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1. In oduc ion
In he con empo a y global economy, he s a egic impo ance o
oca ional educa ion and aining (VET) as a ca alys o economic
de elopmen , social equi y, and indi idual empowe men is
uni e sally ecognized (OECD, 2020). Na ions a e inc easingly
le e aging VET sys ems o b idge he gap be ween educa ion and
employmen , os e ing a skilled wo k o ce capable o mee ing he
demands o a apidly e ol ing indus ial landscape. This s udy
ocuses on wo neighbo ing coun ies a dis inc s ages o economic
de elopmen : Mongolia and China.
Mongolia, a landlocked coun y wi h a popula ion o app oxima ely
3.5 million, possesses a esou ce-d i en economy hea ily elian on
A Compa a i e S udy on he De elopmen o Voca ional Educa ion in Mongolia and
China: Pa hways, Challenges, and Syne gies
Ni E jing
G adua e Uni e si y o Mongolia.
Co esponding Au ho : Ni E jing
P esen s a sys ema ic compa a i e analysis o he oca ional educa ion and aining (VET) sys ems in Mongolia and China,
wo na ions na iga ing dis inc economic ansi ions ha place a p emium on skills de elopmen . As Mongolia seeks o
di e si y beyond i s mining sec o and China shi s owa ds a high- ech, inno a ion-d i en economy, i elucida es he
s uc u al, policy, and ope a ional di e gences and con e gences in hei espec i e VET amewo ks. Employing a
quali a i e compa a i e case s udy me hodology, he esea ch d aws on na ional policy documen s, s a is ical da a om
in e na ional bodies like he Wo ld Bank and ADB, and schola ly li e a u e om bo h coun ies. The analysis, s uc u ed
a ound go e nance, scale, cu iculum, and inancing, e eals ha China's VET sys em is de ined by i s immense scale and
s ong s a e-led go e nance, designed o align massi e human capi al wi h s a egic indus ial needs h ough ini ia i es like
he "Double High Plan." In con as , Mongolia's sys em is mo e compac , lexible, and hea ily in luenced by in e na ional
pa ne ships, ocusing on compe ency-based aining (CBT) o key economic sec o s. While China excels in sys ema ic
in es men , i aces challenges in ensu ing quali y ac oss egions, whe eas Mongolia s uggles wi h sus ainable inancing
and a limi ed indus ial base o deep school-en e p ise coope a ion. The indings unde sco e signi ican po en ial o
syne gis ic coope a ion, whe e China's expe ience in la ge-scale sys em managemen can complemen Mongolia's agili y
and expe ise in demand-d i en models. The pape concludes by p oposing conc e e collabo a i e pa hways, including join
cu iculum de elopmen o c oss-bo de indus ies and he es ablishmen o a Mongolian-Sino VET coope a ion cen e ,
o e ing aluable insigh s o policymake s and con ibu ing o egional human esou ce de elopmen goals.
KEY WORDS: Voca ional Educa ion, Compa a i e S udy, Skills De elopmen , Mongolian-Sino Coope a ion.
Abb e ia ed Key Ti le: UAI J A s Humani Soc Sci
ISSN: 3048-7692 (Online)
Jou nal Homepage: h ps://uaipublishe .com/uaijahss/
Volume- 2 Issue- 11 (No embe ) 2025
F equency: Mon hly
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he mining sec o (e.g., coal, coppe , gold). Recognizing he
ulne abili ies o his economic model, he Mongolian go e nmen
has a icula ed a na ional de elopmen ision, "Mongolia-2050,"
which emphasizes economic di e si ica ion, sus ainable
de elopmen , and he g ow h o sec o s like ou ism, ag icul u e, and
enewable ene gy (Go e nmen o Mongolia, 2020). Achie ing his
ision is con ingen upon de eloping a domes ic wo k o ce equipped
wi h he ele an skills, a challenge di ec ly add essed by i s VET
sys em.
