Gone

TPM Vol. 32, No. S7, 2025 Open Access
ISSN: 1972-6325
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MULTILEVEL ANALYSIS WITH A STATISTICAL
APPROACH OF THE IMPACT OF EARLY COGNITIVE
STIMULATION ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIO-
EMOTIONAL SKILLS
JENNIFER MEJÍA-RÍOS
FUNDACIÓN UNIVERSITARIA INTERNACIONAL DE LA RIOJA, EMAIL: jenni e .mejia@uni .ne
ORCID: h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-8204-3431
MARCELO FABIAN ROSERO SANTANA
UNIVERSIDAD DE LAS FUERZAS ARMADAS - ESPE, ECUADOR, EMAIL: [email p o ec ed].
ORCID: h ps://o cid.o g/0009-0008-4019-5582
NANCY ELIZABETH CHARIGUAMÁN MAURISACA
ESCUELA SUPERIOR POLITÉCNICA DE CHIMBORAZO, RIOBAMBA, ECUADOR,
EMAIL: [email p o ec ed], ORCID: h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-7345-0710
LUIS EDUARDO SEVILLA MÁRQUEZ
INDEPENDENT RESEARCHER, EMAIL: [email p o ec ed], ORCID: h ps://o cid.o g/0009-0002-2915-
Summa y
The p esen s udy in es iga es he e ec o ea ly cogni i e s imula ion on he de elopmen o
socio-emo ional skills in ea ly childhood, using a mul ile el design ha conside s in a-
indi idual and in e -con ex a iabili y ( amily, school). A longi udinal sample o 300 child en
aged 2 o 5 yea s (wi h annual measu emen s) is used, dis ibu ed in 20 cogni i e s imula ion
cen e s. The deg ee o ea ly cogni i e s imula ion is measu ed ( h ough a weigh ed index ha
includes equency, a ie y and quali y o ac i i ies) and socio-emo ional skills a e assessed
using s anda dized scales o emo ional egula ion, social compe encies and beha io al con ol.
The mixed mul ile el model ( andom slopes and andom in e cep s) allows es ima ing he e ec s
o he s imula ion p og am (indi idual le el) and he con ex ual impac o he educa ional cen e
(g oup le el). The esul s sugges ha ea ly cogni i e s imula ion has a signi ican posi i e e ec
on he g ow h o socio-emo ional skills (β ≈ 0.25, p < 0.01) and ha his e ec a ies be ween
cen e s (in e cen e a iances ≈ 12% o he o al). In addi ion, mode a o s such as he educa ional
le el o he pa en s and he quali y o he emo ional en i onmen o he home a e iden i ied. The
conclusions highligh he impo ance o designing cogni i e in e en ions in mul isys em
con ex s and o employing mul ile el analysis o cap u e con ex ual he e ogenei y.
Keywo ds: ea ly cogni i e s imula ion; socio-emo ional skills; mul ile el analysis; child
de elopmen ; mixed model.
INTRODUCTION
Du ing he las decades, ea ly childhood has been consolida ed as a c i ical s age o he in eg al de elopmen
o he human being, in which he ounda ions o bo h cogni i e unc ioning and socio-emo ional de elopmen
a e con igu ed. De elopmen al neu oscience has shown ha he i s yea s o li e cons i u e a pe iod o high
b ain plas ici y, whe e en i onmen al s imula ion and social in e ac ion ha e las ing e ec s on neu al
a chi ec u e (Nelson e al., 2020). Wi hin his con ex , ea ly cogni i e s imula ion (ECT) —unde s ood as he
se o planned expe iences ha p omo e he acquisi ion o in ellec ual, language, and p oblem-sol ing skills—
has gained special ele ance as an educa ional and p e en i e ool o enhance child de elopmen (Rod íguez &
He nández, 2022).
Howe e , cogni i e s imula ion no only impac s highe men al unc ions, bu is also closely linked o he
o ma ion o socio-emo ional skills (HSE), such as emo ional sel - egula ion, empa hy, coope a ion, and
e ec i e communica ion. Recen esea ch has shown ha cogni i e in e en ions gene a e indi ec
imp o emen s in social and emo ional beha io , by s eng hening execu i e p ocesses such as a en ion,
wo king memo y, and inhibi o y con ol, which a e undamen al o emo ional egula ion (Fuji a & Hamaguchi,
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2021). In his sense, cogni i e and socio-emo ional de elopmen should be unde s ood as in e dependen
p ocesses, whe e ea ly cogni i e s imula ion ac s as a ca alys o eme ging socio-emo ional compe encies
(He nández e al., 2023).
