219
ACTA ZOOLOGICA BULGARICA
Applied Zoology
Resea ch A icle
Ac a Zool. Bulg., June 2025, 77 (2): 219-230
Published online 10 Ma ch 2025
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.71424/azb77.2.002856
h ps://www.ac a-zoologica-bulga ica.eu/2025/002856
The Cu en S a e o he U ban Popula ion o he Common
Wood Pigeon (Columba palumbus L.) in Belgo od, Russia
Ego L. Lyko
In o ma ion and Analy ical Cen e o P o ec ed A eas Suppo ; 3 Malaya G uzinskaya S ., Moscow 123242, Russian Fede a ion,
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
Academic Edi o : Mihaela Ilie a
Abs ac : The common wood pigeon has success ully colonised u ban habi a s in Eu ope o e he pas wo cen u-
ies and his p ocess con inues o his day. The aim was o assess he s a e o he u ban popula ion o he
species in Belgo od (Russia) du ing he b eeding season. The majo i y o he esea ch was conduc ed in
June 2021 and May 2022. The a e age popula ion densi y o he common wood pigeon in he ci y was
1.7 ± 1.2 pai s/10 ha, while he highes popula ion densi y was obse ed in he ec ea ional pa ks (2.8 ±
1.6 pai s/10 ha). The species s a ed o u ilise u banised habi a s o b eeding a ound he 1990s, including
he g een esiden ial a eas wi h p edominan ly i e-s o y housing blocks, whe e he cu en popula ion
densi y was 1.2 ± 0.3 pai s/10 ha. In gene al, he a e age popula ion densi y o he common wood pigeon
in Belgo od was signi ican ly lowe han ha in o he Eu opean u ban a eas. In he g een esiden ial a eas
wi h p edominan ly i e-s o y housing blocks, nes s we e loca ed on ees belonging o eigh axa. Nes s
we e mos o en placed in linden (25.9% o he o al numbe o nes s ound), bi ch (14.8%) and ho se
ches nu (14.8%). The heigh o nes s abo e he g ound a ied om 7 o 16 m, a e aging 11.1 ± 0.49 m.
The da a ob ained indica ed an u ban popula ion o he species ha ing o med in he ci y and being a one
o he inal s ages o synan h opisa ion.
Key wo ds: b eeding, ci y bi ds, Columba palumbus, popula ion densi y, synan h opisa ion
In oduc ion
U ban a eas ep esen he ex eme o he human-
modi ied en i onmen , a he same ime con aining
p ese ed agmen s o o iginal habi a s (Jokimäki
& Suhonen 1993, Fey e al. 2015, Va ga & Juhász,
2020). Some bi d species ha e been able o colo-
nise u ban habi a s and o m u ban popula ions
he e, which di e om na u al popula ions in a
numbe o ea u es, including highe b eeding den-
si y, a longe b eeding season, educed mig a o y
ac i i y and ole ance o humans (Vuo isalo 2010,
Lyko 2015, 2021a, b, F iedman & Suslo , 2022).
Bi ds a e a ac ed o he u ban en i onmen due o
he g ea e a ailabili y o ood sou ces, he p es-
ence o con enien nes ing si es, including human
s uc u es, and a wa me mic oclima e. Howe e ,
he ci y is an ecological ap o bi ds (e.g., bi ds
die on glass s uc u es) and he numbe o p eda-
o s in some places in he ci y can each high alues
(Jokimäki e al. 2005, Lyko 2009a, Csa hó & Bozó
2022, F iedman & Suslo 2022).
O iginally belonging o he o es a i auna,
he common wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) is
220
Lyko E. L.
one o he bi d species ha has success ully colo-
nised u ban habi a s in Wes e n and Cen al Eu ope
(Tomiałojć 1976, Hewle 2002, Šťas ny e al. 2005,
Veise bs & Jacob 2005, Wi 2005, Lyko 2009a)
and o a lesse ex en in No he n, Eas e n and
Sou he n Eu ope (Tomiałojć 1976, Mu gui 2005,
Bobenko 2009, Bea e al. 2011, Fey e al. 2015,
Sakh on & Kö é 2020, Malo ichko e al. 2021),
as well as in Asia (Ka po & Be ezo iko 1994,
Mi opolsky 2008, Gashek & Popo 2022), o e he
pas wo cen u ies. The p ocess o ac i e colonisa-
ion by he common wood pigeon con inues o his
day in some ci ies and smalle se lemen s (Sakh-
on & Kö é 2020, Malo ichko e al. 2021, Csa hó
& Bozó 2022, Gashek & Popo 2022, Lyko &
S i ido 2024).
The species colonise u ban habi a s due o he
a ailabili y o con enien nes ing si es in he o m
o ees sui able o b eeding and accessible and
cons an ood sou ces (Vuo isalo 2010, Juhász &
Va ga 2019, Luna e al. 2024), while bi ds also ly
o eed in nea by ag icul u al ields, he p esence o
which nea he ci y a ou s b eeding o he species
(Tomiałojć 1976, Jęd o e al. 2008, Bendjoudi e al.
2015). In addi ion, hun ing is no ca ied ou in se -
lemen s, which p o ec s he bi ds (Csa hó & Bozó
2022). Howe e , o e he pas decades, he numbe
o ae ial p eda o s, mainly he hooded с ow (Co us
co nix), has inc eased signi ican ly in ci ies, due o
which he b eeding success o he common wood
pigeon has signi ican ly dec eased (Tomiałojć 1979,
2005, 2021).
