ises and numbe and
quali ica ions o s a , he in as uc u e, ac i i ies and se ices ha a e p o ided o isi o s, he
capaci y and load on esou ces, he ype and quali y o in o ma ion ma e ials and he con en o
in o ma ion p o ided o ou is s, as well as e enues, cos s, wages, in es men s, e c. Socio-
economic sus ainabili y indica o s should e lec bo h social and economic bene i s and social
and economic cos s. They should indica e he social bene i s o a ious social g oups, especially
ou is s, local popula ion, and s a , which a e ela ed o sa is ying hei a ious social needs.
These indica o s also e lec he economic bene i s ( e enues, income, e c.) and cos s ( o
ma e ials, wages, in es men e c.) o people and especially o esiden popula ion and ou ism
companies and hei s a . The social and economic bene i s o a ious social g oups a e ealized
due o sus ainable ou ism de elopmen . Socio-economic indica o s a e closely ela ed o
en i onmen al indica o s, which e lec he quali y o en i onmen , mainly na u al en i onmen
ha is essen ial o he sa is ac ion o people and especially isi o s. Mos social and economic
indica o s can be used o moni o ing he sus ainable de elopmen o all o ms o ou ism.
O he indica o s a e sui able o e alua ing only some speci ic o ms o ou ism, e.g., moun ain,
sea, cul u al and eco ou ism, e c. Thus, i could be summa ized ha socio-economic indica o s
o sus ainable ou ism de elopmen o des ina ions e lec social and economic bene i s and
cos s o in e es ed pa ies (local people, ou is s, pe sonnel, e c.).
Below (Table 4) a e examples o some essen ial socio-economic indica o s ha could be
used o he assessmen o sus ainable ou ism de elopmen o des ina ions. The indica o s ha e
been selec ed in such a way ha , apa om being sui able o he e alua ion o he social and
economic sus ainabili y o ou ism o des ina ions, hei alues can be measu ed because
in o ma ion is a ailable o can be easily ob ained om s a is ical s udies, da a on he In e ne
and social ne wo ks, anking o ou ism si es, e c. The p esen ed sample indica o s ha e been
classi ied in he ollowing g oups: (1) Indica o s ela ed o he numbe o local popula ion and
isi o s, he a io be ween hem and he numbe and sa is ac ion o isi o s and local people
who pa icipa e in he di e en ac i i ies and use a ious se ices wi hin he des ina ions. These
indica o s a e ela ed o local and ou ism demand; (2) Indica o s ela ed o he a ailabili y,
access, quan i y and quali y o ou ism en e p ises, in as uc u e, si es, ac i i ies, p oduc s, and
se ices. These indica o s a e ela ed o supply, including ou ism supply; (3) Indica o s ela ed
o employmen and s a in ou ism; (4) Indica o s ela ed o he in o ma ion ha is p o ided
o isi o s; (5) Indica o s ela ed o income, e enue, cos s, in es men , wages, e c. Tha g oup
include indica o s ha a e measu ed wi h cu ency alues. They migh be conside ed as inancial
indica o s. Thus, i e g oups o socio-economic indica o s o measu ing social and economic
49
sus ainabili y o des ina ions ha e been dis inguished. These indica o s a e ela ed o ou ism
supply and demand, cos s and e enues.
En i onmen al Indica o s
En i onmen al indica o s o moni o ing sus ainable ou ism de elopmen o des ina ions
a e ela ed o he capaci y and use o na u al and physical esou ces. They indica e he s a e o
na u al en i onmen . These indica o s e lec he en i onmen al bene i s and cos s o people
ha a e ealized due o sus ainable ou ism de elopmen a des ina ions. The e a e gene al
en i onmen al indica o s ha can be used o moni o ing all ypes o ou ism and speci ic
en i onmen al indica o s ha can be used o moni o ing speci ic ypes o ou ism ha a e
based on na u al esou ces, mainly, na u e, moun ain, o es , and eco- ou ism, e c.
En i onmen al indica o s o moni o ing sus ainable ou ism a e ela ed o he le els o
conse a ion, p o ec ion, educ ion o use, consump ion, s a e, quali y and pollu ion o na u e
and na u al esou ces, such as ai , wa e , ene gy, land, e ain, soils, lo a, and auna. Thus, i can
be summa ized ha en i onmen al indica o s o sus ainable ou ism de elopmen o
des ina ions e lec en i onmen al cos s and bene i s o s akeholde s, such as ou is s, local
people and he pe sonnel o ou ism en e p ises.
En i onmen al indica o s o moni o ing sus ainable ou ism de elopmen o des ina ions
can be classi ied in g oups acco ding o c i e ia ela ed o he ype and e ec s on na u al
esou ces. Thus, he ollowing c i e ia o classi ying he en i onmen al indica o s o
moni o ing sus ainable ou ism de elopmen a e o e ed: (1) Indica o s ela ed o ai quali y and
noise pollu ion; (2) Indica o s ela ed o wa e quali y and consump ion; (3) indica o s ela ed
o ene gy consump ion; (4) indica o s ela ed o (solid and liquid) was e managemen , e ain
p ese a ion and soil quali y; (5) indica o s ela ed o le els and p ese a ion o lo a and auna.
Below (Table 5) a e some examples o indica o s o en i onmen al sus ainabili y o
des ina ions. Thus, i e g oups o indica o s o measu ing en i onmen al sus ainabili y o
ou ism des ina ions ha e been dis inguished. These indica o s a e ela ed o he ypes o and
impac s on na u al esou ces.
Discussion
Fo u he s udies he ollowing in o ma ion abou he indica o s o sus ainable
ou ism de elopmen o des ina ions should be p o ided. The sou ce o in o ma ion o each
indica o should be speci ied. The e i o ial le el o which he indica o should be measu ed
should be de e mined (e.g., global, Eu opean, na ional, egional, local). The ype o he
des ina ion whe e he indica o could be applied should be speci ied (e.g., u ban, coas al, u al,
moun ain). The sys em o indica o s o sus ainable ou ism de elopmen is wo h es ing a a
speci ic des ina ion. To be applied o ha des ina ion i is wo h adop ing acco ding o he ype,
size, esou ces and o he cha ac e is ics o he des ina ion. The a ge alue o each indica o
should be de e mined. The obse a ion pe iod should be speci ied. Du ing he obse a ion
pe iod moni o ing o he achie ed alues o he indica o s o sus ainable ou ism de elopmen
o he des ina ion should be pe o med. The ends in he a ia ion in he alues o he
indica o s should be measu ed and analyzed as he easons o he obse able ends should be
ou lined. On ha basis, an assessmen o he social, economic and en i onmen al, as well as he
50
o e all sus ainabili y o ou ism de elopmen o he des ina ion should be done. The assessmen
should be used o imp o ing he sys em o he indica o s o measu ing sus ainable ou ism
de elopmen o he des ina ion in o de o be u ilized in he u u e. Thus, he imp o ed sys em
would be applied o ce ain des ina ions.
Conclusion
In ha pape a scien i ically based and p ac ically applicable sys em o socio-economic, and
ecological indica o s o moni o ing sus ainable ou ism de elopmen o des ina ions has been
p esen ed. The indica o s ha e been selec ed based on hei ele ance o sus ainable ou ism
de elopmen o des ina ions and hei measu abili y due o a ailable o easily ob ainable
objec i e, and eliable in o ma ion. The selec ed indica o s we e classi ied acco ding o
de eloped c i e ia. The esul s o he s udy e ealed ha socio-economic indica o s could be
classi ied in g oups acco ding o he ollowing c i e ia: (1) Indica o s ela ed o he numbe o
local popula ion and isi o s, he a io be ween hem and he numbe and sa is ac ion o isi o s
and local people who pa icipa e in he a ious ac i i ies and use di e en se ices wi hin he
des ina ions. These indica o s a e ela ed o local and ou ism demand; (2) Indica o s ela ed o
he a ailabili y, access, quan i y and quali y o ou ism en e p ises, in as uc u e, si es, ac i i ies,
p oduc s, and se ices. These indica o s a e ela ed o supply, including ou ism supply; (3)
Indica o s ela ed o employmen and s a in ou ism; (4) Indica o s ela ed o he in o ma ion
p o ided o isi o s; (5) Indica o s ela ed o income, e enue, cos s, in es men , wages, e c.
Tha g oup include economic indica o s ha a e measu ed wi h cu ency alues. They migh be
conside ed as inancial indica o s. The en i onmen al indica o s could be classi ied in g oups
acco ding o he ollowing c i e ia: (1) Indica o s ela ed o ai quali y and noise pollu ion; (2)
Indica o s ela ed o wa e quali y and consump ion; (3) indica o s ela ed o ene gy
consump ion; (4) indica o s ela ed o (solid and liquid) was e managemen , e ain p ese a ion
and soil quali y; (5) indica o s ela ed o le els and p ese a ion o lo a and auna. Fo each
g oup o socio-cul u al and en i onmen al indica o s sample indica o s o moni o ing
sus ainable ou ism de elopmen o des ina ions ha e been p esen ed, which we e chosen based
on he ou lined equi emen s (measu abili y, e c.).
Acknowledgmen
This s udy is inanced by he Eu opean UnionNex Gene a ionEU, h ough he Na ional
Reco e y and Resilience Plan o he Republic o Bulga ia, p ojec № BG-RRP-2.004-0008-C01.
Con lic o In e es
The au ho decla es ha he e is no con lic o in e es .
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52
Appendix
Table 1. Scopes o he s udies desc ibed in he analyzed publica ions
Au ho s, yea
Scope o a ea o s udy
ETIS, EU, 2016
In ol es indica o s o sus ainable des ina ion managemen .
Gue ei o&Segu o, 2018
Iden i ied co e a eas and indica o s o moni o ing sus ainabili y in he
Po uguese ou ism indus y.
Robe s&T ibe, 2008
Iden i ied hemes and indica o s o moni o ing he sus ainabili y o small
ou ism en e p ises.
Du o ic&Lo en je , 2014
Fo med a g oup o indica o s acco ding o he main aspec s o he
dimensions o sus ainable ou ism o measu ing sus ainabili y o cul u al
ou ism.
Mea ns, 2015
Applied sus ainable ou ism indica o s o communi y-based eco ou ism
en u es in Sou h A ica.
Sil e a e al., 2021
Iden i ied sus ainabili y indica o s o Po uguese hospi ali y SMEs.
Asmelash&Kuma , 2019
De eloped and es ed a se o indica o s o assessmen o he p og ess
owa ds sus ainable ou ism de elopmen .
Lozano-Oyola e al., 2012
P esen ed indica o sys em o e alua e sus ainable ou ism a cul u al
des ina ions.
Sobhani e al., 2022
E alua ed indica o s o p o ec ed a eas in Teh an, I an.
Ghoochani e al., 2020
Iden i ied indica o s o measu ing sus ainable ou ism de elopmen in he
we land a eas.
Islam e al., 2023
De eloped and implemen ed a communi y ope a ed ou ism sus ainabili y
indica o sys em in Boga Lake, Bangladesh.
Cha ez-Co es&Maya, 2010
Iden i ied sus ainabili y indica o s o ou ism de elopmen a a local le el
in a Mexican communi y.
Gallaghe &Pike, 2011
De eloped a sui e o indica o s, which can be used by he e en s
managemen indus y o desc ibe hei sus ainable p ac ice.
Mu ana&Mukwada, 2017
Assessed signi ican ou ism sus ainabili y indica o s o a Mon ane-Based
Rou in he D akensbe g Moun ain, Sou h A ica.
He a al., 2023
Used indica o s o measu e ou ism esou ce ca ying capaci y pe o mance
in China.
Spilanis a al., 2009
Used indica o s o es ima ion o he sus ainabili y a he island le el.
Ba zeka e al., 2011
Gene a ed indica o s o moni o ing eco ou ism sus ainabili y in No he n
o es s o I an.
Reihanian e al., 2015
De eloped and used sus ainable ou ism indica o s in Boujagh Na ional
Pa k, I an.
Lee e al., 2021
De eloped an indica o amewo k o assessing sus ainable ou ism a a
Taiwan ecological eso .
Dimoska&Pe e ska, 2012
Es ima ed sus ainable ou ism de elopmen indica o s in Macedonia.
Vagiona&Doxopoulos, 2014
Iden i ied and implemen ed a se o ou ism indica o s o he Regional
Uni o No he n Spo ades in o de o upg ade ou ism de elopmen .
Table 2. Co e c i e ia o classi ying indica o s o moni o ing sus ainable ou ism de elopmen
Au ho s, yea
C i e ia
ETIS, EU, 2016
Economic dimension
Tou ism low a des ina ions, ou ism en e p ises pe o mance, quan i y and quali y
o employmen , ou ism supply chain
Social dimension
Communi y/ social impac , heal h and sa e y, gende equali y, inclusion/
accessibili y, p o ec ing and enhancing cul u al he i age, local iden i y, and asse s
En i onmen al dimension
Reducing anspo impac , clima e change, solid was e managemen , sewage
ea men , wa e managemen , ene gy usage, landscape, and biodi e si y p o ec ion
O he s-Des ina ion managemen
Sus ainable ou ism public policy, cus ome sa is ac ion
Gue ei o&Segu o,
2018 ( ollowing
Economic dimension
Seasonali y, economic bene i s, employmen
Social dimension
53
UNWTO guidelines,
2004,2016,2017)
Tou is sa is ac ion, local sa is ac ion, p essu e, accessibili y
En i onmen al dimension
En i onmen al managemen , ene gy managemen , solid was e managemen
Robe s&T ibe, 2008
(la gely d own o m
WTO Indica o
F amewo ks, 2000)
Economic dimension
Business/ pe o mance p o i abili y, o eign exchange leakage and domes ic
leakages, employmen , quali y o employmen , business mo i a ion
Social dimension
Communi y in ol emen , esiden access, hos ela ions o ou is s, c ime and
ha assmen , cul u al p omo ion, owne ship pa e ns
En i onmen al dimension
En i onmen al awa eness and managemen , ene gy e iciency, wa e e iciency and
moni o ing, ecycling and euse, solid was e managemen , was ewa e managemen ,
pollu ion e ec s managemen , isual pollu ion
O he s - Managemen / ins i u ional sus ainabili y indica o s
Managemen and s a aining, access o inance
Du o ic&Lo en je ,
2014
Economic dimension
Economic bene i s o cul u al ou ism o he hos communi y and des ina ion,
sus aining ou is sa is ac ion, cul u al acili ies, ins i u ional egula ion, seasonali y
o ou ism ac i i y, ou ism ela ed anspo , cul u al ou es
Social dimension
Socio-cul u al e ec s o ou ism on hos communi y, local public sa e y,
conse a ion o cul u al he i age, social ca ying capaci y o he des ina ion,
sa egua ding cul u al iden i y and local communi y, quali y o li e in gene al
En i onmen al dimension
P o ec ion o he na u al ecosys em, ene gy managemen , wa e a ailabili y and
managemen , was ewa e ea men , was e managemen , a mosphe ic pollu ion,
managemen o he isual impac o acili ies and in as uc u e, in ensi y o use,
en i onmen al managemen
Mea ns, 2015
(WTO, 2004 and
au ho ’s es ima ion)
Economic dimension
Sus ainable ou ism sa is ac ion, ou ism seasonali y, economic bene i s o ou ism
Social dimension
Local sa is ac ion wi h ou ism, e ec s wi h ou ism on communi ies, educa ion,
communi y decision-making, communi y bene i s, cul u e
En i onmen al dimension
Ene gy managemen , wa e a ailabili y and conse a ion, d inking wa e quali y,
sewage ea men , solid was e managemen , con olling use in ensi y, biodi e si y,
and conse a ion
O he s - C osscu ing issues
De elopmen con ols, ne wo king, and collabo a ion
Sil e a e al., 2021
(ETIS, WTO)
Economic dimension
Seasonali y, anspo , economic bene i s, ou is sa is ac ion le el, employmen
Social dimension
Sa is ac ion, p essu e, accessibili y, e ec o ou ism on he communi y,
conse a ion o cul u al he i age, quali y o li e
En i onmen al dimension
En i onmen al managemen , ene gy managemen , solid was e managemen , wa e
managemen , p o ec ion o he na u al ecosys em, impac on he en i onmen ,
conse a ion o biodi e si y and landscapes, esou ce conse a ion
O he s - Managemen
Managemen sys em, local planning
Asmelash&Kuma ,
2019
Economic dimension
Employmen quali y, economic iabili y, local p ospe i y
Social dimension
Social equi y, isi o ul illmen , local con ol, communi y wellbeing, cul u al
ichness
En i onmen al dimension
Physical in eg i y, biological di e si y, esou ces e iciency, en i onmen al pu i y
O he s - Ins i u ional sus ainabili y
Local-o ien ed con ol policy, poli ical pa icipa ion, local planning policy, poli ical
suppo a di e en le els o go e nmen s
Economic dimension
54
Lozano-Oyola e al.,
2012
Economic bene i s o ou ism o he hos communi y and des ina ion, sus aining
ou is sa is ac ion, de elopmen con ol, ou ism acili ies on o e – p o ision o a
a ie y o expe iences, seasonali y o ou ism ac i i y, ou ism employmen ,
ou ism- ela ed anspo , des ina ion compe i i eness, ou is ou es, cul u al
in es men , agglome a ion
Social dimension
Socio-cul u al e ec s o ou ism on hos communi y, local public sa e y,
conse a ion o cul u al he i age, e ec on local popula ion s uc u e, social
ca ying capaci y o he des ina ion, e ec on le el o well-being o he local
popula ion, imp o emen o he u ban landscape
En i onmen al dimension
P o ec ion o he na u al ecosys ems, ene gy managemen , wa e a ailabili y and
managemen , was ewa e ea men , managemen o solid u ban was e, a mosphe ic
pollu ion, managemen o he isual impac o acili ies and in as uc u e, in ensi y
o use, en i onmen al managemen
Sobhani e al., 2022
Economic dimension
In o ma ion and communica ion in as uc u e, local p ices, employmen ,
go e nmen al and non-go e nmen al ins i u ions, go e nmen in es men s,
moni o ing and con ol, ins i u ional co-ope a ion, quali y o manage ial unc ions,
eco ou ism cos s, ules and egula ions
Social dimension
Sa is ac ion, pa icipa ion, eeling o secu i y, popula ion densi y, cul u e, jus ice
En i onmen al dimension
En i onmen al pollu ion, ecosys ems, biodi e si y, eco ou ism ca ying capaci y,
sa e y, eco ou ism in as uc u e and acili ies
Ghoochani e al., 2020
Economic dimension
Dependency o income o households a ound he we land on ou ism, gende
equali y, business en e p ises ela ed o ou ism, ha d ou ism in as uc u e,
b anding, in es men olume, he di e si y o income sou ces, willingness o pay
Social dimension
Social capi al, psychological, local communi y pa icipa ion in he de elopmen o
we land ou ism, so in as uc u e ela ed o ou ism, cul u al exchange,
popula ion, sa is ac ion o ou ism de elopmen
En i onmen al dimension
Sys ema ic in oducing o we lands, a i ude owa d en i onmen al p o ec ion,
ambien quali y, biodi e si y, en i onmen al NGOs, ou ism di e si y, p o ec i e
alue o we land, land-use change
Islam e al., 2023
Economic dimension
Economic g ow h o ou ism, con ibu ion o household income and s anda d o
li ing
Social dimension
Tou ism sa is ac ion, social cohesion a ec ed by ou ism, local sa is ac ion abou
ou ism, whe he he cul u e being deg aded o los , po en ials o p ese ing
cul u e and adi ions
En i onmen al dimension
Quali y o he wa e o he Boga Lake, p ese a ion o lo a, p ese a ion o auna,
p ese a ion o na u al beau y and minimizing isual pollu ion
O he s - Local go e nmen / poli ical dimension
Suppo i e oles o local go e nmen , nega i e oles o local go e nmen ,
commi ee o he local communi y o communi y-based ou ism de elopmen and
main enance
Cha ez-Co es&Maya,
2010
Economic dimension
Jumps a egional de elopmen , eposi ion he In eg ally Planned Cen e s Bahias
de Hua ulco, imp o e ag icul u al ac i i y
Social dimension
Imp o e li e s anda ds o he popula ion, make easie he inco po a ion o local
people in ou ism ac i i y, de end cu en ag icul u al land-use
En i onmen al dimension
Conse e ecosys em goods and se ices, p e en and con ol en i onmen al
impac s
Poli ical/ ins i u ional
55
Imp o e ins i u ional esponse om he Na ional T us o Tou ism P omo ion o
Mexico
Gallaghe &Pike, 2011
Economic dimension
Suppo ing sus ainabili y
Social dimension
Communi y engagemen and pa icipa ion, educa ion and awa eness, p ocu emen
and employmen , signi icance, and ecogni ion
En i onmen al dimension
Ene gy, ma e ials and was e, wa e and sewage, anspo , en i onmen al ac ions
Au ho s, yea
C i e ia
Mu ana&Mukwada,
2017
E ec i e sus ainable managemen , social and economic bene i s o local
communi y, bene i s o cul u al he i age, bene i s o he en i onmen
He a al., 2023
Tou ism economic load, ou ism social load, ou ism ecological load, ou ism
a ac ion esou ce, ou ism se ice esou ce, ou ism ecological esou ce
Spilanis a al., 2009
Employmen , expo s, economic pe o mance o en e p ises, p oduc , ac i e
popula ion, unemployed, job posi ion, income, popula ion, biodi e si y, land-use
ypes, wa e quali y and quan i y, soil quali y and quan i y, u ban en i onmen
Ba zeka e al., 2011
Conse a ion o na u al esou ces and biodi e si y, educa ional a ai s and public
awa eness, main enance o soil and wa e esou ces, ou is s and local people
sa is ac ion, economic bene i s and po e y alle ia ion, main enance o he i age and
cul u al di e si y, main enance o scene y, na u al and physical ea u e, main enance
o hygiene and ou is sa e y, exis ence o legal, ins i u ion, legisla ion, and policy
Reihanian e al., 2015
Visi o s’ sa is ac ion wi h hei expe iences, egional de elopmen (economy),
isi o s’ awa eness (en i onmen ), local communi y awa eness (socie y), local
communi y pa icipa ion in he planning p ocess (managemen )
Lee e al., 2021
En i onmen al managemen , economic managemen , socio-cul u al managemen ,
go e nmen policy, human esou ce managemen , science, and echnology
Dimoska&Pe e ska,
2012 (UNWTO, 2004)
Local sa is ac ion e ec o ou ism on communi ies, sus aining ou is sa is ac ion,
ou ism seasonali y, economic bene i s o ou ism, ene gy managemen , wa e
a ailabili y and conse a ion, d inking wa e quali y, sewage ea men , solid was e
managemen , de elopmen con ol, con olling use in ensi y
Vagiona&Doxopoulos,
2014
Popula ion, heal h, anspo , ou is se ices, coas ing, accommoda ion,
geog aphical ea u es, land uses, biodi e si y, ene gy, wa e was es, ba hing wa e
quali y
Table 3. Sample indica o s o moni o ing sus ainable ou ism de elopmen ha a e p esen ed in
scien i ic li e a u e
Au ho s, yea
Sample indica o s
ETIS, EU, 2016
Pe cen age o ou ism en e p ises using olun a y ce i ica ion, numbe o
ou is nigh s pe mon h, ela i e con ibu ion o ou ism o he
des ina ion’s economy (%GDP), daily spending pe o e nigh ou is ,
a e age leng h o s ay o ou is s, occupancy a e o comme cial
accommoda ion, di ec ou ism employmen as a pe cen age o o al
employmen , pe cen age o jobs in ou ism ha a e seasonal, pe cen age o
locally p oduced ood, d inks, goods and se ices, numbe o ou is s pe
100 esiden s, numbe o beds a ailable in comme cial accommoda ion
es ablishmen s pe 100 esiden s, pe cen age o he des ina ion’s e en s ha
a e ocused on adi ional cul u e and he i age, pe cen age o ou is s using
di e en modes o anspo , pe cen age o ou ism en e p ises sepa a ing
di e en ypes o was e, pe cen age o ou ism en e p ises aking ac ions o
educe wa e consump ion, pe cen age o ou ism en e p ises aking
ac ions o educe ene gy consump ion, pe cen age o annual amoun o
ene gy consumed om enewable sou ces compa ed o o e all ene gy
consump ion, pe cen age o local en e p ises in he ou ism sec o ac i ely
suppo ing p o ec ion o local biodi e si y and landscapes, e c.
Gue ei o&Segu o, 2018
Numbe o ou is s, pe cen age o jobs ha a e seasonal, pe cen age o
excellen o good wa e quali y, di ec ene gy consump ion, e c.
Robe s&T ibe, 2008
Employee sala ies, pe cen o locals employed, ene gy consump ion, wa e
consump ion, ene gy conse a ion measu es, wa e conse a ion measu es,
e c.
62
enables hough o un old wi hin a mode o con inui y: he pas , p esen , and u u e con e ge
wi hin a uni ying concep o he logical-p ocessual s uc u e o his o y. In his sense, memo y
ope a es no only as an epis emological ool, a means o unde s anding eali y, bu also as an
on ological alue o exis ence. F.R. Anke smi qui e igh ly speaks o a adical change in he
“epis emological ules o his o iog aphy”, e en o he des uc ion o adi ional epis emological
s anda ds: “This is wha could be called he psychoanalysis o science and scien i ic p ac ice.”
(Anke smi , 1994, p. 315)
Mo eo e , he i ual aspec o he epis emology o his o y mus also be aken in o accoun .
The highly complex ques ion o he socio-his o ical has long eluded adi ional philosophy o
his o y p ecisely because i ended o educe he signi icance o imagina ion and he imagina y.
I is he e o e mo e app op ia e o asse ha he p oblema ic o he imagina y wi hin he
logical-p ocessual o ganisa ion o his o y cons i u es an essen ial componen o he
con empo a y wo ld iew, ac ing as a undamen al guide in he sea ch o empo al meaning. I
eme ges as a pa icula kind o phenomenon ha in eg a es c ea i i y, eedom, alue
o ien a ions, and a heme pa icula ly signi ican in Russian hough : ha o “cosmic
p ojec ion”. One could say ha he imagina y cons i u es a poin o con e gence o he mos
i al in ellec ual ques s in Russian philosophy— hus becoming a kind o syn hesis o e en o
hough ha can be conside ed in he p esen con ex o con empo a y inqui y.
I is impo an o e lec on he seman ic con igu a ion ha he imagina y may s uc u e
wi hin he ealm o social memo y: “we a e aced wi h he ques ion o he possibili y o
humani y—and humani y as possibili y” (Guse , 2003, p. 361). This calls o an in es iga ion in o
he seman ic and ca ego ical s a us, he unc ions and con empo a y unde s anding o he
imagina y, as well as he o igins and his o ical de elopmen o he image and he concep o he
imagina y as a dis inc socio-cul u al phenomenon. Such an app oach co esponds closely o
he in en ions o con empo a y philosophy and he epis emology o his o y o comp ehend he
s a es o cul u al-his o ical consciousness, men ali ies, and he ac s o e e yday li e. The
imagina y indica es ways o shaping a p ognos ically o ien ed philosophical ision o he human
being, which, in he cu en clima e o heigh ened in e es in he i ual wo lds o “ u u e
his o y”, social imagina ies, and possible wo lds and communi ies, is bo h imely and in demand.
The phenomenon o he imagina y opens up possibili ies o a sus ainable unde s anding
o bo h cul u e and he human being, coun e ac ing he agmen a y ep esen a ions o
pos mode nism conce ning he human subjec and his o y. The imagina y co ela es di ec ly
wi h he “his o y o men ali ies”, es o ing a he le el o ideal images and ep esen a ions he
o de o collec i e exis ence. In his espec , he imagina y is di ec ly ela ed o he p oblem o
a che ypes, he collec i e unconscious, and may be in eg a ed in o he cu en con ex o
o ecas ing he s a egies o “possible wo lds” in his o y.
The a o emen ioned e lec ions on he imagina y and he i ual in he in e p e a ion o he
p ocessual logic o his o ici y a e pa icula ly signi ican in ha hey en ail he de ini ion o he
“possible u u e”. P ojec ing he p esen on o he u u e enables an assessmen o he iabili y
o he po en iali ies al eady disco e ed by human eason (Guse , 2003, p. 369). One migh say
ha he phenomenon o imagina ion connec s educa ional pa adigms ac oss ime, emaining a
s able cons an in he human endea ou o cons uc a meaning ul exis ence.