Ea ly emo ional educa ion is also ecognized oday as a p edic o o academic and social success in la e
s ages. Acco ding o a longi udinal s udy conduc ed in he Uni ed Kingdom, child en who ecei e combined
cogni i e and emo ional s imula ion p og ams show be e le els o sel - egula ion, highe academic
pe o mance, and lowe a es o beha io al p oblems du ing schooling (Mille e al., 2021). This e idence
ein o ces he need o app oach child de elopmen om a holis ic app oach, in eg a ing cogni i e, emo ional
and con ex ual componen s wi hin ini ial educa ional p ac ices.
Howe e , much o he s udies on TCE and socio-emo ional de elopmen ha e ocused on expe imen al o
c oss-sec ional designs, wi h analyses ha do no conside he hie a chical o con ex ual s uc u e o he da a.
This can lead o incomple e o biased conclusions, gi en ha child en de elop in in e dependen sys ems—
home, school, communi y— ha simul aneously in luence hei g ow h (B on enb enne & Mo is, 2020).
Consequen ly, he e is a need o use mul ile el o hie a chical models, capable o b eaking down a iabili y
a di e en le els and es ima ing indi idual and con ex ual e ec s mo e accu a ely.
Mul ile el models make i possible o di e en ia e he child's own e ec s (indi idual le el) om hose ha
come om he amily o ins i u ional en i onmen (g oup le el), hus iden i ying pa e ns o c oss-in luence
be ween le els (Golds ein e al., 2022). Fo example, he same s imula ion p og am can p oduce di e en e ec s
depending on he quali y o he educa ional en i onmen , he emo ional clima e o he home, o he amily's
socioeconomic le el (López & Ga cía, 2023). This analy ical pe spec i e is essen ial o unde s and he
mechanisms by which ea ly cogni i e s imula ion impac s socio-emo ional de elopmen .
Likewise, ecen e idence shows ha amily and school con ex s wi h highe le els o emo ional and
educa ional capi al enhance he e ec o cogni i e s imula ion, while en i onmen s o high ad e si y o low
a ec i e esponsibili y end o limi i s e ec i eness (González e al., 2024). The e o e, he ela ionship be ween
cogni i e s imula ion and socio-emo ional skills canno be in e p e ed in a linea way, bu as he esul o
complex in e ac ions be ween indi idual, amily and ins i u ional cha ac e is ics.
The p esen s udy seeks o con ibu e o his deba e h ough a mul ile el analysis wi h a s a is ical app oach
ha e alua es he impac o ea ly cogni i e s imula ion on he de elopmen o socio-emo ional skills in ea ly
childhood. Th ough a mixed-e ec s model, we aim o es ima e he a e age e ec o cogni i e s imula ion and
examine he a iabili y be ween schools, as well as he mode a ing ole o con ex ual a iables (pa en s'
educa ional le el, emo ional clima e o he home and quali y o he school). In his way, he s udy no only
o e s a igo ous empi ical app oach, bu also a sys emic ision o child de elopmen , consis en wi h
con empo a y p oposals in de elopmen al psychology and ea ly educa ion.
In summa y, unde s anding how ea ly cogni i e s imula ion a ec s socio-emo ional de elopmen , and unde
wha con ex ual condi ions i s e ec s a e maximized, is essen ial o he design o in eg a ed educa ional
policies, ea ly in e en ion p og ams, and amily s a egies aimed a s eng hening child well-being. This
esea ch, based on ecen e idence and mul ile el analysis, seeks o p o ide a deepe unde s anding o his
dynamic and mul idimensional ela ionship.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
1. Ea ly cogni i e s imula ion: concep ual ounda ions
Ea ly cogni i e s imula ion (ECT) is de ined as he se o s uc u ed expe iences and ac i i ies aimed a
enhancing child en's men al abili ies du ing ea ly childhood, including p ocesses such as a en ion, memo y,
language, logical easoning, and p oblem-sol ing (Rod íguez & He nández, 2022). This p ac ice seeks o
s eng hen he neu al ci cui s in ol ed in lea ning and beha io al egula ion, based on he neu oplas ici y
cha ac e is ic o he i s yea s o li e (Nelson e al., 2020).
In ecen yea s, neu ode elopmen al esea ch has highligh ed he ela ionship be ween cogni i e s imula ion
and he de elopmen o execu i e unc ions, which allow planning, inhibi ion o impulsi e esponses, and
cogni i e lexibili y (Gu ié ez e al., 2021). Such unc ions no only imp o e in ellec ual pe o mance, bu also
cons i u e he neu opsychological basis o emo ional con ol and social skills, di ec ly linking cogni i e
s imula ion o socio-emo ional de elopmen .
Table 1 summa izes he main componen s and bene i s associa ed wi h ea ly cogni i e s imula ion acco ding
o ecen li e a u e.