U ban popula ions o he species ha e eme ged,
among o he s, in some Russian u ban a eas, whe e
such popula ions a e a di e en s ages o o ma-
ion (Bobenko 2009, Lyko 2009a, As a ie a &
G ishano 2012, Malo ichko e al. 2021, Gashek &
Popo 2022) and he ci y o Belgo od is no excep-
ion. Un il he p esen s udy, no special s udies o he
common wood pigeon popula ion in Belgo od ha e
been conduc ed.
The exac ime o he eme gence o he u ban
popula ion o he species in Belgo od has no been
iden i ied. Acco ding o N.Yu. Belo (unpublished
da a), he common wood pigeon u ban popula ion
in Belgo od has exis ed a leas since 1993, when he
began obse ing bi ds in he ci y. He no iced occa-
sional inhabi ed nes s loca ed in willows (Salix spp.)
in 1993 in he ci y cen e in Pobedy Pa k, on he old
e i o y o he zoo, which had an a ea o 3.4 ha.
Thus, he bi ds b ed in he cen al pa o he ci y as
ea ly as he ea ly 1990s and mos likely, he u ban
popula ion began o o m in Belgo od in he 1980s.
The aim o his pape was o assess he s a e o he
u ban popula ion o he common wood pigeon in
Belgo od du ing he b eeding season.
Ma e ials and Me hods
Resea ch a ea
The ield esea ch was ca ied ou wi hin he ad-
minis a i e bounda ies o Belgo od as pa o a
p og am o s udy model bi d species in Russian u -
ban a eas. Belgo od (50°35’ N, 36°35’ E) is he ad-
minis a i e cen e o he Belgo od Region, Russia,
loca ed 695 km sou h o Moscow, on he sou he n
edge o he Cen al Russian Upland, on he igh
bank o he Se e sky Done s Ri e (In es men
passpo o he Ci y o Belgo od u ban dis ic
2024) in he che nozem bel in he o es -s eppe
zone (Belgo od e e ence si e 2022). The popula-
ion o he ci y was 391.3 housand people as o
Janua y 1s , 2022 (Fede al S a e S a is ics Se ice
Regional O ice o he Belgo od Region 2024a),
while he a ea o he ci y was 153.1 km2. The u -
ban a ea and i s su oundings lie on an undula -
ing plain, hea ily inden ed by gullies and a ines
(Suppo ing Ma e ials o he Gene al Plan o he
De elopmen o he Ci y o Belgo od U ban Dis-
ic un il 2025 2019).
The o es co e o he a ea a ound he ci y
is abou 9%. Isola ed g o es, mos ly oak (Que cus
obu ), occasionally pine (Pinus spp.) and linden
(Tilia spp.), a e sca e ed among he ag icul u al
lands o med in place o meadow s eppes and s eppe
meadows. Oak woodlands a e he mos ypical, be-
ing loca ed on he in e lu ial pla eau be ween he
Se e sky Done s and Ko en Ri e s, on he uppe
sec ions o i e alley slopes, on a ine and gully
slopes and some imes on ele a ed pa s o loodplain
e aces. Upland oak o es s ex end as na ow (1–3
km wide) s ips along he ele a ed igh bank o he
Se e sky Done s Ri e . In o he a eas, emnan s o
once ex ensi e oak o es s a e sca e ed along a-
ines and gullies as small pa ches o low oak wood-
land and sh ubland. Pu e oak s ands a e e y a e.
The o es s usually ha e a mul i-laye ed s uc u e
in ol ing a ious ee species: ash (F axinus excel-
sio ), elm (Ulmus spp.), maple (Ace spp.), wi h he
lowe laye s composed o bi d che y (P unus pa-
dus), owan (So bus aucupa ia), wild apple (Malus
spp.) and pea (Py us spp.). Bi ch (Be ula spp.) and
aspen (Populus emula) o es s a e also widesp ead,
being indigenous communi ies con ined o small de-
p essions on wa e sheds and o no he n slopes wi h
chalk subsoil (Suppo ing Ma e ials o he Gene al
Plan o he De elopmen o he Ci y o Belgo od
U ban Dis ic un il 2025 2019).
The Cu en S a e o he U ban Popula ion o he Common Wood Pigeon (Columba palumbus L.) in Belgo od,
221
G een spaces in Belgo od occupy a o al a ea
o 4888.9 ha as o 2021 (Belgo od 2021. Ci y Guide
in Numbe s 2022), being dis ibu ed a he e enly
h oughou he ci y. Pa ks cons i u e abou 60% o
he a ea o public g een spaces. The p esence o o -
es s wi hin he ci y limi s (u ban o es s) on an a ea
o 1,353 ha (Suppo ing Ma e ials o he Gene al
Plan o he De elopmen o he Ci y o Belgo od
U ban Dis ic un il 2025 2019) should be iewed as
a posi i e ac o .
Da a collec ion
Six main habi a s we e examined: he o es pa k,
ec ea ional pa ks, ceme e ies, small-house a eas,
squa es and boule a ds and g een esiden ial a eas
wi h p edominan ly i e-s o y housing blocks. Cen-
suses o b eeding pai s o he common wood pigeon
we e ca ied ou on designa ed census plo s using
he me hod o b eeding e i o ies mapping on June
12 h–13 h, 2021 and May 28 h–29 h, 2022. The census
ac i i ies we e ca ied ou du ing dayligh , including
he mo ning and e ening hou s when he bi ds a e
mos ac i e.