63
I we p oceed om he assump ion ha he ancien cosmos implied a co po eal and plas ic
embodimen o human his o y, as A.F. Lose a gued, hen memo y becomes he means h ough
which he social o ganism and p ocesses o educa ion a e o med. Memo y con ains he
seman ic co e o adi ion, a cons an o meaning o he en i e body o ex s wi hin a gi en
cul u e. This co e is composed o symbols o g oup iden i y which, beyond hei ole in ensu ing
socialisa ion, se e o o ien membe s o a ci ilisa ional collec i e wi hin he seman ic space o
ha cul u al communi y. Should hese symbols lose hei capaci y o pe o m such unc ions, i
esul s in he disin eg a ion o he sys ems o his o ical and cul u al o ien a ion.
In he epis emology o his o y, ex s ha a e aligned wi h he seman ic in a ian o cul u e
p e ail; his in a ian allows a cul u e o main ain i s sel -iden i y despi e he a iabili y o
in e p e a ions. Y.M. Lo man no ed ha he mechanisms o socie al disin eg a ion a e se in
mo ion when a up u e occu s be ween cul u al memo y and he synch onous mechanisms o
ex p oduc ion. In his desc ip ion o a “cul u al explosion”, Lo man aised he issue o his o ical
momen s when a “gap o being” appea s— h ough he wo ld o es ablished meanings, he
“ul ima e eali y” o he wo ld image begins o shine h ough. I is p ecisely his mani es a ion ha
makes i possible o speak o he expe ience o a holis ic image o he wo ld—only h ough
such e ela ions can in e es in he p ocessual logic o his o y acqui e a uly pe sonal,
esponsible a i ude owa ds he wo ld.
The condui s o he eposi o ies o memo y a e speci ic symbolic images. In his sense, a
symbol may be de ined as an image ha has exceeded i s bounda ies; he un eiling o a ue
image is, in ac , an ac o philosophical inqui y. Howe e , he p oblem o he u h o he image
o his o y ine i ably a ises.
Today, he allacy o “disc e e” his o ical consciousness has become e iden — ha is, he
endency o ocus on isola ed agmen s o he wo ld image. One migh speak o a opological
u n in he epis emology o his o y. In he eal p ocess o his o y, and acco dingly in i s logical
comp ehension, i econcilable elemen s become appa en : con inui y and discon inui y,
ichness and po e y, he amilia and he alien. When a en ion is ocused solely on agmen s
o epis emology o he expe ience o his o ical p ocesses, a holis ic ep esen a ion becomes
u e ly impossible, due o he absence o a uni ied ield o explana ion and unde s anding.
Ul ima ely, his esul s in a phenomenon akin o “social au ism” o e en “social
schizoph enia”—an inabili y o explain o comp ehend he coexis ence o a ious wo lds o
alues and meanings.
In he dialogic epis emology o his o y, i is p ecisely dialogue ha mus be ac ualised— o
i is he e ha social memo y and he eal p ocesses o “li e knowledge” encoun e one ano he .
In Russian his o iosophy, he pe sonal is necessa ily co ela ed wi h he impe sonal and he
sup a-pe sonal as o ms o anscendence. The expe ience o his o y and i s meaning a e
mu ually ede ined in an exis en ial ac o ision— his poin s o he heme o meaning ul and
esponsible engagemen wi h he wo ld, which anscends conc e e his o ici y.
I should also be aken in o accoun ha eal p ocesses o socialisa ion o m a special kind
o social sensi i i y, a uned o he enchan men wi h he agmen a y and he episodic. Such
enchan men obs uc s engagemen wi h he whole—an o e a ching his o ical na a i e—
obscu es he ision o he whole and impedes he assessmen o e en s in e ms o hei
embeddedness wi hin he b oade his o ical pe spec i e. In his case, a uni ied epis emological
64
discou se o his o y is absen —i becomes dispe sed, while simul aneously eco ded ac oss bo h
p oxima e and dis an sphe es o p ac ical ac i i y—in poli ics, economics, eligion and eligious
s udies, e hno-cul u al ela ions, a , powe s uc u es, and he in e p e a ion o aliena ion and
social au ism.
Thus, in a si ua ion o disc e eness and agmen a ion, he e y alue o adi ion is called
in o ques ion—con empo a ies pe cei e only in ense agmen s. Agains his backg ound, i is
he socio-philosophical app oach ha has he capaci y o cons uc a cohe en “logic o his o y”,
which in u n makes i possible o ep esen a agmen ed wo ld as an “epis emologically
balanced” seman ic uni y. The his o ical ma e iali y ha is p esen is e ealed in he
epis emological discou se: he posi ions o his o ical knowledge a e “objec -based and
co po eal” in he sense o hei eal exis ence wi hin he his o ical p ocess. This is p ecisely how
an image o con empo a y epis emology o his o y is shaped—one whe e he e is no single
s anda d, bu he e a e dialogical s a egies o de ining he “uni y o mul iplici y” wi hin cu en
con igu a ions o mode ni y.
The no ion o “his o ical acco d” among humani y exis ed du ing he Enligh enmen e a—
i was wha was e med he “uni e sal model o cul u e”. Today, howe e , he ocus o he
epis emology o his o y has shi ed owa ds mechanisms ha a e no so much uni e sal and
cul u al, as discu si e and socio-an h opological. Wha is equi ed is he analysis no only o
signi ican symbols—“ges u es o li e”, spa ial image y, he o ganisa ion o ma e ial
en i onmen s and e e yday li e—bu also o he epis emology o his o y’s pa adigms and
discou ses. Con empo a y discu si e models possess meaning-gene a ing ene gy no less po en
han he ca ego ies o specula i e philosophy o his o y.
Equally impo an is he ac ha indi idual consciousness is now a mo e in ensely
connec ed o he sphe e o collec i e expe ience han in he pas —an indi idual's su i al
depends upon collec i e knowledge. Con e sely, he o ma ion and sel -p ese a ion o social
o ganisms a e made possible h ough hei connec ion o speci ic sup a-indi idual s uc u es o
consciousness. The key concep he e is ha o he socio-his o ical en i onmen , de ined as an
immense se o con ex s ex e nal o he human psyche. This includes he sphe e o social
ela ions, he ealm o symbolic cul u al o ms, and sup a-indi idual consciousness s uc u es.
The essen ial p emise in he ma e o ansmi ing social expe ience is ha expe ience is
no gi en “in and o i sel ”—human expe ience is dependen upon he o ganisa ion o he
exchange o pe sonal expe ience, he p ocessing o in o ma ion, he combina ion and
ecombina ion o images, he p ese a ion o in o ma ion and i s ansmission om gene a ion
o gene a ion. This ansmission akes place h ough channels o social communica ion—
o emos among hem being he symbolic medium o cul u e. His o y may be unde s ood as a
ne wo k o symbols in e wo en a ound he human being—eme ging h ough he social
in e ac ion o meanings and ac ions.
A pe son encoun e s eali y, lea ing behind a “ ace-image”—in he cou se o ac ion, hese
aces a e e lec ed upon; hough exis s in dialogue as an image o memo y. The usion in
consciousness o a meaning ul image and a ma e ial hing p oduces a symbol, which poin s
owa ds a possible wo ld. The dis inc i eness o human hough and consciousness lies in he
ac ha symbolic o ms possess bo h a i ual aspec (meanings) and a ma e ial one (ca ie s o
meaning).
65
Meanings may be ixed and p ese ed o e ime h ough wo di e en mechanisms: wi hin
indi idual consciousness as a sys em o associa ions g ounded in biog aphical memo y, and
wi hin social consciousness in he o m o ma e ial cul u al a e ac s. Th ough sys ems o codes,
pa icula o ms o li e ac i i y a e ansmi ed h ough space and ime. Collec i e and sup a-
indi idual o ms o o ganising his o ical expe ience a e indispensable p ecisely because he
indi idual alone canno ensu e hei su i al. One may he e o e a gue ha he basic su i al o
he human being p esupposes he exis ence o such phenomena as compensa e o he lack o
gene ic in o ma ion. In o ma ion abou app op ia e beha iou wi hin an en i onmen is
ob ained h ough he syn hesis o pas and p esen expe ience and necessa ily equi es an
o ien a ion owa ds he possible—o en de ined i ually— u u e.
I is p ecisely he “uni e sal dimension o memo y” o “sup a-indi idual memo y” ha
enables he ansmission o wo ld iew- ela ed knowledge and he p inciples o collec i e
iden i y om one gene a ion o he nex . The symbolic sphe e o communica ion plays a
pa icula ly impo an ole he e, as wi hin i he subjec s o social memo y “cons uc hemsel es
in o he sphe e”— he heu is ic aspec s o dialogue ac as p og ammes o socio-cul u al ac ion
and con e ge wi h educa ion in pe o ming he unc ion o o esigh : ensu ing he agency o
he collec i e in he u u e h ough he ansmission o socially signi ican in o ma ion o
younge gene a ions and eaching hem he “ echnologies o su i al”.
A he same ime, he communica i e unc ion o he symbol enables people o engage in
in e ac ion and helps o c ea e a speci ic communica i e space. I possesses bo h psychological
and sign-symbolic dimensions. The psychological aspec o communica ion gene a es emo ional
esonance aimed a uni ing he collec i e and con ibu es o he o ma ion o indi idual and
collec i e iden i ies. The sign-symbolic aspec unc ions as a so o “language o he collec i e”.
This is mani es ed h ough he ansmission o in o ma ion ia speech, sound exp ession, and
ma e ial-symbolic ep esen a ion. In his sense, he symbol accumula es bo h social and
indi idual expe ience—i.e., social memo y.
The compensa o y unc ion o he symbol is closely ela ed o he na u e o cul u al
dialogue in he sense ha dialogue may ac as a special dimension o his o ical exis ence, h ough
which social aliena ion can be o e come. In his con ex , us a ion and aliena ion may be
esol ed by compensa ing o a lack o social expe ience in spi i ual cul u e. A he same ime,
he e is he possibili y o so-called illuso y compensa o y ul ilmen —mos o en and
adi ionally ealised wi hin he amewo k o eligious expe ience and he a s. The egula i e
and alue-o ien ed unc ions o he “dialogue o his o y” se e as models, no ms, and ules o
ac ion in eal-li e si ua ions—dialogue appea s as an ideal o m o ela ion and a pa icula kind
o cul u al cons an . These include a ious ypes o p ohibi ions: mo al, legal, and eligious. In
p imi i e socie ies, sys ems o social p ohibi ion ook he o m o aboos.
This ypology can ul ima ely be educed o he co e idea o dialogue: i s socio-cul u al
unc ion is o p ese e and ansmi meaning and socially signi ican in o ma ion. One may hus
speak o he a is ic-aes he ic aspec o he epis emology o his o y (“ he aes he ics o his o y”),
which mani es s as he o m and emo ional expe ience o his o ical ac i i y; he pedagogical
aspec , ealised h ough he cul i a ion o pa icula pe sonal quali ies wi hin a amewo k o
“social demand”; he ideological aspec , which akes he o m o he imposi ion by he “uppe
s a a” and he abso p ion by he “lowe s a a” o speci ic sys ems o heo e ical iews; and,
66
inally, he wo ld iew aspec — he o ma ion o a se o belie s and con ic ions ega ding he
indi idual’s place and ole in he uni e sal in e connec edness o his o ical objec s and
p ocesses.
The a ini y be ween symbol and dialogue lies p ima ily in hei capaci y o uni e wha
appea s o be undamen ally di ided. In his sense, M.M. Bakh in’s asse ion ha “ o be means
o be in dialogue” is en i ely ap . Unde s anding equi es i s ac ualisa ion wi hin he space o
cul u e. Fo he Ch is ian in e p e a ion—o a he , expe ience—o his o y, his mean , among
o he hings: i s , explaining he ea hly wo ld in connec ion wi h a wo ld o an en i ely di e en
on ological o de — he hea enly wo ld; and second, cons uc ing a pic u e o he wo ld
consis en wi h he spi i and le e o Holy Sc ip u e. The solu ion was ound p ecisely in he
symbol as a me hod o explaining being h ough he union o wo wo lds, a means o connec ing
he phenomenon wi h ha which i signi ies bu which emains elusi e wi hou his uni y
(Maka o , 2009, p. 89). The expe ience and unde s anding o his o y low in o he indi idual’s
alue o ien a ion—ul ima ely, in o he exis en ial expe ience o being, wha M.M. Bakh in
e med he philosophy o he ac .
Dialogue is in ended o c ea e, whe e he e is no scien i ic-concep ual (“pu posi ely
a ional”) explana ion o he wo ld, an o de ed ye all-encompassing sys em o social li e in all
i s main egula i ies. Cul u al memo y in his o y se es as a b idge be ween abs ac ion and
imagined ep esen a ion—all he mo e so since e en scien i ic abs ac ion necessa ily in ol es
he e ec o imagina ion. Dialogue p ecisely “b ings oge he ” – wi hou dissol ing one in o
he o he —di e en o ms o cul u al c ea i i y and his o ical exis ence.
Wi hin opological subjec i i y—and i is p ecisely his we mus speak o —ope a e eali ies
ha a e incommensu able in classical e lec ion: i you will, e e y hing begins o be exchanged
o e e y hing else, and he hy hm o equi alen exchange is dis up ed. Thus, we may speak
no only o he p oduc ion o subjec i i y as a desc ibable p ocess bu also o an economy o
subjec i i y as a pa icula o m o sel -o ganisa ion and domes ic a angemen o he sel
(G yakalo , 2010, pp. 220–221). The he meneu ics o “his o ical ac uali y”, he e o e, in i s
p esen in e p e a ion, mus add ess he issue o iden i ying he subjec s o his o y: “… he being
in o which we a e h own and o which we espond om wi hin is cha ac e ised in his o ical
e ms.” (Va imo, 2005, p. 120) The p oblem o in e p e a ion becomes especially acu e in he
con ex o he global and pos -global wo ld, whe e he in o ma ional and mass media e ec s on
his o ical consciousness a e pa icula ly mani es .
The ansmission o his o ici y is dis up ed in he p ocess o de o ming he subjec o social
memo y in o he “mass man”, o use he e m o José O ega y Gasse , whose psychology is
based on a belie in he p imo dial na u e o ci ilisa ion compa able o ha o na u e i sel . This
belie , as V.V. Balakhonsky and L.V. Balakhonskaya igh ly poin ou , p oduces in he “mass
man” a sense o complacency—a con ic ion ha li e ough o be easy, like a game, and ee
om consciously accep ed social cons ain s. He is no p one o doub , and he eels en i led o
dis ega d o he s, o neglec his o ical memo y, and o ejec undamen al cul u al alues
(Balakhonskaya & Balakhonsky, 2012, p. 282).
Discussion
67
The main schola ly p oblem ou lined in he a icle lies in he need o concep ualise he
social imagina y as a undamen al ca ego y wi hin he epis emology o his o y—one capable o
in eg a ing p ocesses o his o ical subjec i i y, social memo y, and he logical-p ocedu al
o ganisa ion o his o ical ime. The ocus is on he phenomenon o he imagina y as a symbolic
ield whe e agmen a y elemen s o his o ical eali y a e syn hesised in o cohe en images o
he pas , p esen , and possible u u es. This issue e lec s a g owing need o e hink adi ional
o ms o his o iog aphy and o mo e beyond he classical a ionalis model, which ends o
educe he his o ical subjec and dis ega d he on ological alue o memo y.
Resea ch in o his opic aces se e al challenges. Fi s ly, he e is no uni ied ca ego ical
amewo k in o which he phenomenon o he imagina y can be inco po a ed wi hin he con ex
o his o ical knowledge: he bounda ies be ween epis emological, on ological, and cul u al-
an h opological le els o analysis emain blu ed. Secondly, social memo y, as a mul i-laye ed
phenomenon, in e ac s no only wi h his o y bu also wi h men ali y, he collec i e unconscious,
and a che ypes, he eby necessi a ing an in e disciplina y app oach and complica ing he
me hodology o analysis. Finally, he i ualisa ion o his o ical consciousness—ampli ied by
media en i onmen s and digi al echnologies—gi es ise o new o ms o his o ical iden i y ha
demand adequa e ools o schola ly in e p e a ion.
Se e al p omising a enues o u he esea ch may be ou lined.
The i s in ol es he de elopmen o a heo y o he symbolic imagina y wi hin he
epis emology o his o y, aimed a analysing he ansbounda y and me apho ical s uc u es o
his o ical hough .
The second conce ns he s udy o he compensa o y and in eg a i e unc ions o social
memo y in he con ex o cul u al agmen a ion and pos -his o ical sensi i i y.
The hi d line o inqui y ela es o he modelling o dialogical s a egies in he epis emology
o his o y, in which he subjec and collec i e consciousness a e iewed as ac i e pa icipan s in
meaning-making unde condi ions o in e p e a i e plu ali y.
These di ec ions no only open up new ho izons o his o iosophy bu also con ibu e o
he o ma ion o a s able pa adigm o meaning and alue o ien a ion o he indi idual in an e a
ma ked by a c isis o his o ical iden i y.
Conclusion
The o ma ion o he “mass man” in con empo a y socie y poses he h ea o dis up ing
he ansmission o his o ici y, unde mining social con inui y, and deg ading he his o ical
memo y o socie y.
Thus, i is p ecisely he dialogue be ween alues and discu si e o ma ions ha ende s he
space o cul u es in e nally co ela ed wi hin he domain o memo y. Acco dingly, in he
epis emology o his o y, an inne uni y is cons uc ed among a ious “discu si e p ojec s” (a ,
philosophy, eligion, he poli ical and economic o ganisa ion o socie y). Wi hin his opological
in e ac ion, he in e nal dialogism o cul u e is e ealed—in he ansmission o his o ici y, he
“discu si e ene gy” o he epis emological uni y o his o y comes in o play.

68
Con lic o In e es
The au ho decla es ha he e is no con lic o in e es .
Re e ences:
Anke smi , F. R. (1994). His o y and T opology: The Rise and Fall o Me apho . Uni e si y o Cali o nia
P ess.
Bakh in, M. V. (2014). Epis emology o Socio-His o ical Knowledge (Models o His o y and Philosophical-
An h opological Rep esen a ions) [Disse a ion on Doc o o Philosophical Sciences, Russian S a e
Pedagogical Uni e si y]. S . Pe e bu g. (In Russ.)
Balakhonskaya, L. V., & Balakhonsky, V. V. (2012). The Secu i y o Socie y: His o ical-Philosophical
and Theo e ical Aspec s o In e p e a ion. Bulle in o Sain Pe e sbu g Uni e si y o he Minis y o
In e nal A ai s o Russia: Scien i ic-Theo e ical Jou nal, 1(53), 278–285. (In Russ.)
Cas o iadis, C. (1987). The Imagina y Ins i u ion o Socie y. Camb idge, Massachuse s: MIT P ess.
Domańska, E. (1998). Encoun e s: Philosophy o His o y a e Pos mode nism. Cha lo es ille: Uni e si y P ess
o Vi ginia.
G yakalo , A. A. (2010). Nigh in he Ligh o Day: On he He meneu ics o Subjec i i y. Bulle in o
Lening ad S a e Uni e si y named a e A.S. Pushkin. Philosophy, 2(4), 220–221. (In Russ.)
Guse , S. S. (2003). The Meaning o he Possible: Conno a i e Seman ics. S . Pe e sbu g: Ale eya. (In Russ.)
Maka o , A. I. (2009). The Phenomenon o Sup a-Indi idual Memo y: Image – Concep – Iden i y. Volgog ad.
(In Russ.)
Mud agey, N. S. (1989). The Middle Ages and Scien i ic Though . P oblems o Philosophy, 12, 86–89. (In
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Va imo, G., & Ro y, R. (2005). The Age o In e p e a ion. In The Fu u e o Religion (pp. 43-54).
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69
Aida o , Z. [
a
][5], Usupo a, C. [
b
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BIOETHICS AS A RESPONSIBLE ATTITUDE TO THE TECHNICAL
DEVELOPMENT OF MEDICINE [4]
Abs ac : The apid g ow h o echnology in he na u al sciences in he 21s cen u y has b ough o he
o e on o humani y ques ions abou he mo al cha ac e o scien i ic achie emen s: in gene ic
modi ica ion o all li ing hings, cloning, e hical issues o olun a y dea h, dona ion, en i onmen al
e hics, and so on. The s udy subjec is aspec s o esponsible beha io in bioe hics (mo al and e hical
s anda ds) ela ed o medical p ac ices and en i onmen al issues. The s udy objec is bioe hics, p inciples
and hei applica ion in a ious sphe es. The s udy aims o analyze o eign li e a u e in he con ex o
he p oblems o bioe hics as a esponsible a i ude no only o medicine, bu also o ecology, as a new
s anda d o he de elopmen o mo al and e hical s anda ds app op ia e o he ime. The s udy used
me hods o con en and compa a i e analysis o o eign publica ions in he backg ound o bioe hical
issues. In he s udy, he au ho s conside ed many wo ks, bu mainly elied on he wo k o M.N. Dudin
“T ansgenic o ganisms (GMOs) in ag icul u e,” which highligh ed he p oblem o he need o de elop
scien i ic knowledge based on mo ali y in sol ing many i al p oblems. The second pape ha se ed as
he p ima y sou ce o he analysis was an a icle on he i s au ho ized clinical ial o gene he apy in
U.S. his o y, which was conduc ed on Sep embe 14, 1990 a he Na ional Ins i u es o Heal h (NIH)
unde he di ec ion o William Ande son. Main esul s o he s udy: Because o heo e ical analysis o
he wo ks—GMO-plan s can sol e he p oblems o ood secu i y; gene he apy helps o success ully
comba gene ic diseases, bu wha will be he consequences o a ious ypes o in e en ions in na u e,
i is di icul o p edic . The au ho s conclude ha he in oduc ion o a new bioe hical pa adigm is a
ma e o su i al o all humankind. Howe e , he p ac ical applica ion o bioe hical no ms is hampe ed
by he ac ha e ec i e measu es o esponsibili y and ine i able punishmen o non-compliance wi h
he p inciples o bioe hics ha e no ye been de eloped.
Keywo ds: bioe hics, esponsibili y, mo al, e hical s anda ds, echnological p og ess, medicine, u u e o
humani y.
In oduc ion
The mode n de elopmen o medicine, namely i s echnological componen , ine i ably
leads o he idea o a gap be ween he le el o spi i ual de elopmen and echnology. The e o e,
he issue o esponsibili y o scien is s o di e en p o essions in he con ex o bioe hics as a
necessa y s anda d o beha io in esea ch and p ac ice is ele an o all humani y. The solu ion
o ood secu i y is he p ima y ask o any s a e, bu a wha ecological cos i will be sol ed is a
a
Ziiabidin Aida o , P o esso , Doc o o Medical Sciences, I.K. Akhunbae Ky gyz S a e Medical Academy. Bishkek,
Ky gyzs an. ORCID 0000-0003-2323-5702. E-mail: ayda[email p o ec ed]
b
Cholpon Usupo a, Doc o o Philosophical Sciences, Depa men Head, Depa men o Philosophy and Social Sciences,
I.K. Akhunbae Ky gyz S a e Medical Academy. Bishkek, Ky gyzs an. ORCID 0000-0001-7231-2642.
E-mail: usupo a. cholp[email p o ec ed]
c
Raсha Sa ybaldie a, Senio Lec u e , Depa men o Philosophy and Social Sciences, I.K. Akhunbae Ky gyz S a e Medical
Academy. Bishkek, Ky gyzs an. ORCID 0000-0002-0429-3192. E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
d
Ainu a Ba ynbae a, Resea che in Medicine, Ky gyz S a e Medical College. Osh, Ky gyzs an. ORCID 0000-0001-8062-7193.
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
e
Ainu a Kulzhano a, Resea che in Medicine, Depu y Dean, Facul y o Pos g adua e Medical Educa ion, I.K. Akhunbae
Ky gyz S a e Medical Academy. Bishkek, Ky gyzs an. ORCID 0000-0002-1184-9371. E-mail: kuljano aa@mail. u
70
undamen al ques ion o all na ions. Mode n ci iliza ion unde s ands ha igno ing
en i onmen al p oblems can lead o a ca as ophic end o he humankind. I is bioe hics—as
an in e disciplina y ield o knowledge loca ed a he in e sec ion o philosophy, law, medicine,
sociology, poli ical science, demog aphy, cul u al s udies, and eligious s udies— ha
in es iga es he mo al aspec s o human a i udes o all phenomena ha can sol e he u gen
p oblems o he 21s cen u y. Bioe hics includes a wide ange o socio-economic, mo al, e hical
and legal issues, as uni e sal alues should no be conside ed sepa a ely om biological ac s.
The s udy subjec is aspec s o esponsible beha io in bioe hics (mo al and e hical
s anda ds) ela ed o medical p ac ices and en i onmen al issues.
The s udy objec is bioe hics, p inciples and hei applica ion in a ious sphe es.
The s udy aims o e ospec i ely analyze he wo ks on he p oblems o GMO c ops use
in ag icul u e.
Based on he pu pose, he ollowing asks we e sol ed:
− conside he e y i s o icially au ho ized de elopmen s on DNA co ec ion;
− conduc a compa a i e analysis o a icles on simila p oblems in he wo ks o o he
au ho s;
− analyze he need o bioe hics as a new s anda d o he de elopmen o mo al and e hical
no ms app op ia e o he imes;
− aise ques ions o esponsible beha io no only in medicine bu also in ecology.
In his s udy, we conside ed many wo ks, bu mainly elied on he wo k o M.N. Dudin
“T ansgenic o ganisms (GMOs) in ag icul u e”, which highligh ed he p oblem o he need o
de elop scien i ic knowledge based on mo ali y in sol ing many i al p oblems. The second
pape ha se ed as he p ima y sou ce o he analysis was an a icle on he i s au ho ized
clinical ial o gene he apy in Uni ed S a es’ his o y, which was conduc ed on Sep embe 14,
1990 a he Na ional Ins i u es o Heal h (NIH) unde he di ec ion o William Ande son. A
he p esen s age, he e a e many wo ks de o ed o he p oblem o e hical cha ac e in scien i ic
esea ch “Bioe hics and Global Challenges, Documen s and Re lec ions” (Sayamo , 2020, p. 7),
Lenoi N. Respec o li e and he igh o li e in he e hics o li e (Lenoi , 1998), M.N. Dudin
T ansgenic o ganisms (GMOs) in ag icul u e: an objec i e necessi y o ensu e global ood
secu i y o a way o inc ease he p o i s o he ag o-indus ial complex, many o he li e a y
sou ces conside he need o de elop scien i ic knowledge based on mo ali y, and he need o
sol e many i al p oblems wi h he help o he la es scien i ic achie emen s (Dudin, 2020). A
he same ime, he a en ion o he wo ld communi y is paid o hese issues a he highes le el,
an example is he in e na ional documen s on hese issues such as “Food|Uni ed Na ions”
(Food, 2025) and “Gene ically modi ied O ganisms (GMOs)” (Gene ically Modi ied O ganisms…,
2009). These documen s say a lo abou he posi i e aspec s and he in oduc ion o bioe hical
commi ees in he de elopmen o new echnologies and scien i ic disco e ies. Howe e ,
ques ions o esponsibili y o possible ha m ul consequences o hough less and uncon olled
use o mode n scien i ic disco e ies cu en ly emain open. One o he key p oblems is he
p oblems o esponsibili y and he ine i abili y o punishmen . «Bioe hics is aimed a de eloping
mo al and e hical no ms, equi emen s and p inciples, c ea ing mechanisms o ensu e he use
o scien i ic and echnological achie emen s o he bene i o man and na u e.” (Sayamo , 2020,
71
p. 7) Thus, Fede ico Mayo no ed “ he g owing impo ance o bioe hics o a pe son, whe e his
digni y and equali y a e he basis o igh s and du ies in socie y.” (Sayamo , 2020, p. 8) Acco ding
o he ideas o ene ism, which echo all exis ing belie s, a pe son is only a small ac ion, a
pa icle o e e y hing ha exis s, and a ca e ul a i ude o he su ounding wo ld and he
p ese a ion o inne spi i uali y, pu i y o hough s is he mos impo an impe a i e. This
p o ision has ma e ialized in many in e na ional ea ies and concep s. Thus, Noel Lenoi , who
headed he In e na ional Commi ee on Bioe hics, belie ed ha he “concep o bioe hical
p o ec ion should be applied o all o ms o li e” (Lenoi , 1998). In ou opinion, his concep is
mo e han ele an , al hough i is o e due, since expe imen s wi h GMO echnologies ha e
been in oduced since he las cen u y. The slogans unde which GMO echnologies we e
p omo ed we e mo e han humanis ic in o de o eed all he su e ing, bu he e we e hung y
people, and hey emained, and en i onmen al p oblems in ensi ied.