Table 1. Componen s and Bene i s o Ea ly Cogni i e S imula ion (2019–2025)
TCE componen
Desc ip ion
E idenced bene i s
Foun ain
Language and
communica ion
Vocabula y, na a ion, and
lis ening ac i i ies
Imp o ed language
de elopmen and social
empa hy
Rod íguez &
He nández (2022)
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Reasoning and logic
games
Sequen ial P oblems,
Pa e ns, and Objec
Classi ica ion
Inc eased analy ical hinking
and sel -con ol
López & Ga cía
(2023)
Symbolic and
c ea i e ac i i ies
Role-playing, a , and
music
P omo ion o emo ional sel -
egula ion and a ec i e
exp ession
González e al.
(2024)
S uc u ed senso y
s imula ion
Planned ac ile, isual, and
audi o y expe iences
Consolida ion o sus ained
a en ion and isual-mo o
coo dina ion
He nández e al.
(2023)
Cogni i e and
a ec i e eedback
Posi i e in e ac ions wi h
ca egi e s du ing lea ning
Inc eased bonding and
emo ional secu i y
Fuji a &
Hamaguchi
(2021)
As obse ed, cogni i e s imula ion in posi i e a ec i e con ex s ac s as an emo ional and social sca olding,
gene a ing lea ning expe iences ha in eg a e cogni ion and emo ion.
2. Socio-emo ional skills: an axis o in eg al de elopmen
Social-emo ional skills (HSE) encompass he abili y o iden i y, unde s and, and egula e one's own emo ions,
as well as o es ablish empa he ic and coope a i e ela ionships wi h o he s (Collabo a i e o Academic, Social,
and Emo ional Lea ning [CASEL], 2023). In childhood, hese skills a e obus p edic o s o psychological well-
being, school success, and long- e m social adap a ion (Mille e al., 2021).
In he las i e yea s, se e al s udies ha e ein o ced he connec ion be ween cogni i e s imula ion and socio-
emo ional de elopmen . Fo example, González e al. (2024) showed ha ea ly s imula ion p og ams imp o e
sel - egula ion and empa hy when hey include componen s o a ec i e in e ac ion. Likewise, He nández e al.
(2023) ound a bidi ec ional ela ionship be ween execu i e unc ions and socio-emo ional compe encies,
sugges ing a co-e olu ion o bo h dimensions o de elopmen .
Table 2. Main dimensions o socio-emo ional skills
Dimension
Desc ip ion
Obse able indica o s
Re e ence
Emo ional sel -
egula ion
Abili y o con ol impulses and
main ain balanced a ec i e s a es
F us a ion managemen ,
sel -con ol
Fuji a &
Hamaguchi
(2021)
Empa hy and
p osociali y
Unde s anding o o he people's
emo ions and willingness o help
Coope a i e beha io s,
emo ional language
CASEL (2023)
Au onomy and
mo i a ion
Ini ia i e and pe sis ence in
p oblem sol ing
Decision-making,
achie emen o ien a ion
López & Ga cía
(2023)
Social
compe ence
Abili y o in e ac e ec i ely wi h
o he s
Communica ion skills,
con lic esolu ion
He nández e al.
(2023)
These dimensions make up a sys em o compe encies ha , acco ding o Denham e al. (2021), eme ge h ough
epea ed in e ac ions be ween he child and his o he immedia e social en i onmen , which ein o ces he need
o emo ionally en iched lea ning con ex s.
3. In e dependence be ween cogni i e s imula ion and socio-emo ional skills
The link be ween cogni ion and emo ion has been widely explo ed in ecen li e a u e om neu o-educa ional
and psychosocial pe spec i es. Acco ding o Golds ein e al. (2022), ea ly cogni i e expe iences s imula e he
p e on al co ex, a egion in ol ed in bo h execu i e p ocesses and emo ional egula ion. This e idence
sugges s ha cogni i e s imula ion no only " eaches how o hink," bu also " eaches how o eel wi h
s uc u e."
The cogni i e-emo ional coe olu ion model s a es ha ad ances in he cogni i e domain acili a e g ea e
emo ional unde s anding and empa hy, while posi i e emo ional expe iences s eng hen lea ning and memo y
p ocesses (He nández e al., 2023). Thus, in e en ions ha combine cogni i e and a ec i e componen s ha e
syne gis ic e ec s on child de elopmen (Mille e al., 2021).
Fo example, ea ly s imula ion p og ams in symbolic play con ex s, whe e child en engage in coope a i e
na a i es and p oblem-sol ing, show imp o emen s in bo h language skills and emo ional egula ion
(Gu ié ez e al., 2021). This ein o ces he idea ha cogni ion and emo ion ac as in e dependen sys ems.
4. Ecological and con ex ual pe spec i e o de elopmen
The ecological heo y o human de elopmen p oposed by B on enb enne and Mo is (2020) con inues o be
a key e e ence o unde s anding how mul iple en i onmen s—home, school, communi y—in e ac in he
o ma ion o cogni i e and socio-emo ional skills. Unde his app oach, child de elopmen occu s wi hin
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in e connec ed mic osys ems, and he quali y o in e ac ions be ween hese con ex s de e mines he
e ec i eness o in e en ions.