China, he wo ld's second-la ges economy, is unde going a c i ical
ansi ion om a labo -in ensi e, manu ac u ing-based "wo ld
ac o y" o a echnology and inno a ion-d i en global leade . This
"Made in China 2025" and "dual ci cula ion" s a egy pa adigm
necessi a es a VET sys em capable o p oducing millions o highly
skilled echnicians, ad anced manu ac u ing specialis s, and mode n
se ice p o essionals (S a e Council o China, 2019). The Chinese
go e nmen has consequen ly placed VET a he op o i s na ional
agenda, implemen ing sweeping e o ms cha ac e ized by massi e
s a e in es men and cen alized policy di ec ion.
While bo h coun ies p io i ize VET, hei his o ical con ex s,
economic scales, poli ical sys ems, and de elopmen ajec o ies
ha e esul ed in undamen ally di e en app oaches. A sys ema ic,
compa a i e analysis o hese wo sys ems is conspicuously absen
in exis ing li e a u e. Mos s udies end o ocus on one coun y in
isola ion (e.g., Zha, 2021; Ba ja gal, 2018).
This pape , he e o e, add esses a c i ical gap by s udying: Wha a e
he key ea u es o he go e nance s uc u es and policy amewo ks
o VET in Mongolia and China? How do he wo sys ems compa e
in e ms o hei scale, s uc u e, and ope a ional models, pa icula ly
conce ning cu iculum and indus y linkages? Wha a e he p ima y
challenges and oppo uni ies acing VET de elopmen in each
coun y? Based on he compa a i e analysis, wha a e he po en ial
syne gies and ac ionable pa hways o Mongolian-Sino coope a ion
in he VET sec o ?
By answe ing hese ques ions, his esea ch aims o p o ide
academically igo ous insigh s wi h signi ican policy ele ance and
p ac ical alue o educa ional planne s, policymake s, and
in e na ional de elopmen agencies in bo h coun ies and he b oade
Cen al Asian egion.
2. Li e a u e Re iew and Theo e ical
F amewo k
2.1 Theo e ical F amewo k
This s udy is unde pinned by wo p ima y heo e ical lenses: Human
Capi al Theo y and he concep o Policy Bo owing/Lending.
Human Capi al Theo y, pionee ed by Schul z (1961) and Becke
(1964), posi s ha in es men in educa ion and aining enhances an
indi idual's p oduc i i y, which in u n uels economic g ow h.
F om his pe spec i e, VET is a di ec in es men in he skills o he
wo k o ce, yielding e u ns o bo h he indi idual (highe wages)
and he s a e (inc eased GDP, inno a ion). This heo y p o ides a
ounda ional a ionale o why bo h Mongolia and China a e hea ily
in es ing in VET as a s a egic na ional asse .
Howe e , he how o hese in es men s is shaped by na ional
con ex s. The concep o policy bo owing, as elabo a ed by Phillips
and Ochs (2003), p o ides a amewo k o unde s anding how
educa ional e o ms a e ans e ed ac oss na ional bo de s. The
p ocess in ol es ou s ages: c oss-na ional a ac ion, decision,
implemen a ion, and in e naliza ion/indigeniza ion. Mongolia's VET
sys em has been signi ican ly shaped by p ojec s unded by he
Asian De elopmen Bank (ADB) and Swiss de elopmen agencies,
These p ojec s in oduced and suppo ed he implemen a ion o
Compe ency-Based T aining (CBT), while China's ecen VET
e o ms show elemen s o bo owing om he Ge man dual sys em.
This amewo k helps us analyze no jus wha he policies a e, bu
whe e hey o igina ed and how hey ha e been adap ed o local
condi ions. Fo ins ance, China is cu en ly in he "Implemen a ion"
and "In e naliza ion" phases, adap ing he dual sys em o i s unique
s a e-led, la ge-scale con ex . Mongolia is u he along in he
"In e naliza ion" phase o CBT, ha ing ully embedded i in o
na ional policy, hough i s sus ainabili y emains a key ques ion.
2.2 Voca ional Educa ion in Mongolia
The li e a u e on Mongolia's VET is equally insigh ul. S udies o en
eme ge om ins i u ions like he Mongolian Uni e si y o Science
and Technology and a e equen ly suppo ed by in e na ional
o ganiza ions. A key ocus is he ansi ion om a So ie -s yle,
cen ally planned sys em o a mo e ma ke -o ien ed, demand-d i en
model. The in oduc ion o CBT in he ea ly 2000s, hea ily
suppo ed by he ADB's "Voca ional Educa ion and T aining
P ojec ," is a wa e shed momen (ADB, 2013).