A o al o 20 census plo s wi h a o al a ea o
271.7 ha we e alloca ed (Fig. 1). The numbe o
b eeding pai s on each census plo was de e mined
by he numbe o e i o ial bi ds, singing males and
nes s ound. Each census plo was su eyed once (in
2021 o 2022). Da a om he wo yea s we e com-
bined o u he analysis. The p esence o wo o
mo e uninhabi ed nes s on one census plo wi h no
occupied nes s ound was in e p e ed as one pai . As
a esul , he a e age popula ion densi y o he spe-
cies was de e mined o each habi a and o he ci y
as a whole.
The su ace a ea o he census si es, as well as
he o al a ea o pa ks and g een esiden ial a eas
wi h p edominan ly i e-s o y housing blocks in
he ci y we e calcula ed using sa elli e maps in he
Google Ea h P o applica ion ( e sion 7.3.6). The
sha es o he examined a eas (Table 1) in he o al
su ace a ea alues o he habi a s iden i ied, wi h
he excep ion o he g een esiden ial a eas wi h p e-
dominan ly i e-s o y housing blocks, we e calcu-
la ed using he Suppo ing Ma e ials o he Gene al
Plan o he De elopmen o he Ci y o Belgo od
U ban Dis ic un il 2025 (2019).
A comple e census o nes s o he hooded
c ow and magpie (Pica pica) was ca ied ou du -
ing he lea less pe iod on Ap il 20 h–22nd, 2020 on
plo s in he small-house a eas and g een esiden-
ial a eas wi h p edominan ly i e-s o y housing
blocks, hus making i possible o assess he impac
Fig. 1. Placemen o census plo s in Belgo od. The num-
be s o he census plo s co espond o he numbe ing
gi en in Table 1.
Table 1. Pe cen age o he examined a ea o di e en habi a s in Belgo od.
№Habi a To al habi a
a ea, ha
Examined
a ea, ha
Examined a ea
pe cen age, %
1. Fo es pa k 119.0 44.7 37.6
2. Rec ea ional pa k 112.4 73.9 65.7
3. Ceme e y 120.0 29.3 24.4
4. Small-house a eas 1720.0 54.0 3.1
5. Squa es and boule a ds 54.4 4.9 9.0
6. G een esiden ial a eas wi h p edominan ly i e-s o y
housing blocks 220.4 64.9 29.4
222
Lyko E. L.
o hese co id species on he u ban popula ion o
he common wood pigeon in Belgo od. The census
o hooded c ow and magpie nes s was ca ied ou on
ou census plo s wi h a o al a ea o 93.5 ha in he
small-house a eas and on ou census plo s wi h a
o al a ea o 107.2 ha in he g een esiden ial a eas
wi h p edominan ly i e-s o y housing blocks, wi h
simul aneous obse a ion o he common wood pi-
geon on he same census plo s.
A a ge ed sea ch o nes s o he common
wood pigeon was ca ied ou only in he g een esi-
den ial a eas wi h p edominan ly i e-s o y housing
blocks du ing censuses o he b eeding pai s o he
species, as well as du ing he comple e census o
co id nes s in Ap il 2020.
Each common wood pigeon nes ound, oc-
cupied o unoccupied, was plo ed on he map wi h
an indica ion o i s loca ion and heigh abo e he
g ound.
The colonisa ion o he Belgo od u ban a eas
by he common wood pigeon was assessed using
i e s ages o synan h opisa ion, as p oposed by
Tomiałojć (1976):
S age 0. B eeding in o es s and g o es away
om popula ed a eas;
S age 1. B eeding o indi idual pai s in u ban
o es s, as well as in pe iphe al pa ks on he ou ski s
o ci ies o smalle se lemen s;
S age 2. B eeding in u ban pa ks wi h a highe
densi y han in na u al habi a s;
S age 3. B eeding in u ban pa ks wi h a high
densi y, as well as egula b eeding in esiden ial a -
eas (on he s ee s);
S age 4. B eeding in u ban pa ks wi h a high
densi y, as well as b eeding on he s ee s, includ-
ing he down own, cases o b eeding on man-made
s uc u es.
Rega ding he popula ion densi y and nes
heigh o he common wood pigeon, he mean and
s anda d e o o he mean (M ± SE) we e calcula -
ed. The popula ion densi ies o he species in di e -
en habi a s we e compa ed using he K uskal–Wal-
lis non-pa ame ic es . STATISTICA 6.0 (S a So ,
2001) so wa e was used o s a is ical e alua ion o
he ob ained da a.
Resul s
Popula ion densi y
The common wood pigeon was egis e ed in Bel-
go od du ing he b eeding season in all s udied
habi a s, excep he small-house a eas. The a e -
age popula ion densi y o he species in he ci y was
1.7 ± 1.2 pai s/10 ha, while he highes popula ion
densi y was obse ed in he ec ea ional pa ks (2.8
± 1.6 pai s/10 ha), wi h he species eco ded in all
se en pa ks, whe e he censuses we e pe o med.
In he small Ko o ey Pa k, wi h an a ea o 3.1 ha,
he popula ion densi y eached 12.9 pai s/10 ha. The
squa es and boule a ds we e less p e e ed b eed-
ing habi a s. The species was eco ded in only one
o he ou squa es and boule a ds examined. The
mos u banised habi a , he g een esiden ial a eas
wi h p edominan ly i e-s o y housing blocks, had
an a e age popula ion densi y o 1.2 ± 0.3 pai s/10
ha (Table 2).
The s a is ical analysis was conduc ed com-
pa ing he alues o he popula ion densi y in h ee
habi a s ( ec ea ional pa ks, squa es and boule a ds,
g een esiden ial a eas) using he K uskal-Wallis
es . The analysis demons a ed he absence o s a-
is ical di e ences (H=3.01; d. .=2; p=0.222) be-
ween he habi a s.