Recen s udies ha e con i med ha he emo ional clima e o he home and he educa ional le el o he
pa en s a e impo an mode a o s o he impac o cogni i e s imula ion (González e al., 2024). Likewise, he
quali y o he educa ional cen e —measu ed h ough he wa m h o he eaching s a , he s uc u e o
ac i i ies, and he emo ional s abili y o he class oom—explains pa o he a iabili y in socio-emo ional
de elopmen (Slui e e al., 2025).
Table 3. Con ex ual ac o s ha mode a e he impac o ea ly cogni i e s imula ion
Ecological
le el
Mode a ing a iable
E ec on social-emo ional
de elopmen
Re e ence
Familia
Pa en s' educa ional le el
Inc eases esponsi eness o cogni i e
s imulus
González e al.
(2024)
Familia
Emo ional clima e o he
home
P omo es sel - egula ion and secu e
a achmen
He nández e al.
(2023)
Ins i u ional
Quali y o he educa ional
cen e
Imp o es emo ional consis ency o
lea ning
Slui e e al. (2025)
Communi y
Access o cul u al
esou ces
Expand cogni i e and social
expe iences
López & Ga cía
(2023)
5. Mul ile el app oach as a me hodological ool
Mul ile el models a e an ideal s a is ical ool o analyzing educa ional and psychological phenomena whe e
he uni s o analysis a e nes ed (e.g., child en in class ooms o schools). This app oach makes i possible o
sepa a e he a iance a ibu able o each le el and o es ima e con ex ual and indi idual e ec s simul aneously
(Golds ein e al., 2022).
In ecen s udies, mul ile el analysis has e ealed ha app oxima ely 10% o 20% o he a iance in child en's
social-emo ional skills can be explained by di e ences be ween educa ional ins i u ions (Slui e e al., 2025).
In his way, hie a chical models o e a mo e accu a e unde s anding o how educa ional policies and p ac ices
impac child de elopmen om a holis ic pe spec i e.
METHODOLOGY
1. Resea ch Design
The p esen s udy was de eloped unde a longi udinal, co ela ional and explana o y design, wi h a
quan i a i e app oach. This ype o design makes i possible o obse e changes in dependen a iables o e
ime and de e mine causal o p edic i e ela ionships be ween ea ly cogni i e s imula ion and he de elopmen
o socio-emo ional skills (Gómez & Pé ez, 2021).
The choice o he mul ile el app oach esponds o he hie a chical s uc u e o he da a: child en a e nes ed in
amilies, and hese, in u n, in s imula ion cen e s. Such an o ganiza ion equi es a s a is ical ea men ha
allows he a ia ion a ibu ed o each le el (indi idual, amily, and ins i u ional) o be sepa a ed o a oid
in e ence e o s (Golds ein e al., 2022).
Acco ding o Raudenbush and B yk (2021), mul ile el models a e sui able o his ype o s udy because hey
ecognize he in e dependence o obse a ions wi hin g oups and mo e accu a ely es ima e con ex e ec s,
which is essen ial in educa ional and child de elopmen esea ch.
2. Pa icipan s and sample
The sample consis ed o 300 child en (a e age ini ial age = 2.8 yea s; SD = 0.4), dis ibu ed in 20 public and
p i a e ea ly cogni i e s imula ion cen e s in an u ban egion o Colombia. S a i ied in en ional sampling
was used, wi h he pu pose o ep esen ing a ious socioeconomic and educa ional con ex s (López & Ga cía,
2023).
The inclusion c i e ia we e:
1. Pa icipa e in a cogni i e s imula ion p og am o a leas 12 mon hs.
2. No p esen p e ious neu ological o psychological diagnoses.
3. Ha e in o med consen om pa en s o gua dians.
Table 1 p esen s he demog aphic and con ex ual cha ac e is ics o he sample.
Table 1. Sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics o he sample (n = 300)
Va iable
Ca ego y
F equency (n)
Pe cen age (%)
Sex o he child
Male
152
50.7
Female
148
49.3
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Pa en 's educa ion le el
P ima y
40
13.3
High school
96
32.0
Uni e si y
164
54.7
Mo he 's educa ional le el
P ima y
36
12.0
High school
104
34.7
Uni e si y
160
53.3
Type o cen e
Public
120
40.0
P i a e
180
60.0
A e age age (yea s)
—
2.8
—
As can be seen, he sample p esen s gende balance and a di e se pa en al educa ional dis ibu ion, which a o s
he con ex ual gene aliza ion o he s udy (González e al., 2024).
3. Va iables and ins umen s
3.1 Independen a iable: Ea ly cogni i e s imula ion (ECT)
I was e alua ed using a composi e index ha weigh s h ee dimensions: weekly equency o cogni i e
ac i i ies, hema ic a ie y (language, easoning, c ea i i y, memo y) and quali y o he pedagogical p ocess.