Schola s like Ba ja gal (2018) in he Mongolian Jou nal o
Educa ion emphasize he c i ical ole o he T aining and Voca ional
Educa ion Coo dina ion Council (TVECC), which includes
ep esen a i es om go e nmen , indus y, and aining p o ide s, in
ensu ing ha VET p og ams align wi h labo ma ke needs.
Howe e , esea ch also poin s o sys emic agili ies. A s udy by
Enkh u shin and Munkhba (2021) highligh s he "pa chwo k"
na u e o inancing, which elies on an uns able mix o s a e unding,
s uden ui ion, and in e mi en dono suppo . Fu he mo e, he
limi ed size and capaci y o Mongolian indus ies pose a signi ican
challenge o es ablishing he kind o deep, long- e m school-
en e p ise pa ne ships seen in mo e indus ialized na ions.
2.3 Voca ional Educa ion in China
The li e a u e on China's VET sys em is ex ensi e, e lec ing i s
scale and impo ance. Schola s highligh i s hie a chical s uc u e,
encompassing junio seconda y oca ional schools (JVS), senio
seconda y oca ional schools (SVS), and highe oca ional colleges
(HVC) (Zha, 2021). A cen al heme in ecen esea ch is he
go e nmen 's push o "indus y-educa ion in eg a ion, school-
en e p ise coope a ion" (产教融合, 校企合作). The "Na ional
Voca ional Educa ion Re o m Implemen a ion Plan" (2019) and he
"Double High Plan" (which aims o build 50 high-le el oca ional
schools and 150 high-le el p o essional clus e s) a e landma k
policies designed o enhance he quali y and ele ance o VET
(Minis y o Educa ion o China, 2019).
Resea ch published in Chinese jou nals, such as Educa ion &
Economy (教育经济), o en ocuses on he p ac ical challenges o
implemen a ion. Fo ins ance, Wang and Li (2022) discuss he
di icul ies in de eloping "dual-quali ica ion" (双师型) eache s who
possess bo h academic eaching c eden ials and p ac ical indus y
expe ience. Ano he line o inqui y conce ns he pe sis en social
s igma a ached o VET, which is o en seen as a second- ie op ion
compa ed o academic highe educa ion (Liu, 2020). Despi e hese
challenges, he sys em's capaci y o massi e mobiliza ion o
esou ces is i s de ining ea u e, a poin consis en ly no ed by
in e na ional obse e s like he Wo ld Bank (2020).
3. Resea ch Me hodology
This s udy employs a quali a i e, desc ip i e, and compa a i e case
s udy me hodology. This app oach is ideal o conduc ing an in-
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dep h, holis ic in es iga ion o a complex social phenomenon—such
as a na ional VET sys em—wi hin i s eal-li e con ex (Yin, 2018).
The esea ch is based en i ely on he analysis o seconda y da a,
ca ego ized as ollows:
Includes na ional laws, mas e plans, and e o m s a egies. Fo
China, key documen s include he Voca ional Educa ion Law o he
People's Republic o China (amended 2022), he Na ional
Voca ional Educa ion Re o m Implemen a ion Plan (2019), and
he 14 h Fi e-Yea Plan (2021-2025). Fo Mongolia, his includes
he Law on Educa ion (2016), he Na ional Voca ional Educa ion
De elopmen P og am (2018-2025), and policy b ie s om he
Minis y o Educa ion and Science.
Quan i a i e da a was sou ced om in e na ional da abases o ensu e
compa abili y and eliabili y. The p ima y sou ces a e he UNESCO
Ins i u e o S a is ics (UIS), he Wo ld Bank Wo ld De elopmen
Indica o s, and epo s om he Asian De elopmen Bank. This da a
includes s uden en ollmen igu es (by le el and ield), numbe o
ins i u ions, public expendi u e on educa ion as a pe cen age o
GDP, and you h unemploymen a es. Na ional s a is ical o ices
(China's NBS and Mongolia's NSO) we e consul ed o he mos
ecen a ailable igu es.