In gene al, he a e age popula ion densi y o
he common wood pigeon in Belgo od is in mos
cases signi ican ly lowe han in o he Eu opean ci -
ies and owns (Table 3). Acco ding o he li e a u e
da a a ou disposal, he maximum popula ion den-
si y o 152.8 pai s/10 ha was eco ded in Cen al
Pa k in Legnica (Poland) in 2003 (Tomiałojć 2007),
which is 90 imes highe han he a e age popula-
ion densi y eco ded in Belgo od.
Nes placemen
In he esiden ial a eas o Belgo od wi h p edomi-
nan ly i e-s o y housing blocks, a o al o 27 nes s
we e ound, which we e buil in ees belonging o
eigh axa. Mos nes s we e loca ed in linden (25.9%
o he o al numbe o nes s ound), bi ch (14.8%)
and ho se ches nu (Aesculus hippocas anum;
14.8%; Table 4). Only b oadlea ees we e used o
nes ing.
The nes placemen heigh in Belgo od a ied
om 7 o 16 m, wi h an a e age o 11.1 ± 0.49 m.
A common wood pigeon nes ound in he pa k be-
ween he Vezelka Ri e , Va u ina A enue, Pobedy
S ee and Popo a S ee was loca ed in an o namen-
al No way maple (Ace pla anoides) wi h a sphe i-
cal c own a a heigh o only 2.5 m.
Assessmen o he impac o majo nes p eda o s
Bo h he hooded c ow and he magpie b eed in Bel-
go od. Howe e , he hooded c ow was a e y a e
species in he ci y wi h a popula ion densi y o 0.2
pai s/10 ha in he g een esiden ial a eas wi h p e-
dominan ly i e-s o y housing blocks and no nes s
ound on he census plo s in he small-house a eas.
The magpie was a much mo e common species han
The Cu en S a e o he U ban Popula ion o he Common Wood Pigeon (Columba palumbus L.) in Belgo od,
223
Table 2. Popula ion densi y o he woodpigeon (Columba palumbus L.) on census plo s in Belgo od in 2021-2022.
№Habi a Census plo loca ion Census plo
su ace a ea, ha
Numbe
o pai s
Popula ion den-
si y, pai s/10 ha
1. Fo es pa k A khie eyskaya Roshcha 44.7 6 1.3
A e age popula ion densi y M ± SE 1.3
2.
Rec ea ional
pa k
Pobedy Pa k 11.4 8 7.0
3. Ko o ey Pa k 3.1 4 12.9
4. Pa k be ween he Vezelka Ri e , Va u-
ina A e., Pobedy S . and Popo a S . 4.7 2 4.3
5. Lenin Pa k o Cul u e and Leisu e 26.0 2 0.8
6. Pamya i Pa k 15.4 2 1.3
7. Pushkinskaya Allée 6.5 2 3.1
8. Yuzhny Pa k 6.8 1 1.5
A e age popula ion densi y M ± SE 2.8 ± 1.6
9. Ceme e y Yachne o Ceme e y* 28.3 3 1.1
10. Mikhaylo skoe Ceme e y 1.0 1 10.0
A e age popula ion densi y M ± SE 1.4
11.
Small-house
a eas
Be ween Plekhano a S ., Go kogo S .,
Vos ochnaya S ., Lesnaya S . 13.1 0 0
12.
Be ween Plekhano a S ., T anspo naya
S ., Zhuko skogo S ., Tsiolko skogo
S ., Le mon o a S .
15.8 0 0
13.
Be ween K asnoa meyskaya S ., Be-
linskogo S ., G azhdanskaya S ., 3-y
K asnoa meysky Lane
25.1 0 0
A e age popula ion densi y M ± SE 0
14.
Squa es and
boule a ds
Squa e nea he Go e nmen building 0.5 1 20.0
15. Squa e nea he Shchepkin D ama
Thea e 1.4 0 0
16. S ya o-T oi sky Boule a d 2.2 0 0
17. Ioasa o sky Squa e 0.8 0 0
A e age popula ion densi y M ± SE 2.0
18. G een esiden-
ial a eas wi h
p edominan ly
5-s o y housing
blocks
Be ween B. Khmelni skogo A e.,
She shne a S ., Nek aso a S ., S u-
dencheskaya S .
18.0 3 1.7
19. Be ween B. Khmelni skogo A e.,
Nek aso a S . 15.7 1 0.6
20. Be ween Mok ouso a S ., Kos yuko a
S ., Shcho sa S . 31.2 4 1.3
A e age popula ion densi y M ± SE 1.2 ± 0.3
No e: * censuses ca ied ou on a pa o he ceme e y a ea.
224
Lyko E. L.
Table 3. Compa a i e popula ion densi y o he woodpigeon (Columba palumbus L.) in Eu opean u ban a eas.
Popula ion
densi y,
pai s/10 ha
Ci y/ own, coun y (yea , habi a , loca ion) Sou ce
Mo e han
100 Legnica, Poland (2003–2004, down- own Cen al Pa k) Tomiałojć 2007
50–99
Słupsk, Poland (1990–1997, u ban pa ks); Legnica, Poland
(1966–1967, 1972, down- own Cen al Pa k); W ocław, Poland
(1970–1973, Słowacki Pa k)
Go ski e al. 1998, Tomiałojć
2007, Tomiałojć e al. 2020
40–49 London, G ea B i ain (1974, S James’s Pa k); Zielona Gó a,
Poland (pa ks)
Tomiałojć 1978, Bocheński e
al. 2013
30–39 Legnica, Poland (2006, ceme e y) Jęd o e al. 2008
20–29
Słupsk, Poland (1985–1989, u ban pa ks); Legnica, Poland
(2004–2005, ceme e y); W ocław, Poland (2009, 2013, Południowy
Pa k; 2007, Bo anic Ga den)
Go ski e al. 1998, Jęd o e al.