Each dimension was a ed on a Like -like scale om 1 o 5. The in e nal consis ency o he o al index was α
= 0.89, indica ing high eliabili y (Rod íguez & He nández, 2022).
3.2 Dependen a iable: Socio-emo ional skills (HSE)
The Child Social-Emo ional Compe ence Ques ionnai e (CSECQ) ins umen was used, alida ed o he
La in Ame ican popula ion, which measu es compe encies in sel - egula ion, empa hy, au onomy and social
compe ence. The ins umen has an o e all eliabili y o α = 0.91 and adequa e con i ma o y alidi y (χ²/d =
2.34; CFI = 0.94; RMSEA = 0.05) (He nández e al., 2023).
3.3 Mode a ing and con ol a iables
• Pa en s' educa ional le el: measu ed in yea s o schooling.
• Emo ional clima e o he home: assessed wi h he Family Emo ional Clima e Scale (α = 0.87).
• Quali y o he educa ional cen e : obse ed using he Ea ly Lea ning En i onmen Scale (ELES),
wi h eliabili y α = 0.90 (Slui e e al., 2025).
Table 2. Va iables and ins umen s used in he s udy
Va iable
Ins umen / Index
Dimensions
Reliabili y
(α)
Re e ence
Cogni i e
s imula ion
ECT index p epa ed by
esea che s
F equency, a ie y,
quali y
0.89
Rod íguez &
He nández
(2022)
Social-Emo ional
Skills
CSECQ ( alida ed
e sion o La in
Ame ica)
Sel - egula ion,
empa hy, au onomy,
social
0.91
He nández e al.
(2023)
Emo ional clima e
o he home
Family Emo ional
Clima e Scale
Suppo , con lic ,
emo ional
communica ion
0.87
González e al.
(2024)
Quali y o he
educa ional cen e
Ea ly Lea ning
En i onmen Scale
(ELES)
Educa ional p ocesses,
in e ac ion, s abili y
0.90
Slui e e al.
(2025)
4. P ocedu e
The s udy was conduc ed o e h ee consecu i e yea s (2022–2024), wi h h ee annual measu emen s applied
in he same pe iod o he yea o con ol o seasonali y. In each measu emen , he child en we e e alua ed in
hei educa ional cen e , while he pa en s comple ed he amily ques ionnai es in ace- o- ace o digi al o ma .
In o med consen and con iden iali y o da a we e gua an eed, in acco dance wi h he Decla a ion o Helsinki
and he e hical s anda ds o he Ame ican Psychological Associa ion (APA, 2020).
Ex e nal obse e s— ained and ce i ied—assessed he quali y o cogni i e ac i i ies h ough s uc u ed
obse a ion sessions. To ensu e in e a e alidi y, he in aclass co ela ion coe icien (ICC = 0.82),
conside ed excellen (Fuji a & Hamaguchi, 2021), was calcula ed.
5. Da a analysis
S a is ical p ocessing was pe o med wi h he R so wa e ( e sion 4.3.2) and he lme4 package o mul ile el
model es ima ion (Golds ein e al., 2022).
5.1 Es ima ed Models
Th ee hie a chical models we e applied:

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1. Null model (wi hou p edic o s): o es ima e he o al a iance be ween le els (child, amily, school).
2. Model 1 (wi h indi idual p edic o s): in oduced ea ly cogni i e s imula ion as a ixed p edic o .
3. Model 2 (wi h con ex ual mode a o s): i inco po a ed he educa ional le el o he pa en s, emo ional
clima e o he home and quali y o he school, along wi h hei in e ac ions wi h cogni i e s imula ion.
5.2 Fo mal speci ica ion
Whe e:
• Yij : socio-emo ional sco e o child i, in cen e j, ime .
• ECTij : cogni i e s imula ion index.
• U0J: Va iance be ween cen e s.
• RIJR: Va iance be ween indi iduals wi hin cen e s.
• eij : e o esidual.
5.3 S a is ical jus i ica ion
The use o he mixed model makes i possible o analyse a ia ion wi hin indi iduals ( ime) and be ween
indi iduals o cen es (con ex ), es ima ing andom and ixed e ec s simul aneously (Golds ein e al., 2022).
Acco ding o López and Ga cía (2023), his app oach o e s a mo e ealis ic in e p e a ion o educa ional
p ocesses, whe e he e ec i eness o s imula ion depends on amily and o ganiza ional ac o s.
6. Bias and alidi y con ol
To gua an ee me hodological quali y, he ollowing con ols we e applied:
• Con ol o he e oskedas ici y by esidue inspec ion and B eusch–Pagan es .
• Mul icollinea i y assessed wi h he a iance in la ion index (FIV < 3).
• In e nal alidi y: a coho con ol and empo al adjus men o he measu emen s was applied.
• Ex e nal alidi y: compa ison o means wi h p e ious e e ence s udies in a simila popula ion
(Mille e al., 2021).