Ma e ials and Me hods
The pu pose is o analyze o eign li e a u e in he con ex o he p oblems o bioe hics as
a esponsible a i ude no only o medicine, bu also o ecology, as a new s anda d o he
de elopmen o mo al and e hical s anda ds app op ia e o he ime. The objec i e is o e eal
he p oblems o esponsible a i udes in inno a i e achie emen s in he amewo k o
en i onmen al secu i y. Design is “The Me hod o Quali a i e Documen Analysis”. The
no el y o he wo k lies in he ac ha we ha e examined he composi e subjec o bioe hics
based on a combina ion o he idiog aphic me hod o cogni ion and he nomo he ic me hod,
wi h he o me domina ing. The nomo he ic me hod is quan i a i e, while he idiog aphic is
quali a i e. Thus, using a combina ion o nomo he ic and idiog aphic me hods, we analyzed wo
wo ks on he use o inno a i e echnologies in he plan and human genome, one o which
sol es he global p oblem o hunge , bu may be a sou ce o congeni al gene ic diseases in
humans. This combina ion o me hods is an example o in eg a ion, a syne ge ic app oach. The
na u al sciences, especially medicine, being a la gely nomo he ic science, e lec any p i a e
objec as an exp ession o gene ic concep s o be eplaced, while he idiog aphic sciences, o
which bioe hics belongs, iew he objec as a unique whole.
The combina ion o me hods con ibu es o o e coming appa en echnologism in
bioe hical communica ion. Using he idiog aphic-nomo he ic me hod, i is possible o conduc
sociological moni o ing o he s a e o socie y, as well as o p ojec social eali y. The
combina ion o bo h me hods helps o elimina e con o mism in bioe hics, which, due o mo al
ela i ism and legal con lic s in di e en coun ies, adhe es o a minimum le el o mo ali y. This
ac demons a es ha i is no always possible o main ain a esponsible a i ude on he pa o
scien is s, and unde ce ain condi ions bioe hics canno main ain gene ally accep ed s anda ds
o mo al no ms. The limi a ion in he s udy is associa ed wi h he use o p edominan ly
quali a i e me hod, and o a lesse ex en quan i a i e me hod. The subjec i e na u e o he
documen s analyzed, he limi ed numbe o documen s s udied, which could a ec he
objec i i y o he esul s.
Resul s
78
Heidegge , M. (2006). Essays on Philosophy. Abou he E en . Issues o Philosophy, 11, 164–166.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/j.1475-5661.2012.00550.x
Klumpe , W., & Ma in Qaim, M. (2014). Me a-Analysis o he Impac s o Gene ically Modi ied C ops.
PLoS ONE, 9(11), e111629. h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0111629
Kuzne so , S. A. (Ed.). (2008). Mode n Explana o y Dic iona y o he Russian Language. S . Pe e sbu g,
Moscow: No in , RIPOL Classic. (In Russ.)
Lenoi , N. (1998). Respec de la ie e d oi du i an . In The e hics o li e (L’é hique du i an ) (pp. 175–
211). Pa is: UNESCO. (In F a.)
Osipo , I. D. (2014). The Pa adigm o Responsibili y in Eu opean Philosophy. Bulle in o he S .
Pe e sbu g S a e Uni e si y, 17(2), 52–63. (In Russ.)
Pla o. (1990). Apology o Soc a es. Pla o Wo ks: In 4 olumes (Vol. 1). Moscow. (In Russ.)
Sa e, J.-P. (2002). Dia ies o a S ange Wa . Sep embe , 1939 – Ma ch, 1940. Moscow: Publishing House
“Vladimi Dal”.
Sayamo , Y. N. (2020). Bioe hics and Global Challenges. Documen s and e lec ions. Moscow: Veche.
Seidalie a, M. K., & Ba ynbae a, A. A. (2017). Topical Issues o Bioe hics. In e na ional Academy Jou nal,
6(15), 85–87.
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h ps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.go /11660358
The Fi s Gene The apy. Li e Sciences Founda ion. (2021). U.S. Food and D ug Adminis a ion.
h p://www. da.go /BiologicsBloodVaccines/Cellula GeneThe apyP oduc s/de aul .h m
The In e na ional Council o Ha monisa ion. (2021). The In e na ional Council o Ha monisa ion.
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Yudin, B. L., & Tishchenko, P. D. (Ed.). (1998). In oduc ion o Bioe hics. Moscow: P og ess-T adi ion.
(In Russ.)

79
Dashuai, C. [
a
][10], Usupo a, C. [
b
][6], Abdyldae , M. [
c
][11], Sa ybaldie a, R. [
d
][12]
PROBLEMS OF CULTIVATING IDEOLOGICAL SECURITY IN THE EDUCATIONAL
ENVIRONMENT [5]
Abs ac : In he 21s cen u y he o go en wo d combina ion ideological secu i y has ecei ed a new
impe us, i u ned ou ha by c ea ing, h ough mode n echnologies, a ce ain in o ma ion ield i is
possible o pe o m any poli ical decisions and change he men al a i ude o he popula ion.
Acco dingly, he issues o his na u e ha e become pa icula ly ele an in he na ional s a es. The
secu i y o he s a e is la gely ela ed o he c ea ion o na ional ideology, which is o med in he minds
o young people. The s udy aims o explo e e ec i e me hods and app oaches o c ea ing ideological
secu i y in educa ional ins i u ions, objec i es, each c i ical and logical hinking echniques, as well as
unde s and wha an ideologically sa e en i onmen means. The main objec i e o he s udy is o s udy
e ec i e app oaches in eaching ideological secu i y in educa ional ins i u ions. Me hodological
app oaches and me hods a e he poly-subjec app oach p o ided a deep unde s anding o he s uden as
a mul i ace ed pe sonali y, which is mos ully mani es ed in communica ion wi h o he s. The au ho s
used hema ic iangula ion o da a, ollowed by compa a i e analysis, as well as me hods o desc ip i e
s a is ics. A pa icipa o y app oach o eaching ideological secu i y o you h audiences was u ilized.
Su eys, ques ionnai es, in e iews we e used as esea ch ools ha helped o c ea e a e i iable pic u e.
In he esul s au ho s p esen c ea ed eache -s uden pa i y inc ease he chances o c ea ing a sa e space,
in e ac i e discou se me hod educes suscep ibili y o ideological ex emism. In conclusion, his pape
makes a p ac ical con ibu ion o he unde s anding o ideological secu i y in he class oom by p oposing
a ans o ma ional pa adigm o social consciousness wi hin seconda y and highe educa ion.
Keywo ds: ideology; s uden s; ideological secu i y; c i ical hinking; open dialog; educa ion.
In oduc ion
Fo mo e han hal a cen u y o human his o y, educa ional ins i u ions ha e been cen e s
o in ellec ual discou se, con ibu ing o he ma u a ion o young minds. S uden s, especially in
he las decade, a e a he epicen e o in o ma ion inno a ions and a e exposed o all so s o
in luences. The dynamism and u bulence o he mode n wo ld c ea e p essing p oblems
cha ac e ized by he al e na i eness and almos ligh ning- as dissemina ion o in o ma ion,
which is i s and o emos aimed a a you h audience suscep ible o a ious ideological
manipula ions and ex emism. The e o e, c i ical, logical, dialec ical hinking and ideological
s abili y o s uden s a e necessa y compe ences o he 21s cen u y, which a e on ologically
demanded by so e eign coun ies. Since i is hese skills ha con ibu e o he unde s anding o
he essence and exis ence o mode n independen s a e exis ence. Thus, he ele ance o
a
Chen Dashuai, Doc o al S uden o he Depa men o Philosophy, Theo y and His o y o Cul u e, Ky gyz Na ional
Uni e si y. Bishkek, Ky gyz Republic. ORCID 0009-0005-3977-4446. E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
b
Cholpon Usupo a, Doc o o Philosophical Sciences, Depa men Head, Depa men o Philosophy and Social Sciences,
I.K. Akhunbae Ky gyz S a e Medical Academy. Bishkek, Ky gyzs an. ORCID 0000-0001-7231-2642.
E-mail: usupo a. cholp[email p o ec ed]
c
Ma a Abdyldae , Resea che , Na ional Ins i u e o S a egic Ini ia i es, Ky gyz Na ional Uni e si y. Bishkek, Ky gyz
Republic. E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
d
Rakha Sa ybaldie a, Senio Lec u e , Depa men o Philosophy and Social Sciences, I.K. Akhunbae Ky gyz S a e Medical
Academy, Bishkek, Ky gyz Republic. ORCID 0000-0002-0429-3192. E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
80
s udying he p oblem o c ea ing an ideologically sa e en i onmen ha p omo es s a e
independence is o pa amoun impo ance.
The s udy aims o explo e e ec i e me hods and app oaches o c ea ing ideological secu i y
in educa ional ins i u ions, objec i es, each c i ical and logical hinking echniques, as well as
unde s and wha an ideologically sa e en i onmen means.
Despi e ecognizing he impo ance o eaching ideological secu i y, he empi ical
app oaches o applica ion in seconda y and highe educa ion a e no equally de eloped and
ele an in applica ion in di e en coun ies. Exis ing wo ks on his p oblem, ecognize he
need o de elop c i ical hinking, media li e acy, and cul i a e ideological esilience in college
and uni e si y s uden s. Howe e , he abili y o hink c i ically and compe en ly e alua e any
ma e ials a he p esen s age is no su icien ly de eloped no only among s uden s, bu also
among highly educa ed people (poli ical eli e) (Leaning, 2019). We should no e a la ge numbe
o wo ks in he People’s Republic o China de o ed o he p oblems o ideological educa ion.
Sys ema ic de elopmen s in his a ea in he Ky gyz Republic emain a e, un o una ely,
he e a e no comp ehensi e scien i ic s udies o e ec i e s a egies and implemen a ion
mechanisms o o ganizing ideological secu i y. Howe e , P esiden S. Zhapa o is se iously
conce ned abou he p oblems o ideological secu i y in he s a e, as e idenced by publica ions
on his opic. Thus, his s udy is aimed a sol ing an impo an ask – o c ea e ideological
secu i y in he educa ional en i onmen , by o ming ce ain a i udes in he minds o s uden s,
inc easing an i-manipula i e esis ance, he abili y o c i ical hinking and he p ac ice o “open
dialog” (Inqui y…, 2022). Conside ing hese aspec s, we aim o deepen ou unde s anding o
ideological educa ion ole in o ma ing s uden s’ skills o ecognize alsi ied da a, comp ehend
di e en iewpoin s and unde s and he need o c ea e an ideologically sa e en i onmen .
Ma e ials
A ho ough e iew o he exis ing li e a u e e ealed a g owing numbe o s udies in Russia
and China, as well as he eme gence o in e es in his p oblem in Ky gyzs an, de o ed o
eaching s uden s o educa ional ins i u ions ideological secu i y. These s udies emphasize he
key ole o highe educa ion in shaping ideological a i udes in s uden s and de eloping hei
abili y o hink c i ically. We should no e he o e lapping in e es in media educa ion o media
li e acy o en conside ed in o eign uni e si ies wi h he p oblem o c ea ing an ideologically
sa e en i onmen in educa ional ins i u ions o he Eu opean Union, Canada, Ame ica, Sou h
Ko ea, and Japan h oughou he 20 h and 21s cen u y. The e is a sepa a e his o y o conside ing
he issues o ideological educa ion in No h Ko ea (Demick, 2013; Zakha o a, 2022; Zhebin, 2020;
Khamu ae a, 2016) and in Islamic s a es. Publica ions on he p oblem o in e es o us in ull a e
di icul o access, bu e en acco ding o he a ailable li e a u e we no e dogma ized
ideologiza ion s a ing om p eschool ins i u ions. In he 20 h cen u y in Japan, Sou h Ko ea,
many esea che s no ed he ise o na ional consciousness a all s ages o he educa ional
p ocess, in oduced in o consciousness image-symbolic concep s: homeland, na ion, people,
a e. I is wo h no ing ha his policy mobilized he popula ion o sel less wo k o he bene i
o he s a e. Japan and Sou h Ko ea ha e achie ed signi ican economic success, whe e a special
ole was played by he ise o na ional consciousness, in addi ion o o he impo an aspec s
(Yagnako a & Vasilie a, 2016; Boga y e , 2023). In he 21s cen u y, he e has been a signi ican
81
dec ease in he le el o educa ion ideologiza ion in Japan and Sou h Ko ea. In he U.S.,
discussions abou ideologically sa e en i onmen in educa ion a e mainly in he con ex o
“ ole ance o di e en iewpoin s and he abili y o hea opponen s, and he key ques ion is
whe he i is he igh decision o allow in o he walls o educa ional ins i u ions speake s who
can mislead and di ec s uden s o he dange ous pa h o ed hough s.” (Boch, 2022) We belie e
ha his ac ic is impo an o os e ing polemic skills, c i ical hinking, and in some ways
eelings o pa io ism, bu o a g ea e ex en , i has he cha ac e o adhe ence o some poli ical
iews. In an a ay o published s udies, he wo k o M. Smi h and P. Walsh (2023) di ec ly
add essed he issues o ideological secu i y and he need o educa e s uden s in he con ex o
pa io ism. We obse e a global end. All publica ions emphasize he issues o c edibili y o
in o ma ion in luencing he consciousness o young people. In he 21s cen u y, specially c ea ed
digi al simulac a, a e able o model any in o ma ion space and p og am en i e gene a ions a
will. The e o e, a special place is occupied by de eloping c i ical hinking in he e a o “pos -
u h” (Mejia e al., 2018). The p oblem o c i ical hinking as a esou ce o objec i e e lec ion
has been s udied in many uni e si ies a ound he wo ld (Bellae a e al., 2021; Lu & Wang, 2021;
F ykholm, 2021; E endi e al., 2022; To opo a, 2023; Solodikhina & Solodikhina, 2019; Pa lo skij &
Pa lo skaya, 2024; Dienichie a e al., 2021; Hsu, 2021). Meanwhile, he issues o pa io ism
educa ion h ough he o ma ion o ci izenship ha e been ouched upon in a e wo ks; in e es
was a oused by he publica ion whe e he ci ic posi ion was conside ed om he angle o
“ ans o ming ac ion o agency” (Pe naya e al., 2024). In he EU, na ional pa io ism issues a e
elega ed o he le el o a ac i eness o li ing in he con ex o com o wi hou emphasizing
lo e o he homeland, mos ly as consume ideology de elopmen .
Analysis o publica ions in he pos -So ie space shows ha in he “pe es oika yea s” many
union s a es abandoned he educa ional ole in uni e si ies, ocusing on he p o ision o
educa ional se ices. Howe e , his end has changed and issues o ideological secu i y in he
educa ional en i onmen a e slowly being aised, pa icula ly in Russia and Ky gyzs an. Fo
example, esea ch was conduc ed on he phenomena o pos mode nis ideology o educa ion in
he la e 20 h and 21s cen u ies ( he p io i y o indi idualism, egocen ism). Based on he
conclusions, he au ho s e ealed he need o a alue-o ien ed app oach in he educa ional
p ocess in uni e si ies, he need o educa e mo al quali ies in s uden s (Sakha chuk e al., 2023;
Voy yuk, 2019; Agu in, 2023; Bobko , 2023; Lomakina, 2023; Lyko , 2020). In he pos -So ie
space, he only s a e ha has no in e up ed he wo k on c ea ing an ideologically sa e
en i onmen is Bela us (Sakha chuk e al., 2023). The e a e many wo ks de o ed o he issues
a ec ing he phenomenon o ideological secu i y in he con ex o hyb id in o ma ion wa s
(Ke eli & Komle a, 2019), as well as wo ks de o ed o analyzing he s a e o uni e si ies ( h ough
he eyes o s uden s o di e en pe iods) (Rusina, 2019). You h as a ocus g oup was also
conside ed by o he au ho s, who no ed he impo ance o i s ole in c ea ing a dialogue ha
p omo es coope a ion as one o he ci iliza ional mechanisms o c ea ing a sa e en i onmen
(B usilo sky, e al., 2017). Highe educa ion ins i u ions become a e ile g ound o assessing he
e ec i eness o ideological secu i y aining in coun e ing any kind o manipula ion, de eloping
cons uc i e dialog and p e en ing ex emism. The wo ks o o eign au ho s analyze
quan i a i e s udies ha illus a e he ans o ma ional po en ial o educa ion in ideological
secu i y. I is no ed ha “empi ical analysis emphasizes ideological secu i y educa ion ole in
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building esilience o ex emis ideological manipula ion, o e ing insigh s in o e ec i e
pedagogical app oaches.” (Sa ah, 2017) As sugges ed by C. M. G eene and G. Mu phy (2021),
in e ac i e simula ions and ole-plays acili a e he explo a ion o ideological con lic s and
possible ways o esol e hem. S uc u ed con e sa ions emphasizing ac i e lis ening and
di e gen hinking o e a amewo k o espec ul in e ac ion wi h di e en iewpoin s
(Ba ae a, 2019). A s udy conduc ed a Hanan Uni e si y con i med he iew ha almos all
Chinese educa ional ins i u ions conside unde s anding hei his o y, a e willing o consciously
de end na ional so e eign y, and demons a e g ea e ole ance and empa hy. This is how
ideological secu i y in China is augh , which plays a signi ican ole in os e ing esponsible
ci izenship in s uden s. Wi h he skills o espec ully deba e and conside di e en iewpoin s,
s uden s can make posi i e con ibu ions o socie y and sol e complex social p oblems (Jiang e
al., 2018). Th ough in-dep h in e iews wi h s uden s, hese s udies emphasize he ole o
eache s in o ming an en i onmen conduci e o open dialogue and c i ical e lec ion. In he
wo ks o o eign au ho s, i was e ealed ha mode n media echnologies pu pose ully a ec
emo ional poin s, leading o cogni i e dissonance, i a ional hinking, and no accep ing he
“ oice o eason” (c i ical hinking) (Higgins, 2016). An in e es ing aspec o ensu ing
in o ma ion-psychological secu i y in educa ional ins i u ions has been b ough o he gene al
e iew by Russian esea che s (Kuzne so a & Lugo skoy, 2023). We should no e ha he issues o
ideological secu i y a e his o ically mos de eloped in China, as e idenced by he wo ks o Feng
Gang, Shi Hongyue de o ed o mo al alues, which a e di ec ly associa ed wi h a s able
adi ional way o li e, implying a sa e space. The p oblems o ideological and poli ical educa ion
o Chinese college s uden s occupy a special place (Shen, 2020). In he Republic o China, gi en
he ongoing changes in he global wo ld, he in luence o he eache on he mo al o ma ion
o he s uden is analyzed in a new way. The main message on in oducing ideological secu i y
is obse ed om he i s pe son o China Xi Jinping (2020). The e is a endency o inc easing
in e es in educa ing he younge gene a ion, in he aspec o de eloping c i ical hinking a ound
he wo ld. New pedagogical app oaches a ec ing he sa e y o educa ional space a e ac i ely
implemen ed in he EU coun ies, as well as in Sou h Ko ea, s a ing om school educa ion,
such as phenomenon-o ien ed lea ning, ans e sal compe encies, p ojec -based lea ning,
in eg a ed lea ning and inqui y-based lea ning (Dolgaya, 2019). One o he angua ds o
pedagogical inno a ion is schools in Finland, whe e he p inciple o p io i izing a holis ic
app oach o p oblems, combined wi h digi al echnologies (Symeonidis & Schwa z, 2016).
Digi aliza ion plays a g ea ole in c ea ing a ious aining p og ams o de eloping c i ical
hinking. Howe e , he dominance o in o ma ion echnology can ha e a ious nega i e e ec s:
a dec ease in men al abili ies, dependence on gadge s, a dec ease in in e es s conce ning issues
o a wide ange, such as he so e eign y o he s a e, he dominance o i ual eali y, bu le us
no deny he posi i e aspec s (communica ion wi hou ega d o geog aphical bounda ies, access
o a ious ypes o in o ma ion, he possibili y o online ce i ica ion, e c.) (Ko o niko a, 2021).
Thus, ha ing conside ed he ends in educa ion in he Uni ed S a es and he Eu opean
Union in educa ional ins i u ions, we came o he conclusion ha in ecen decades he
ideological ec o has changed signi ican ly om na ional in e es s o ansna ional in e es s
(en i onmen al mo emen , dominance o libe alism, e c.), which is signi ican ly di e en om
Russia, China, as well as Ky gyzs an, which a e on he way o c ea e hei na ional ideology.
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Add essing c i ical hinking in pedagogical s a egies in di e en coun ies plays an impo an
ole in c ea ing a sa e space. All skills capable o o ming di e en iewpoin s and de eloping
in s uden s he abili y o hough ully, ole an ly unde s and ideological complexi ies a e
especially ele an in he pe iod o Thi d Wo ld Wa ’s h ea . The e o e, due o he u bulence
o he su ounding wo ld, he e a e ele an opics o u he s udy, as he eme ging end o a
mul ipola wo ld, which equi es a new eading o ideological secu i y, especially in educa ional
ins i u ions. The e o e, he sys ema ic in eg a ion o ideological secu i y educa ion and he
de elopmen o comp ehensi e pedagogical models emain in demand.
Me hodology, Ma e ials, and Me hods
This s udy u ilized a di e se se o esea ch me hods and ools o comp ehensi ely examine
he impac o ideological secu i y educa ion among college s uden s including:
(1) case s udy me hodology;
(2) su ey and ques ionnai e me hodology;
(3) compa a i e analysis me hod;
(4) in e iew me hod;
(5) iangula ion o he ob ained da a.
The i s s age o ou s udy was conduc ed on he basis o Hanan Pedagogical Uni e si y
(China) om Feb ua y 20 o May 25, 2023, he second s age was conduc ed on he basis o J.
Balasagyn Ky gyz Na ional Uni e si y (Ky gyzs an). In his a icle we analyze he s udy
conduc ed in he People’s Republic o China. Using he me hod o coho analysis (s uden s as
a coho ), we iden i ied changes in a i udes owa d ideological educa ion be o e and a e
classes, deba es, and ound ables be ween s uden s and eache s in he aspec o c i ical hinking
de elopmen . In he i s s age, 50 1s and 2nd yea s uden s and 4 educa o s o Hanan Uni e si y
o Educa ion pa icipa ed in he s udy. Be o e conduc ing he s udy, he ainees we e in o med
abou he pu pose and objec i es o he esea ch wo k. A case s udy me hodology was used o
gain insigh in o he implemen a ion and expe iences o eaching ideological secu i y in eal
uni e si y se ings. A ep esen a i e ins i u ion was selec ed o s udy di e en eaching s a egies
and hei ou comes. Key a iables include cou se con en , he ole o ins uc o s, and s uden
pe cep ions o he lea ning en i onmen . In-dep h in e iews conduc ed by ins uc o s wi h
s uden s, as well as analysis o documen s con aining cou se ma e ials, p o ided a mul i ace ed
iew o aspec s o ideological secu i y educa ion. In his s udy, quali a i e and quan i a i e da a
we e collec ed h ough su eys and ques ionnai es, and in e iewing. The ins umen s
de eloped measu e a iables such as s uden s’ a i udes owa d ideological educa ion o c ea e
a sa e en i onmen , suscep ibili y o manipula ion, and sel -assessmen o c i ical hinking
abili ies. This app oach allows o a comp ehensi e examina ion o ac o s in luencing s uden s’
engagemen in ideological secu i y, we de eloped a semi-s uc u ed in e iew p o ocol o
explo e and s uden s’ pe cep ions o he pedagogical e ec i eness o encoun e ed p oblems
and desi ed ou comes o ideological secu i y educa ion. Th ough his quali a i e me hod,
a iables such as he ole o he ins uc o , he impac on de eloping c i ical hinking, and
encou aging open dialog a e explo ed. A compa a i e analysis was conduc ed o iden i y
di e ences and commonali ies in implemen ing and ou coming ideological secu i y educa ion
ac oss ins i u ions. The app oach iangula ed da a om li e a u e e iews, case s udies, su eys,

84
and in e iews o gain a deepe unde s anding o di e ences in eaching s a egies, s uden
expe iences, and lea ning ou comes. Quan i a i e da a om he su eys we e analyzed using
desc ip i e s a is ical echniques. Quali a i e da a om in e iews and documen analysis we e
hema ically analyzed o iden i y ecu ing pa e ns, eme ging hemes, and insigh ul na a i es.
Combining he quan i a i e and quali a i e da a acili a ed a comp ehensi e in e p e a ion o
he indings o p o ide a holis ic iew o impac ing ideological secu i y educa ion on uni e si y
s uden s. The a iables measu ed we e:
• A i udes owa ds ideological secu i y educa ion;
• Pe cei ed ulne abili y o ideological manipula ion;
• C i ical hinking skills o sel -assessmen ;
• Facul y ole in p omo ion;
• Facul y ole in p omo ing ideological secu i y educa ion;
• S uden in ol emen in explo ing di e en pe spec i es;
• E ec i eness o ins uc ional s a egies.
Compa a i e analysis ma ices and desc ip i e and hema ic da a analysis echniques we e
used in analyzing he documen s.
In he conduc ed s udy, he c i e ia o he e ec i eness o he conduc ed expe imen we e
be o e and a e s a is ics, le el o sel -e icacy, COR- all s uden s decla ed as pa icipan s
eached he end o he s udy.
Resul s
To ge a comple e pic u e o he sample o he ongoing s udy in Chinese and Ky gyz highe
educa ion ins i u ions, we decided o s udy he demog aphic p o ile o he pa icipan s. In his
a icle, we e iew he i s phase o he s udy, which in ol ed 50 Chinese unde g adua e
s uden s. Demog aphic da a on he dis ibu ion o pa icipan s by age, gende , social s a us, and
na ionali y. In his s udy, he sample consis ed o 50 people willing o pa icipa e in he
expe imen , hese we e he s uden s who ook social and humani ies disciplines and 4 eache s
who each hese disciplines. The numbe o s uden s was jus i ied by he ac ha o conduc
in-dep h in e iewing and o he wo ks o he eache s in ol ed in his s age o he s udy was a
a he labo -in ensi e p ocess.
Table 1. Demog aphics o he pa icipan s
S a is ics (n=50)
F equency
Pe cen age
Возраст
18-20 лет
15
30%
21-23 лет
22
44%
24 лет и выше
13
26%
Male gende
24
48%
Female gende
26
52%
Educa ion
Pa - ime highe educa ion
100%
Na ionali y
Chinese people
100%
Ma i al s a us
Single
100%
Scope o ac i i y
S uden
100%
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As he esul s o he s udy show, he numbe o s uden s aged 21–23 yea s old is 44%,
which is much highe han in o he age ca ego ies, and women a e he majo i y among hem—
52%, ma i al s a us is 100% single, and he ep esen ed na ionali y is Chinese.
While conduc ing he wo k on how he p ocess o eaching ideological secu i y a ec s he
abili y o engage in open dialog and discuss di e en iewpoin s, pa icipan s we e asked o
e alua e hei expe iences be o e and a e a ending he ele an cou ses. The changes in
s uden s’ a i udes owa d dialoguing wi h people who hold opposing iews and a e insecu e
show ha a ending classes, emphasizing c i ical hinking, lead o de eloping logical and
e lec i e hinking skills. In he cou se o he expe imen , we eco ded he change in he a i ude
o s uden s o he issues o pa icipa ion in he discussion o opposing iewpoin s. The esul s
showed ha a e a ending he cou ses he e was a signi ican shi , pa icipan s no ed an
inc eased willingness o engage in cons uc i e dialog, which indica es he posi i e impac o
ideological secu i y aining.
In de eloping c i ical hinking skills, pa icipan s we e p esen ed wi h scena ios equi ing
c i ical analysis o in o ma ion sou ces. Table 2 p esen s he dis ibu ion o answe s abou he
e ec i eness o ideological secu i y aining in de eloping c i ical hinking skills. The
dis ibu ion o esponses abou he e ec i eness o ideological secu i y educa ion in de eloping
c i ical hinking skills shows ha he numbe o ag eemen s eaches 49% be o e he aining
and inc eases o 90% a e .
