The Labou Ma ke In eg a ion o Duldung Holde s in Be lin
Au ho s: Lo ena Unge & Lo e an Dijk
A chap e om: Schmiz, A., & Lehmann, S. (Eds.) (2025). Geog aphies o he Eu opean
Bo de Regime. How bo de s shape he e e yday li es o e ugees and asylum-seeke s.
Be lin Geog aphical Pape s, 56. h ps://doi.o g/10.17169/ e ubium-48773
Ins i u e o Geog aphical Sciences
F eie Uni e si ä Be lin
2025
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Depa men o Ea h Sciences
Wo king G oup 'Socie y, Space and Gende '
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DOI: hUps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17466314
Ci a ion sugges ion: Unge , L., & an Dijk, L. (2025). The Labou Ma ke In eg a ion o Duldung
Holde s in Be lin. Be lin Geog aphical Pape s, 56, 1–13.
h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17466314
Published in: Schmiz, A., & Lehmann, S. (Eds.) (2025). Geog aphies o he Eu opean Bo de
Regime. How bo de s shape he e e yday li es o e ugees and asylum-seeke s. Be lin
Geog aphical Pape s, 56. h ps://doi.o g/10.17169/ e ubium-48773
1
Lo ena Unge & Lo e an Dijk
The Labou Ma ke In eg a ion o Duldung Holde s in Be lin
Abs ac :
This s udy examines he labou ma ke in eg a ion o indi iduals wi h a Duldung s a us in
Be lin, Ge many. The Duldung s a us places indi iduals in a legal limbo, empo a ily
suspending depo a ion while denying long- e m secu i y and ull igh s. This esea ch ocuses
on wo key objec i es: (1) iden i ying s uc u al obs acles, including poli ical, bu eauc a ic and
legal ba ie s, and (2) examining in e sec ing ways o ma ginalisa ion among women,
indi iduals wi h disabili ies and ca egi e s holding a Duldung. Simul aneously, we analysed he
ole o s a e- unded and independen o ganisa ions in p o iding suppo . D awing on exis ing
esea ch and quali a i e in e iews, ou indings highligh how he Duldung s a us pe pe ua es
economic and social exclusion, making indi iduals ulne able o labou exploi a ion. While
ini ia i es o suppo wo k o ce pa icipa ion exis , hei e ec i eness is limi ed by
bu eauc a ic and legal hu dles. This pape ad oca es o policy e o ms, including simpli ied
access o wo k pe mi s, expanded oca ional aining p og ammes ailo ed o di e se needs
and s onge labou p o ec ions. Howe e , wi hou sys emic change, indi iduals wi h a
Duldung will con inue o ace cycles o exclusion and exploi a ion. These indings con ibu e o
discussions on mig a ion, labou igh s and social jus ice in Ge many and he Eu opean
con ex .
1 In oduc ion
A he end o 2022, 248,145 indi iduals1 in Ge many we e egis e ed unde he ca ego y o a
Duldung, also known as ole a ed s ay (Spindle e al. 2024). This is unlike o he EU coun ies
whe e his ca ego y does no exis and he numbe o indi iduals wi h simila legal s a uses
o en emains in he h ee-digi scope. Since he ea ly 2000s, se e al EU membe s a es ha e
in oduced speci ic legal ca ego ies o non-depo able indi iduals. Howe e , he Ge man
ca ego y o a Duldung is excep ional due o i s ex ensi e and complex policy (Schü ze 2022;
Schü ze 2025). A Duldung is no a esidence pe mi bu a empo a y suspension o
depo a ion. I is issued i depo a ion is no easible due o humani a ian easons, legal
obs acles o a lack o a el documen s om hei home coun y. E en hough indi iduals a e
no o cibly depo ed om Ge many, hey lack a secu e legal s a us. This c ea es a legal limbo
ha is highly p eca ious and exclusiona y, also in e ms o labou ma ke in eg a ion.
1 Th oughou his ex , we p ima ily e e o indi iduals wi h a Duldung o eflec hei specific legal s a us. When we e e
o ‘indi iduals’, we a e e e ing o Duldung holde s. A @mes, we also use he e m e ugees when ou discussion is no
limi ed s ic ly o Duldung holde s. In Ge many, e ugees a e indi iduals who ha e unde gone a success ul asylum p ocedu e
and ha e been g an ed p o ec@on unde he Gene a Con en@on. By con as , Duldung holde s ha e no been g an ed
p o ec@on s a us; hei depo a@on is only empo a ily suspended. We unde s and hese dis@nc@ons as being poli@cally
cons uc ed and ins umen alised o egula e access o igh s. In using hese e ms, we aim o c i@cally engage wi h he
s uc u al inequali@es and powe imbalances ha shape labou ma ke access and b oade social pa @cipa@on
(Bundesminis e ium ü wi schaKliche Zusammena bei und En wicklung [BMZ] 2025).