Table 3. Me hodological quali y con ol s a egies
Type o alidi y
S a egy applied
Indica o / Resul
Re e ence
In e nal
Equi alen coho s, empo al
con ol
p > 0.05 be ween
coho s
Gómez & Pé ez (2021)
Reliabili y
In e nal consis ency
(C onbach's α)
0.87–0.91
Rod íguez & He nández
(2022)
In e e alua o
In aclass co ela ion (ICC)
0.82
Fuji a & Hamaguchi (2021)
Mul icollinea i y
VIF o Independen Va iables
< 3
Golds ein e al. (2022)
7. E hical conside a ions
The s udy was app o ed by he E hics Commi ee in Psychoeduca ional Resea ch o he Na ional
Uni e si y o Colombia (p o ocol No. 2022-147). All pa en s o gua dians signed in o med consen s and
ecei ed eedback on he o e all esul s o he p og am, ollowing in e na ional e hical guidelines o esea ch
wi h mino s (APA, 2020).
RESULTS
1. Ini ial desc ip i e analysis
P io o he mul ile el analysis, a desc ip i e explo a ion o he main a iables was pe o med. Ea ly cogni i e
s imula ion (ECT) and social-emo ional skills (HSE) sco es showed a no mal dis ibu ion (p > 0.05 on he
Shapi o–Wilk es ).
Table 1 p esen s he basic desc ip i e s a is ics o he main a iables measu ed in he i s wa e o he s udy.
Table 1. Ini ial desc ip i e s a is ics (n = 300)
Va iable
Mean
(M)
Des . Es .
(DE)
Minimal
Maximum
Asymme y
Cu osis
Cogni i e s imula ion
(ECT)
3.64
0.52
2.10
4.85
-0.12
0.24
Social-Emo ional Skills
3.42
0.60
2.00
4.90
-0.18
0.08
Emo ional clima e o he
home
3.55
0.57
2.10
4.80
0.05
0.17
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Quali y o he educa ional
cen e
3.78
0.46
2.30
4.80
-0.20
0.35
The alues show a medium-high pe o mance in s imula ion and socio-emo ional de elopmen , consis en wi h
simila s udies in p eschool con ex s o cogni i e in e en ion (Rod íguez & He nández, 2022; He nández e
al., 2023).
2. Null model: in a- and in e -cen e a iance
The null model (wi hou p edic o s) was used o de e mine he p opo ion o a iance a ibu able o he
indi idual and con ex ual le els. The esul s indica e an in e -cen e a iance o 0.118 and an in e -cen e
a iance o 0.439, while he esidual a iance was 0.433.
Table 2. Decomposi ion o a iance (null model)
Sou ce o a iance
Es ima ed
a iance
S anda d
de ia ion
P opo ion o a iance
(%)
Be ween cen e s
0.118
0.024
12.3
Be ween indi iduals (in a-
cen e )
0.439
0.041
45.7
Residual (Time Le el)
0.433
0.037
42.0
To al
0.990
—
100.0
The in aclass co ela ion coe icien (ICC = 0.123) shows ha abou 12.3% o he o al a iabili y in socio-
emo ional skills is due o di e ences be ween schools. This alue ully jus i ies he choice o a mul ile el
analysis (Golds ein e al., 2022; López & Ga cía, 2023).
3. Model 1: Main e ec o ea ly cogni i e s imula ion
Model 1, which included ea ly cogni i e s imula ion as a ixed p edic o a he indi idual le el, explained a
signi ican imp o emen in model i compa ed o he null model (ΔAIC = -45, p < 0.001).
Table 3. Coe icien s o he mul ile el model 1 (e ec o ECT)
Pa ame e
Coe icien
(β)
S anda d E o
(EE)
Value
p-
alue
Range 95%
CI
In e cep (β₀)
3.02
0.07
43.14
<
0.001
[2.88, 3.15]
Ea ly Cogni i e S imula ion
(ECT)
0.25
0.08
3.12
0.002
[0.09, 0.41]
C oss-cen e a iance (u₀j)
0.095
0.021
—
—
—
Va iance be ween indi iduals
( ij)
0.412
0.038
—
—
—
Va ianza esidual (eᵢⱼₜ)
0.390
0.035
—
—
—
The esul s e eal ha each one-uni inc ease in ECT is associa ed wi h an a e age inc ease o 0.25 poin s
in he socio-emo ional skills sco e (p < 0.01). This e ec is s a is ically signi ican and o mode a e magni ude,
which coincides wi h p e ious indings in comp ehensi e cogni i e in e en ions (Mille e al., 2021;
He nández e al., 2023).
4. Model 2: Inclusion o Con ex ual Mode a o s
Model 2 expanded he analysis by inco po a ing h ee mode a ing a iables:
• Pa en Educa ion Le el (NEP),
• Emo ional clima e o he home (CEH),
• Quali y o he educa ional cen e (CCE), and i s in e ac ions wi h he ECT.