A sys ema ic e iew o schola ly a icles was conduc ed. Da abases
such as CNKI (China Na ional Knowledge In as uc u e) o
Chinese li e a u e and Google Schola o English and Mongolian
li e a u e we e used. The e iew ocused on pee - e iewed a icles
published be ween 2015 and 2025 o cap u e he la es ends and
e o ms.
The da a om hese sou ces was sys ema ically o ganized and
analyzed acco ding o he ou dimensions ou lined in he
in oduc ion: go e nance, s uc u e, cu iculum, and inancing. This
s uc u ed compa ison allows o a clea iden i ica ion o
con e gences and di e gences be ween he wo VET sys ems.
4. Resul s and Analysis
4.1 Go e nance and Policy F amewo k
The go e nance s uc u es o Mongolia and China e lec hei
dis inc poli ical sys ems and na ional p io i ies.
Mongolia's go e nance is decen alized and collabo a i e. The
Minis y o Educa ion and Science (MES) is he cen al au ho i y
esponsible o policy, s anda ds, and o e all s a egy. A key ea u e
is he T aining and Voca ional Educa ion Coo dina ion Council
(TVECC), a mul i-s akeholde body ha includes ep esen a i es
om key minis ies (e.g., Minis y o Labo , Minis y o Mining),
employe associa ions, and VET ins i u ions. The TVECC plays a
c ucial ole in app o ing occupa ional s anda ds, ad ising on
cu iculum, and p omo ing indus y in ol emen (ADB, 2019). This
model os e s g ea e esponsi eness o labo ma ke signals bu can
be slowe in decision-making due o he need o consensus among
di e se s akeholde s.
The Chinese VET sys em is cha ac e ized by a highly cen alized,
op-down go e nance model. The Minis y o Educa ion (MOE) and
he Minis y o Human Resou ces and Social Secu i y (MOHRSS)
a e he p ima y adminis a i e bodies, wi h he MOE o e seeing
mos highe oca ional colleges and he MOHRSS managing many
seconda y oca ional schools and skill ce i ica ion. Policy
o mula ion is a op-down p ocess, wi h he cen al go e nmen
se ing ambi ious na ional goals and p o iding signi ican unding o
achie e hem. Local go e nmen s a e esponsible o
implemen a ion, bu hei au onomy is limi ed by na ional di ec i es
and pe o mance a ge s. This model enables apid, la ge-scale
e o m implemen a ion bu can some imes s uggle o adap o local
speci ici ies.
Figu e 1: Simpli ied Go e nance S uc u e o VET in China
4.2 Sys em S uc u e and Scale
The di e ences in scale be ween he wo sys ems a e s a k.
Mongolia's VET sys em is signi ican ly smalle , e lec ing i s
popula ion. The sys em comp ises a ound 187 ins i u ions, including
public and p i a e oca ional aining cen e s (VTCs), ins i u es, and
colleges wi hin uni e si ies (MES, 2024). To al en ollmen is
app oxima ely 120,000 s uden s. The sys em is p ima ily ocused on
he seconda y le el, wi h ewe op ions o highe oca ional
deg ees. The smalle scale allows o g ea e lexibili y and quicke
adap a ion o new skill demands, pa icula ly in eme ging sec o s
like ou ism and hospi ali y.
China ope a es he la ges VET sys em in he wo ld. As o 2024,
he e we e app oxima ely 9,800 seconda y oca ional schools wi h
o e 16 million s uden s and nea ly 1,500 highe oca ional colleges
wi h o e 16 million s uden s (Minis y o Educa ion o China,
2024). The sys em is a majo pa hway o s uden s who do no
pu sue adi ional academic high schools, accoun ing o nea ly hal
o senio seconda y en ollmen . The shee scale allows o immense
specializa ion, wi h p o essional clus e s anging om ad anced
obo ics and new ene gy ehicles o mode n logis ics and elde ly
ca e.
Table 1: Key VET S a is ics o Mongolia and China
Me ic
Mongolia (2024)
China (2024)
Sou ce
To al Popula ion
~3.5 Million
~1.412 Billion
Wo ld Bank
VET Ins i u ions (To al)
~140
~11,300
MOE China; MES Mongolia
VET En ollmen (Seconda y & Highe )
~120,000
~32 Million
MOE China; NSO Mongolia
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Public Expendi u e on Educa ion (% GDP)
5.2%
4.1%
Wo ld Bank
You h Unemploymen Ra e (15-24)
18.5%
13.2% (u ban)
Na ional Bu eau o S a is ics o
China; NSO Mongolia
4.3 Cu iculum and Indus y Linkage
This dimension e eals a co e philosophical di e ence in how skills
a e de eloped.