2008, Kopij & Zendwalewicz
2009, Kopij 2010, Tomiałojć e
al. 2020
10–19
London, G ea B i ain (1974, Kensing on Ga dens); W ocław,
Poland (2009–2010, Szczy nicki Pa k; 2008–2010, Słowacki Pa k;
2013, Bo anic Ga den); Wa saw, Poland (2015, K asińskich Ga -
den); Mezőhegyes, Hunga y (2022)
Tomiałojć 1978, Tomiałojć
2011, Luniak & Węg zynowicz
2019, Tomiałojć e al. 2020,
Csa hó & Bozó 2022
8–9.9 Słupsk, Poland (1974–1977, 1990–1997, subu ban pa ks); Siedlce,
Poland (1999, ceme e y a Cmen a na S .)
Go ski e al. 1998, Kasp -
zykowski & Łuczak 2000
6–7.9
Lublin, Poland (1988–1990, Akademicki Pa k; 1989–1991, Bo anic
Ga den; 1989–1991, a ea plan ed wi h ees in Czechów); Słupsk,
Poland (1985–1989, subu ban pa ks); Li e pool, G ea B i ain
(1996–1998, Se on Pa k); Legnica, Poland (1965, Pe iphe al pa k);
Košice, Slo akia (2011–2012, Ceme e y o S . Rozália)
Biadun 1994, Go ski e al.
1998, Sla e 2001, Tomiałojć
2007, Mošanský e al. 2014
4–5.9
Lublin, Poland (1988–1990, Saski Ga den Pa k); Legnica, Poland
(2007, Pe iphe al pa k); W ocław, Poland (2011, Biskupiński Pa k;
2008, Osobowice Ceme e y; 2016, ci y cen e ); Zielona Gó a,
Poland ( esiden ial a ea); Wa saw, Poland (2000, Мausoleum o he
So ie Soldie s Ceme e y, es a e nea Dąb owskiego S .; 2004–
2005, 2014, Ska yszewski Pa k); Ba onya, Hunga y (2022)
Biadun 1994, Luniak e
al. 2001, Tomiałojć 2007,
Bocheński e al. 2013, Lu-
niak & Węg zynowicz 2019,
Tomiałojć e al. 2020, Csa hó
& Bozó 2022
2–3.9
Lublin, Poland (1982–1984, ceme e y a Lipowa S .; 1987–1989,
ceme e y a Unicka S .; 1987–1990, B onowicki Pa k; 1988–1990,
Majdanek Ceme e y, Kalinowszczyzna Ceme e y); Słupsk, Poland
(1974–1977, u ban pa ks); Siedlce, Poland (1985, Main Siedlce
Pa k; 1984, 1986, Wild Siedlce Pa k; 1998, ceme e y a Cmen a na
S .; 1985–1986, 1998–1999, ceme e y a Janowska S .); Kalinin-
g ad, Russia (2008–2010); K aków, Poland (2012, Rakowice Cem-
e e y); Košice, Slo akia (2011–2012, pa k in Ba ca); Białys ok,
Poland (2013, pa ks); W ocław, Poland (2017, buil -up a ea);
Wa saw, Poland (2006, 2013, Że omskiego Pa k; 2013, K asińskich
Ga den); Końskie, Poland (2016–2017, housing blocks a ea)
Biadun 1994, Go ski e al.
1998, Domb owski & Łuczak
1998, Kasp zykowski &
Łuczak 2000, As a ie a e
al. 2011, Alb ych & Ciach
2013, Mošanský e al. 2014,
Zby y 2014, Kopij 2017, Lu-
niak & Węg zynowicz 2019,
Dębowski 2020
1–1.9
Lublin, Poland (1982–1984, Ludowy Pa k); Siedlce, Poland (1984,
1986, Main Siedlce Pa k; 1985–1986, ceme e y a Cmen a na
S .); Dijon, F ance (1980–1984, Pa c des Spo s); Košice, Slo a-
kia (2011–2012, Public Ceme e y); Białys ok, Poland (2013, ci y
cen e , old housing blocks a ea, small-house a ea); Wa saw, Poland
(2004, 2017, Że omskiego Pa k; 2013, Kępa Po ocka Pa k); O yol,
Russia (2019, 2021, o es pa ks, ceme e ies)
Biadun 1994, Domb owski
& Łuczak 1998, Tomiałojć
1998, Kasp zykowski &
Łuczak 2000, Mošanský e al.
2014, Zby y 2014, Luniak &
Węg zynowicz 2019, Lyko &
S i ido 2024
less han 1
Dijon, F ance (1980, Pa c de La Colombie e); Wa saw, Poland (la e
1980s, Łazienki Pa k, Rakowiec, Wie zbno dis ic s; 2006, Kępa Po-
ocka Pa k); Košice, Slo akia (2011–2012, pa k on Komenského S .);
W ocław, Poland (2017, indus ial a ea); Białys ok, Poland (2013, new
housing blocks a ea, indus ial a eas, subu ban u al habi a s); O yol,
Russia (2019, 2021, pa ks, small-house a eas, g een esiden ial a eas)
Tomiałojć 1998, Luniak e al.