Table 4. Resul s o he mul ile el model wi h con ex ual mode a o s (Model 2)
Pa ame e
Coe icien
(β)
S anda d
E o (EE)
Value
p-
alue
In e p e a ion
In e cep (β₀)
2.88
0.10
28.80
<
0.001
—
Cogni i e s imula ion
(ECT)
0.21
0.07
3.00
0.003
Posi i e di ec e ec
Pa en Educa ion Le el
(NEP)
0.12
0.05
2.40
0.017
O e all posi i e in luence
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Home Emo ional
Clima e (CEH)
0.18
0.06
3.00
0.002
P omo es socio-emo ional
de elopmen
Quali y o he
educa ional cen e
(CCE)
0.15
0.05
3.00
0.003
Inc eases ECT e ec
ECT × NEP
0.11
0.05
2.20
0.028
G ea e e ec wi h mo e
educa ed pa en s
ECT × CEH
0.14
0.06
2.33
0.021
G ea e e ec wi h
a ec i e home
ECT × CCE
0.10
0.04
2.50
0.012
G ea e e ec wi h high-
quali y cen e s
Va iance be ween
cen e s
0.073
0.018
—
—
—
Va iance be ween
indi iduals
0.388
0.036
—
—
—
Residual a iance
0.345
0.030
—
—
—
R² ma ginal ( ixed)
0.36
—
—
—
36% o he a iance
explained
Condi ional R² ( o al)
0.52
—
—
—
52% o he o al explained
These esul s con i m ha TCE has a signi ican impac on socio-emo ional de elopmen , bu ha i s
magni ude depends on con ex ual ac o s. In pa icula :
• The e ec o s imula ion is inc eased in child en whose pa en s ha e a highe le el o educa ion,
p obably due o addi ional cogni i e and emo ional suppo a home (González e al., 2024).
• A posi i e emo ional clima e enhances he e ec i eness o cogni i e lea ning, by educing s ess and
acili a ing emo ional sel - egula ion (He nández e al., 2023).
• Ins i u ional quali y is associa ed wi h mo e s able and empa he ic eaching en i onmen s, which
ampli ies he bene i s o s imula ion (Slui e e al., 2025).
5. G aphical analysis o mode a ing e ec s
To isualize he in e ac ion be ween ECT and he mode a o s, simple slope diag ams we e cons uc ed. In
Figu e 1 ( ex ual desc ip ion), i is obse ed ha child en in homes wi h a high emo ional clima e and high
educa ional quali y show a s eepe slope o socio-emo ional g ow h as cogni i e s imula ion inc eases.
Figu e 1 ( ex ual desc ip ion):
Th ee lines ep esen he e ec o ECT on HSE acco ding o he emo ional clima e o he home.
• Blue line: high wea he → slope β = 0.35
• G ey line: a e age clima e → slope β = 0.21
• Red line: low wea he → slope β = 0.09
These esul s coincide wi h he app oaches o B on enb enne 's ecological model, whe e he in e ac ion be ween
sys ems (home-school) explains pa o he a iabili y in child de elopmen (B on enb enne & Mo is, 2020).
6. Compa ison be ween models and s a is ical i
The adjus men indica o s show subs an ial imp o emen s be ween models:
Table 5. Compa a i e Fi Indices
Model
AIC
BIC
LogLikelihood
ΔAIC
Condi ional R²
Null model
981.4
1005.3
-486.7
—
—
Model 1
936.1
954.8
-465.0
-45.3
0.29
Model 2
902.5
931.6
-449.2
-33.6
0.52
Model 2 (wi h mode a o s) is he one ha bes explains he a iabili y o he da a, achie ing a 52% inc ease
in condi ional R², a s a is ically signi ican adjus men (p < 0.001) and a no able educ ion in AIC (Golds ein
e al., 2022; López & Ga cía, 2023).
7. Syn hesis o indings
1. Main e ec : Ea ly cogni i e s imula ion has a posi i e and signi ican e ec (β = 0.21–0.25) on he
de elopmen o social-emo ional skills.
2. Con ex ual a iabili y: App oxima ely 12% o he a iance is due o di e ences be ween schools.
3. Con ex ual mode a o s: Family and school ac o s ampli y he e ec s o cogni i e s imula ion.
4. Global i : The inal model accoun s o mo e han 50% o he o al a iance, suppo ing i s
p edic i e obus ness.
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These esul s a e consis en wi h ecen esea ch ha unde sco es he impo ance o cogni i e and emo ional
in eg a ion in ea ly childhood (Gu ié ez e al., 2021; González e al., 2024; Slui e e al., 2025).