Table 2. Opinions on he de elopmen o c i ical hinking skills
Educa ion in he de elopmen o c i ical hinking skills
P- alue
( - es )
Answe op ions
Be o e he aining
A e he aining
Ag eed
49%
90%
0,001
Di icul o answe
29%
8%
0,007
Disag ee.
22%
2%
0,002
Thus, he da a showed a signi ican inc ease in he numbe o pa icipan s who ag eed o
s ongly ag eed ha ideological secu i y educa ion p omo es c i ical hinking skills we belie e
ha he s udy da a is s a is ically signi ican di e ences be o e and a e aining P ( - es ) –
0.001.
Table 3. E alua ing he e ec i eness o di e en aining me hods
Me hods o eaching
E ec i ely
Neu al
Ine ec i ely
Discussion
85%
10%
5%
Resea ch wo k (examples)
85%
13%
2%
In e ac i e semina s
90%
8%
2%
Table 3 shows he pa icipan s’ e alua ions o he e ec i eness o di e en eaching
me hods. Acco ding o he pa ame e s o eaching me hods’ e ec i eness, i would seem ha
discussion and case s udies a e equally e ec i e, bu discussion in he pe cen age o
ine ec i eness eaches 5%, we associa e ha wi h case s udies (examples) du ing p ac ical wo k
eaches 2%. Thus, he use o he ac i i y app oach is mo e e ec i e. In e ac i e semina s we e
86
ound o be e y e ec i e (90%) in de eloping ideological secu i y. The esul s o his s udy
emphasize he signi icance o ideological secu i y educa ion in shaping s uden s’ pe cep ions,
a i udes and skills. Posi i e e ec s on de eloping c i ical hinking, open dialog, esis ance o
manipula ion, and in e ac ion wi h di e en iewpoin s we e iden i ied. In addi ion, he
compa a i e analysis o eaching me hods p o ided aluable insigh s in o e ec i e pedagogical
app oaches. They illus a e he posi i e impac on de eloping c i ical hinking, he in oduc ion
o open dialog leading o inc eased esis ance o manipula ion and engagemen wi h di e en
iewpoin s The indings con ibu e o a b oade discussion on ideological secu i y educa ion
and p o ide p ac ical ecommenda ions o eache s, educa ional ins i u ions and policy make s.
The indings indica e he c i ical ole o ideological secu i y educa ion in shaping he
pe cep ions, a i udes and skills o uni e si y s uden s. The iden i ied posi i e indings om he
s udy p o ide aluable insigh s in o he po en ial bene i s o in eg a ing such ins uc ion in o
seconda y and e ia y cu icula. An impo an implica ion o his wo k is o unde s and he
cons uc i e impac o ideological secu i y educa ion on de eloping c i ical hinking skills in
uni e si y s uden s. The indings sugges ha exposu e o di e en pe spec i es and discussions
s imula e lea ne s o challenge assump ions, c i ically analyze in o ma ion, and e alua e he
alidi y o di e en iewpoin s. This unde sco es he impo ance o inco po a ing di e en
disciplines in o he ideological secu i y cu iculum, de eloping in ellec ual cu iosi y and he
abili y o s uden s o engage in compe en analy ical discou se. By c ea ing a sa e space o discuss
di e en iewpoin s, s uden s lea n e ec i e communica ion skills, ac i ely p ac ice a en i e
lis ening, and engage in cons uc i e discussions. This emphasizes he po en ial o in oducing
acili a ed discussion and dialogue. Ano he no able esul has been an inc ease in s uden s’
esis ance o manipula ion. Teaching ideological secu i y equips s uden s wi h ools o ecognize
and coun e manipula i e s a egies, misin o ma ion, and p opaganda. This esul emphasizes
he impo ance o including he compe encies o “media li e acy” in he cu iculum (Roch o d,
2003) and c i ical e alua ion o in o ma ion o enable s uden s o make in o med decisions and
na iga e he inc easingly con using media landscape. The esul s sugges a posi i e ela ionship
be ween os e ing ideological secu i y and exposu e o di e se iewpoin s. Exposing s uden s
o a wide ange o ideologies, allows hem o engage in meaning ul dialogues and make sense o
di e en cul u al, social, and poli ical con ex s. Thus, he indings emphasize he need o
in e disciplina y cou ses ha p omo e c oss-cul u al unde s anding and os e a sense o global
ci izenship, as well as suppo he so e eign y o na ion-s a es. The compa a i e analysis o
pedagogical app oaches in his s udy p o ides aluable insigh s in o e ec i e me hods o
eaching ideological secu i y. The iden i ica ion o success ul s a egies such as in e ac i e
discou se, case s udies, and collabo a i e p ojec s p o ide p ac ical guidance o educa o s
seeking o de elop e ec i e and engaging cu icula. Thus, a combina ion o in e ac i e and
pa icipa o y me hods can op imize he ou comes o ideological secu i y educa ion ini ia i es.
Discussion
In eg a ing an ideological secu i y p og am in o he educa ional p ocess enables s uden s
o na iga e poli ical in icacies, c i ically e alua e in o ma ion, engage in in o med discou se,
and con ibu e posi i ely o hei communi ies, s eng hening ci izenship and pa io ism. The
indings highligh he po en ial o ideological secu i y educa ion o shape s uden s’ a i udes,
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skills, and beha io s in esponse o con empo a y challenges. Simila s udies ha e shown simila
esul s, e.g., a B idgewa e Uni e si y, a eache a he Uni e si y o B idgewa e , ealizing ha
ideological bias could hinde p oduc i e dialogue, in oduced ideological secu i y in o he
cou se. S uden s in he “Global Pe spec i es on Socio-Poli ical Issues Cou se”, pa icipa ed in
s uc u ed deba es on con o e sial issues, which showed an inc eased le el o awa eness.
Th oughou he semes e , s uden s pa icipa ed in deba es whe e hey had o a gue a iewpoin
con a y o hei belie s. Conduc ed semina s a Hanan Uni e si y e ealed ha combining
e lec i e exe cises and c i ical analysis o media sou ces no only honed s uden s’ abili y o
iden i y manipula i e na a i es, bu also cul i a ed an unde s anding o o he g oups’ mo i es.
Jenni e Lee no ed a simila esul “ he in eg a ion o a ge ed ideological sa e y ac i i ies
allowed s uden s o e ec i ely engage wi h di e se pe spec i es” in he wo k (Lee, 2016). A
signi ican place in eaching an ideologically sa e en i onmen is gi en o unde s anding he ole
o media ools, he e o e, in he PRC in he go e nmen ’s policy implemen a ion a special ole
is gi en o in o ma ion echnology. Un o una ely, we mus say ha he e is o en misleading
and some imes in en ionally dis o ed in o ma ion ha subs i u es o ue ac s, so i is so
necessa y o de elop in o ma ion educa ion.
The end o in oducing media li e acy in o he educa ional p ocess, in he con ex o
which c i ical hinking skills a e de eloped, began in Eu opean coun ies, hen in Canada and
Ame ica in he 1920s–1940s and since hen he e ha e been se e al pe iods o p omo ion o
hese cou ses. Fo example, in esponse o he p oli e a ion o misin o ma ion on he In e ne ,
an elec i e cou se on Digi al Ci izenship and Media Li e acy was o e ed a All Ci y College.
P o esso Ma inez has de eloped assignmen s ha allow s uden s o c i ically e alua e he
c edibili y o digi al sou ces o in o ma ion, ecognize bias, and iden i y echo chambe s. In he
21s cen u y, he globaliza ion o he In e ne has made hese cou ses especially ele an .
Manipula ion in he in o ma ion sphe e, whe e digi al holog ams c ea e a pa allel eali y
ine i ably gene a es he need o coun e ac men al ba ie s. The join p ojec s conduc ed we e
de o ed o ac -checking and alida ion o in o ma ion, which allowed s uden s o acqui e he
necessa y skills o na iga e he complex in o ma ion landscape and make in o med decisions.
In his s udy, he au ho s did no ouch upon he p oblem o inclusi eness, bu we plan o
conside he p oblem o ole ance educa ion as ano he ac o in c ea ing a sa e en i onmen a
he second s age (in Ky gyzs an). A good example can be he educa ion o inclusi eness h ough
in e cul u al dialog conduc ed a Ha mony Uni e si y cou se “In e cul u al Communica ion”,
which p omo es in e cul u al educa ion as ano he ac o in c ea ing a sa e en i onmen (B own,
2019), p omo ing in e cul u al unde s anding h ough ideologically sa e eaching. In os e ing
ideological sa e y, ou s udy u ilized in e ac i e wo kshops and in e cul u al dialogues o
acili a e he explo a ion o cul u al pe spec i es and biases. Which helped o inc ease sel -
awa eness, de elop empa hy. The e o e, he au ho s belie e ha c ea ing an a mosphe e o
mu ual espec and unde s anding h ough ideological secu i y educa ion also con ibu es o a
mo e inclusi e and ha monious s uden communi y. The p oblem o ex emism e y o en
a ises in o eign uni e si ies, so measu es o coun e he eme gence o ex emis na a i es a e
pa icula ly ele an . Thus, Ho izon Uni e si y ac i ely coun e ac s he ise o ex emis
ideologies on campus by o ganizing semina s led by ideological secu i y expe s (ISE). These
wo kshops p o ide s uden s wi h his o ical con ex , analy ical ools, and coun e -s o ies o
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The igh o p ope y is one o he undamen al subjec i e igh s in mode n legal sys ems,
playing a key ole in ensu ing economic s abili y and social o de . In he con ex o dynamic
social, economic, and echnological changes, inc easing ques ions a e being aised ega ding he
law and he p o ec ion o his igh , he answe s o which equi e ca e ul analysis and adap a ion
o exis ing legal mechanisms.
This s udy ocuses on he gene al cha ac e is ics o p ope y p o ec ion, analysing he
a ious legal ins umen s and mechanisms ha gua an ee he e ec i e sa egua ding o his igh .
The s udy aims o iden i y and classi y he main me hods o p ope y p o ec ion, as well as
o analyse he con empo a y challenges aced by his legal ins i u ion.
The s udy also examines he in e na ional legal aspec s o p o ec ion.
The me hodological app oach includes a compa a i e analysis o legisla ion, case law, and
legal doc ine, wi h pa icula a en ion o he p ac ice o he Cons i u ional Cou o he
Republic o Bulga ia.
Concep
The igh o owne ship occupies a cen al place wi hin he sys em o p ope y igh s and is
a key elemen o he legal o de in mode n socie ies.
A . 17, pa a. 3 o he CRB s ipula es ha p i a e p ope y is in iolable. I is he du y o he
s a e o gua an ee and p o ec he igh o owne ship and o ensu e he in iolabili y o p i a e
p ope y, which obliges he legisla u e o e ain om adop ing legal measu es ha con adic
he cons i u ional equi emen o he p o ec ion o he in iolabili y o p i a e p ope y (Decision,
2021).
A . 2, pa a. 2 o he PA es ablishes he p inciple ha all o ms o p ope y enjoy equal
oppo uni ies o de elopmen and p o ec ion. Acco ding o A . 86 PA, p ope y ha is
publicly owned by he s a e o municipali y canno be acqui ed h ough p esc ip ion.
Bulga ian legisla ion does no con ain a legal de ini ion o he igh o owne ship.
Acco ding o he classical Roman law de ini ion, he igh o owne ship consis s o h ee
componen s (powe s): ius u endi (use), ius uendi (enjoymen / ui ion), and ius abu endi
(disposal) (And ee , 1993, p. 237).
O he de ini ions also exis , de i ing om Bulga ian legal schola ship. The igh o
owne ship is de ined as he igh by which a pe son may equi e all o he s o e ain om any
ac ions ega ding a pa icula objec (Venediko , 1991, p. 86); as a legally ecognised possibili y
o a pe son o exe cise di ec powe o e a speci ic objec o sa is y hei in e es s and o
demand ha all o he pe sons e ain om in e e ing wi h i , o he ex en pe mi ed by law o
he igh s o hi d pa ies (Tadje , 1975, p. 35); as an absolu e subjec i e igh , cha ac e ised by
comple e ac ual and legal au ho i y o e an objec , en o ceable agains all o he legal subjec s,
and including he powe s o disposal, possession, and use, inso a as hese powe s a e no
limi ed by he legal o de (Dzhe o , 2010, p. 85); as a legally ecognised and gua an eed
oppo uni y o a pe son o possess, use, and dispose o a speci ic objec and o equi e all o he s
o e ain om in e e ing wi h i (Boyano , 2014, p. 107); and as a subjec i e igh ha allows i s
holde o possess, use, and dispose o a speci ic objec wi hin he bounda ies o he law, and o
equi e all o he subjec s o e ain om in e e ing wi h ha objec (S oyano , 2024, p. 73).

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In all he de ini ions men ioned, i s ands ou ha , in addi ion o he owne ’s powe s o
possession, use, and disposal, he igh o owne ship is an absolu e subjec i e eal igh .
Co esponding o his igh a e he legal obliga ions o all o he subjec s no o iola e i . Fo
his eason, hese igh s can be asse ed agains all o he pe sons. These legal obliga ions en ail
e aining om in e e ing wi h he holde ’s exe cise o hei subjec i e igh . In his sense,
in ingemen s o he eal igh o owne ship may be commi ed by any subjec who, in any way,
challenges, denies, o b eaches he igh o owne ship, o o he wise obs uc s he exe cise o
any o he powe s o he i leholde . Since any subjec may in e e e wi h i s exe cise, he
absolu e na u e o he igh o owne ship makes i ulne able. The e o e, e ec i e legisla i e
mechanisms mus exis o p o ec i agains any enc oachmen .
Al hough he igh o owne ship is absolu e, i is no unlimi ed and may be es ic ed ei he
olun a ily by he will o i s holde o compulso ily, when such limi a ion is p o ided o by law.
The CRB and he legisla ion allow such es ic ions, balancing he igh s o he owne wi h
highe legal alues o public needs. These in e en ions, whe he olun a y o compulso y,
a ec he subs ance o he igh bu do no p o ide g ounds o p o ec ion when pe o med in
acco dance wi h p ocedu es laid down by law. Wi h ega d o compulso y es ic ions, such as
he exp op ia ion o p ope y unde A . 17(5) o he CRB and u he de eloped in he
Exp op ia ion o PA and he MPA, i should be emphasised ha such enc oachmen on
owne ship hinges on a key balance be ween indi idual igh s and he public in e es , which is
p ecisely why i is egula ed a he cons i u ional le el.
The igh o owne ship is he mos undamen al and comp ehensi e o all subjec i e eal
igh s. In he con ex o dynamic social, economic, and echnological changes, i aces nume ous
con empo a y challenges. F om he egula ion o u banised e i o ies o he managemen o
i ual asse s, i s con en and applicabili y a e e ol ing and equi e adap a ion o espond o new
eali ies. The legal sys em ollows he de elopmen o he wo ld a ound us and seeks o egula e
i . Ine i ably, changes in social ela ions lead o changes in p ope y law. The ways in which
owne ship is p o ec ed a e also subjec o change. A a mo e abs ac le el, he co e o he
classical doc ine o owne ship e ains i s essence, ye he changes in ou su ounding wo ld
gene a e de elopmen s in ce ain aspec s o ma e ial p ope y law. In iew o his, changes in
he legal amewo k and me hods o p o ec ion a e ine i able. The needs ela ed o he exis ence
and exe cise o he subjec i e igh o owne ship canno e ol e wi hou igge ing changes in
he mechanisms o i s p o ec ion. These e y changes in oduce new, o pose challenges o,
classical p o ec i e mechanisms. The esilience and adap abili y o he so-called classical means
o owne ship p o ec ion a e conside able, bu insu icien . I is he e o e ine i able ha new
mechanisms be in oduced—speci ic means o he p o ec ion o p ope y. In his way, he
eme gence, exis ence, and exe cise o he subjec i e igh o owne ship emain gua an eed by
he legal o de o i s holde in he e en o po en ial dispu es o iola ions by o he subjec s.
The genesis in he ield o p o ec ing he igh o p ope y s ems om he undamen al
pos ula e se o h in he CRB, namely ha he legal sys em gua an ees he p o ec ion o all
subjec i e igh s. The igh o p o ec ion is cons i u ionally ensh ined in A . 56 o he CRB. I
se es as a means o sa egua d o he iola ed o h ea ened igh s o legi ima e in e es s
(Decision o he Cons i u ional Cou No. 3 on Case No. 1/1994). The cons i u ional igh o
p o ec ion is an au onomous, undamen al, pe sonal, uni e sal, and complex igh o ci izens.
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On he o he hand, he igh o p o ec ion is di ec ly linked o e e y o he igh o legi ima e
in e es . I gi es ise o obliga ions o he s a e.
Fi s and o emos , he s a e is obliged o ensu e he indi idual exe cise o he igh o
p o ec ion, and i mus no hinde i s ealisa ion— his highligh s i s absolu e na u e. Secondly,
he s a e has he du y o p o ide legal gua an ees and a ious o ms o sa egua ding he
undamen al igh s es ablished in he CRB a all le els o s a e au ho i y. Thi dly, he e is he
obliga ion o ensu e he s a e’s p o ec i e unc ion, which should ein o ce ins i u ions as
democ a ic, public, and ai (Che ne a e al., 2023, pp. 52–53).
The igh o p ope y is undamen al o he exis ence and de elopmen o any legal sys em,
ye i is simul aneously ulne able o a ange o ac o s ha may h ea en i . The olun a y
ul ilmen o legal obliga ions by all o he pa ies in he legal ela ionship wi h he p ope y
owne is a legisla i e p io i y and aligns wi h he in e es s o he igh holde , as well as wi h
public in e es s mo e b oadly. Volun a y ul ilmen ep esen s he mos desi able de elopmen
o he legal ela ionship. I he exe cise o subjec i e igh s we e le solely o he goodwill o
obliga ed pa ies, he e y no ion o legal o de would become meaningless, as he de ining
cha ac e is ic o a legal sys em is ha i con ains mechanisms o coe cion when olun a y
compliance is absen . Coe ci e en o cemen is a subs i u e o missing olun a y ul ilmen
(S ale e al., 2020, p. 897). One o he essen ial a ibu es o law—coe cion—means ha i
gua an ees he subjec i e igh o p ope y (as well as o he igh s), and, when necessa y, he
holde may use he law ul means a ailable o seek p o ec ion.
P ope y is no only a pe sonal alue bu also an economic ounda ion. Wi hou i s legal
p o ec ion, in es men s, ansac ions, o economic ac i i y in gene al would be insecu e.
His o ically, p ope y has o en been subjec o unlaw ul exp op ia ion o excessi e s a e
in e e ence, which necessi a es clea ly egula ed mechanisms o p o ec ion and o limi ing
such p ac ices. The need o p o ec p ope y a ises om i s ole in gua an eeing indi idual
eedom, economic s abili y, and public o de . Viola ions o p ope y igh s may include
dispu es, he , aud, o o he unau ho ised ac ions o any kind, all o which equi e e ec i e
legal p o ec ion.
In his sense, he p o ec ion o he igh o p ope y is o essen ial impo ance bo h o he
indi idual and o socie y. The ee exe cise o his igh is in line wi h he p inciple o he ule
o law—in bo h i s o mal and subs an i e sense. A classical componen o he ule o law in
he o mal sense is he p inciple o legali y, which se es o p e en a bi a iness. In he
subs an i e sense, he ule o law is a s a e o jus ice, which, h ough p inciples such as he
sepa a ion o powe s, he inalienabili y o undamen al igh s, and o he s, gua an ees he ee
exe cise o undamen al igh s—among which he igh o p ope y undoub edly belongs—and,
consequen ly, hei p o ec ion as well (D ume a, 2018, pp. 132–133).
The p o ec ion o he igh o p ope y is o a complex na u e. I is pe o med, on he one
hand, h ough subs an i e legal no ms ha egula e he legal consequences which ac s o law
en o cemen bodies ha e on he ma e ial ci il legal ela ionship, and on he o he hand, h ough
p ocedu al legal no ms ha egula e he p ocedu al means and o de o he ealisa ion o such
p o ec ion, as well as he p ocedu al legal consequences o he ac s o he bodies h ough which
p o ec ion o he igh o p ope y is e ec ed (Pa lo a, 2002, p. 215).
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The legal egula ion o p ope y p o ec ion is no sys ema ised in a single legisla i e ac .
Subs an i e p o isions can be ound in nume ous laws—no only in ci il law, bu also in
adminis a i e and c iminal law—mo e speci ically, in he CC and he C PC. A comp ehensi e
enume a ion would be di icul , bu ules o he p o ec ion o p ope y in one o m o ano he
can be ound in he PA, he SPA, he MPA, he SDA, he C&PRA, he es i u ion laws, among
o he s.
The p incipal means o p o ec ion a e legal claims—mo e speci ically, p op ie a y claims.
The classical claims o he p o ec ion o p ope y a e egula ed in he PA. These include he
ei indica o y claim unde A . 108 PA and he nega o y claim unde A . 109 PA. Addi ionally,
A . 109a o he PA egula es he claim o de e mina ion o p ope y bounda ies. O he pe i o y
claims can be ound in special laws such as he C&PRA and he OU o ALA. The ole o
adminis a i e p o ec ion o p ope y is also inc easing. The e a e nume ous adminis a i e legal
means o he p o ec ion o p ope y. These a e o en also egula ed by ci il laws—e.g., A . 52
o he PA, A . 80 o he SPA, and A . 65(1) o he MPA. The CC also p o ides o o ences
agains p ope y, egula ed in a sepa a e Chap e V o he CC. P ocedu al laws de e mine he
p ocedu es by which p o ec ion is exe cised. The p ima y one is he CiPC, hough in many cases
he APC applies. P oceedings in cases o o ences agains p ope y a e pe o med unde he
C PC. In addi ion, in e na ional legal mechanisms, such as he p o ec ion gua an eed by he HR
Eu opean Con en ion and he case-law o he HR Eu opean Cou , u he ein o ce p ope y
as a undamen al igh o e e y indi idual (Panayo o a-Chaluko a, 2019, p. 163).
I is wo h no ing ha he means o he p o ec ion o p ope y a e applied as a gene al ule
also o limi ed eal igh s, unless o he wise p o ided by law o i he na u e o he emedy ende s
i inapplicable o limi ed eal igh s. This is pa icula ly ue o pe i o y claims, which is why
hey a e conside ed a gene ic ca ego y o claims (S oino , 2021, p. 103).
Despi e possible limi a ions, p ope y p o ec ion is o a uni e sal na u e, as i is applied in
all cases—whe he in ela ion o p i a e o public, mo able o immo able p ope y. Al hough
he e a e di e ences depending on he c i e ia o p o ec ion, he law p o ides mechanisms o
p e en and sanc ion unlaw ul in ingemen s.
Fo p ope y p o ec ion o be exe cised, h ee gene al p e equisi es mus be in place. Fi s ,
he claiman mus be he owne o holde o a limi ed eal igh . In ce ain cases, whe e he
public in e es is a ec ed, s a e in e en ion h ough i s bodies is also possible, such as in he
case o an o ence agains p ope y wi hin he meaning o he CC. Second, he e mus be a
iola ion o in ingemen o he igh , mani es ed in i s con es a ion, denial, o di ec b each.
Thi d, he legal g ound o p o ec ion mus be p o ided by law, ensu ing legal legi imacy and
he possibili y o p o ec ion h ough an es ablished p ocedu e.
The egula ed means o p o ec ion con ibu e o he p e en ion o con lic s and sel -
ed ess, as he legal sys em gua an ees he peace ul and jus esolu ion o dispu es. Howe e , i
is also necessa y o adap legal p o ec ion o he condi ions o dynamic social, economic, and
echnological changes. New challenges equi e he imp o emen o exis ing mechanisms and
he in oduc ion o inno a ions o he e ec i e p o ec ion o owne s’ igh s.
In conclusion, he p o ec ion o p ope y (and o limi ed eal igh s) ep esen s a sys em o
legal no ms and p inciples by i ue o which he owne (o holde o a limi ed eal igh ) may,
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acco ding o an es ablished p ocedu e, p o ec hei igh agains denial, con es a ion, o di ec
iola ion o any o i s powe s.
Resul s
The igh o owne ship is p o ec ed h ough a ious means. The me hods o p o ec ing
owne ship a e classi ied acco ding o di e en c i e ia. These dis inc ions ha e signi ican
p ac ical impo ance, as no ed in he p eceding lines, since he igh o owne ship (as well as
limi ed eal igh s) is undamen al o any mode n legal sys em, and i s p o ec ion mus be
comp ehensi e and comple e o gua an ee i in i s en i e y.
In a B oad and Na ow Sense
Gi en ha he e a e a ious means o p o ec ion, i is necessa y o dis inguish he usage o
he ph ase “p o ec ion o p ope y”, as i is o en used synonymously wi h pe i o y claims.
Al hough hese a e among he undamen al and specialised legal emedies o he p o ec ion o
p ope y igh s, hey ep esen only one ca ego y o such means. This is because hey cons i u e
he p op ie a y aspec o p o ec ion, bu do no exhaus he possibili ies o sa egua ding
subjec i e p ope y igh s. Depending on nume ous ac o s, di e en b anches o law p o ide
di e en mechanisms. The e o e, o a comp ehensi e in e p e a ion o he e m, one may
conclude ha a dis inc ion mus be made be ween p o ec ion o p ope y in a b oad sense and
p o ec ion o p ope y in a na ow sense.
In he na ow sense, p o ec ion o p ope y encompasses all pe i o y claims. These claims
also se e o p o ec limi ed eal igh s. They a e conside ed he p incipal legal emedies, as hey
in ol e claims aimed a de ending owne ship and o he p ope y igh s. Pe i o y claims a e he
ypical legal ins umen s o he p o ec ion o p ope y igh s. This ca ego y includes classical
emedies such as he ei indica io and he nega o y ac ion, bu also mo e mode n and speci ic
claims, such as claims o he ec i ica ion o e o s and omissions in he cadas al map unde
he CPRA, among o he s.
In he b oad sense, p o ec ion o p ope y includes all legal emedies p o ided by domes ic
and in e na ional law, as well as by EU law. This ca ego y na u ally includes p o ec ion in he
na ow sense bu ex ends beyond i . B oadly speaking, i also encompasses all adminis a i e
and c iminal law emedies, and all sou ces ou side he domes ic legisla ion o he Republic o
Bulga ia—essen ially, all mechanisms designed o sa egua d p ope y. These can be ound, o
example, in he CC unde he chap e on p o ec ion o p ope y, in he SPA and he MPA as
examples o adminis a i e p o ec ion, in he Eu opean Con en ion on Human Righ s as a key
sou ce o in e na ional legal p o isions, and o he s.
Classical and Speci ic
Legal emedies o he p o ec ion o p ope y can also be di ided in o classical and speci ic.
The dis inguishing c i e ion be ween hese wo ca ego ies lies in he na u e and legal
cha ac e is ics o he p o ec i e mechanisms p o ided by law.
Classical emedies a e cha ac e ised by gene al, abs ac p o ec ion o he igh o
owne ship. Mos o hem o igina e om ea lie pe iods, da ing back o Ancien Rome. Thei
abs ac na u e ende s hem endu ing o e ime and adap able h ough he ages. These
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emedies a e based on he absolu e na u e o p ope y igh s. The main classical emedies
include:
• he ei indica io, used by a non-possesso y owne o claim an i em om a non-owning
possesso ;
• he nega o y ac ion, b ough by he owne agains in e e ences ha do no in ol e
dep i a ion o possession bu a ec hei igh and hinde i s exe cise;
• he ac ion o decla a ion o owne ship, used when he owne seeks o es ablish hei igh
agains a hi d pa y.
Speci ic emedies, on he o he hand, in ol e mo e conc e e, specialised mechanisms
applicable o pa icula si ua ions. They in oduce di e si y in he me hods o p o ec ion, since
in ingemen s may a y depending on se e al ac o s— he na u e o he iola ion, he objec o
p o ec ion, he ype o owne ship, e c. Speci ic emedies also di e si y he way p o ec ion is
implemen ed. The e is a no able inc ease in he use o adminis a i e mechanisms o
p o ec ion.
Ci il, C iminal, and Adminis a i e P o ec ion
The p o ec ion o p ope y igh s is di ided in o ci il, c iminal, and adminis a i e
p o ec ion.