2001, Mošanský e al. 2014,
Kopij 2017, Zby y 2014, Lu-
niak & Węg zynowicz 2019,
Lyko & S i ido 2024
The Cu en S a e o he U ban Popula ion o he Common Wood Pigeon (Columba palumbus L.) in Belgo od,
225
he hooded c ow. Thus, he popula ion densi y o he
magpie was 1.9 pai s/10 ha in he g een esiden ial
a eas wi h p edominan ly i e-s o y housing blocks,
while i was no eco ded b eeding on he census
plo s in he small-house a eas.
I should be no ed ha , despi e he absence o
b eeding hooded c ows and magpies on he census
plo s in he small-house a eas, he common wood
pigeon was no obse ed as a b eeding species in
his habi a , while he e we e places sui able o i s
b eeding. A he same ime, he censuses o b eeding
pai s o he species in he small-house a eas we e
less comple e han in o he habi a s due o he la ge
a ea occupied by his habi a in he ci y (Table 1).
The e o e, occasional b eeding o he bi ds in his
habi a should no be uled ou .
Discussion
Popula ion densi y
The common wood pigeon success ully exploi s he
u ban en i onmen by adap ing o he ex eme con-
di ions o he ci y. Values o he popula ion densi y
in di e en u ban habi a s e lec he deg ee o as-
socia ion o bi ds wi h an h opogenic habi a s. The
highe popula ion densi y o he species in mos Eu-
opean u ban a eas compa ed o Belgo od is mos
likely due o he ela i ely sho his o y o he u ban
popula ion o he species in he ci y unde s udy.
In addi ion, he popula ion densi y o he common
wood pigeon is also a ec ed by p eda ion p essu e
and he p oximi y o ag icul u al lands whe e bi ds
ly o eed (Tomiałojć 1976, 1979, 2021). These ac-
o s a e discussed sepa a ely in he ele an sec ions
o his pape . Being a species closely associa ed wi h
ees, he common wood pigeon has a s ong p e -
e ence o g een spaces, which likely explains he
ac ha i s popula ion densi y is he highes in he
ec ea ional pa ks o Belgo od.
The a e age eco ded popula ion densi y o
he common wood pigeon in pa ks o Belgo od is
compa able wi h he densi y in B onowicki Pa k in
Lublin in 1987–1990, in Main Siedlce Pa k in 1985
and Wild Siedlce Pa k in 1984 and 1986 in Siedlce,
in he pa ks o Białys ok in 2013 and in Rakowice
Ceme e y in K aków in 2012, while he a e age
densi y in he Belgo od ceme e ies is compa able
wi h he densi y in he public ceme e y in Košice
in 2011–2012, in ceme e ies o O yol in 2019 and
2021, in Ludowy Pa k in Lublin in 1982–1984 and
in Main Siedlce Pa k in Siedlce in 1984 and 1986
and ha in he g een esiden ial a eas wi h p edomi-
nan ly i e-s o y housing blocks is compa able wi h
he densi y in he g een esiden ial a eas in he ci y
o O yol (Table 3).
In Belgo od, as in o he ci ies (e.g. W ocław,
Białys ok, Zielona Gó a), he popula ion densi y
o he common wood pigeon is signi ican ly highe
in pa ks compa ed o buil -up a eas (Kopij 2010,
Tomiałojć 2011, Bocheński e al. 2013, Zby y
2014, Kopij 2017, Tomiałojć e al. 2020). Simila
da a we e ob ained in Raba , whe e he high u ban
pa k co e age inc eases he p obabili y o he spe-
cies nes occu ence p obabili y (Eddajjani e al.
2024).
The in o ma ion on he b eeding o he com-
mon wood pigeon in na u al habi a s o he Belgo od
Region is ex emely agmen a y. The numbe s o
he species ha e inc eased no ably in he egion un-
de conside a ion and adjacen e i o ies o e he
pas decades. Fo example, he species was no e-
co ded b eeding in he Vo skla Fo es sec o o Be-
logo ye S a e Na u e Rese e in 1963 and 1993, bu
was ound he e in 2008–2009 (Sokolo 2010). In
he neighbou ing Vo onezh Region, he popula ion
densi y o he common wood pigeon in he Kh eno-
sky pine o es was 1 pai /km2 in 2010 and 2 pai s/
km2 in 2011 (Sokolo 2021).
Table 4. Placemen o nes s o he woodpigeon (Columba palumbus L.) in ees in he g een esiden ial a eas wi h
p edominan ly i e-s o y housing blocks in Belgo od.
Taxon Numbe o nes s %
Linden (Tilia spp.) 7 25.9
Bi ch (Be ula spp.) 4 14.8
Ho se ches nu (Aesculus hippocas anum) 4 14.8
Popla (Populus spp.) 2 7.4
Black locus (Robinia pseudoacacia)2 7.4
Elm (Ulmus spp.) 2 7.4
Ash (F axinus excelsio )1 3.7
Che y (P unus ce asus)1 3.7
Uniden i ied ee 4 14.8
226
Lyko E. L.
Thus, he abo e da a indica e a signi ican ly
highe popula ion densi y o he common wood pi-
geon in he u ban habi a s o Belgo od compa ed o
na u al habi a s.
Nes placemen
P e ious s udies ha e shown ha nes placemen in
he common wood pigeon had a signi ican impac
on nes p eda ion le els (Ó hUallacháin, 2014).