Mongolia has ully emb aced Compe ency-Based T aining (CBT) as
i s na ional model, la gely due o he in luence o ADB and Swiss
de elopmen p ojec s. CBT ocuses on he lea ne 's abili y o
demons a e speci ic compe encies equi ed by an occupa ion,
ega dless o how o whe e hey we e lea ned. The cu iculum is
modula and di ec ly linked o Na ional Occupa ional S anda ds
(NOS) de eloped wi h indus y inpu h ough he TVECC.
Assessmen is pe o mance-based. This model is highly e ec i e o
p oducing g adua es wi h clea ly de ined, job- eady skills. The main
challenge is he limi ed pool o local companies capable o
p o iding high-quali y wo k-based aining placemen s, which is a
co ne s one o e ec i e CBT (Enkh u shin & Munkhba , 2021).
In China, he dominan pa adigm is "indus y-educa ion in eg a ion"
(产教融合). The policy encou ages schools o simula e en e p ise
en i onmen s, build " ac o y-schools," and de elop cu iculum
join ly wi h companies. The "Mode n App en iceship" pilo p og am
is a p ime example, whe e s uden s spli hei ime be ween
class oom lea ning a a school and on- he-job aining a a company
(Zha, 2021). The go e nmen p o ides subsidies o companies ha
pa icipa e. Howe e , he e ec i eness a ies. While la ge s a e-
owned en e p ises and mul ina ional co po a ions o en engage
deeply, many small and medium-sized en e p ises (SMEs) lack he
capaci y o incen i e o pa icipa e meaning ully, leading o a gap
be ween policy in en and g ound eali y (Wang & Li, 2022).
Table 2: VET En ollmen Dis ibu ion by Majo Field o S udy (App oxima e % o To al VET En ollmen )
CHINA(Di e si ied Economy)
MONGOLIA(Resou ce & Eme ging Economy)
IT & New Tech
15%
Mining & Geology
25%
Manu ac u ing
25%
Tou ism/Hospi ali y
20%
Mode n Se ices
20%
Ag icul u e
15%
Heal hca e
10%
IT & Telecom
10%
O he Fields
30%
O he Fields
30%
(Sou ce: Compiled om Minis y o Educa ion o China, 2023;
Minis y o Educa ion and Science o Mongolia, 2022)
This cha isually con i ms he alignmen o VET p o ision wi h
na ional economic s uc u es. China's en ollmen is sp ead ac oss a
wide ange o sec o s, e lec ing i s di e si ied indus ial base.
Mongolia's en ollmen is hea ily concen a ed in mining and ela ed
se ices, wi h a g owing emphasis on ou ism and ag icul u e,
mi o ing i s economic p io i ies.
4.4 Financing and Teache De elopmen
In Mongolia, inancing is a mo e complex and less s able mix. The
s a e budge p o ides a pe -s uden subsidy, bu his is o en
insu icien o co e cos s, leading o eliance on ui ion ees.
In e na ional dono s ha e played a c ucial ole in inancing
in as uc u e de elopmen , cu iculum e o m, and eache aining
p ojec s. Howe e , his p ojec -based unding can c ea e
sus ainabili y issues once a p ojec ends. Teache de elopmen is a
c i ical challenge. Many VET ins uc o s lack ecen indus y
expe ience. While dono p ojec s ha e p o ided aluable "T aining
o T aine s" (ToT) p og ams, o en in ol ing in e na ional s udy
ou s, e aining hese upg aded eache s wi hin he ela i ely low-
paying VET sec o emains a pe sis en p oblem (Ba ja gal, 2018).