Ci il p o ec ion consis s o ci il claims es ablished by he legisla o , which a e g an ed o
he holde o a p ope y igh o de end i agains unlaw ul in e e ence. Ci il p o ec ion should
no be equa ed solely wi h pe i o y claims. I includes p op ie a y claims bu is no limi ed o
hem. The e o e, ci il p o ec ion may be classi ied in o pe i o y claims and o he ci il-law
me hods o p o ec ion.
The ca ego y o pe i o y claims includes all p op ie a y claims— indica o y (A . 108 o he
PA), nega o y (A . 109 o he PA, decla a o y ac ions o de e mining bounda ies (A . 109a o
he PA), claims conce ning omissions o e o s in he cadas al plan (A . 54, pa a. 2 o he
C&PRA), and o he s.
Pe i o y claims mus be dis inguished om possesso y claims, also e e ed o as possesso y
emedies. Possesso y p o ec ion comp ises legal means o emedying dis u bed possession
(Tadje , 2001, p. 81). The claims o such p o ec ion a e egula ed unde A i. 75 and 76 o he
PA. The key di e ence be ween he wo ypes o p o ec ion lies in he ac ha possesso y
p o ec ion does no sa egua d igh s bu a he de ends possession as a de ac o s a e, as well as
de en ion in he cases ou lined in A . 76 o he PA. A speci ic dis inc ion mus be d awn
be ween possesso y and p op ie a y claims, as hey sha e many simila i ies. Since he o me
conce ns he p o ec ion o a ac ual si ua ion and he la e in ol es he p o ec ion o p ope y
igh s, including limi ed eal igh s, hey a e e e ed o espec i ely as possesso y and pe i o y
claims.
As possesso y claims aim o p o ec possession (and de en ion unde A . 76 o he PA),
and pe i o y claims se e o p o ec p ope y igh s, he wo ypes o claims may no be joined
in a single legal p oceeding. Howe e , his does no p e en an owne o he holde o ano he
eal igh om iling a possesso y claim o de end hei igh o possess he i em. A pe son who
has b ough a claim o owne ship o e immo able p ope y may no ile a possesso y claim
agains he same de endan o he same p ope y while he owne ship case is pending, unless

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he possession was aken away a e he iling o he owne ship claim—ei he by o ce o
clandes inely (A . 359 o he CiPC).
Possesso y p o ec ion is p o ided h ough a special legal p ocedu e o he p o ec ion and
es o a ion o dis u bed possession (A s. 356–361 o he CiPC). In such cases, he owne does
no need o p o e ha hey hold a eal igh , bu me ely ha hey exe cised de ac o possession
and ha his possession was dis u bed, as he cou in hese p oceedings examines only he ac
o possession and i s dis u bance (A . 357, pa a. 1 o he CiPC). The exis ence o a p ope y
igh is no necessa ily examined. Howe e , documen s ce i ying owne ship a e aken in o
conside a ion only inso a as hey es ablish he ac o possession. In con as , in a p op ie a y
claim, i s ly, no special p ocedu e is p o ided, and secondly, he claiman mus p o e ha hey
possess a p ope y igh . The bu den lies on he claiman o p o e hei owne ship o ano he
eal igh o e he i em.
Ano he di e ence is ha pe i o y claims a e no always condemna o y in na u e, while
possesso y claims always aim o he de endan o be o de ed o ac o e ain om ac ing.
Claims o he p o ec ion o p ope y igh s may also be decla a o y. Possesso y claims mus be
iled wi hin a six-mon h limi a ion pe iod, whe eas no such pe iod exis s o pe i o y claims;
hey a e no subjec o limi a ion.
O he ci il-law me hods o p o ec ion include con ac ual claims, such as claims by a
bo owe o he e u n o a loaned i em, by a enan , by a deposi a y, o o ious damage,
unjus en ichmen , and o he s, mos o which a e based on an exis ing legal ela ionship be ween
c edi o and deb o .
C iminal p o ec ion o p ope y igh s can be achie ed by c iminalising ce ain ypes o
enc oachmen s on p ope y. C imes agains p ope y a e egula ed in Chap e V o he Special
Pa o he CC. C iminal p o ec ion may be di ided in o wo main g oups:
P o ec ion agains dep i a ion o possession om he owne . This g oup includes he ,
obbe y, embezzlemen , and concealmen o p ope y.
P o ec ion agains damage o ano he ’s p ope y, such as des uc ion, damage, and abuse
o us .
These can also be classi ied based on whe he he pe pe a o exe cises possession a he
ime o commi ing he ac . In one case, he pe pe a o emo es possession and he ac o
emo al is pa o he c iminal conduc —e.g., he and obbe y. In he o he , he pe pe a o
al eady exe cises possession p io o he ac —e.g., embezzlemen .
The p o ec ed legal in e es comp ises wo g oups o socie al ela ions: p ope y ela ions
and hose ensu ing he no mal exe cise o p ope y igh s (S oino , 2021). The objec o hese
c imes may be bo h mo able and immo able p ope y, bu ce ain o ences in ol e he unlaw ul
aking o only mo able i ems—such as he and obbe y. In all such cases, he o ence mus
in ol e a angible objec o p ope y igh assessable in mone a y e ms. In o he wo ds, he e
is always a p ope y in e es , which is a key cha ac e is ic o p ope y igh s.
Adminis a i e p o ec ion is ha which is implemen ed h ough adminis a i e p ocedu es.
I s signi icance has inc eased o e ime. A classic example is he p o ec ion o s a e and
municipal p ope y unde A . 80 o he SPA and A . 65, pa a. 1 o he MPA.
P ope ies owned by he s a e o municipali ies ha a e held o used wi hou legal g ounds,
used con a y o hei in ended pu pose, o no longe needed, a e subjec o epossession by
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o de o he egional go e no , based on a subs an ia ed eques by he ele an minis e o head
o an ins i u ion—o by he mayo , in he case o municipal p ope y.
Ano he example is he p o ec ion p o ided in A . 52 o he PA, which p ohibi s plan ing
ees close han 3 me es o all ees, 1.5 me es o medium ones, and 1 me e o low ones
om he bounda y o a neighbou ’s p ope y. The neighbou may eques pe mission om he
mayo o he municipali y, dis ic , o se lemen o ha e o e hanging b anches o oo s
ex ending in o hei p ope y cu . They may also eques he eloca ion o ees plan ed close
han he speci ied dis ances.
A u he example is p o ided in A . 34, pa a. 1 o he ALO&UA, acco ding o which, a
he eques o owne s o legal use s o ag icul u al land wi h es o ed owne ship, he land may
be epossessed by o de o he mayo o he municipali y whe e he p ope y is loca ed om
pe sons who use i wi hou legal g ounds. The land is hen handed o e o he igh ul owne s
o legal use s. To es ablish he unlaw ul use, he mayo may o icially eques in o ma ion om
he S a e Fund “Ag icul u e”—Paying Agency, o om i s egional s uc u es and/o he
municipal ag icul u al o ice o he geodesy, ca og aphy, and cadas e o ice.
Judicial and Ex ajudicial P o ec ion
The dis inc ion be ween judicial and ex ajudicial p o ec ion is based on whe he he
p o ec ion is pe o med wi h he assis ance o a cou .
Ex ajudicial p o ec ion may be exe cised by adminis a i e au ho i ies h ough
adminis a i e p ocedu es. Such p o ec ion does no equi e cou in ol emen . To some
ex en , ex ajudicial p o ec ion co esponds o adminis a i e p o ec ion, which was discussed
ea lie , bu no all ex ajudicial means o p o ec ion a e examples o adminis a i e p o ec ion.
Viewed mo e b oadly, ex ajudicial p o ec ion also includes ce ain limi a ions es ablished by
law i sel . An example can be ound in A . 86 o he PA, which s ipula es ha p ope y ha is
public s a e o municipal owne ship canno be acqui ed by p esc ip ion. The a ionale is ha
public s a e and municipal p ope y se es o sa is y public in e es . Mo e impo an ly, his ype
o p ope y is p o ec ed agains acquisi ion by p esc ip ion di ec ly by law.
Judicial p o ec ion is ha which is pe o med wi h he assis ance o a cou . In all cases,
p o ec ion p o ided by c iminal law is judicial—c iminal law p o ec ion. Ci il law p o ec ion is
also judicial—all claims b ough by he owne , whe he hey a e con ac ual o p ope y law
claims.
P o ec ion Acco ding o he Subjec Ma e
The e a e cases whe e he s a e and municipali ies a e placed in a p i ileged posi ion
ega ding he p o ec ion o hei p ope y compa ed o ci izens and legal en i ies. Wi h his in
mind, p o ec ion can be classi ied as p o ec ion o s a e and municipal p ope y and p o ec ion
o o dina y p i a e p ope y o ci izens and legal pe sons.
This is he case in he scena ios o A . 80 o he SPA and A . 65, pa ag aph 1 o he MPA.
P ope ies ha a e s a e o municipal owne ship, which a e held o possessed wi hou legal basis,
used imp ope ly, o whose necessi y has ceased, a e con isca ed by o de o he egional
go e no , based on a easoned eques om he espec i e minis e o head o he ele an
depa men —in he case o s a e owne ship—o om he mayo o he municipali y when he
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p ope y is municipal. In his case, he o de esul s in compulso y con isca ion o p ope y by
adminis a i e means.
Fo p i a e p ope y, his is no possible; i he e is unlaw ul possession o holding, he
ci izen o legal en i y— he owne —mus ile a claim unde A . 108 o he PA o a con ac ual
claim i a con ac exis s, o oblige he de endan o e u n he i em. The di e ence is ha he
p o ec ion p o ided unde he SPA and MPA applies only o immo able p ope y, whe eas a
claim unde A . 108 o he PA may be iled o bo h mo able and immo able p ope y. I a
mo able i em—s a e o municipal p ope y—is unlaw ully held o possessed, he s a e o
municipali y mus ile a claim unde A . 108 o he PA.
In p i a e law, he leading p inciple is equali y and, speci ically, equali y o he pa ies. In
exe cising p i a e owne ship, all legal subjec s, including he s a e and municipali ies, a e equal.
The e o e, he scope o igh s and obliga ions o he s a e and municipali ies as holde s o
p i a e owne ship canno undamen ally di e om hose o any o he p i a e law subjec
ega ding he p ope y owned (Decision, 2010). One migh ques ion why di e ences a e d awn
be ween p i a e s a e and municipal owne ship and he gene al egime o p i a e owne ship.
On one hand, he legisla o achie es an equalisa ion o he p o ec ion o p i a e wi h public
s a e and municipal owne ship, which is inadmissible unde A . 17, pa a. 2 o he Cons i u ion.
Addi ionally, di e en egimes o p o ec ion a e es ablished o p i a e s a e and municipal
owne ship compa ed o he gene al egime o p ope y p o ec ion.
On he o he hand, he Cons i u ion does no p ohibi es ablishing a di e en egime
ega ding p i a e s a e owne ship compa ed o he gene al p ope y egime, no does i o bid
p o iding an iden ical means o p o ec ion as o public p ope y. I is a ac ha A . 17, pa a.
2 di ides owne ship in o public and p i a e, bu his does no oblige he legisla o o in oduce
a comple ely di e en p o ec ion egime. Mo eo e , his pe mission does no apply o all ypes
o p o ec ion. An example is he Sup eme Cou o Cassa ion Decision No. 3 o 24 Feb ua y
2022, case No. 16/2021, which decla ed uncons i u ional he p o ision o §1, pa ag aph 1 o
he Supplemen a y Law o he PA, which s a ed ha “ he p esc ip ion pe iod o acqui ing
p ope y—p i a e s a e o municipal owne ship—shall be suspended un il 31 Decembe 2022
inclusi e o he acquisi ion o ag icul u al land owned by o whose owne ship has been es o ed
unde he P ope y and Use o Ag icul u al Land Ac o s a e o municipal schools o o he
s a e and municipal ins i u ions wi hin he p e-school and school educa ion sys em.” This
highligh ed he di e ence be ween p i a e s a e and municipal owne ship in e ms o acquisi ion
by p esc ip ion, as he p ohibi ion o acquisi ion by p esc ip ion applies only o public
owne ship.
In summa y, aking all o he abo e in o accoun , i may be concluded ha i canno be
absolu ised ha he e is an equalisa ion o p i a e s a e and municipal owne ship wi h public
owne ship on he one hand, and a signi ican di e ence om o dina y p i a e owne ship on
he o he . I may be summa ised ha he measu es p o ided in A . 80 o he SPA and A . 65,
pa a. 1 o he MPA emphasise a speci ici y in he p o ec ion egime o p i a e owne ship
acco ding o i s holde , bu his in no way means equalisa ion wi h he egime o public
owne ship.
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Domes ic and In e na ional P o ec ion
P o ec ion o p ope y is di ided in o domes ic and in e na ional based on he c i e ion o
whe e he me hod o p o ec ion is egula ed.
When he egula ion is ound in domes ic legisla ion, he p o ec ion is classi ied as
domes ic. Domes ic p o ec ion can be ound in he p o isions o he P ope y Ac , Spa ial
De elopmen Ac , Plan P o ec ion Ac , S a e P ope y Ac , Municipal P ope y Ac , Co po a e
Income Tax Ac , e c.
On he o he hand, p o ec ion is in e na ional when i is egula ed no by domes ic sou ces
bu by in e na ional sou ces and EU law. In a global con ex , p ope y igh s a e p o ec ed by
in e na ional ins umen s such as he Uni e sal Decla a ion o Human Righ s (A . 17), which
ecognises he igh o p ope y as a undamen al human igh ; he Eu opean Con en ion on
Human Righ s and Fundamen al F eedoms (A . 1 o P o ocol No. 1), which gua an ees
p o ec ion agains unjus i ied dep i a ion o p ope y. The case law o he HR Eu opean Cou
in S asbou g also plays an impo an ole (Panayo o a-Chalko a, 2019).
EU law also p o ides p o ec ion o p ope y. A . 17 o he Cha e o Fundamen al Righ s
o he EU s a es ha e e yone has he igh o own, use, dispose o , and bequea h law ully
acqui ed p ope y. No one may be dep i ed o hei p ope y excep in he public in e es , in
cases and unde condi ions p o ided o by law, and agains ai and imely compensa ion o
he loss incu ed. The use o p ope y may be egula ed by law o he ex en necessa y o he
gene al in e es .
P elimina y and Subsequen P o ec ion
The p o ec ion o p ope y can be dis inguished wi h ega d o whe he he e is an
in ingemen upon he eal igh o no , in o p elimina y and subsequen p o ec ion.
In p elimina y p o ec ion o p ope y, he e is no in ingemen upon he subjec i e igh o
owne ship. I s aim is o en i ely p e en he iola ion o he igh . This is wha de ines i s
p elimina y na u e. This ca ego y o p o ec ion se es as a p e en ion agains iola ions.
The e o e, p elimina y p o ec ion can also be desc ibed as p e en i e. I unc ions as a
p e en i e mechanism ha minimises he isk o in ingemen and c ea es a s able legal basis
o he exe cise o he eal igh . An example o his is he p o ec ion o he legal p ohibi ion on
acqui ing public p ope y by p esc ip ion. Ano he example is he p ohibi ion on acqui ing
mo able p ope y whose possession was ob ained h ough a c iminal o ence. Mo e b oadly,
egis a ion (en y in a public egis e ) also p o ides p e en i e p o ec ion as i ensu es publici y.
In con as , subsequen p o ec ion in ol es an ac ual iola ion o he eal igh . The
in ingemen may also ake he o m o con es ing o denying he exis ing eal igh . The
essen ial poin is ha he e is an obs acle o he ee exe cise o he eal igh , which gi es ise
o he need o p o ec ion. I can also be de ined as subs an i e p o ec ion, since i is applied
a e he iola ion has al eady occu ed.
These wo ca ego ies a e mu ually complemen a y. P elimina y p o ec ion aims o p e en
iola ions, while subsequen p o ec ion is applied o emo e iola ions once hey ha e occu ed.
In his way, a comp ehensi e legal amewo k is ensu ed, which no only p o ec s he igh o
owne ship bu also gua an ees i s ee exe cise.
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(G igo iu, 2017c), G igo iu in es iga es he philosophical unde pinnings o ma hema ics,
highligh ing con inui ies and up u es wi h he Wi gens einian adi ion.
In his subsequen wo k, Philosophy o Logic and Logicis Failu e in he T ac a us Logico-
Philosophicus (G igo iu, 2018), G igo iu c i iques logicism in he ligh o Wi gens ein’s
philosophy, showing how ep esen a ionalism o e s an al e na i e app oach o he ounda ions
o ma hema ics. Wi gens ein’s Philosophy Elemen s o Ma hema ics in he Ideal Space o he
Thi ies (G igo iu, 2019a) si ua es Wi gens ein’s e lec ions wi hin he b oade in ellec ual
clima e o he 1930s, linking hem o de elopmen s in he philosophy o ma hema ics and logic.
Collec i ely, hese con ibu ions p o ide esh insigh s in o he o iginali y and complexi y o
Wi gens ein’s ep esen a ionalism, while also iden i ying un esol ed issues ha in i e u he
inqui y.
Taken oge he , hese ma e ials o m a cohe en co pus ha b idges he classical adi ion
o logic and ma hema ics wi h con empo a y ein e p e a ions o Wi gens ein’s philosophy.
F ege and Russell p o ide he necessa y his o ical and concep ual ounda ions, Wi gens ein
himsel o mula es he philosophical b eak h ough o ep esen a ionalism, and G igo iu’s wo ks
o e de ailed exegesis and heo e ical inno a ion. This combina ion o p ima y and seconda y
sou ces ensu es bo h his o ical accu acy and concep ual dep h, allowing he p esen s udy o
a icula e a nuanced unde s anding o meaning, iden i y, and ep esen a ion in he con ex o
Wi gens ein’s philosophy.
Resul
Rep esen a ionalism—Gene al Concep ion o Meaning
The concep s o meaning, ela ion, and iden i y a e pa o a b oade heo y o
ep esen a ion (o images o pic u es) ha I call ep esen a ionalism.
Rep esen a ionalism is a gene al concep ion o a i ude owa d meaning, as i was o
Leibniz, Kan , Schopenhaue , and He z. I is also an elemen o con inui y (be ween ea ly
Wi gens ein, ma u e Wi gens ein, and la e Wi gens ein) and a uni ying ac o ac oss he
undamen al ields o Wi gens einian philosophy (philosophy o logic, philosophy o
ma hema ics, and philosophy o language).
In all ields o Wi gens einian philosophy, he discu si e-concep ual app oach is based on
a ans-me aphysical ension be ween eali y and ep esen a ion. Reali y, o he wo ld, ends
owa d symbols and concep s, and he image o he wo ld holds explana o y powe . “To
unde s and”, “ o highligh ”, “ o show”, “ o say”, “ o c i icize”, “ o calcula e”—and all ha hese
imply in he p ac ice o “language games”—a e pa o a échné and espond o a anscenden al
necessi y.
The possibili y o ep esen ing some hing is anscenden al; i is ela ed o he uni y o
subjec and objec . Howe e , o Wi gens ein, his uni y does no o igina e om an unknowable
sou ce (as in Kan ’s hing-in-i sel ), bu a he om Schopenhaue ’s concep o will o om a
connec ion wi h he absolu e, as in Ge man idealism.
In my ela ed wo ks (G igo iu, 2017a; G igo iu, 2017b; G igo iu, 2017c; G igo iu, 2018; G igo iu,
2019), I show ha ep esen a ionalism is an an i-desc ip i e e m wi h he simul aneous
meanings o “ o show”, “ o depic ”, “ o gene alize”, and “ o s age”. Wi gens ein employs

111
se e al exp essions wi h his las meaning (da s ellen, abbilden, o s ellen), o e ing an in ui i e
amewo k o he a ge ed ields (language, logic, and ma hema ics).
In he T ac a us, ep esen a ionalism is linked o he simila i y be ween hough and i s
logical exp ession; i s basis is he logical space. Logic can be ega ded as a ep esen a ional
ounda ion because i shows a he han desc ibes i sel —jus as a play o an a is ic ac un olds
on a s age whe e he en i e uni e se is alloca ed o he a is ic ac i sel , while he es o he
wo ld emains s ic ly delinea ed. I is no as hough a spec a o mus s ep on o he s age o sa e
Desdemona’s o Julie ’s li e—an absu di y akin o he si ua ion o hose who ake language
pa adoxes li e ally.
In Wi gens ein’s philosophy a e he T ac a us, ep esen a ionalism becomes he
mani es a ion and e ela ion o linguis ic, logical, and ma hema ical phenomena, aiming o
cap u e hei con en ional na u e, echniques, ules, and p eeminence, wi h he logical space
e ol ing in o a mo e complex and nuanced g amma ical space.
In he equa ion na u al language—logic—ma hema ics, ep esen a ionalism consis s o he
p ocess by which I ex ac , elimina e, and sepa a e na u al language om logic and ma hema ics
so ha logic and ma hema ics may exp ess hemsel es in hei dis inc languages and na u es.
This implies di ec access o a sign language ha is au onomous, consis en , cohe en , and ee
om con adic ions and pa adoxes.
I , in he T ac a us, he goal o ep esen a ionalism was o pu i y and disen angle hinking
(logic and ma hema ics) om he dis o ions o na u al language (4.002c), hen in his la e
esea ch, Wi gens ein exposes ma hema ical echniques as being i e e sibly shaped by
linguis ic s uc u es. Unde nea h he eccen ici y and exo icism o hese s uc u es, howe e , lies
a li ing body.
T ac a ian Rep esen a ionalism
Rep esen a ion heo y (2.1–4.128) lays he g oundwo k o he philosophy o logic and
ma hema ics in he T ac a us and con ains ce ain elemen s o in e es he e:
• “We pic u e ac s o ou sel es” (2.1);
• The image, h ough i s logical o m, ep esen s he ac (Ta sache), meaning ha i connec s
i o ou unde s anding;
• The logical o m is he mos gene al ype o o m; i cons i u es he possibili y o s a es o
a ai s (Sach e hal en) in he logical space (2.18, 2.201, 2.202);
• The image (logical—2.182) ep esen s he wo ld o an aspec o he wo ld;
• The sense o he image (2.221) is ela ed o he u h o alsi y o he image (2.222, 2.223);
• An image is no ue a p io i (2.225) bu only in ela ion o eali y;
• F om (3), he no ion o “ hough ” a ises: “A logical pic u e o ac s is a hough ,” so ha
3.12 s a es ha he sign o hough is he p oposi ion (Sa zzeichen—p oposi ional sign);
hence, he heo y o he sign and p oposi ion is ela ed o hei use up o 3.5, ollowed by
a discussion on hinking (4), language, he ela ion be ween hem, and he possibili y o
ep esen ing eali y;
• The image is a si ua ion (Sachlage) in logical space, which ep esen s he exis ence and non-
exis ence o s a es o a ai s;
112
• Jus as he e a e simple elemen s o he wo ld (objec s), he e a e simple elemen s o he
image in co espondence wi h objec s, which eplica e he logical (no spa ial) ela ions
be ween hem;
• The connec ion be ween he elemen s o he image and he co esponding objec s
de e mines he s uc u e o he image (2.13, 2.131, 2.15);
• The possibili y o s uc u ing he elemen s o he image cons i u es i s o m o
ep esen a ion, which connec s he image o eali y (2.1511);
• The image ep esen s eali y because i s elemen s ep oduce, in hei s uc u e, a ce ain
s a e o a ai s; he ep esen a ional ela ion belongs o he image (2.1513);
• The image is a ac and, he e o e, pa o he wo ld (2.141). The “image ac ” sha es wi h
wha i ep esen s a logical o m;
• The image does no ep esen i s o m o ep esen a ion bu ins ead shows i (2.172)—a
de ining elemen o ep esen a ionalism. Tha is, ep esen a ion e mina es a he image
i sel ;
• The e o e, he image o he “ ac -image” occupies a di e en place in logical space han
he image as such.
Obse a ions
(a) The Non-Rep oducibili y o he Image
A doub could a ise om he ac ha an image is a ac , and hus, i could be conside ed a
sou ce o ano he image (since i belongs o eali y). Howe e , he image o his la e ac would
be an independen image, no an image o he image. I would occupy a di e en poin in logical
space han he i s ep esen a ion.
The e is no “image o he image”, jus as he e is no “ ac o a ac ” o “ hough o a
hough ”, as demons a ed by o he p oposi ions. The image as ac is no mean o be
ep esen ed again, jus as a play does no become a ac o a sc ip o a sc ip . Ins ead, he la e
is simply ano he sc ip o ano he ac .
An image o he image is nonsensical when i e e s o he same ac ep esen ed, hough i
is no p ohibi ed o he same ac o allow di e en images.
(b) The Economy o Logical Rep esen a ion
Two logical images o he same ac should be equi alen , ollowing he ep esen a ionalis
impe a i e ha he mos “economical” image (Occam’s azo ) p e ails. The essen ial
equi emen is ha any image mus be logical, meaning ha i mus sha e a logical o m wi h
he ep esen ed eali y. This gua an ees he economy o ep esen a ion.
The goal is o p e en an in ini e p oli e a ion o “an image o an image”, and so on. In
his sense—bu somewha indi ec ly—4.04 and 4.041 s a e ha a p oposi ion, as an image o
ac s, mus ha e he same numbe o pa s (o mul iplici y) as he s a e o a ai s i ep esen s:
“This ma hema ical mul iplici y, o cou se, canno i sel be he subjec o depic ion. One canno
ge away om i when depic ing.” (4.041)
Mo eo e , 3.14 s a es ha he p oposi ional sign ( he means by which hough is exp essed)
is i sel a ac . An analogy eme ges be ween image and p oposi ion (logically iden ical): jus as
he elemen s o an image ela e o each o he in a de e mined manne (2.15), he elemen s o
he p oposi ional sign— he wo ds—“s and in a de e mina e ela ion o one ano he ” (3.14).
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(c) The Coun e -Desc ip i e Na u e o he Pic u e
Ano he elemen o ep esen a ionalism is ha a pic u e canno desc ibe i s o m bu
ins ead shows i . The pic u e is no a desc ip ion o i s o m bu a he a mani es a ion. This
allows us o unde s and:
• On he one hand, ha ep esen a ion is dis inc om he ep esen a ional;
• On he o he , ha a ac may be ep esen ed wi h a ying deg ees o p oximi y o eali y,
depending on how he logical o m is inco po a ed.
Thus, we a e assu ed ha logical pic u es can ep esen he wo ld (2.19). Howe e , i can
be sugges ed ha senso y pic u es make ep esen a ion p oblema ic. In any case, he logic o
pic u es mus be a ionally g asped h ough ep esen a ion echniques:
• Logical ep esen a ion is in allible and se es as he c i e ion o o he ep esen a ions.
• Tha is, any pic u e is logical (2.182), meaning i ep esen s eali y and has no al e na i e.
(d) The Me aphysical Na u e o S a emen 2.182.
S a emen 2.182, which asse s ha “any pic u e is logical, bu no necessa ily spa ial”, is
me aphysical o he ollowing easons:
• I p esupposes ha any pic u e ca ies wi hin i a symbolic o concep ual logic, which
implies ha logical ep esen a ion p e-exis s he objec i sel , p io o any hough o
sensa ion. Fo Kan , his would co espond o pu e in ui ion o appe cep ion, which does
no belong o senso y pe cep ion.
• This could also sugges ha he sensible wo ld can be educed o he in elligible wo ld and
possesses an in ellec ual cha ac e , i.e., he (logical) pic u e ela es o p oposi ion and
nega ion in i s ela ion o he wo ld, whe eas space does no : “No e e y pic u e is spa ial”
(2.182), e en hough ma hema ical analysis, algeb a, and geome y ope a e in such a way
ha hey s uc u e he ma hema ical wo ld as Hilbe Space, Vec o Space, Phase Space,
e c.
This s a emen pe ains o Logical Space, a dimensionless, a p io i un olded space
con aining he ounda ion o signi icance o any possible logical uni e se (in analogy wi h he
ideali y o Ca esian o hogonal geome ic space, whe e concep s such as “logical place” and
“logical coo dina es” a e discussed).
The meaning o s a emen 2.182 is analogous o saying: “I is no necessa y o hese people
o speak o each o he ; hey unde s and each o he me ely by glances, in ui ing each o he 's
s a emen s, ques ions, and answe s.”