CONCLUSION
The esul s o his s udy allow us o a i m ha ea ly cogni i e s imula ion (ECT) has a posi i e, signi ican
and sus ainable e ec on he de elopmen o socio-emo ional skills (HSE) in ea ly childhood. This inding
suppo s he cen al hypo hesis ha cogni i e s imula ion no only enhances in ellec ual p ocesses, bu also
s eng hens emo ional and social compe encies, con i ming he in e dependence be ween he cogni i e and
a ec i e domains o de elopmen (He nández e al., 2023).
In line wi h ecen esea ch, i is shown ha child en exposed o s uc u ed, in e ac i e, and emo ionally
posi i e cogni i e expe iences de elop highe le els o sel - egula ion, empa hy, and social compe ence
(Rod íguez & He nández, 2022; Gu ié ez e al., 2021). ECT gene a es an impac ha anscends ins umen al
lea ning and ansla es in o he o ma ion o socio-emo ional skills ha a e undamen al o coexis ence, con lic
esolu ion, and school adap a ion (Mille e al., 2021).
1. Impo ance o he mul ile el app oach
The applica ion o he mixed mul ile el model allowed us o iden i y he exis ence o signi ican a iabili y
be ween schools (ICC = 0.12), which shows ha socio-emo ional de elopmen does no depend only on
indi idual cha ac e is ics, bu also on he ins i u ional con ex in which lea ning occu s. This esul coincides
wi h in e na ional e idence ha unde lines ha he quali y o he educa ional en i onmen and pedagogical
in e ac ion ha e a decisi e in luence on child en's socio-emo ional de elopmen ajec o ies (Slui e e al.,
2025).
In addi ion, he hie a chical analysis allowed quan i ying he magni ude o he con ex ual e ec s, con i ming
ha app oxima ely 12–15% o he o al a iance in socio-emo ional skills is explained by di e ences
be ween cen e s, which highligh s he need o s eng hen educa ional en i onmen s as emo ionally sa e and
cogni i ely s imula ing spaces (López & Ga cía, 2023).
2. In luence o amily and school ac o s
The s udy ound ha amily ac o s —especially pa en s ' educa ional le el and he emo ional clima e o he
home—ac as posi i e mode a o s o he e ec o cogni i e s imula ion. Child en om households wi h highe
educa ional capi al and a s able emo ional en i onmen showed g ea e socio-emo ional gains compa ed o
hose in less a o able con ex s.
This esul coincides wi h he indings o González e al. (2024), who demons a ed ha he amily emo ional
en i onmen and pa en al esponsibili y ampli y he e ec i eness o ea ly s imula ion p og ams. These
con ex s enhance he in e naliza ion o emo ional sel - egula ion s a egies, which acili a es social lea ning.
Consequen ly, ECT p og ams mus inco po a e aining and pa en al suppo s a egies, p omo ing he
con inui y o s imula ion a home.
A he ins i u ional le el, he quali y o he educa ional cen e was also con i med as a ele an mode a o :
cen e s wi h s uc u ed pedagogical p ocesses, posi i e a ec i e in e ac ions, and pe sonnel ained in
socio-emo ional educa ion showed g ea e e ec s on child en's compe encies (Slui e e al., 2025). This
sugges s ha isola ed cogni i e s imula ion does no gua an ee op imal esul s i i is no de eloped in an
emo ionally en iched en i onmen and wi h eache s who model heal hy socio-emo ional beha io s.
3. Theo e ical implica ions
The indings suppo B on enb enne 's ecological model, which holds ha child de elopmen eme ges om
he dynamic in e ac ion be ween he indi idual and his o he mul iple sys ems o in luence— amily, school,
communi y—(B on enb enne & Mo is, 2020). In his amewo k, TCE should be unde s ood no only as a se
o cogni i e ac i i ies, bu as a sys emic p ocess ha in ol es s uc u al and emo ional ac o s a di e en
le els.
F om he pe spec i e o con empo a y de elopmen al psychology, he esul s p o ide empi ical e idence o
he cogni i e-emo ional coe olu ion hypo hesis, which s a es ha ad ances in hinking and p oblem-sol ing
acili a e be e emo ional egula ion and a deepe unde s anding o one's own and o he s' a ec i e s a es
(He nández e al., 2023). This in eg a i e app oach in i es us o o e come he agmen ed ision o child
de elopmen and o p omo e in e en ions ha combine cogni i e eaching wi h emo ional lea ning.
4. P ac ical and policy implica ions
In applied e ms, he esul s sugges ha ea ly cogni i e s imula ion p og ams should be designed wi h a
holis ic and in e disciplina y app oach, inco po a ing componen s o socio-emo ional educa ion, amily
accompanimen , and eache aining. The in eg a ion o hese h ee le els allows o he c ea ion o a
cohe en en i onmen ha ein o ces he child's lea ning and emo ional egula ion.
I is also ecommended ha educa ion policymake s s eng hen eache aining in a ec i e pedagogies and
in he use o e idence-based cogni i e s imula ion ools (Mille e al., 2021). Simila ly, ea ly childhood ca e