2
This essay is guided by he ollowing esea ch ques ion: How do indi iduals wi h Duldung
s a us in eg a e in o he labou ma ke in Be lin? Speci ically, we ocus on wo objec i es: (1)
iden i ying s uc u al obs acles, including poli ical, bu eauc a ic and legal ba ie s; and (2)
examining he in e sec ing ways in which ma ginalisa ion in his con ex a ec s women,
indi iduals wi h disabili ies and hei ca egi e s who hold a Duldung. Simul aneously, we
analyse he ole o s a e- unded and independen o ganisa ions in p o iding suppo . To
add ess hese esea ch objec i es, his pape is s uc u ed as ollows: Fi s , we p o ide
con ex ual backg ound in o ma ion on he de ini ion o Duldung and i s policies and ela ed
labou ma ke es ic ions. This is ollowed by ou heo e ical backg ound, d awing on c i ical
mig a ion s udies. We hen in oduce ou me hodology, ollowed by he p esen a ion o ou
indings based on in e iews wi h o ganisa ions ha suppo ou a ge g oups. In ou
discussion, we analyse hese indings, highligh ing bo h s uc u al obs acles and in e sec ing
aspec s o ma ginalisa ion. Finally, we conclude wi h se e al key insigh s in o he labou
ma ke in eg a ion o indi iduals wi h a Duldung.
2 The dehumanising na u e o a Duldung
This sec ion ou lines he con ex ual backg ound o he Duldung policies and ela ed labou
ma ke es ic ions. In oduced in 1965 in Wes Ge many, he Duldung s a us is known o i s
exclusiona y and bu eauc a ic na u e (Schü ze 2025). Schola s, including Schü ze (2022;
2025), Cas añeda (2020), Spence (2020), T ianda yllidou (2020), Ba olini (2020) and Spindle
(2024) ou line i s disc imina o y e ec s. Since i s implemen a ion in 1965, labou ma ke
access unde a Duldung was highly es ic i e, e lec ing conse a i e mig a ion policies.
Howe e , since he ea ly 2000s, economic needs ha e p omp ed e o ms ha inc easingly
a ou young Duldung holde s. Fo ins ance, policies since 2008 ha e es ablished sho e
wai ing pe iods o wo k pe mi s and oca ional aining oppo uni ies o some indi iduals,
hus combining in eg a i e app oaches wi h a neolibe al ma ke logic. While such e o ms
sugges a shi owa d g ea e labou ma ke in eg a ion, hey also ein o ce p esen s uc u al
inequali ies by keeping Duldung holde s in a highly egula ed and ulne able posi ion (Schü ze
2022). Sys ema ic e o m ocused on egula isa ion and social inclusion is essen ial o mi iga e
he long- e m nega i e implica ions o he Duldung s a us (Spindle e al. 2024; Schü ze 2022;
Schü ze 2025; T ianda yllidou/Ba olini 2020).
The Duldung unc ions bo h as a con ol mechanism and a ool o economic lexibili y,
c ea ing sys emic ensions. Schola s like Böcke and Vogel (1997) and De Geno a (2002) a gue
ha hese policies ins i u ionalise p eca i y and ulne abili y, linking legal s a us o
employmen . This makes indi iduals highly dependen on (p eca ious) jobs o a oid
depo a ion and hus c ea es a lexible wo k o ce (Schü ze 2022). Duldung holde s’ p eca ious
s a us sus ains a pool o cheap labou o ces, pa icula ly in gende ed and in o mal sec o s
such as cons uc ion, ag icul u e, ca e wo k and hospi ali y (Böcke /Vogel 1997;
T ianda yllidou/Ba olini 2020)2. Indi iduals’ limi ed knowledge o hei igh s, language
2 While sec o s like ca e wo k a e hea ily egula ed in Ge many, loopholes and g ey a eas pe sis , especially in p i a e
household a angemen s (e.g., 24-hou ca e se ices). These a angemen s a e oKen in o mally o semi-legally nego@a ed
3
ba ie s and inancial ins abili y u he inc ease he isk o exploi a ion
(T ianda yllidou/Ba olini 2020).