Be ween F ege and Russell
In he T ac a us, Wi gens ein makes bo h explici and implici e e ences o F ege’s and
Russell/Whi ehead’s heo ies o meaning. In some cases, he adop s hei concep s, while in
o he s, he discusses hem in his e ms. Al hough he main p oposi ions o he T ac a us (no only
hose deno ed by in ege s) exp ess his heo y, ce ain conside a ions in he sub-p oposi ions
appea ab up and adical, equi ing u he explana ion o he eade .
Wi gens ein some imes c i icizes F ege and Russell collec i ely, while a o he imes
add essing hem sepa a ely. Adop ing hei e minology does no imply ag eemen . When
Wi gens ein e e s o hem implici ly, i can gene ally be in e ed ha he has F ege in mind
when discussing hough , sign, sense, symbol, meaning, objec , and concep , whe eas he e e s
114
o Russell when discussing p oposi ional a oms, p oposi ional and unc ional meaning, ela ion,
iden i y, u h alues, and, o cou se, he heo y o ypes and he axioms o in ini y and
educibili y.
The common concep s o name, objec , ela ion, iden i y, equali y, sign, symbol, meaning,
and sense acqui e di e en oles in Wi gens einian ep esen a ionalism.
Wi gens ein adop s he concep o a p oposi ion as a unc ion o he names and
exp essions i con ains (3.318), as well as he idea o a concep ual no a ion mean o elimina e
he con usions and pa adoxes o o dina y language. The pa adoxes ha F ege and Russell
encoun e ed in hei ounda ional wo k on class heo y a ise om he misuse o gene al e ms
(objec , unc ion, numbe , e c.), which should be ep esen ed in a concep ual no a ion h ough
a iables a he han unc ions o classes, as hei p edecesso s had done (4.1272).
The es ablishmen o basic logical ope a ions is me ely a ma e o no a ion, e lec ing a
ce ain ma hema ical mul iplici y and ule, bu hey a e no undamen al in hemsel es (5.474,
5.475, 5.476).
Thus, i is impossible o in oduce bo h objec s belonging o a o mal concep and he
o mal concep i sel as p imi i e ideas. Fo example, i is impossible o in oduce bo h he
concep o a unc ion and speci ic unc ions, as Russell does, o he concep o numbe and
pa icula numbe s (4.12721).
Logic is a domain o a p io i hough , admi ing o ally gene alized o ms ha s and in
con as o gene alized o ms o an empi ical ype and o he heo y o ep esen a ion, whe e
names a e alloca ed o objec s (c . 5.526).
Wi gens ein ejec s ce ain key elemen s om P incipia Ma hema ica, including symbolism,
o malism, he logic o p edica es, he concep s o ela ion and iden i y, and he idea o logical
objec s and cons an s (5.32; 5.4).
Wi gens ein appea s o be c i ical o a ce ain s yle o heo izing in P incipia Ma hema ica,
whe e Russell and Whi ehead in oduce de ini ions and e en undamen al laws wi hou ully
unde s anding hei consequences o p o iding he necessa y jus i ica ions. As a esul , he
alidi y o such p inciples is ques ionable. Wi gens ein asse s ha logic does no equi e p oo ,
p ecisely because logic is a p io i, and, in ac , we canno hink illogically (5.4731).
A key elemen o Wi gens ein’s a gumen agains classical logic—and in an icipa ion o he
new ision o language in Philosophical In es iga ions—is he idea ha any p oposi ion has meaning,
p o ided ha he names i con ains ha e been assigned meaning. This s ands in con as o
F ege, o whom meaning is de e mined by he co ec composi ion o he p oposi ion.
Fo Wi gens ein, logic is a p io i and does no equi e laws o cons i u e i , bu a he a
p ocess o deciphe ing, o con o m o he inhe en logic o any s uc u ed language.
Wi gens ein c i icizes his p edecesso s o hei a i ude owa d logic, pa icula ly hei
endency o ea e idence as a ma k o simplici y. F om his pe spec i e, nei he modus ponens
no he ule o subs i u ion wo ks au oma ically, because hey use in hypo heses symbols ha will
appea in he conclusion. This is p oblema ic, especially when i comes o undamen al laws.
Ei he logic has a single undamen al law, o , i i has mul iple undamen al laws, hey can be
combined in o a single p inciple h ough logical conjunc ion. This inal o mula ion o he
logical p inciple may be highly complex, bu ha does no disquali y i as undamen al.
115
To illus a e he p imacy o logic, Wi gens ein o e s a me apho : “Logic is no a body o
doc ine, bu a mi o -image o he wo ld. Logic is anscenden al.” (6.13)
When analyzing Russell’s heo y o ypes and desc ip ions (which subsumes F ege’s heo y
o sense and e e ence), Wi gens ein sepa a es he meaning o a name o sen ence om he
way he name appea s in a p oposi ion.
The ules go e ning he signs o a p oposi ion (syn ax) should no e e o hei meaning
( hei u h alue ela i e o an objec in eali y). Wi gens ein hus dis inguishes he wo domains
o classical logic wi hou in eg a ing hem in o a mu ual ounda ion, he eby exposing Russell’s
e o in he heo y o ypes:
“I can be seen ha Russell mus be w ong, because he had o men ion he meaning o
signs when es ablishing he ules o hem.” (3.331)
“No p oposi ion can make a s a emen abou i sel , because a p oposi ional sign canno be
con ained in i sel ( ha is he whole o he Theo y o Types).” (3.332)
Classical logic pe mi s pa adoxes because i allows a p oposi ional unc ion o become i s
a gumen . Howe e , he same does no apply o logical ope a ions, which can become hei
a gumen s wi hou gene a ing con adic ions. This dis inc ion enables Wi gens ein o ad ance
a se ies o logical o ms, culmina ing in he gene aliza ion o he p oposi ional sign and he
disco e y o he gene al o m o numbe .
When F ege de ines he concep o a na u al numbe , he elies on an en i e s uc u e o
logical and ma hema ical no ions, including objec , meaning, e e ence, concep , class, p ope y,
p ope name, common name, iden i y, equali y, disce nibili y, and subs i u abili y.
F ege’s de ini ion o na u al numbe s is s uc u ed as ollows:
“The numbe o concep F is he ex ension o he concep equinume ic wi h he concep
F.”
“The numbe ha belongs o he concep F is he ex ension o he concep ‘equal o he
concep ’.” (F ege, 1950/1960, pa . 68)
The p ocess o de ining pa icula numbe s is connec ed o he possibili y o hese
ex ensions being iden ical o a anged in an o de ed s uc u e. Wi h his in place, F ege de ines
na u al numbe s:
“0 is he numbe ha belongs o he concep ‘non-iden ical wi h i sel ’.” (F ege, 1950/1960,
pa . 74)
The concep o “non-iden ical wi h i sel ” does no co espond o any objec . F ege a gues
ha no objec alls unde a concep ha con ains a logical con adic ion. I “a” alls unde he
concep o “non-iden ical wi h i sel ”, hen “a” is no iden ical o “a”, which de ines he numbe
0.
F ege hen de ines he successo unc ion, om which he numbe “1” and, consequen ly,
he sequence o na u al numbe s is de i ed.
In P incipia Ma hema ica, he ca dinal numbe “1” is de ined as “ he class o all uni a y
classes” (Russell & Whi ehead, 1925-27/1968, (I), p. 363). The de ini ion o numbe hus equi es
se heo y supplemen ed wi h he heo y o ypes, o a oid seman ic pa adoxes.
Wi gens ein’s c i ique o Russell un olds in h ee dimensions:
1. The heo y o ypes and he axiom o educibili y a e unnecessa y.
2. The heo y o ypes s ill gene a es pa adoxes.

116
3. Wi gens ein de elops his o malism o gene al o ms ( ela ion, ope a ion, p oposi ion,
logical unc ion), allowing him o de ine, in a logicis manne , his concep s o unc ion and
na u al numbe .
In e p e a ion o Meaning in P incipia and Reac ion om he T ac a us
Russell in oduces he concep o meaning in he con ex o discussing p oposi ional
unc ions, which mus a oid icious ci cles h ough an app op ia e de ini ion. The concep o
a unc ion is well de ined when i s alues a e well de ined, meaning ha hey do no e e o he
unc ion i sel — hus a oiding icious ci cles and he eme gence o pa adoxes.
The concep o a unc ion i sel emains ambiguous. As Russell s a es, a unc ion
ambiguously deno es he o ali y o i s alues, and hose ha do no e e o he unc ion i sel
cons i u e he allowed alues o he unc ion (Russell & Whi ehead, 1925-27/1968, (I), p. 38).
Russell in oduces wo no a ions, ∅(x) which deno es he inde e mina e alue o he
unc ion, o he unc ion in gene al and ∅(𝑥), he unc ion as such, i.e., he conc e e alues o
he unc ion; he e ∅(𝑥) ambiguously signi ies i s inde ini e alue ∅(x).
Thus ∅(𝑥) ambiguously signi ies he ∅x, and ∅(x) is ambiguously deno ed by ∅(𝑥).
Russell also e e s o he a gumen s “x” o which ∅(𝑥) has alue, he possible alues o
“x”. I can be said ha : (x) ∅(x) assumes ∅(x) and (Ex) ∅(x) assumes ∅(𝑥).
I is he e o e no able ha he conc e e alues o he unc ion, ∅(𝑥) play an o e lapping
ole in he p ocess o meaning: on he one hand ∅(𝑥) ambiguously signi ies ∅(x), on he o he
hand, i signi ies he a gumen “x” i i admi s alues o he espec i e a gumen s. (c . Ibid.)
Howe e , Russell does no s op he e. He u he a gues ha ∅(𝑥) does no ha e o exp ess
a p oposi ion, as i is no signi ying—meaning ha i does no exp ess any hing. This is because
i s alues a e all p oposi ions o he o m ∅(x), and his p e en s he eme gence o a icious
ci cle.
Fo hese easons, he ypes o u h ha belong o a p oposi ion may di e om hose o
a pa icula p oposi ion.
Conside he ollowing s a emen s: “x is a p oposi ion” (1) and “x is a p oposi ional
unc ion” (2);
S a emen (1) is an ambiguous s a emen abou he alues o he p oposi ional unc ion
(whe e he ambigui y pe ains o he mode o deno a ion), while s a emen (2) is a s a emen
abou an ambigui y (since he unc ion i sel is ambiguous). Thus, he p oposi ion is ue
ega dless o he alue o “x”, and i ambiguously deno es he alues o “x”.
To a oid he icious ci cle ∅(𝑥) whose alues a e p oposi ions o he o m ∅(x), mus no
exp ess a p oposi ion. I is no signi ying, meaning ha i does no exp ess any hing. In his way,
he ype o alsi y ha can be a ibu ed o a gene al p oposi ion di e s om ha which can be
assigned o a pa icula p oposi ion.
Th ough his ex emely ingenious app oach, Russell de elops his heo y o “a- unc ions”,
which a e di ided in o ypes. The heo y o ypes equi es he in oduc ion o he axiom o
educibili y, as well as o he echniques and concep s—which he la e abandons in he second
edi ion o P incipia Ma hema ica (pa ly due o Wi gens ein’s in luence, as Wi gens ein conside s
hem pseudo-concep s).
117
Howe e , he Aus ian philosophe does no need o ollow he en i e s uc u e o P incipia
Ma hema ica, because, in his iew, his en i e sca olding can be cu o a he oo . None heless,
his equi es a p elimina y ag eemen in p inciple. Rega ding he gene al issue o he meaning
o language and philosophy, Wi gens ein adop s he c i ical and analy ical s ance o his
p edecesso s and c edi s Russell wi h good in en ions:
All philosophy is a “c i ique o language”. I was Russell who pe o med he se ice o
showing ha he appa en logical o m o a p oposi ion need no be i s eal one. (4.0031)
Howe e , he way in which Russell o mula es his p og am o elimina ing misleading
appea ances leads Wi gens ein o pu sue his pa h, a he han ollowing Russell. Fo
Wi gens ein, Russell’s p oblems and heo ies a e meaningless i hey can be a oided al oge he .
A i s eac ion in he T ac a us agains con using aspec s o he heo y o meaning appea s
in 3.325, whe e Wi gens ein asse s ha wi hin logical syn ax: a sign canno be used o di e en
symbols, no can i symbolize di e en ly. This is p ecisely wha F ege and Russell a emp o
p e en in hei concep ual no a ion, bu which hey ail o elimina e en i ely.
The esul o subo dina ing he unique meaning o he sign, syn ax o ules in he logical-
linguis ic sys em will lead o he elimina ion o meaning om he syn ax. As a i s s age
Wi gens ein elimina es he meaning om he logical syn ax, because he sign has meaning by
i sel , i.e., by i s use. A sign is uniquely de e mined by i s meaning, which occu s na u ally,
h ough use, o e en con en ionally. A sign canno ha e wo meanings, no can wo signs
signi y he same hing. The ules o a sys em o signs cons i u e he logical syn ax in which each
sign al eady has i s meaning subo dina ed o he syn ax; i no longe has o play an addi ional
ole in logical syn ax. (c . 3.33). The e is no supe posi ion be ween he sign, i s ole in syn ax
and syn ax as such. This is an a ibu e o Wi gens ein’s ep esen a ionalism. The idea o he
uniqueness o each objec (logical, when iewed logically, no spa io- empo ally, o example,
o linguis ic objec —name, exp ession, p oposi ion, p oposi ional unc ion) is al eady an
es ablished ac and is epea ed o ein o ced in (5.53), which will a oid he unjus i ied
mul iplica ion o Russellian ypes.
Iden i y o objec I exp ess by iden i y o sign, and no by using a sign o iden i y.
Di e ence o objec s I exp ess by di e ence o signs (5.53).
The p oblem is no ha we mus ha e a unique sign o each objec , bu ha each objec
mus be analyzed o be ep esen ed. Since objec s a e in ini e in numbe , i is ine i able ha
di e en objec s in language may ha e he same sign, o ha he same sign may s and o
di e en meanings.
Fo he classi ica ion o objec s and he a oidance o pa adoxes he e a e needed ei he
classes, se s, ype heo y, as F ege and Russell do, o de ini ions and in ensional o ms, which
Wi gens ein does. His solu ion is o iden i y objec s, in gene al, h ough hei in e nal logical
s uc u e and using hei o malism, as will see in a momen .
The Ques ion o Iden i y in
P incipia
and
T ac a us
and he Elimina ion o he Equal
Sign
The p oblem o meaning en ails he p oblem o iden i y, along wi h i s associa ed o mal
symbolism. In 5.53, Wi gens ein add esses he issue o iden i y wi hin o mal sign language.
118
He s a es ha “iden i y is no a ela ion be ween objec s” (5.5301) and p o ides he
ollowing sen ence as an example: “(x): x. ⊃. x = a”. Wha his p oposi ion says is simply ha
only a sa is ies he unc ion , and no ha only hings ha ha e a ce ain ela ion o a sa is y
he unc ion . (5.5301)
Tha is, “a” has he quali y o sa is ying “ ”, wi hou being in ela ion o he a iable “x”,
o he a iable “x” iden i ies wi h “a” when i is he a gumen o “ ”, bu i is no in ela ion o
“a”.
Wha is sough o be a oided he e is he p oli e a ion o he meaning o “x”, as he a iable
o he p edica e ( , x) and as he objec a iable (x, a). Bu iden i y is no a ela ion o en i ies,
because “x” is only “x”, (c . 5.53).
I add ha hese “x” may appea as a gumen s in o he unc ions “g” o example wi hou
he dange o he icious ci cle appea ing, when he unc ion “ ” is he a gumen o “g”, such
as o example “g ( , x) = b”.
To a oid icious ci cles, Russell in oduces limi a ions o ensu e ha unc ions do no e e
o all hei alues. Howe e , when de ining he equali y o wo unc ions o wo se s, we mus
conside he coincidence o all hei alues. To main ain he gene ali y o he de ini ion o
iden i y and p e en undesi able si ua ions, Russell de elops he Theo y o Types, suppo ed by
he Axiom o In ini y. In summa y, Russell does he ollowing:
The de ini ion o iden i y “x = y” implies “∅(x) ⊃∅(y)”, wha e e he unc ion ∅ a iable;
he unc ion shows ha any hing ue abou “x” is ue o “y” oo. Being a unc ion o ∅ i
mus be limi ed so ha i does no e e o all he alues o ∅. In his hypo hesis, i i is
conside ed ha “x = a” is a alue o ∅ om he abo e o mula, hen “x equals a” implies “y
equal o a” so “x equals y”. A he same ime, we ha e “x equal o a” and “x equal o y” ( om
“∅(x) ⊃∅(y)”), hen “y = a”. So “∅(x) ⊃∅(y)” which is a alue o Fix, icious ci cle. In his
hypo hesis, i i is conside ed ha “x = a” is a alue o ∅ om he abo e o mula, hen “x equals
a” implies “y equal o a” so “x equals y”. A he same ime, we ha e “x equal o a” and “x equal
o y” ( om “∅(x) ⊃∅(y)”), hen “y = a”. So “∅(x) ⊃∅(y)” which is a alue o ∅(x), icious ci cle.
O he limi a ions a e imposed o ∅, Russell says, bu o he limi a ions imposed on ∅ could
lead o he ∅(x) being ue and ∅(y) alse so ∅(x) no longe in ol es ∅(y), which would mean
ha he iden i y be ween “x” and “y” is no longe eached.
To sa e he de ini ion o iden i y, Russell will in oduce he heo y o ypes and he axiom
o educibili y. In his endea o he will use he equal sign, “=” in he cons uc ion and
pa i ioning o ypes, which is an abuse, in Wi gens ein’s opinion.
Wi gens ein’s eac ion appea s a 5.5302 whe e he s a es:
Russell’s de ini ion o “=” is inadequa e, because acco ding o i we canno say ha wo
objec s ha e all hei p ope ies in common. E en i his p oposi ion is ne e co ec , i s ill has
sense. Wi h he co olla y, oughly speaking, o say ha wo hings a e iden ical is nonsense, and
o say ha one hing is iden ical wi h i sel is o say no hing a all. (5.5303)
This is he momen when Wi gens ein demons a es how o emo e he sign o equali y
om concep ual w i ing. To his end, he in oduces al e na i e no a ions in concep ual w i ing.
I w i e ha no “ (a,b) . a = b” bu “ (a,a)” (o “ (b,b)”). And no “ (a,b) . . ⁓a = b”, bu
“ (a,b)”. (5.531)
119
So when Wi gens ein w i es a unc ion wi h he a gumen s “a” and “b”, “b” ep esen s “⁓
a”, and, unde s andably, in a unc ion wi h h ee a gumen s “ (a, b, c)”, “c is .⁓ a. ∧ . ⁓ b”,
con i med by he gene al o m o he unc ion o u h o he gene alized p oposi ional sign
“[𝑝, 𝜉,𝑁(𝜉 )]” (Wi gens ein, 1969).
Also, when “ ”, “g”, “h” ep esen p oposi ional unc ions as a gumen s o he ope a ion
“Ω”, which can be applied o hem, hen “Ω( , g, h)” is “Ω(Ω( ,g), h)”, w i ing ha leads o he
de ini ion o he na u al numbe acco ding o he occu ences o he ope a ion “Ω”.
I seems na u al ha unc ions, mo e p ecisely logical ope a ions, should be composed in
pai s using he logical ope a ion “Ω”, which leads o he idea o de eloping he one-dimensional
logical space o u h unc ions i s a he wo-dimensional le el, esul ing in a “ wo-
dimensional logic”, and hen ex ending his p ocess o an n-dimensional “logic uni e se”
(G igo iu, 2019).
Because you canno use di e en symbols o he same objec , “ (a,b)” wi h “a = b” in
Russell’s w i ing becomes a Wi gens ein ei he “ (a,a)”, o “ (b,b)” (c . 5.531).
Table 1. Same mo i a ion o p edica e o mulas a 5.532
Russell’s w i ing
Wi gens ein’s w i ing
a. P edica es wi h equal a iables
‘(∃x, y). (x, y) . x = y’
‘(∃x). (x, x)’
b. P edica es wi h opposi e a iables
‘(∃x, y). (x, y) . ⁓x = y’
‘(∃x, y). (x, y)’
c. P edica es wi h dis inc a iables
‘(∃x, y). (x, y)’
‘(∃x, y). (x, y) .V. (∃x). (x, x)’
a. Because equali y is no a ela ion be ween he ex ensions o objec s, Wi gens ein
p oposes a no a ion ha explici ly deno es iden i y. Mo e p ecisely, iden i y is a ela ion in which
he ex ensional appea ance o he ex e nal coincidence o wo objec s ans o ms in o an
in e nal ela ion o in insic p ope ies—i.e., i belongs o he in e nal s uc u e o objec s, which
is o mally de e mined by he p edica e. The undamen al s uc u e o objec s is logical and
in e nal, and i is de e mina i e o each logical objec .
b. In conjunc ion wi h 5.53, in a p edica e wi h wo a iables, i he i s is “x”, he second,
“y”, designa es “⁓x”.
c. To exp ess a p edica e unc ion o wo a iables, Russell’s no a ion allows o he
possibili y ha one a iable e e s o o iden i ies wi h he o he —a case ha Wi gens ein
explici ly add esses (simila o he p ocess desc ibed in he i s poin ).
In he las ph ase “y” designa es “⁓x”, he disjunc ion (“x. V. ⁓x”) does no change he
u h alue o he p edica e unc ion, being a au ology.
Elimina ion o he Uni e sal Quan i ie
A ypical inno a ion occu s in 5.5321, whe e one can obse e he in e ac ion be ween
uni e sal and exis en ial quan i ie s in he con ex o nega ion. Wi gens ein elimina es he
uni e sal quan i ie o e he a iable “x” by in oducing ano he a iable, “y”, which designa es,
as we ha e seen, “⁓x”, and he eby inc eases he o de o he p edica e “ ”.
In sho , “(x)” is eplaced by “∃x” and “⁓(∃x, y)”, whe e “y” s ands o “⁓x”.
Table 1. Same mo i a ion o p edica e o mulas a 5.5321:
126
combining he ou concep s in o a single whole, we ge a new seman ic hema iza ion o he
p oblem ha equi es a ho ough discussion.
Con e sa ions abou digi aliza ion a e aking place e e ywhe e— om home con e sa ions
o he media and scien i ic o ums. The e a e legends abou he success o neu al ne wo ks in
gene al. Neu al ne wo ks co e a wide a ie y o ields o ac i i y: pa e n ecogni ion, noisy
da a p ocessing, image augmen a ion, associa i e sea ch, classi ica ion, op imiza ion, p edic ion,
diagnos ics, signal p ocessing, abs ac ion, p ocess managemen , da a segmen a ion,
in o ma ion comp ession, complex mappings, modeling o complex p ocesses, machine ision,
speech ecogni ion. Many people ha e p obably hea d ha neu al ne wo ks a e al eady w i ing
e m pape s and heses, c ea ing a is ic and scien i ic ex s, and in he s yle o ha o he w i e ,
hinke . The ne wo ks a e used by p ies s o c ea e se mon ex s, which hey hen deli e o
pa ishione s. And belie e s eally like i . In a ce ain way, con igu ed ne wo ks can pa icipa e
in ideological sabo age, in oducing a wide a ie y o alues in o people’s minds— om classical
o he mos adical and uncon en ional. The e o e, he issue o human secu i y in mode n
condi ions is qui e ele an .
Ma e ials and Me hods
In he p ocess o wo king on he p oblem o digi aliza ion, a ious publica ions we e
analyzed and a ious me hods we e used. Among hem a e he ex ual analysis o p ima y
sou ces and mode n a icles, he compa a i e me hod, me hods o sys em analysis and analogy,
logical and his o ical me hods, he combina ion o abs ac and conc e e app oaches. The main
a en ion is paid o he logical side o he p oblem in compa ison wi h he his o ical one.
Resul s
So, wha is secu i y? Al eady a he le el o e e yday ideas, i is associa ed wi h p o ec ion
om in e nal and ex e nal h ea s. Secu i y is secu i y, and he mo e in ense he h ea , he mo e
eliable he secu i y should be. Secu i y is unc ionally implemen ed in he p o ec ion p ocess.
Who is he subjec o p o ec ion, in o he wo ds, who p o ec s? The subjec o p o ec ion can
be an indi idual, a g oup, a collec i e, and he s a e and socie y can ac as a limi . Wha o who
becomes he objec o p o ec ion, wha and whom ha e o be p o ec ed? Fi s o all, i is
necessa y o p o ec he li e, heal h, in e es s, ideals, eedoms, and alues o indi iduals. Qui e
a lo o objec s ha e o be p o ec ed in socie y, and hei lis u ns ou o be e y mobile. The
sou ces and g ounds o i s exis ence and unc ioning, esou ces: na u al, economic, ood, social,
poli ical, na ional, spi i ual, educa ional, demog aphic and o he s a e subjec o p o ec ion in
socie y. Since he subjec s o public ela ions a e people, he secu i y sys em should be buil wi h
special ca e in a s a egic plan in ol ing bo h an h opological and social elemen s.
Secu i y is achie ed h ough a se o ac ions aimed a neu alizing a ious h ea s.
The e o e, a sa e y measu e is a measu e o he sys em’s immuni y o ex e nal and in e nal
in luences. These impac s can be o wo di ec ions: cons uc i e and des uc i e. Cons uc i e
ones a e aimed a inc easing he s abili y o he sys em, des uc i e ones a e aimed a des oying
he s able exis ence o he sys em, a dumping i in o a s a e o chaos. Secu i y is he p o ision
o a s able (s able and holis ic) exis ence and unc ioning o he sys em, he e o e, cons uc i e
in luences wo k o inc ease secu i y.

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The p ima y line o p o ec ion, and he e o e o secu i y, uns along he bo de o he s a e
and is aimed a p ese ing i s e i o ial in eg i y. Bu his is no enough o in eg al secu i y. In
Russia, he doc ines o economic, ood, demog aphic, educa ional, scien i ic and o he ypes
o secu i y a e being wo ked ou , which is ex emely impo an o p ese ing he in eg i y and
sel -su iciency o he coun y. In he mode n wo ld, he p oblem o secu i y is shi ing in o he
concep ual and seman ic sphe e: om he p o ec ion o ma e ial esou ces (economic, ood,
ene gy, uel, human, e c.) o he p o ec ion o knowledge, scien i ic in o ma ion, undamen al
spi i ual and seman ic componen s ha p ese e he deep memo y o he people, na ion, e hnos.
Cu en ly, in o ma ion wa s a e gi ing way o concessional wa s aimed a des oying he
psychology, consciousness, and soul o he people – hese deep ca ie s o he iden i y o he
subjec s o he his o ical p ocess. The F ench psychologis G. Lebon a gued ha he people
“can lose a lo , unde go all kinds o disas e s and s ill be able o ise. Bu e e y hing is los o
hem, and he will ne e ise again i he has los his soul.” (Lebon, 1995, p. 47).
Digi aliza ion, he Digi al En i onmen and he Digi al Wo ld
Cu en ly, he e is a lo o w i ing abou digi aliza ion. A he same ime, dozens and e en
hund eds o concep s wi h he adjec i e “digi al” and wi h he noun “digi aliza ion” a e used:
he digi al e a, he digi al e olu ion, digi al money, digi al cul u e, digi al educa ion, digi al
an h opology, digi al humani ies, e c. They a e used in e e yday li e, in poli ical he o ic, and
“pa icipa e in s a e p o ec ion s a egies” (Sokolo , 2020, p. 12). This opic is ashionable, so,
w i es one o he au ho s, in hese condi ions, he appea ance o all kinds o nonsense and
absu di ies canno be a oided. He easonably w i es ha e e y hing claimed “in he he o ical
a senal o digi aliza ion/in o ma iza ion is ic ion... These a e emp y wo ds, ascina ing and
emp ing i esponsibili y…” (Sokolo , 2020, p. 27). Bu he also emphasizes ha o ega d “ his
simply as s upidi y, ashion, madness… would be a mis ake, because… he e is “some hing o
alk abou ”… a numbe o p oblems a ise he e ha a e insoluble… wi hin hei “digi al-
in o ma ion discu si i y”, bu a e loca ed beyond i ” (Sokolo , 2020, p. 28). The p oblem is ha
he e m “digi aliza ion” is used in wo senses—na ow and b oad. In a na ow sense, his is a
ansi ion om an analog o m o in o ma ion ansmission o a digi al one, in a b oad sense i
“co e s p oduc ion, business, science, he social sphe e and he o dina y li e o ci izens; i s
esul s a e used no only by specialis s, bu also by o dina y ci izens.” (Khalin & Che no a, 2018,
p. 47)
All his indica es ha a new digi al en i onmen is being o med in he li e o mode n man
and socie y, in o which all sphe es o li e a e g adually imme sed— om indus ial o in ima e.