In Belgo od, mos nes s a e loca ed in linden,
bi ch and ho se ches nu ees. In Kalining ad,
whe e a s able u ban popula ion o he species has
o med o e he pas ew decades (Lyko 2009a,
As a ie a e al. 2011), linden was used mos o en
o nes ing in he g een esiden ial a eas (19.8%
o he o al numbe o nes s in his habi a : Lyko
2009b). In Minsk, he si ua ion wi h p e e ences
o nes ee ype is simila : 55.1% o he common
wood pigeon nes s in he ci y neighbou hoods a e
loca ed in linden (Sakh on & Kö é 2020). The
majo i y o nes s a e also loca ed in linden in Li -
e pool in he UK, in Legnica in Poland and in Gal-
way in I eland (32%, 26.4% and 19.5% o nes s,
espec i ely: Tomiałojć 1979, Sla e 2001, Ó hUal-
lacháin 2014).
In he esiden ial a ea o Belgo od, only b oad-
lea ees we e used by he common wood pigeon o
nes ing. Coni e ous ees and sh ubs a e e y a e in
he ci y’s esiden ial a eas. In o he ci ies whe e co-
ni e ous ee species a e p esen in g een spaces, he
p opo ion o nes s loca ed on such ees can each
25% (Kalining ad: Lyko 2009b). No nes s we e
no ed on human buildings.
The a e age heigh abo e he g ound o nes s
o he common wood pigeon in he esiden ial a eas
o Belgo od was 11.1 m. In o he ci ies nes s we e,
on a e age, loca ed a a lowe heigh : a 7.2 m in
Deb ecen ( esiden ial a eas: Juhász & Va ga 2019),
a 6.0 m in Galway (uni e si y a ea: Ó hUallacháin
2014), a 5.4 m in Kalining ad ( esiden ial a eas:
Lyko 2009b). In Szczy nicki Pa k in W oclaw, he
a e age nes heigh o 10.9 m is compa able wi h
ou da a ob ained in Belgo od. The a e age nes
heigh o he common wood pigeon in ano he pa k
in W oclaw (Słowacki Pa k) was lowe han in Bel-
go od (9.9 m), while ha in he ci y pa k o Legnica
was highe (14.3 m: Tomiałojć 1979).
The highe nes placemen in Belgo od com-
pa ed o o he ci ies and owns may be due o he
e y low numbe s o he hooded c ow, which is
conside ed a p incipal nes p eda o o he common
wood pigeon. Wi h a high le el o hooded c ow p e-
da ion, he bi ds place hei nes s lowe abo e he
g ound (Tomiałojć 1979).
In gene al, he loca ion o he common wood
pigeon nes in Belgo od low abo e he g ound in
a low-g owing o namen al No way maple is no
unique o u ban popula ions o common wood pi-
geons. Simila nes s o his species, loca ed low in
o namen al ees, a e no a e in he cen al pa o
Kalining ad (Lyko 2023).
Impac o majo nes p eda o s
The hooded/ca ion c ow and, o a lesse ex en ,
magpie a e he p incipal nes p eda o s o he com-
mon wood pigeon (C amp 1972, Go ski e al. 1998,
Tomiałojć 1976, 1978, 1998, 2005, Jęd o e al.
2008, Vuo isalo 2010, Zby y 2014, Va ga & Juhász
2020).
In Belgo od, he b eeding densi y o he hood-
ed c ow is e y low, which is a a ou able condi-
ion o he b eeding o he common wood pigeon.
Howe e , he magpie, also a nes p eda o , b eeds in
he ci y wi h a highe densi y han he hooded c ow.
The b eeding success o he species in some u -
ban a eas can d op as low as 3–7% due o p eda ion
p essu e (Tomiałojć 2021). As no ed by Tomiałojc
(1978), he popula ion densi y o he common wood
pigeon is in e sely p opo ional o he numbe o he
hooded c ow.
Assessmen o he ood supply
The main ac o de e mining he b eeding season o
he common wood pigeon is ood a ailabili y. In he
ci ies, i eeds on g ass g owing on lawns in public
ga dens, oo s, buds and lea es o ees and sh ubs,
seeds and lowe s, while in au umn i eeds also on
ui s, be ies and aco ns. Bi ds consume ood on
he g ound, in ees and bushes (C amp 1972, Hewl-
e 2002, Vuo isalo 2010, Bendjoudi e al. 2015,
Gu ié ez-Galán e al. 2016, Luna & Blanch 2024).
The species has also been epo ed o eed on u ban
g een oo s (Luna & Blanch 2024). In his con ex ,
u ban g een a eas migh o e abundan and p edic -
able eeding esou ces du ing he i s s ages o he
b eeding season, mig a ion and win e ing o bi ds.
The common wood pigeon shows g ea plas ici y in
i s o aging beha iou and exploi s a wide ange o
esou ces om ci y ees (Luna e al. 2024).
In addi ion, u ban popula ions o he common
wood pigeon a e cha ac e ised by long-dis ance
o aging mo emen s ou side he u ban a ea o ag-
icul u al ields, whe e he bi ds ecei e addi ional
ood (Tomiałojć 1976, 2021, Sla e 2001, Jęd o e
al. 2008, As a ie a 2009). Du ing such mo emen s,
bi ds can co e egula ly dis ances o up o 15 km
o mo e om he nes (Tomiałojć, 1976). In he ag i-
cul u al landscape, he common wood pigeon eeds
The Cu en S a e o he U ban Popula ion o he Common Wood Pigeon (Columba palumbus L.) in Belgo od,
227
on ields o whea (T i icum spp.), ye (Secale ce-
eale), ba ley (Ho deum ulga e), ape (B assica
napus), sun lowe (Helian hus annuus) and peas
(La hy us ole aceus). The main ype o ood in he
ag icul u al landscape is g ain and young shoo s
o cul i a ed ce eals (Sla e 2001, As a ie a 2009,
Vuo isalo 2010, Mischenko e al. 2013, Csa hó &
Bozó 2022).