The e a e ou commonly e e enced ypes o Duldung, each wi h di e en es ic ions, adding
o he complexi y o he cons an ly changing mig a ion policy:
1. ‘Duldung ligh ’ (since 2019): a ge s people wi h unclea iden i ies and imposes a wo k
ban (Bundesminis e ium ü Jus iz 2024 § 60b Au en hG),
2. ‘No male Duldung’ (Engl.: no mal Duldung): o e s no depo a ion p o ec ion bu
usually allows wo k upon applica ion (Bundesminis e ium ü Jus iz 2024 § 60a
Au en hG),
3. ‘E messensduldung’ (Engl.: disc e iona y Duldung): g an s empo a y p o ec ion, e.g.,
o school o oca ional aining; includes he Ausbildungsduldung (Duldung o
oca ional aining) and he Beschä igungsduldung (Employmen Duldung)
(Bundesminis e ium ü Jus iz 2024 § 60c, § 60d Au en hG),
4. ‘Ansp uchsduldung’ (Engl.: en i lemen Duldung): applies when a legal en i lemen o
s ay exis s bu no esidence pe mi can be g an ed, e.g., o pa en s o a child wi h legal
esidency (Bundesminis e ium ü Jus iz 2024 § 60a Au en hG).
Howe e , hese ou ypes do no co e all cases. Fo example, a Duldung can also be issued
du ing ollow-up o second asylum p ocedu es (Folgean äge o Zwei an äge) o due o
empo a y legal o ac ual obs acles o depo a ion (e.g., missing documen s, heal h easons).
In p ac ice, especially he i s ca ego y can be u he b oken down based on he speci ic
easons p e en ing depo a ion (Bundesminis e ium ü Jus iz 2022; I#8).
The Duldung c ea es a p eca ious ‘ ic ion o empo a y s ay’, o en desc ibed as ‘limbo s a us’
o ‘non-s a us’ (Cas añeda 2010; Schü ze 2022). This ‘limi less empo a iness’ (Schü ze 2022,
417) es ic s access o basic igh s, economic and social pa icipa ion. No mal Duldung and
Duldung ligh holde s a e p ohibi ed om wo king and a e con ined o li ing in speci ic egions
unde he esidence obliga ion. Like asylum seeke s, hey ecei e educed inancial suppo ,
which is below a minimum subsis ence le el acco ding o he Fede al Cons i u ional Cou
(Cas añeda 2010; Schü ze 2025), du ing he i s 36 mon hs. Ini ially lowe ed o 18 mon hs in
2008, his pe iod was la e ex ended back o 36 mon hs due o poli ical p essu es (I#7).
Exi pa hways om a Duldung include he Oppo uni y Residence Ac (Chancen-
Au en hal s ech ) om 2022, which o e s p ospec s o pe manen esidency (I#7).
Fu he mo e, in 2022, esidence pe mi s we e in oduced unde § 25a Au en hG ( o
indi iduals who a i ed as mino s and apply be o e u ning 27) and § 25 Au en hG, bo h o
which ypically equi e success ul in eg a ion in o school, oca ional aining o wo k. Be o e
he in oduc ion o hese pe mi s, empo a y ‘ igh o s ay’ policies ocused s ongly on
inancial sel -su iciency (I#7). O he op ions include he Ha dship Commission (§ 23a
h ough placemen agencies, c ea@ng p eca ious wo king condi@ons despi e egula o y amewo ks (Lu z 2018). As Lu z
(2018, 83) no es, ‘legal amewo ks exis , bu he en o cemen in ansna@onal ca e a angemen s oKen lacks ee h,
enabling he pe sis ence o in o mal s uc u es unde he guise o legali y’ (see also: Da Roi /Weich 2013).
4
Au en hG) and he esidence pe mi unde § 25 Au en hG (in cases whe e depa u e is
pe manen ly impossible). While he o me emphasises labou ma ke pa icipa ion, he la e
ocuses on he impossibili y o depa u e (I#7). Howe e , implemen a ion a ies g ea ly,
lea ing many indi iduals in s a es o p olonged unce ain y, some imes o decades (Schü ze
2022).