Bu i is e y di icul o ind a gene ally accep ed concep o he digi al en i onmen in he
scien i ic li e a u e. Some sou ces indica e ha he digi al en i onmen includes all he a ie y
o in o ma ion echnologies and cybe space and has an in as uc u e ( ele-communica ion and
In e ne lines, compu ing complexes o a ious dimensions, compu ing con ol embedded
blocks), s uc u e (ne wo k so wa e p o ocols, p og ams and so wa e pla o ms, so wa e
in e aces (in e aces o websi es, blogs, po als)) and ul as uc u e (public ne wo k esou ces
such as websi es, blogs, po als, social ne wo ks, p o ec ed esou ces o go e nmen and
co po a e a ilia ion, public esou ces wi h paid con en ). They alk abou such impo an ends
in he digi al en i onmen as a sha p inc ease in he olume o in o ma ion (in o ma ion
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explosion) and he o ma ion o he In e ne o Things—a a ie y o echnological, indus ial,
in as uc u al de ices, de ices, de ices wi h con ol uni s, in o ma ion ansmission and
managemen connec ed o he In e ne .
The In e ne is me apho ically called he wo ld Wide Web, con aining huge amoun s o
in o ma ion, he digi al en i onmen is a habi a , a new eali y is eme ging ha has no ye been
ealized. To unde s and he digi al en i onmen , a biological me apho is some imes used— he
in o ma ion componen o a i icial biogenocenosis, which helps o assimila e ene gy and ma e
in his biogenocenosis. Bu in o ma ion, unlike ma e and ene gy, is no consumed, bu
mul iplies, and in a digi al en i onmen he e may be bo h ue in o ma ion alues and alse
ones, which signi ican ly con uses he unde s anding o li e p ocesses in such an en i onmen .
Acco ding o some esea che s, he digi al en i onmen should be based on he scien i ic
jus i ica ion o hose unc ions o socie y as a sys em ha suppo i s s able exis ence and
de elopmen . Howe e , in mode n condi ions, he c ea ion o a digi al en i onmen akes place
unde he ull con ol o a small pa o socie y, h ough scien i ic ci cles ha a e associa ed wi h
co po a ions aimed a es ablishing wo ld domina ion. This is exp essed in he desi e o
edis ibu e he managemen o he lows o no only ma e and ene gy, bu also in o ma ion
in he in e es s o his mino i y. I is no by chance ha he exp ession a ose: “Who owns
in o ma ion owns he wo ld.” Meanwhile, he digi al en i onmen should s imula e he
de elopmen o socie y as a whole, and no exclusi ely he owne s o esou ces, including
in o ma ion.
Along wi h he concep o he digi al en i onmen , he concep o he digi al wo ld is used,
which akes in o i sel in a gene alized o m e e y hing ha a pe son encoun e s, ans o ming
mode n exis ence on an in o ma ion basis. The concep o he digi al wo ld ca ies he g ea es
ideological load, because i is h ough unde s anding he digi al wo ld, i s ea u es, elemen s,
dynamics ha a pe son's li e posi ion is o med, alue a i udes, belie s a e o med, om which
his ac ions g ow and his a e de elops.
A Pe son in a Digi al En i onmen
Digi aliza ion is in ull swing. I is associa ed wi h he p ospec s o economic de elopmen ,
he wo k o inance, adminis a i e managemen , and he coun y’s de ense capabili y. I
in ensely in ades he ields o educa ion and heal hca e. Nowadays, wi hou i , he exis ence o
a pe son in eg a ed in o in o ma ion lows becomes impossible. Bu in addi ion o he posi i e
impac on human li e, i also con ains nega i e elemen s, and some esea che s e en alk abou
an an h opological ca as ophe. Thus, digi aliza ion b ings no only bene i s, bu also leads o
he eme gence o such nega i e phenomena as he deg ada ion o na u al in elligence, he sp ead
o clip hinking, he g ow h o in ellec ual and men al dependence o people on compu e
de ices, blu ing he bounda ies be ween he eal and i ual wo ld, and a dec ease in he quali y
o educa ion.
Fo example, oday he e is no need o s o e a ious in o ma ion in you memo y (phone
numbe s, add esses, da es o amily holidays, no ebooks ha e los hei ele ance: all his can be
en e ed in o a no ebook in you phone. A he same ime, many esea che s belie e, no wi hou
eason, ha his will lead o an a ophy o he in ellec ual abili ies o he majo i y o socie y.
They a e al eady alking abou he eme gence o a disease called “digi al demen ia”, as people
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g adually lose he abili y o eason. In pa icula , s uden s and schoolchild en, when accessing
he In e ne o almos any ques ion, ecei e eady-made answe s con ained on di e en si es,
as a esul o which he hinking p ocess is g adually eplaced by he consump ion o eady-
made in o ma ion.
The i s gene a ion has al eady g own up, o whom he e a e no p oblems wi h mas e ing
digi al echnology. Howe e , he e a e new de ices wi h highe pe o mance and speed o
ansmission o in o ma ion lows. The e o e, he acqui ed knowledge o his gene a ion
equi es cons an upda ing o in o ma ion and new ways o ob aining i , bu again wi hou much
hough . As a esul , a “clip-on way o hinking” de elops, which is exp essed in he “inabili y
o a pe son o hold a hough ”.
The condi ions o human exis ence a e adically changing, leading o he b eakdown o his
li es yle. One o he p oblems is ela ed o a pe son’s iden i y. Iden i y is no a psychological
ca ego y, as i is widely ep esen ed in he li e a u e, bu a deeply me aphysical one, exp essing
his sel (I am mysel ). The Russian philosophe B. P. Vyshesla se calls i mys ical: “The sel is
he las and highes … mys ical s age in he human being. Fo science, o a ional hinking, i is
una ainable and unp o able. The sel is me aphysical and me apsychic. Only Re ela ion and
mys ical in ui ion poin o his ul ima e dep h. In p ac ical li e, in he knowledge o he wo ld,
e en in he c ea i e wo k o cul u e, i can emain comple ely unno iced.” (Vyshesla se , 1994,
p. 285) Howe e , he digi aliza ion o memo y as a kind o s o age o he sel allows i o be
adjus ed and e en e o ma ed. Human ac ions in ne wo ks lea e digi al aces accessible o
ex e nal au ho i ies ha con ol in o ma ion lows, he e o e, o ex e nal in luences. The
objec i ied memo y in in o ma ion ne wo ks becomes he p ope y o o he people who can
use i wi hou you knowledge and manipula e you iden i y. As a esul , a pe son ceases o be
he mas e o in o ma ion abou himsel , losing he main essen ial co e o his being— he sel .
Being in he Digi al Wo ld
In he con ex o digi aliza ion, in o ma ion ela ions be ween people a e symbolic, hey
u n ou o be di icul o pe cei e sensually. The e o e, he s eng hening o he ole o he
sphe e o sensuali y becomes a kind o compensa ion o supe sensible symbolic and seman ic
ela ions. The law o inc easing needs in he classical capi alis wo ld is being eplaced by he
pu sui o emo ions, imp essions, and he law o inc easing emo ions is being o med, acco ding
o which, in o de o keep a pe son in he igh emo ional one, he cons an ly needs he addi ion
o new emo ions, which should become s onge and s onge . The closes indica o o a
pe son’s exis ence is his sensuali y, his psycho-emo ional s a es. Compa e he Ca esian one: I
hink, he e o e I exis wi h he cu en one: I eel, he e o e I exis . The meaning o exis ence
is shi ing in o he ealm o sensuali y. Cinema og aphy, using he la es compu e echnologies,
allows you o accele a e senso y-imagina i e pe cep ion o inc edible limi s, o p oduce mo e
and mo e new emo ions: om an ad e isemen on Russian TV o ano he ilm “Disco e ing
new expe iences”. Thei ole in human and social li e is d ama ically inc easing. The e is an
ou bu s o emo ional cha ges, emo ional exci emen some imes eaches he poin o losing
con ol o e hem. An indus y is de eloping in he wo ld aimed a p oducing imp essions,
ading hem, and people a e chasing new imp essions, new h ills, eady o pay a lo o money
o hem. Due o he sha p inc ease in emo ions in he li e o socie y, he e is a dange o losing
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con ol o e hem on a la ge scale, and uncon olled ex eme emo ional a ousal u ns in o one
o he des uc i e ac o s o s able social exis ence. A one ime, Feue bach ied o build an
unde s anding o man and socie y on he basis o sensuali y o which he was c i icized by Ma x.
Wha is he p oblem he e? In he p ocesses o digi aliza ion, he e is a desi e o comple ely
ep og am he de elopmen o man and humani y, o subo dina e i o he mos powe ul,
in luen ial eli es, as K. Schwab, he ideologis o he Wo ld Economic Fo um, openly w i es. In
he new wo ld, acco ding o his s a emen , people will ha e no p ope y, bu hey will be happy.
In he p ocess o e o ma ing he wo ld wi h he help o In e ne echnologies, i is assumed
ha he sp ead and implan a ion o he bases ins inc s and human ai s, manipula ion o
consciousness, e c. The ounde and i s p esiden o he Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion, D. B.
Chisholm, w i es blun ly: “To come o a wo ld go e nmen (i.e., o es ablish domina ion o e
he wo ld), i is necessa y o expel om people’s consciousness hei indi iduali y, a achmen
o amily adi ions, na ional pa io ism and eligious dogmas… The des uc ion o he concep s
o u h and alsehood, which a e he basis o a child’s upb inging, he eplacemen o ai h in
he expe ience o elde s wi h a ional hinking— hese a e bela ed goals… needed o change
human beha io .” (Ilni sky, 2021, p. 29)
All his means he eme gence o a new ype o wa s, wi h he help o which he wo ld is
being e o ma ed. They a e called in di e en ways: in o ma ional, cogni i e, concep ual,
men al, e olu iona y, e c. Appa en ly, hese wa s should be classi ied, and species di e ences
should be iden i ied among hem, since each such name ca ies sligh ly di e en signs. And
he e, as i u ns ou , he mos ulne able link in human na u e, h ough which one can mos
e ec i ely in luence his na u e, is p ecisely he senso y sphe e, h ough which he in luence on
he ways o human pe cep ion o he wo ld is pe o med.
The mos dange ous consequence o digi aliza ion a he le el o he un olding o such
wa s is he eme gence o he possibili y o pu pose ul (a i icial) con ol o human e olu ion
h ough he imposi ion and dissemina ion o unna u al alues and needs h ough he In e ne ,
p opaganda and mo i a ion o base ins inc s and p imi i iza ion, subs i u ion o cul u al alues,
manipula ion o consciousness, widesp ead lies, disin o ma ion, hypoc isy, he en enchmen o
double s anda ds, e c. The dange is ha i is impossible o e e se he cou se o e olu ion by
in e ening in i , and i is e en mo e di icul o o esee no only he long- e m, bu also he
immedia e consequences. Mo eo e , hey will no appea immedia ely, bu a e one o wo
gene a ions, when i will be simply impossible o do any hing. The main weapon in his ype o
wa is he Wo ldwide Ne wo k. The e o e, whoe e owns i and ills i wi h con en has a
s a egic ad an age. Un o una ely, i should be no ed ha in his case he ad an age is no ou s
and ou abili y o epel e olu iona y a acks is s ill ex emely limi ed.
New wa s and secu i y. In a classic wa , o win, you need o de ea he enemy and cap u e
his e i o y. Now i ’s no necessa y. I is possible o des oy he s a e, des oy he coun y by
changing he iden i y, wo ld iew, goals, alues and p io i ies o socie y. The e olu iona y and
men al wa a e associa ed wi h i a e aimed a changing he wo ld iew. The wo ld iew includes
knowledge, alues, belie s, will, and ac ions. In his ega d, i e e sible changes in he wo ld iew
can be pd o med o each o hese elemen s, as well as comp ehensi ely— o all a he same
ime.
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The ans o ma ion o knowledge leads o a adical change in he educa ion sys em. And,
he e o e, a change in he concen a ion and ways o b oadcas ing social expe ience om
gene a ion o gene a ion. The ans o ma ion o alues means he in oduc ion o new,
al e na i e o adi ional alues in o people’s consciousness. The ans o ma ion o belie s is
hei e o ma ing. Olde people emembe ha a lo o a en ion was paid o he o ma ion o
communis belie s in he USSR. The p oblem was pa icula ly discussed: is i possible o change
one's belie s, and i so, unde wha condi ions. In gene al, he logical o m o pe suasion can be
exp essed as ollows: “Someone S accep s a a gi en ime 1 e en (phenomenon) P.” The
ans o ma ion o a belie o he same subjec S, bu a a di e en poin in ime 2, should gi e
a di e en esul : subjec S does no accep he e en P. The ans o ma ion o he will is ound
p ima ily in i s neu aliza ion, a change in he di ec ion o ac ion: i a ce ain subjec , e.g., a
poli ician, was de e mined o ake an e ec i e and e ec i e ac ion (s ep), hen a e in luencing
him unde changed ci cums ances, he enounces his ac ion and akes s eps accep able o his
poli ical opponen s. How o en do he highes ci cles o powe lack poli ical will! The
ans o ma ion o ac ions is, i s o all, he legi imiza ion o pe missi eness. As a esul , we ge
a pe son wi hou in e nal es ain s, unb idled, men ally unbalanced, e c. Mo eo e , hese
ans o ma ions can be pe o med o many yea s almos a he molecula gene ic le el.
In gene al, in o ma ion and psycho-emo ional componen s a e dis inguished in such wa s.
The in o ma ion componen is he e o mula ion o he in o ma ion ield, he ield o
knowledge, ac s and in o ma ion. E e y hing is subjec o de o ma ion— om news o a ious
da a, om s udy p og ams in highe educa ion ins i u ions and schools o ele ision p og ams
and a ailable a chi al da a. A special ole he e is assigned o he ac ual basis o in o ma ion,
and in he p esen e a he unde s anding o he ac is adically changing. I in he b oad e e yday
consciousness, no o men ion he consciousness o a scien is , a poli ician, a ac was associa ed
wi h he eliabili y, he u h o he ep esen a ion o e en s, hence he me hodological
equi emen o elying on ac s a ises, hen now hey a e alking abou ac s-simulac a, akes,
he phenomenon o “pos - u h”, a special ac -checking p ocedu e— ac checking. This
indica es a pe son’s dis us o he empi ical basis o he in o ma ion ecei ed.
Epis emologically, his ci cums ance shows ha he ways and means o comp ehending and
comp ehending he wo ld by man ha e become much mo e complica ed.
He e a e some es imonies. “An en i e indus y has de eloped on he In e ne o he
p oduc ion o ake news and he dissemina ion o disin o ma ion, while he social ne wo ks in
which his happens a e no able o dis inguish u h om ake, so ha ac s and simulac a
(pseudo- ac s) he e u n ou o be equal o each o he .” (Rybako , 2017, p. 122)
“Fakes and ela ed ideas abou pos - u h a e opics ha canno be dispensed wi h when
ying o comp ehend mode n public communica ion, media space, and poli ical echnologies…
Howe e , he c ea ion echnologies and channels o b oadcas ing ake in o ma ion a e
expanding and b anching, he p oblem is becoming mo e and mo e p o ound and a om
being esol ed.” (Tulchinsky, 2021, p. 5)
“The phenomenon o “pos - u h” in mode n poli ical communica ions is inc easingly he
subjec o analysis in o eign and domes ic scien i ic discou se, bu in seman ic e ms, he
concep s o “pos - u h”, “pos - u h poli ics” emain e y ague… A he same ime, all
pa icipan s in he discussion on he poli ical isks o “pos - u h poli ics” o “pos - ac ual”

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poli ics (pos - ac ual poli ics), which eplaces ac s wi h “ ake news” (‘ akes’), somehow
associa e such phenomena wi h a change in he mode o p oduc ion, dissemina ion and
in luence o poli ical in o ma ion in he public sphe e.” (Zakonchinsky, 2018, p. 6).
The psycho-emo ional componen is based on he manipula ion o consciousness, moods
and emo ions, when an indi idual, g oups o people and socie y as a whole a e ins alled he
desi ed moods, assessmen s, opinions abou some hing and abou someone, and all his is
accep ed by people unconsciously, wi hou unde s anding he essence o wha is happening. A
he same ime, he e ec i eness o echnologies o manipula ing human consciousness is
ex emely high, eaching, acco ding o some sou ces, 70%, and unde he in luence o his
in luence, people make decisions, since ely belie ing ha hey make hei choice exclusi ely
hemsel es, no one imposes i on hem. The media end o enhance his e ec o sel -decep ion
by emphasizing ha he choice is allegedly made by he pe son himsel o his ee will.
The imposi ion o alien concep s, meanings and alues on mode n Russia eaches gigan ic
p opo ions, al hough we e y poo ly unde s and his, and again and again we build illusions
ha i is enough o once again ed aw a his o y ex book o schools o in oduce a compulso y
cou se o uni e si y s uden s—and e e y hing will esol e i sel .
Di ec ions o Manipula ion and Thei Smoo hing
Knowing he main di ec ions and ways o human ans o ma ion in in o ma ional and
psycho-emo ional ac ions, i is possible o p edic he me hodology o smoo hing and mi iga ing
such impac s. O cou se, he e can be qui e a ew speci ic me hods. Bu hey a e ecognized by
he p e ailing si ua ions. The e o e, i is impo an o iden i y p ecisely he s a egic posi ions
ha allow us o classi y he di ec ions o impac s. We belie e ha in he case o human
ans o ma ions, such nodal posi ions can be, in acco dance wi h he Ch is ian doc ine o man,
body, soul and spi i .
E en in e e yday li e, a pe son is e y s ongly exposed o in o ma ional, psycho-emo ional
and o he in luences.
Fo example, ake he human body. Acco ding o Ch is ian an h opology, he body
ep esen s na u e in man. I is he mos complex and nume ous in compa ison wi h he spi i
and soul, in he body and h ough he body, all he di e si y o he wo ld is ep esen ed in man.
Body ans o ma ions, s a ing wi h ha mless bodybuilding, which is now u ning in o
bodybuilding, plas ic su ge y, injec ions, beau y salons, which a ise e e ywhe e and which, as i
we e, a e designed o educe o some ex en he deg ee o conce n and anxie y o people abou
hei unsa is ac o y and impe ec appea ance, and ending wi h sex eassignmen ope a ions, a e
a away This is no a comple e lis o hose mul i ace ed physical ans o ma ions ha a e
becoming widesp ead in hei scope and he consequences o which a e s ill di icul o p edic .
Bu he ans o ma ions o he body canno bu a ec human na u e and his wo ld iew. I is
good i hese ans o ma ions a e aimed a imp o ing human na u e. Howe e , i he physical
changes o he body u n ou o be mu a ions, hen wha kind o spi i ual pe ec ion, wha kind
o p og essi e change in a pe son’s wo ld iew can we alk abou ?
No e ha he ques ion o he human body is no so simple and canno be educed solely
o he biological o ganiza ion o a pe son. Howe e , e en in his a ea, he p oblems o
implemen ing bio echnologies in a ious a eas o human li e and socie y a e widely discussed.
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Fo example, hese a e he use o bio echnologies o mili a y and ag icul u al pu poses, he
p oduc ion o gene ically modi ied cells and issues, e c. (Budano , 2022, p. 74). K. Ma x a one
ime spoke abou he “ino ganic body” o man. The so-called “digi al body” is discussed in
mode n li e a u e. All hese and o he a ia ions in he unde s anding o he body indica e an
ex emely complex p oblem ha is e y di icul o mas e by he pe son himsel .
The soul is ano he impo an componen o human na u e, which also has a mul i–
componen s uc u e. I dis inguishes a small (spi i ual) mind, desi e and eeling. Each o hese
elemen s is also a ec ed: he small mind is ans o med, e.g., h ough he educa ion sys em,
which is now becoming one o he mos no iceable ac o s o damage o he soul; desi e—
h ough he o ma ion o a ac ion and lus , h ough he a ousal o he desi e, o example, o
become a millionai e, make a ca ee , achie e success; eeling— h ough he inci emen o
passions, emo ions and a ec s, T ading emo ions and imp essions, as men ioned abo e,
becomes a success ul ield o se ices and business.
The di ec ions o ans o ma ion o pa s o he soul can be ealized bo h spon aneously,
independen ly o each o he , and pu pose ully, sys ema ically. How deep and bo omless he
spi i ual li e is can be judged by he wo ks o he holy Ma y Pe e o Damascus ( he 12 h
cen u y), who coun ed 298 di e en passions and 228 i ues (S . Pe e o Damascus, 2001, pp.
200–206). The e o e, in he p esence o de eloped psycho echnics, i is no so di icul o
ans o m a pe son's men al li e, dis o and damage i . This is wha nume ous psychological
ainings and aining cen e s a e doing, sca e ed all o e he wo ld and des oying he human
psyche, and wi h i he soul. I is possible ha in he nea u u e he wo ld will lea n abou e y
sophis ica ed ways o soul decomposi ion. Bu i is much mo e di icul o ix i .
The spi i , he hi d elemen o human na u e, is associa ed wi h eedom, boundlessness,
mobili y, ac i i y, highe in elligence, e e ni y, immo ali y. I consis s o mind (spi i ual), will
and powe , o ming a uni y. The spi i is b oade han he in ellec (mind), i is no he will aken
by i sel , and he will is no he spi i . The spi i is mo e uni e sal han he will. One can speak
abou he spi i only wi h ega d o i s ini y. Ou side o he spi i , i s indi idual pa s lose hei
abili ies, and aken sepa a ely, hey des oy he spi i . The mind plays a decisi e ole in he
ac i i y o he spi i . Will ollows hough , ac ion ollows will. The will di ec s ac ion, and on i s
basis a pe son makes a decision o ac o e use o ac . The execu ion o an ac ion depends on
he applied o ce, wi hou i nei he he mind no he will can mani es and be ealized. The
in eg i y o he spi i lies in he syne gy o he ac ion o i s pa s, wi hou which he spi i is
de o med and e en disin eg a es.
The di ec ions o ans o ma ion and mu a ion o he spi i a e dic a ed by i s composi ion.
This is, i s o all, dep i ing he spi i o i s in ellec ual ( easonable) o igin, c ea ing condi ions
o i s clouding. A mind ha neglec s will and powe loses he abili y o unde ake and
implemen any hing. The will ha does no ollow he mind, ha p ecedes i , is an au onomous
will ha has los i s a ionali y. I i supp esses eason and powe , i u ns in o olun a ism,
igno ing objec i e ci cums ances and ac o s. The e a e nume ous echnologies o neu alizing
he will. The o ce ha does no ollow he mind (“ he e is powe — he e is no need o mind”)
and he will becomes un easonable, which also u ns ou no only unpleasan , bu o en agic
consequences o man and socie y, e o ma ing and des uc ion o he di ec ion o o ce ac ion,
i s dispe sion, minimiza ion o concen a ion. I is no coincidence ha in ensu ing he sa e y o
134
human li e and socie y in he second hal o he 20 h cen u y. o pa icula impo ance a e he
so-called concep ual (seman ic) wa s, i.e., wa s o he “las , deep, me aphysical essence o
being”, o changing he adi ional meanings ha oo a pe son in his being.
Conclusions
The body, soul and spi i , which o m he ini y o man, a e he e ogeneous p inciples. In
he his o y o philosophy and eligion, he idea o a “whole man” was cons an ly loa ing, which
ecei ed e y di e en in e p e a ions. In o de o uni e he e ogeneous p inciples, a body
uni ing hem is needed. Such an o gan, acco ding o he eachings o Ch is ian an h opology, is
he hea , which i sel mus be a he same ime a spi i ual, men al and bodily o gan, o , in o he
wo ds, he cen e o he spi i , soul and body. The eaching o he hea has also played a e y
p ominen ole in he eligions and philosophies o di e en peoples. When mode n
philosophe s exci edly discuss a ious p oblems o in o ma iza ion and digi aliza ion, hey say
almos no hing abou i . Al hough hey s a e: “The main challenge o he digi al en i onmen
o a pe son is a challenge o his in eg i y. Mos o he impo an cha ac e is ics o a pe son a e
based on he ep esen a ion o a pe son as an in eg al being.” (T u ano a, 2021, pp. 371) Howe e ,
i he e a e h ea s o in eg i y, hen he main blow is di ec ed p ecisely a i s cen e .
Fully ag eeing wi h such a s a emen , we conside i ou du y o no e ha al hough in he
his o y o mankind he idea o a whole/in eg al pe son once appea ed, he e has ne e been
such a pe son in he eal wo ld. Al hough a ious hinke s ha e ied o c ea e a heo e ical
cons uc o a whole pe son, ne e heless, i is s ill ex emely di icul o ind a good desc ip ion
o wha a whole pe son is ha mos au ho s could accep . E en he Ch is ian concep based on
he syne gy o spi i , soul and body is no comple e and indispu able when compa ed wi h he
Ma xis unde s anding o man as a gene ic being. Recall ha i includes he sel , he body and
he human wo ld. Mo eo e , he la e elemen o ms he so-called “ino ganic body” o socie y.
The e o e, sociali y should ob iously no be aken ou o he b acke s o human na u e. This,
howe e , is unde s ood by almos all esea che s, bu he way his s uc u e is embedded in he
au ho s’ easoning lea es much o be desi ed.
In o ma iza ion, digi aliza ion and all he o ali ies o he wo ld o human exis ence ha a e
associa ed wi h hese p ocesses a e pe o med in a socie y ha does no ep esen an ex e nal
en i onmen in ela ion o a pe son, no some annoying appendage om which one can
abs ac , bu ha essen ial subs ance ha changes be o e and deepe han e e y hing ha
happens in his ans o ma ional wo ld wi h a man. The dynamism o human na u e is
insepa able om he dynamism o social ela ions, which a e being ans o med jus as adically.
Su ice i o say ha in he case o a classical bou geois socie y, a hing becomes an in e media y
in ela ions be ween people, like a manu ac u ed p oduc , whe eas in he mode n wo ld
in o ma ion u ns ou o be an in e media y in ela ions be ween people. I we compa e he
na u e o a hing as a commodi y, aking in o accoun all i s social ad en u es, wi h he na u e
o in o ma ion as an in e media y, hen i s social ad en u es will u n ou o be much s eepe
many imes.
Ac ually, many o hese ad en u es a e e ealed and depic ed qui e imp essi ely by a ious
au ho s w i ing on he opics o digi aliza ion. Howe e , hey lack a sense o sociali y o po ay
he ongoing p ocesses in hei uni e sali y. Howe e , appa en ly, he condi ions ha e no ye
135
ma u ed o his: he e a e plen y o da abases, bu hey ha e no ye appea ed in a new ligh .
Human ans o ma ions wi hou ans o ma ion o sociali y will be po ayed pa ially, one-
sidedly. Only on his pa h, appa en ly, he p oblem o secu i y will appea in i s in eg ali y and
comp ehensi eness.
Mode n Russia u gen ly needs an in eg a ed secu i y s a egy, in he con ex o which i is
only possible o alk abou i s socio-poli ical and economic well-being. Howe e , i we
unde s and secu i y as secu i y, hen wi hin he sys em i sel , he secu i y o which is in ques ion,
a mechanism mus be o med ha p o ides i wi h he abili y o esis ex e nal in luences, o
esis hem, i.e., o de end i sel .
I is known om biology ha he condi ion o main aining he independence o a li ing
o ganism is i s ejec ion o o eign in o ma ion. Wi hou such an abili y, he body dies, in he
wo s case, ceases o exis independen ly. In biology, he p inciple o he e ophobia is
o mula ed— he ea o he e ogenei y—which cha ac e izes he indi iduali y o an o ganism,
indica es i s independence. Li ing o ganisms, including he human body, ha e an immune
sys em ha ejec s e e y hing o eign o his o ganism.
Humani y on plane Ea h exis s in he o m o a huge a ie y o coun ies, s a es, and
peoples, which in he mos gene al sense a e social o ganisms. Among hem he e a e bo h
ex emely p imi i e socie ies and complexly o ganized and di e en ia ed socie ies. Ne e heless,
hey all unc ion as independen indi isible en i ies, ega dless o hei complexi y.