The disappea ance o ag icul u al ields du ing
ac i e u banisa ion is he main limi ing ac o o he
colonisa ion o an u ban a ea by he common wood
pigeon (Dine i e al. 2013). In addi ion, bi ds s op
eeding in abandoned ields (Mischenko e al. 2013).
As o 2022, he mos widesp ead c ops in he
Belgo od Region a e win e whea (T i icum aes-
i um, 30% o he o al cul i a ed a ea), soybeans
(Glycine max, 20%), sun lowe (Helian hus annuus,
11.3%) and co n (Zea mays, 8.7%) (Fede al S a e
S a is ics Se ice Regional O ice o he Belgo od
Region 2024b).
Wi hin he ci y limi s, he e a e ag icul u al
zones occupied by a able land (mainly in Zapadny
Dis ic ), ege able ga dens (in all dis ic s o he
ci y) and g eenhouse acili ies (in Vos ochny Dis-
ic o he ci y) (Suppo ing Ma e ials o he Gen-
e al Plan o he De elopmen o he Ci y o Bel-
go od U ban Dis ic un il 2025 2019). The ci y o
Belgo od is su ounded on all sides by Belgo odsky
Dis ic , which has a o al a ea o 1474.7 km2. Ag-
icul u e is well de eloped in he dis ic , wi h 17
la ge ag icul u al en e p ises in ope a ion. The a ea
o a able land used by economic en i ies in Bel-
go odsky Dis ic is 684 km2. Ce eals, soybeans
and suga bee s (Be a ulga is) a e he p edominan
c ops (Websi e o Belgo od Dis ic municipal en i y
o he Belgo od Region 2024).
Colonisa ion o u ban a eas
The colonisa ion o ci ies by mos bi d species occu s
g adually om he weakly ans o med pe iphe y o
he ci y o i s u banised cen e (“g adual synan h o-
pisa ion”). The common wood pigeon belongs o a
g oup o bi ds ha colonise ci ies g adually (Lyko
2021a). Tomiałojć (1976) de eloped a scale o de-
e mining he s age o synan h opisa ion o he com-
mon wood pigeon, using in o ma ion on he e-
quency o b eeding o he species in habi a s wi h
di e en an h opogenic loads. The u ban popula ion
o he species in Belgo od can be condi ionally clas-
si ied as o he synan h opisa ion s age 3: b eeding
in u ban pa ks wi h a high densi y, as well as egula
b eeding in esiden ial a eas (on he s ee s). To da e,
he s udied popula ion in Belgo od has no each he
inal synan h opisa ion s age 4, when he species
b eeds a a high densi y in u ban pa ks, as well as
in esiden ial a eas and indi idual pai s s a o build
nes s on man-made s uc u es. The inal 4 h s age o
synan h opisa ion has been eached by u ban popula-
ions o he common wood pigeon in London, Be -
lin, W ocław, Legnica, Kalining ad (Tomiałojć 1976,
Hewle 2002, Lyko e al. 2012).
In he u u e, we can expec an inc ease in he
popula ion densi y o he species in Belgo od and
b eeding o indi idual bi ds on human buildings.
Conclusion
The da a we ob ained on he common wood pigeon
dis ibu ion ac oss habi a s in he ci y, popula ion
densi y and nes loca ions indica e he o ma ion o
an u ban popula ion o he species in Belgo od. The
popula ion is a one o he inal s ages o synan h o-
pisa ion. The coming decades may see an inc ease
in he popula ion densi y o he common wood pi-
geon in Belgo od. The species was eco ded du ing
he b eeding season in all he s udied habi a s o he
ci y, wi h he excep ion o he small-house a eas. I
also b eeds in he cen al pa o he ci y. The highes
popula ion densi y was eco ded in pa ks. The lowe
popula ion densi y o he common wood pigeon in
Belgo od compa ed o mos Eu opean u ban a eas is
mos likely due o he sho his o y o he local u ban
popula ion.
The exac ime o he eme gence o he u -
ban popula ion o he common wood pigeon is un-
known; howe e , he popula ion exis ed as ea ly as
he ea ly 1990s, wi h bi ds ound b eeding in pa k
s ands in he cen al pa o he ci y (N.Yu. Belo ,
unpublished). The a ou able ac o s ha led o
he eme gence o he u ban popula ion o he spe-
cies in Belgo od include he e y low numbe s o
he hooded c ow, he main nes p eda o , as well as
he p esence o as ag icul u al ields in subu ban
a eas, which appa en ly se e as a egula o aging
g ound o he bi ds.
Acknowledgemen s: We would like o exp ess ou g a i ude
o N.Yu. Belo , he assis an di ec o o gene al a ai s o he
S . Pe e sbu g S a e Budge a y Cul u al Ins i u ion “Lening ad
Zoological Pa k”, o p o iding in o ma ion on he b eeding o
he common wood pigeon in Belgo od in he p e ious pe iod.
Re e ences
Alb ych M. & Ciach M. 2013. Changes in he b eeding a i-
auna o he Rakowice Ceme e yin K aków o e las
40 yea s. O nis Polonica 54: 247-256. (In Polish wi h
English summa y).