Limi ed p ospec s heigh en exclusion and men al dis ess (Aslund e al. 2024; Jensen 2023;
Schü ze 2025; S ache 2024). A Duldung es ic s access o heal hca e, educa ion, social li e
and amily euni ica ion, and excep ions a e o en based on subjec i e assessmen s o
dese ingness (P oAsyl 2024). Limi ed esou ces and es ic i e eligibili y educe social
counselling o he mos p omising cases, lea ing he mos ulne able indi iduals o g oups
wi h li le o no s uc u al suppo . Social wo ke s hus ace e hical dilemmas be ween
ad ocacy and bu eauc a ic compliance (Spindle e al. 2024). Fu he mo e, Duldung holde s
exp ess ha hei egula isi s o he immig a ion o ices o s a us eassessmen s we e
dehumanising (Cas añeda 2010). Such expe iences con ibu e o he sense o ci il dea h,
whe e indi iduals a e excluded om ull social pa icipa ion (Gibney 2000). This is oo ed in
long-s anding pos colonial mig a ion policies, in which indi iduals a e sys ema ically
ma ginalised and denied a ci il iden i y (A end 1968; Mbembe 2019).
Despi e labou ma ke demands, he inclusion o Duldung holde s emains complex and
challenging. In pa icula , you h and young adul s ace signi ican ba ie s o accessing
educa ion and oca ional aining (Spindle e al. 2024). Social wo k is i al in suppo ing hese
indi iduals, ye his wo k is highly es ic ed by mig a ion policy. The Ausbildungsduldung
p o ec s indi iduals om depo a ion du ing hei oca ional aining bu ies legal secu i y o
ca ee pa hs (Spindle e al. 2024). Fu he mo e, delays in ob aining wo k pe mi s and he
non- ecogni ion o o eign quali ica ions limi access o and p e en imely en olmen in
oca ional p og ammes (Spindle e al. 2024). Despi e e o s by social wo ke s, many
indi iduals emain excluded om in eg a ion cou ses and u he educa ion oppo uni ies
(Spindle e al. 2024). Sys ema ic e o m ocused on egula isa ion and social inclusion is
essen ial o mi iga e he long- e m implica ions o he Duldung s a us
(T ianda yllidou/Ba olini 2020; Schü ze 2022, 2025; Spindle e al. 2024).
This pape expands on exis ing esea ch by analysing he complex obs acles aced by (mul iply
ma ginalised) Duldung holde s in o he labou ma ke in eg a ion in Be lin. Using an
in e sec ional and c i ical app oach, we examine how s uc u al inequali ies shape he labou
ma ke access o Duldung holde s. D awing on in e iew-based policy sugges ions, we
p opose a ge ed ecommenda ions aimed a de eloping mo e inclusi e labou ma ke
policies.
3 Me hods
This s udy examines he complex challenges ega ding he in eg a ion o indi iduals wi h a
Duldung in o he Be lin labou ma ke . We employ a quali a i e esea ch design, combining
empi ical da a om expe in e iews wi h an analysis o ele an academic li e a u e and
5
policy documen s. The in eg a ion o p ima y and seconda y sou ces allows o a mo e
comp ehensi e unde s anding o he s uc u al and legal ba ie s a ec ing labou ma ke
in eg a ion. Da a collec ion was conduc ed du ing he summe o 2024 in Be lin. Semi-
s uc u ed in e iews allow o an in-dep h explo a ion o he esea ch ques ion while
main aining lexibili y in he in e iew p ocess. Ten guiding ques ions s uc u ed he
in e iews, co e ing key hemes such as bu eauc a ic hu dles, gende -speci ic obs acles and
policy ecommenda ions. Follow-up ques ions we e adap ed o each in e iewee’s expe ise
o ensu e a nuanced unde s anding o he complex p ocess.
We in e iewed six pa icipan s based on hei expe ise in employmen - ela ed suppo and
legal ad ocacy o e ugees and indi iduals wi h a Duldung. Thei insigh s p o ided ou
esea ch wi h key pe spec i es, pa icula ly on he challenges aced by indi iduals wi h a
Duldung and employe s in nego ia ing access o he labou ma ke , legal es ic ions and
ins i u ional suppo mechanisms. While he indi iduals we in e iewed spoke in a pe sonal
capaci y, hei pe spec i es a e shaped by hei oles wi hin o ganisa ions ac i ely engaged in
he ield. The ollowing indi iduals pa icipa ed in he s udy:
- Johanna Boe che wo ks a b idge – Be line Ne zwe ke ü Bleibe ech : Suppo s
e ugees in accessing he labou ma ke (I#1, I#7)
- Nicolas Che eux wo ks a AWO K eis e band Be lin-Mi e e.V.: P o ides legal
counselling o e ugees om A ghanis an (I#2, I#8)
- Nadja Tü ke wo ks o an ins i u ion ha suppo s employe s in employing e ugees
(I#3)
- Mohammad Ismael wo ks o an ins i u ion ha o e s labou igh s counselling o all
non-Eu opean mig an s (I#4)
- Benedik Nicolsky wo ks o an ins i u ion ha suppo s employe s in employing
e ugees (I#5)
- Ce en Sengölge wo ks o an ins i u ion ha suppo s e ugees wi h disabili ies and
hei ca e ake s (I#6)
We a e wo whi e emale s uden s om Ge many and he Ne he lands li ing in Be lin. Ou
posi ion as ex e nal obse e s in luenced ou esea ch design. While we ecognise he
impo ance o cen ing and ampli ying he oices o a ec ed indi iduals, ou esea ch
ques ion, limi ed esea ch ime ame and e hical conce ns led us o ocus on in e iews wi h
ins i u ional ep esen a i es a he han di ec ly engaging wi h indi iduals wi h a Duldung.