A social o ganism is a sys em o a much highe o de han a li ing o ganism, wi h a mo e
lexible sys em o sel -de ense and sel -p ese a ion. In such a sys em, he measu e o i s
openness mus also be espec ed, and he e mus be a limi o ex e nal bo owing and imi a ion.
In o he wo ds, in such an o ganism, social immuni y mus be o med and be he subjec o
cons an ca e. Only in his case can we hope o p ese e he cul u e, iden i y, and iden i y o
such a social o ganism. Only in his case can we hope o ake a wo hy place in he gene al
sys em o wo ld social s uc u es and adequa ely espond, as many scien is s like o epea , o
he challenges ha he cons an ly changing wo ld h ows a us. A pe son and socie y should
ha e a de eloped immune sys em capable o ejec ing o eign in luences and in e en ions.
I once, a e he li ing o he I on Cu ain, Russia began o unc ion as an open socie y,
hen we o go ha he social o ganism should ha e a limi o openness. When i is des oyed,
i is no longe possible o p ese e cul u e, iden i y, o iden i y. Secu i y as secu i y is eliabili y,
con idence, ce ain y, pe spec i e, sel –su iciency o exis ence. Un o una ely, he Russian
media cul i a e he psychology and consciousness o ala mism and ca as ophism day a e day,
which makes hem “dis up i e” o a ious h ea s, educes he deg ee o p o ec ion, gene a es
a mood o indi e ence, alue neu ali y bo h in ela ion o he nega i e and in ela ion o he
posi i e. And his does no con ibu e o he p ese a ion o Russia’s secu i y a he e y co e
o i s exis ence.
The issue o men al immuni y is aised and discussed in he scien i ic li e a u e. “Men al
immuni y is he abili y o a sepa a e g oup o pe sons o an indi idual o ensu e hei socio-
cul u al (men al) iden i y, in eg i y (habi s, li es yle, communica ion, e c.), and immuni y o
ex e nally imposed social ules and a i udes. As a gene al ule, i is ensu ed by he join e o s
o ci izens, socie y, he s a e, and in cases o imbalance o he sys em—by sepa a e sel -
142
5. B and managemen . Da id Aake , in his concep o b and equi y, iden i ied pe cei ed
b and quali y as one o i s key componen s (Aake , 1996). The p esen au ho p oposes b eaking
his down u he in o h ee componen s: pe cei ed p oduc quali y (in he na ow sense),
pe cei ed quali y o suppo ing business p ocesses, and pe cei ed quali y o s a (Kolyada, 2023,
pp. 221–233). This app oach aligns closely wi h he p e iously desc ibed disc e e CSI model. In
e ms o b and equi y, he s uc u e o hese componen s mi o s ha o he CSI sub-indices.
The di e ence lies in he su ey me hodology: CSI in ol es su eying a ep esen a i e sample
o cus ome s whose sa is ac ion is being measu ed, whe eas b and equi y measu emen equi es
su eying a ep esen a i e sample o cus ome s ac oss he en i e a ge clus e o segmen
(including cus ome s o compe i o s). Thus, CSI e lec s how sa is ied cus ome s a e wi h an
o ganisa ion’s pe o mance (in e ms o p oduc , p ocesses, and pe sonnel), while he h ee
b and equi y componen s e lec he pe cep ion o all cus ome s in he a ge segmen (including
hose choosing compe i o s’ p oduc s) ega ding he quali y o he o ganisa ion’s pe o mance.
In conclusion, CSI is a powe ul s a egic managemen and business modelling ool. I is
e ec i ely used no only in i s o iginal domain (cus ome sa is ac ion moni o ing and
o ganisa ional quali y managemen ), bu also in a eas ha , a i s glance, may seem un ela ed o
cus ome sa is ac ion. I s applica ion signi ican ly enhances he quali y o s a egic ope a ions
wi hin an o ganisa ion.
Limi a ions o CSI Applica ion
Despi e i s e sa ili y and adap abili y, he CSI canno measu e all aspec s o cus ome
sa is ac ion. One a ea whe e he use o CSI is no ad isable—and may e en be
coun e p oduc i e—is he measu emen o cus ome sa is ac ion wi h p oduc p icing.
Obse a ions om he p ac ice o CSI de elopmen show ha when e alua ing he impo ance
o he “p ice” a ibu e, esponden s ypically assign i he highes le el o impo ance compa ed
o o he cha ac e is ics de e mining p oduc sa is ac ion. Howe e , e idence sugges s ha he
ac ual signi icance o p ice o cus ome s is no always as high as hey claim.
Fo ins ance, he housing ma ke is la gely d i en by pu chases made h ough mo gage
inancing. When mo gage loans a e accessible, he p ice o esiden ial p ope y becomes a
seconda y conce n, and e en signi ican p ice inc eases do no de e buye s. Be ween 2014 and
2024, he a e age p ice pe squa e me e o esiden ial p ope y in Russia ose om 51,700 o
97,500 oubles (an 88.59% inc ease) (Dachenko a, 2024), ye sales con inued due o he
a ailabili y o mo gages. A simila pa e n is obse ed in he au omo i e ma ke and o he
sec o s whe e c edi -based pu chasing is common. Thus, esponden s’ claims ha p ice is o
u mos impo ance a e clea ly a odds wi h ac ual consume beha iou .
Equally no ewo hy a e he esul s o CSI su eys ha include he “p ice” a ibu e. I has
been ound ha many cus ome s who egula ly make epea pu chases— he eby demons a ing
loyal y—o en exp ess dissa is ac ion wi h p ice. In eali y, hese cus ome s a e sa is ied enough
wi h he p ice o con inue pu chasing he p oduc . Thei exp essed dissa is ac ion is likely d i en
by a psychological desi e o p omp p ice educ ions by “complaining” ha p ices a e oo high.
This beha iou does no e lec hei ac ual sa is ac ion wi h p icing bu is ins ead a s a egic
mo e aimed a gaining inancial bene i . As such, hese “complain s” should no be in e p e ed
as genuine indica o s o dissa is ac ion.

143
Consequen ly, i is no ad isable o include “sa is ac ion wi h p ice” as a componen o
CSI. P ice sa is ac ion—o mo e accu a ely, p ice compe i i eness—is wo h assessing using
al e na i e me hods, such as compa a i e sco ing ha benchma ks he o ganisa ion’s p icing
agains ha o i s compe i o s (Kolyada, 2023, pp. 266–268).
Thus, in de eloping and applying CSI, i is c ucial o conside he psychological
cha ac e is ics o cus ome s and hei abili y o p o ide ealis ic e alua ions ac oss he a ious
a ibu es ha may be included in he index. Cha ac e is ics o which impo ance a ings o
sa is ac ion assessmen s do no co espond o eal beha iou is wo h excluding on
me hodological g ounds.
Discussion
Un o una ely, esea ch on he use o CSI has p edominan ly elied on empi ical me hods.
This is la gely due o he closed na u e o he co po a e wo ld, whe e conce ns o e comme cial
con iden iali y o en p eclude he possibili y o conduc ing comp ehensi e quan i a i e s udies
on he subjec . As a esul , he conclusions ha can be d awn on his opic—including hose
p esen ed in his a icle—a e necessa ily limi ed. When assessing he indings p esen ed he e,
manage s a e ad ised o conside he speci ic cha ac e is ics o hei sec o s.
Ne e heless, he ex ensi e empi ical obse a ions pe o med using quali a i e me hods,
he esul s o which a e de ailed in his a icle, p o ide a su icien basis o unde s anding he
essence o he issue.
Conclusion
Analysis o CSI de elopmen and applica ion ac oss di e en sec o s demons a es ha
his ool is one o he mos powe ul a ailable o an o ganisa ion’s s a egic de elopmen . Fo
his eason, i has been inco po a ed—wi hin a disc e e model—in o he business modelling
and s a egic planning me hodology de eloped by he au ho o his a icle (Kolyada, 2023;
Kolyada & Plekho a, 2023). Despi e ce ain complexi ies in de eloping and main aining his ool,
CSI o e s mo e oppo uni ies o iden i ying p oblem a eas and g ow h po en ial han o he
compa able ins umen s, such as he NPS.
Howe e , CSI also p esen s se e al speci ic ea u es ha mus be conside ed. Du ing bo h
i s de elopmen and applica ion, adhe ence o me hodological equi emen s is essen ial. This
includes co ec ly iden i ying he a ge clus e , segmen , and clien g oup whose sa is ac ion is
being measu ed, as well as conduc ing ho ough quali a i e and quan i a i e esea ch. When
applying he ool, esea che s mus comply wi h s anda ds o quan i a i e analysis and ensu e
ha he o iginal concep ual amewo k unde pinning he index is e lec ed in he calcula ions.
CSI should be used o i s ull po en ial—ac oss all a eas whe e i can be bene icial:
measu ing cus ome sa is ac ion and making decisions o enhance i , managing o ganisa ional
quali y, inno a ing business models, de eloping USPs, and b and managemen . The applica ion
o CSI in hese domains can signi ican ly imp o e he e ec i eness o business modelling,
s a egic planning, and s a egic managemen wi hin an o ganisa ion.
Finally, one mus emain mind ul o he limi a ions inhe en o CSI. Fo example,
measu ing sa is ac ion wi h p ice using CSI is no ecommended; o he ools a e wo h
employing o his pu pose.
144
O e all, he use o CSI is no wo h es ic ing o cus ome sa is ac ion measu emen alone.
In s a egic wo k, i s ull po en ial should be ha nessed ac oss all he domains ou lined in his
a icle.
Con lic o In e es
The au ho decla es ha he e is no con lic o in e es .
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Dachenko a, T. (2024, Feb ua y 19). How has he eal es a e ma ke changed o e he pas 10 yea s.
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poslednie-10-le -s a nili- seny-s a ki- liyanie-banko -i-sdelali-p ognozy/ (In Russ.)
Ilieska, K. (2009). Se ices Ma ke ing. Bi ola.
Ilieska, K. (2013). Cus ome Sa is ac ion Index – as a Base o S a egic Ma ke ing Managemen . TEM
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compe i ion i ele an . Ha a d Business Re iew P ess.
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de elop an e ec i e s a egy o he g ow h o you company. Moscow: Alpina PRO LLC, Eu asian School o
Managemen and Adminis a ion LLC. EDN FUTPBY. (In Russ.)
Kolyada, A. A., & Plekho a, Y. O. (2023). Me hodology o de eloping an o ganiza ion’s business
model and o ecas ing i s economic e iciency. Theo y and P ac ice o Social De elopmen , 8(184), 101–
112. EDN JWIWXI. (In Russ.)
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Romano a, N. A. [
a
][21]
ELECTROMYOGRAPHIC SIGNAL AS FEEDBACK FOR PELVIC FLOOR MUSCLE
REHABILITATION AND TRAINING [10]
Abs ac : In he p esen wo ld, mos people a e engaged in ou ine o ice wo k. This ac o con ibu es
o high inac i i y in he musculoskele al sys em and he body. Diso de s o he muscula s uc u e and
pel ic ligamen s may also be caused by dyssyne gic de eca ion, su gical in e en ion, degene a i e
disease, p egnancy and childbi h in women, muscle elaxan s, na co ics, and simila ac o s. The e o e,
de eloping physio he apy me hods and a i ness aining plan is a highly ele an ask oday. The no el y
o his esea ch lies in de eloping a new app oach o ehabili a ing and aining pel ic loo muscles using
he elec omyog aphic signal as bio eedback. The s udy objec is he ehabili a ion and aining o pel ic
loo muscles. The s udy subjec is he me hod o ehabili a ion and aining o pel ic loo muscles using
he EMG signal. The s udy aims o de elop a physio he apy me hod and a i ness aining plan. The
au ho applied gene al scien i ic me hods such as analysis, expe imen a ion, obse a ion, and
classi ica ion o achie e he pu pose and add ess he s udy objec i es. The s udy d aws upon he wo ks
o o eign and Russian esea che s in ehabili a ion and physio he apy o he pel ic loo muscles,
p ocessing and classi ica ion o elec omyog aphic signals, and he e alua ion and analysis o muscula
ac i i y. Wi hin he amewo k o his s udy, a me hod o pel ic loo muscle aining using bio eedback
was p oposed. The a icle p esen s he me hod o pel ic loo muscle aining wi h bio eedback,
illus a ing wha an EMG signal looks like and desc ibing exe cises based on elec omyog aphy. A 10-
day aining plan is p o ided. The me hod o assessing he pa ien ’s condi ion be o e and a e he
aining is also desc ibed. The au ho concludes ha he p oposed me hod con ibu es o a posi i e
change in he shape o he EMG signal. The pape p esen s EMG signals eco ded be o e and a e
aining, clea ly showing signi ican changes in he shape and s abili y o muscle ac i i y le els.
Keywo ds: physio he apy, ehabili a ion, elec omyog aphy, pel ic loo muscles.
Abb e ia ions:
𝐸𝑀𝐺 is elec omyog aphy,
𝑅𝑀𝑆 is oo mean squa e.
In oduc ion
Phylogene ically, he pel ic loo ep esen s a ela i ely ancien g oup o skele al muscles,
which, as humans adop ed an up igh pos u e, acqui ed se e al new i al oles o unde wen
adap a ion o p e iously exis ing unc ions. The unc ional asks o he pel ic loo include:
suppo ing he con en s o he abdominal ca i y in a e ical posi ion; pa icipa ing in bo h
olun a y and e lexi e con ac ion o he u e h a; na owing he ans e se diame e o he
agina and he u ogeni al opening; con ibu ing o sexual unc ions; and ensu ing he unc ion
o he e minal sec ion o he diges i e ac (Jozwik e al., 2013).
Pel ic loo dys unc ion and pel ic o gan p olapse a e cu en ly signi ican issues—e en
ea ly mani es a ions o pel ic loo dys unc ion can lead o a decline in sexual quali y o li e,
educed ac i i y, and e en ually o social isola ion and dec eased sel -es eem. One o he mos
popula conse a i e me hods o ea ing pel ic loo dys unc ion is pel ic loo muscle
a
Na alia A. Romano a, Resea che in Physio he apy, IP Romano a Na alia. Moscow, Russia. ORCID 0009-0003-6832-9558.
E-mail: N [email protected]
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aining. Pel ic loo muscle aining is among he mos widely used and p omising conse a i e
app oaches o co ec ing pel ic loo dys unc ion (Samsono a e al., 2023; Rusina e al., 2024;
Dob okho o a e al., 2018). Resea che s also no e ha he skele al muscles comp ising he pel ic
loo can be “ ained” and “o e ained” o main ain pel ic loo unc ion (Woodley & Hay-
Smi h, 2021).
Such aining aims o imp o e he s eng h, endu ance, and coo dina ion o he pel ic loo
muscles and o enhance suppo o he p oximal u e h a and he bladde neck (Madoko o &
Miaki, 2019). The e o e, pel ic loo muscle aining may be bene icial in he p e en ion o
u ogeni al, ep oduc i e, and sexual sys em diso de s. Objec i e assessmen o pel ic muscle
ac i i y is c ucial o e alua ing he condi ion and de e mining app op ia e ehabili a ion and
ea men s a egies (Hay-Smi h e al., 2024).
Many esea che s a gue o in eg a ing elec omyog aphy (EMG) eco ding alongside
clinical examina ion and obse a ion (Do nowski e al., 2018; Dannecke e al., 2005). The use o
bio eedback based on su ace EMG has p o en help ul in acili a ing he iden i ica ion o pel ic
loo muscle dys unc ion symp oms (Wang e al., 2024; Auchincloss e al., 2009). Thus, he EMG
signal can be used o classi y he s a e o pel ic loo muscles and o p o ide eedback o
designing a ge ed aining p og ammes o hei de elopmen .
I is wo h no ing ha he EMG signal is complex; howe e , i di ec ly co ela es wi h
muscle ac i i y (Chen e al., 2025). This co ela ion makes su ace EMG a aluable ool o
diagnosing and aining a ious muscle g oups (Richaud e al., 2024).
This s udy will examine di e en me hods o pel ic loo muscle aining and in es iga e
hei e ec s on he de elopmen and s abilisa ion o pel ic loo muscle condi ion. The EMG
signal will se e as he p ima y measu e o muscle ac i i y.
The s udy’s no el y lies in i s de elopmen o a new app oach o pel ic loo muscle
ehabili a ion and aining, using he EMG signal as eedback.
The s udy objec is he ehabili a ion and aining o pel ic loo muscles.
The s udy subjec is he pel ic loo muscle ehabili a ion and aining me hod using he
EMG signal.
The s udy aims o de elop physio he apy me hods and a i ness aining p og amme.
To achie e his aim, he ollowing objec i es we e se :
− s udy exis ing me hods and app oaches o physio he apy and pel ic loo muscle
ehabili a ion;
− explo e and iden i y key cha ac e is ics o he EMG signal;
− assess he elec omyog aphic ac i i y o he muscles be o e physio he apy;
− conduc aining using EMG and e alua e he elec omyog aphic ac i i y o he muscles
a e physio he apy.
Me hods and Ma e ials
The ollowing esea ch me hods we e employed in he cou se o he s udy:
1. Analysis. The s udy includes an analysis o exis ing me hods in he ield o physio he apy.
An o e iew o EMG is p o ided, along wi h a b eakdown o i s ea u es and p ope ies. The
p ima y me hods used in pel ic loo physio he apy a e as ollows:
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• Bio eedback he apy is ecommended o add essing u ina y and aecal incon inence,
aginal wall p olapse, ch onic pel ic pain, and sexual dys unc ion.
• Elec ical s imula ion, aimed a es o ing he pel ic loo ollowing childbi h.
• Low-load exe cises.
• Manual he apy.
2. Expe imen . An expe imen was conduc ed unde specially c ea ed condi ions o s udy
elec omyog aphic ac i i y. The p oposed me hod was es ed on a 32-yea -old emale pa ien o
a e age build wi h a usually de eloped musculoskele al sys em. The expe imen in ol ed a se ies
o aining sessions using he p oposed me hods and EMG signals, compa ing EMG signals
eco ded be o e and a e he aining p og amme.
3. Obse a ion. In o ma ion abou he condi ion o he subjec ’s muscles was ob ained
h ough obse a ion and he eco ding o signi ican changes. P io o each aining session, he
aine pe o med a non-in asi e isual inspec ion o he es ibula aginal mucosa using a
came a. The balance be ween he an e io and pos e io pel ic loo muscles was assessed.
4. Classi ica ion. The s udy iden i ied ea u es o he elec omyog aphic signal ha allow
o i s classi ica ion. Signal classi ica ion was pe o med using ime- equency domain
cha ac e is ics. Key ea u es such as ze o-c ossing, RMS a ia ion, and ampli ude powe we e
iden i ied.
The s udy d ew upon se e al key sou ces, including he monog aph by J.V. Basmajian
Muscles Ali e: Thei Func ions Re ealed by Elec omyog aphy, which is conside ed ounda ional in
elec omyog aphic esea ch. The book examines a ious muscles, desc ibes measu emen
me hods, and explo es he na u e o EMG signal gene a ion.
The wo k by C. Auchincloss, T. Richaud, and Y. Wang explo es he eliabili y o su ace
EMG eco ded om pel ic loo muscles. This s udy is widely ci ed and suppo s he use o
su ace EMG in physio he apy.
Jozwik Maciej p o ides a e iew o he ana omy and unc ion o he emale pel ic loo ,
wi h a ocus on he e ec s o aginal childbi h. The wo k su eys scien i ic indings on pel ic
loo muscles and hei condi ion pos -deli e y.
Ano he widely e e enced publica ion is he na a i e e iew by S.J. Woodley and E.J.C.
Hay-Smi h, “Na a i e Re iew o Pel ic Floo Muscle T aining o Childbea ing Women—
Why, When, Wha , and How”, which discusses a ious changes o he pel ic loo du ing
p egnancy and ou lines aining me hods o p epa e o childbi h.
Resul s
EMG Signal
This pa ag aph b ie ly desc ibes wha EMG is and how i can be used o pel ic loo
muscle aining. Su ace EMG signals a e one o he p ima y sou ces o neu al signals (Basmajian
& De Luca, 1962). Va ious EMG signal p ocessing algo i hms decode he use ’s ac ion and
gene a e a con ol signal o ex e nal de ices o so wa e.
Figu e 1 (1) p esen s examples o EMG signals in he case o a elaxed muscle and du ing
muscle ac i i y. The g aph in Figu e 1 (1) shows ha he onse o muscle ac i i y signi ican ly

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inc eases he numbe o slope sign changes and he ampli ude magni ude. A he same ime, he
numbe o ze o c ossings and he mean absolu e alue change only sligh ly (Unanyan & Belo ,
2019). The e o e, one can de i e a cu e di ec ly co ela ing wi h muscle ac i i y using such
cha ac e is ics as slope sign changes and ampli ude. Figu e 2 (2) illus a es he muscle s a e a e
EMG signal p ocessing.
Assessmen o EMG Values and Pel ic Floo Muscle T aining
Du ing he ini ial assessmen , e alua ing he o e all condi ion o he pel ic loo muscles
and he mucosal issues is essen ial. This is conduc ed h ough an in asi e examina ion using a
came a, du ing which he condi ion o he mucosa a he aginal in oi us and he balance
be ween he an e io and pos e io muscle g oups a e assessed. This in o ma ion enables he
de elopmen o an app op ia e aining plan. Addi ionally, he assessmen esul s help
de e mine he pa ien ’s o e all condi ion and ule ou any po en ial ad e se e ec s o physical
exe cise.
The nex s age in ol es assessing he myo ac i i y o he pel ic loo muscles. I is
impo an o no e ha nume ous ac o s can in luence he EMG signal. Fo his p ocedu e, i
is assumed ha he equipmen il e s he EMG signal and shields i om ex e nal magne ic
ields and en i onmen al in e e ence. The pa ien mus adhe e o he ollowing beha iou al
c i e ia:
1. The body mus be elaxed.
2. The abdomen should be d awn in o p ope unc ion.
3. The legs and glu eal muscles should emain elaxed.
4. The uppe ho acoabdominal diaph agm should main ain calm, s eady b ea hing.
A his s age, he pa ien ’s myo ac i i y is es ed. The aine ins uc s he pa ien o engage
he an e io and pos e io muscle g oups and e alua es he EMG signal du ing his engagemen .
The pa ien is hen asked o pe o m a ligh con ac ion o he muscles and main ain his ac i i y
le el o se en minu es. Du ing his ime, he aine obse es he pa ien ’s gene al body s a e
and co ec s hei beha iou , o example, add essing i egula b ea hing o ension in he legs
and glu eal egion— o ensu e p ope echnique du ing he exe cise. The EMG signal pa e n
du ing he s a ic exe cise is illus a ed in Figu e 3 (3). The aim is o each he pa ien o ac i a e
he pel ic loo muscles wi hou engaging o he muscles o o gans. A success ul ou come is he
pa ien acqui ing he abili y o use he pel ic loo muscles while keeping he es o he body
comple ely elaxed.
Once accep able esul s ha e been achie ed wi h he pa ien , a basic aining ou ine is
es ablished. I consis s o wo exe cises: one s a ic and one dynamic. The s a ic exe cise in ol es
ensing he muscles and main aining he ension o a speci ic pe iod, ollowed by elaxa ion. In
his case, he pa ien is equi ed o apply mild ension and hold i o 10 minu es. A e ha , he
dynamic exe cise is wo h pe o ming. The dynamic exe cise in ol es ensing he muscles o 7
seconds and elaxa ion o 5 o 10 seconds. The dynamic exe cise s a s wi h en epe i ions o
muscle ension; inc easing he numbe o ension cycles by wo in each subsequen session is
ecommended un il he pa ien eaches 20 epe i ions pe exe cise. Figu e 4 (4) shows he EMG
signal beha iou du ing he dynamic exe cise.
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Figu e 4 shows ha a h eshold o 15 uni s has been selec ed, abo e which he pa ien mus
main ain he EMG signal du ing exe ion. This h eshold is indi idually ailo ed o each pa ien
and can be adjus ed du ing aining. Nex , a s a ic exe cise is epea ed, du ing which he pa ien
aims o engage p ima ily he pos e io muscle g oups; he con ac ion du a ion is i e minu es.
Ul ima ely, he aining consis s o he ollowing sequence: s a ic–dynamic–s a ic exe cise. I is
ecommended o pe o m 10 epe i ions daily o 10 days.
App oba ion
This aining me hod was es ed on a 32-yea -old emale pa ien o a e age build. A e 10
days o aining, he ollowing changes we e obse ed h ough ideo analysis:
1. Changes in he s uc u e o he mucous memb ane (small c acks and ea s we e elimina ed).
2. The an e io and pos e io muscles we e oned.
3. Blood ci cula ion imp o ed.
4. The pa ien had a icose eins a ound he ce ix, and a e he aining, a posi i e end in
he ea men o a icose eins was no ed.
5. Changes in EMG.
One o he key esul s was he change in he EMG pa e n. O e 10 days, he pa ien lea ned
how o con ac he muscles p ope ly and, as a esul , gained con ol o e hem. Figu e 5 (5)
clea ly shows ha he ampli ude o he EMG noise signi ican ly dec eased. The pa ien can now
“glide” a a ce ain le el o load. In his case, he pa ien was equi ed o main ain a signal a
le els 9–10.
Compa ing Figu es 3 (4) and 5 (5), i can be concluded ha he quali y o he EMG signal
has signi ican ly imp o ed. The ampli ude o noise caused by he ib a ion o he muscle issue
has no ably dec eased. This sugges s ha he pa ien has signi ican ly imp o ed he physical
condi ion o he pel ic loo muscles.
Discussion
Du ing he wo k, i was ound ha he p oposed me hod allows o posi i e dynamics in
he de elopmen o he pel ic loo muscles. Bio eedback signi ican ly accele a es he p ocess
o eco e y, ehabili a ion, o main enance o pel ic loo muscles.
I is wo h no ing ha he EMG signal, used as bio eedback, is highly suscep ible o ex e nal
in luences, such as:
1. Elec onic de ice noise.
2. En i onmen al noise, such as a ious pa asi ic elec omagne ic ields.
3. En e ing sa u a ion mode.
4. Na u al ins abili y o he signal.
All hese ac o s signi ican ly complica e he aining p ocess and he use o he EMG
signal. Addi ionally, he pa ien ’s psychosoma ic s a e plays a c ucial ole. This issue was a oided
in he expe imen desc ibed in he wo k. Howe e , he o e whelming majo i y o pa ien s,
in luenced by hei pe cep ions o he condi ion o he muscle o body as a whole, signi ican ly
educe he e ec i eness o he aining.
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I is wo h no ing ha he aining’s esul s we e less p oduc i e han he au ho had
an icipa ed. Un o una ely, his was caused by an unop imised aining plan o mula ed o he
pa ien .
In he u u e, i is planned o con inue he esea ch on he pel ic loo muscles and add ess
he ollowing ques ions:
How do dynamic and s a ic aining egimes a ec he pel ic loo muscles and EMG
signals in he long e m?
How can EMG signals be displayed o he pa ien o inc ease he p oduc i i y o he
aining?
Can EMG signals be used o de ec a igue and dys unc ion o indi idual ib es o he
muscle as a whole?
Conclusion
Thus, he a icle discusses he me hod o pel ic loo muscle aining using biological
eedback. I demons a es he appea ance o he EMG signal and desc ibes exe cises in ol ing
elec omyog aphy. A 10-day aining plan is p o ided. The me hod o assessing he pa ien ’s
condi ion be o e and a e he aining is ou lined. The g aph shown in Figu e 5 illus a es he
posi i e impac o his aining me hod on he pel ic loo muscles. A e comple ing he 10-
day aining p og amme, he pa ien lea ned o wo k he on and back muscles sepa a ely. The
condi ion o he mucosa a he aginal es ibule signi ican ly imp o ed. The s abili y o he
elec omyog aphic signal du ing s a ic exe cises also g ea ly imp o ed.
Con lic o in e es
The au ho decla es ha he e is no con lic o in e es .
Appendix
Figu e 1. The o m o EMG signal
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Figu e 2. Changes in EMG cha ac e is ics du ing muscle ac i i y: 0–2.5
sec.—muscle is elaxed, 2.5–6 sec.—g adual con ac ion, 6–8.5 sec.—
sus ained muscle ac i i y, 8.5–14 sec.— elaxa ion.
Figu e 3. S a ic exe cise
Figu e 4. S a ic exe cise