Figu e 2: Mongolia's "T aining o T aine s" (ToT) Mode
(Sou ce: Adap ed om ADB, 2022 p ojec e alua ion)
In China, inancing is p edominan ly public, wi h local go e nmen s
bea ing he p ima y esponsibili y o ope a ing expenses,
supplemen ed by na ional p ojec -based unding (e.g., o "Double
High" schools). Tui ion ees a e ela i ely low, and he e a e
ex ensi e schola ship and s ipend p og ams. A ecen policy shi
encou ages en e p ises o con ibu e inancially, hough his is s ill
de eloping. A majo ocus o e o m is he de elopmen o "dual-
quali ica ion" (双师型) eache s. The go e nmen has in es ed
hea ily in p og ams ha send academic eache s o indus y o
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p ac ical expe ience and ec ui indus y p o essionals o each pa -
ime (MOE, 2019). The goal is o a majo i y o p o essional
eache s in high-le el oca ional colleges o be dual-quali ied by
2025.
Figu e 3: China's "Dual-Quali ica ion" Teache De elopmen
Model
(Sou ce: Adap ed om Minis y o Educa ion o China, 2023 policy
documen s)
These wo diag ams (Figu es 2 and 3) e ec i ely illus a e he
di e en philosophies o eache de elopmen : China's in e nal,
s a e-d i en sys em e sus Mongolia's ex e nally suppo ed, cascade
model.
Table 3: Compa a i e VET Financing S uc u e (App oxima e % o
To al Funding)
CHINA (S a e-Led)
MONGOLIA (Mixed Model)
Go e nmen
Funding
75%
Go e nmen
Funding
40%
Tui ion Fees
15%
Tui ion Fees
25%
En e p ise
Con ibu ions
10%
In 'l Dono P ojec s
25%
P i a e/O he
10%
Sou ce: Es ima ed based on analysis o na ional budge s and
ADB/Wo ld Bank epo s, 2022-2024)
This isual ep esen a ion s a kly con as s he wo sys ems. China's
model is obus and p edic able, cen e ed on s a e in es men .
Mongolia's model is mo e di e si ied bu also mo e p eca ious, wi h
a signi ican and po en ially ola ile eliance on in e na ional aid.
5. Discussion
The compa a i e analysis e eals wo VET sys ems shaped by hei
na ional impe a i es.
Mongolia's app oach can be desc ibed as "adap i e agili y". I s
smalle , mo e collabo a i e sys em is designed o be esponsi e o
he needs o a na ow bu c i ical se o economic sec o s. I s
s eng hs a e i s lexibili y, he s ong ole o indus y in go e nance
( ia he TVECC), and i s success ul adop ion o a mode n, demand-
d i en CBT model. I s weaknesses a e i s inancial agili y, o e -
eliance on ex e nal pa ne s, and he s uc u al limi a ion o a small
indus ial base o p o ide comp ehensi e wo k-based lea ning.
China's app oach is one o "s a egic scale". I s massi e, s a e-led
sys em is a powe ul ool o na ional economic planning, designed
o sys ema ically align he wo ld's la ges wo k o ce wi h he needs
o i s s a egic indus ies. I s s eng hs lie in i s capaci y o massi e
in es men , apid policy ollou , and he de elopmen o
s anda dized cu icula and in as uc u e. I s weaknesses lie in
po en ial in lexibili y, une en quali y ac oss egions, and he
di icul y o os e ing genuine, deep- oo ed coope a ion wi h
millions o di e se SMEs.
These indings esona e wi h he heo e ical amewo k. Bo h
coun ies a e clea ly in es ing in human capi al. Howe e , he
p ocess o policy bo owing has led o di e en ou comes.
Mongolia's adop ion o CBT was di ec ly acili a ed by in e na ional
expe s and dono s, esul ing in a sys em ha is pe haps mo e "pu e"
in i s implemen a ion o CBT bu less in eg a ed wi h a obus
domes ic indus ial ecosys em. China's adap a ion o he Ge man
dual sys em is being implemen ed on an unp eceden ed scale, wi h
he s a e ac ing as he p ima y ca alys and gua an o .
The implica ions a e signi ican . Fo Mongolia, he Chinese
expe ience o e s a model o building s a e capaci y and sus ainable
inancing mechanisms o educe dependency on ex e nal aid. Fo
China, he Mongolian expe ience sugges s he alue o s ong,
ins i u ionalized indus y bodies like he TVECC o imp o e labo
ma ke signaling, especially o SMEs.