This decision aimed o p e en po en ial e auma isa ion while s ill cap u ing insigh s in o
he s uc u al challenges and suppo mechanisms a ailable. Howe e , we acknowledge he
limi a ions o his app oach which excludes he i s -hand expe iences and pe spec i es om
hose di ec ly a ec ed.
6
4 Ba ie s o labou ma ke in eg a ion o Duldung holde s
4.1 Bu eauc a ic hu dles
This sec ion p esen s he indings and explains he di e se s uc u al obs acles ha indi iduals
ace. One majo obs acle epea edly men ioned is he bu eauc a ic p ocess o secu ing wo k
pe mi s, which is leng hy and complex. Indi iduals wi h a Duldung mus na iga e a sys em
wi h nume ous o ms ha a e o en only a ailable in Ge man o English (I#2). Pa o his
p ocessing ime is spen wai ing o he app o al o he con ac by he Immig a ion O ice
and Fede al Employmen Agency, which was in oduced o p e en indi iduals om wo king
in places whe e hey do no ecei e he cus oma y local wage and/o wo k in a posi ion ha
is below hei quali ica ions. This e iew in ends o se e occupa ional sa e y and heal h, as i
is known how ulne able his g oup is (I#7). Howe e , delays a he Immig a ion O ice and
Fede al Employmen Agency can ake up o six mon hs o longe , causing job seeke s o lose
oppo uni ies o candida es who can s a immedia ely (I#1; I#3; I#6). These long p ocessing
imes also discou age employe s om hi ing indi iduals wi h a Duldung, despi e hem
ecei ing wo k app o al, u he limi ing job p ospec s (I#6). In addi ion, he p o ec ion o he
indi iduals h ough his p ocess is only on pape ; in e iewees s a ed ha i would make mo e
sense i he espec i e company aced in es iga ions ha check whe he mig an s and
indi iduals wi h a Duldung a e being exploi ed (I#7). E ec i e collabo a ion be ween he
Fede al Employmen Agency and o he mig a ion and wo k- ela ed ins i u ions is men ioned
in add essing hese challenges. Such coope a ion can c ea e oppo uni ies o indi iduals
hinde ed by bu eauc a ic ba ie s (I#1). Cu en policies impose signi ican es ic ions on
hose seeking o in eg a e in o he labou ma ke , ailing o in eg a e people and include hei
alen s e icien ly while dis ega ding Ge many’s g owing labou demand (I#2). The public
deba e in Ge many o en ames e ugees nega i ely, po aying hem as a p oblem. This
os e s s ic e policies, igh e asylum ules and addi ional poli ical hu dles o incoming
indi iduals (I#5). Po en ial solu ions include policy e o ms, such as equi ing immig a ion
o ices o espond o wo k pe mi eques s wi hin a se ime ame, wi h a sys em o au oma ic
app o al i he deadline passes (I#6). Addi ionally, allowing indi iduals o wo k wi hou special
pe missions is sugges ed as a simple solu ion (I#2).
4.2 Employe s’ pe spec i es
Ano he key ac o is he employe ’s amilia i y wi h he p ocess, as hose wi h posi i e pas
expe iences a e mo e inclined o go h ough he p ocess again (I#1). Employe s may also be
mo e inclined o hi e someone hey know, such as an in e n, as amilia i y inc eases
con idence in he candida e’s sui abili y (I#1). In e nships help indi iduals wi h a Duldung o
secu e pe manen employmen as employe s ge o know hem and a e mo e willing o
na iga e he wo k pe mi p ocess. In e iewees ecommend inc easing such oppo uni ies
(I#1). Fu he , employe s’ unde s anding o he challenges aced by indi iduals wi h a Duldung
is c ucial. Cul u al di e ences can lead o misunde s andings in communica ion and wo k
e hics (I#6). Counsello s play a key ole in educa ing bo h pa ies, os e ing mu ual
13
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