6. Conclusion and Recommenda ions
This esea ch has conduc ed a sys ema ic compa ison o he VET
sys ems in Mongolia and China, highligh ing hei di e gen pa hs o
de elopmen . Mongolia has cul i a ed a smalle , mo e lexible, and
in e na ionally-in luenced sys em cen e ed on compe ency-based
aining o key economic sec o s. China has buil a massi e, s a e-
d i en sys em ocused on s a egic alignmen wi h na ional indus ial
goals, Bo h ace unique challenges: Mongolia in achie ing inancial
sus ainabili y and deepening indus y engagemen , and China in
ensu ing quali y and ele ance a scale.
The mos signi ican ou come o his esea ch is he iden i ica ion o
immense po en ial o mu ually bene icial syne gis ic coope a ion.
The complemen a y na u e o hei sys ems— he scale and s a e
capaci y o China and he agili y and specialized expe ience o
Mongolia—c ea es a e ile g ound o collabo a ion. This esea ch
p oposes he ollowing ac ionable ecommenda ions, which hold
subs an ial p omo ional alue o policymake s in bo h na ions:
1. Join Cu iculum De elopmen o C oss-Bo de
Indus ies
Es ablish a Mongolian-Sino wo king g oup o co-de elop cu icula
and s anda ds o indus ies i al o bo h coun ies, such as c oss-
bo de logis ics and cus oms, enewable ene gy (especially wind and
sola ), and sus ainable mining and en i onmen al managemen . This
would le e age China's cu iculum de elopmen expe ise and
Mongolia's speci ic knowledge o i s own egula o y and geog aphic
con ex .
2. Es ablishmen o a "Mongolian-Sino VET Coope a ion
Cen e "
This cen e , po en ially co-loca ed a a leading Mongolian
uni e si y, could se e as a hub o : Teache Exchange
P og ams. Sho - e m exchanges whe e Chinese "dual-quali ica ion"
eache s ain Mongolian ins uc o s in p ac ical skills and
Resea ch Pape
This wo k is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial 4.0 In e na ional License.
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17538743
Page 18
pedagogical me hods, while Mongolian expe s sha e hei
expe ience in CBT implemen a ion and managing mul i-s akeholde
go e nance; Digi al Resou ce Sha ing, The cen e could hos a
sha ed digi al pla o m p o iding access o China's high-quali y
online VET cou ses (a na ional p io i y) and i ual simula ions,
which would be in aluable o Mongolia's mo e emo e ins i u ions;
Pilo "Mode n App en iceship" P og ams in Mongolia. Pilo p ojec s
could be launched based on he Chinese mode n app en iceship
model. This would p o ide Mongolian s uden s wi h high-quali y
wo k-based lea ning oppo uni ies and gi e companies a pipeline o
locally ained, cul u ally compe en skilled wo ke s.
3. Collabo a ion in Cul u al Sec o s
Mongolia has unique expe ise in sec o s ela ed o i s nomadic
he i age, such as sus ainable animal husband y, cashme e
p oduc ion, and eco- ou ism managemen . Chinese VET ins i u ions,
pa icula ly in Inne Mongolia, could collabo a e o de elop join
p og ams ha no only p ese e his cul u al he i age bu also c ea e
new economic oppo uni ies.
In all, Mongolia and China can ans o m hei VET sys ems om
pa allel na ional endea o s in o an in eg a ed, coope a i e
ecosys em. Such collabo a ion would no only enhance he skills and
employabili y o hei you h bu also se e as a powe ul engine o
egional economic in eg a ion and a angible demons a ion o he
"Mongolia-2050" and Chinese "Bel and Road" Ini ia i e.
Acknowledgemen
Du ing he hesis w i ing p ocess, I ecei ed in aluable guidance
and suppo om my supe iso , P o esso O gon T. o he G adua e
Uni e si y o Mongolia, who p o ided en husias ic men o ship and
subs an ial assis ance wi h ele an li e a u e, da a, and w i ing
s a egies. I ex end my deepes g a i ude o he . Addi ionally, I am
deeply hank ul o he p o esso ial eam a he G adua e Uni e si y
o Mongolia o hei aluable sugges ions on e ising he hesis,
and I exp ess my since e app ecia ion o all hei con ibu ions.
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