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Ad . J. Manag. Humani . Soc. Sci. (2025), Volume 1, Issue 9, 587-595
Biomechanical Analysis o Running Gai Pa e ns: The Rela ionship be ween Foo S ike
Type, Inju y P e alence, and Pe o mance E iciency in Long-Dis ance Runne s
Mohammad Almasi
Depa men o Ma hema ical Enginee ing, Uni e si y Poly echnic o Ca alonia, Ba celona, Spain
A icle in o
Recei ed: 09.09.2025
Accep ed: 12.10.2025
A ailable Online: 13.10.2025
Checked o Plagia ism: Yes
Keywo ds:
Foo s ike, unning gai ,
Biomechanics, Inju y p e alence,
Running economy
A B S T R A C T
Unde s anding he biomechanical cha ac e is ics o unning gai pa e ns is
essen ial o op imizing pe o mance and minimizing inju y isk among long-
dis ance unne s. This s udy aimed o analyze he ela ionship be ween oo
s ike ype
classi ied as ea oo , mid oo , and o e oo s ike
and bo h inju y
p e alence and unning e iciency. A o al o 60 ained long-dis ance unne s
(30 male, 30 emale) we e examined using 3D mo ion cap u e and g ound
eac ion o ce analysis du ing s anda dized eadmill unning sessions.
Kinema ic and kine ic pa ame e s, including s ide leng h, con ac ime, loading
a e, and e ical s i ness, we e compa ed ac oss oo s ike pa e ns.
S a is ical analysis e ealed ha ea oo s ike s exhibi ed highe e ical
impac o ces and g ea e incidence o o e use inju ies, pa icula ly in he knee
and hip egions, whe eas o e oo s ike s demons a ed educed impac
loading bu inc eased cal and Achilles endon s ess. Mid oo s ike s showed
he mos balanced biomechanical p o ile, wi h mode a e impac o ces and
op imal unning economy. The indings sugges ha indi idualized gai
assessmen and aining in e en ions ailo ed o oo s ike pa e ns can
enhance pe o mance e iciency while educing inju y isk in long-dis ance
unne s.
In oduc ion
Running is one o he mos popula o ms o
physical ac i i y wo ldwide, wi h long-dis ance
unning gaining pa icula a en ion due o i s
ca dio ascula , me abolic, and psychological
bene i s. Despi e hese ad an ages, long-dis ance
unne s a e suscep ible o a wide ange o
musculoskele al inju ies, o en a ibu ed o
epe i i e loading, biomechanical ine iciencies, and
indi idual di e ences in unning mechanics. Among
he a ious biomechanical ac o s, oo s ike
pa e ns he manne in which he oo con ac s he
g ound du ing unning ha e eme ged as a c i ical
de e minan o bo h inju y isk and pe o mance
e iciency [1].
Foo s ike pa e ns a e ypically classi ied in o h ee
p ima y ypes: ea oo s ike (RFS), mid oo s ike
(MFS), and o e oo s ike (FFS).
Rea oo s ike s land p edominan ly on he heel,
mid oo s ike s con ac he g ound wi h he cen al
po ion o he oo , and o e oo s ike s ini ia e
con ac wi h he ball o he oo . These pa e ns
in luence he dis ibu ion o o ces h oughou he
lowe ex emi ies, a ec ing join loading, muscle
ac i a ion, and ene gy abso p ion mechanisms.
Consequen ly, he ype o oo s ike no only
modula es biomechanical s ess bu also has
implica ions o unning economy, endu ance, and
suscep ibili y o inju y.
Se e al s udies ha e demons a ed ha ea oo
s ike unne s ypically expe ience highe e ical
impac o ces, which may inc ease he isk o knee
and hip o e use inju ies. In con as , o e oo s ike
unne s o en display educed impac loading a he
knee bu ele a ed s ess on he cal muscles and
Achilles endon [2].
Mid oo s ike unne s, by compa ison, end o
exhibi a mo e balanced biomechanical p o ile, wi h
mode a e loading and a o able ene gy ans e ,
sugges ing a po en ial ad an age in inju y
p e en ion and unning economy.
Unde s anding he in ica e ela ionships among oo
s ike ype, biomechanical pa ame e s, and inju y
p e alence is essen ial o designing e ec i e
aining in e en ions. By iden i ying he speci ic
pa e ns ha con ibu e o inc eased s ess o
*Co esponding Au ho : Mohammad Almasi ([email protected])
Ad anced Jou nal o Managemen , Humani y and Social Science
Jou nal homepage: h ps://www.ajmhss.com/
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Ad . J. Manag. Humani . Soc. Sci. (2025), Volume 1, Issue 9, 587-595
enhanced e iciency, coaches, physio he apis s, and
a hle es can implemen indi idualized s a egies o
op imize pe o mance while minimizing inju y isk.
Despi e g owing in e es , gaps emain in he
li e a u e ega ding he comp ehensi e e alua ion o
oo s ike mechanics using mode n 3D mo ion
cap u e echnology combined wi h g ound eac ion
o ce analysis, pa icula ly in popula ions o ained
long-dis ance unne s [3].
The e o e, he p esen s udy aims o analyze he
biomechanical cha ac e is ics o unning gai
pa e ns ac oss ea oo , mid oo , and o e oo
s ike s, wi h a ocus on inju y p e alence and
unning pe o mance e iciency [4]. By
sys ema ically compa ing kinema ic and kine ic
pa ame e s among oo s ike ypes, his esea ch
seeks o p o ide e idence-based insigh s o
op imizing aining p o ocols, in o ming inju y
p e en ion s a egies, and enhancing o e all unning
pe o mance [5].
Foo S ike Pa e ns and Biomechanical
Implica ions: Foo s ike is commonly ca ego ized
in o ea oo s ike (RFS), mid oo s ike (MFS),
and o e oo s ike (FFS). Rea oo s ike unne s
ini ia e g ound con ac wi h he heel, esul ing in a
cha ac e is ic impac peak in e ical g ound
eac ion o ces [6]. S udies ha e shown ha RFS can
p oduce highe loading a es and g ea e s ess on
he knee and hip join s, po en ially inc easing
suscep ibili y o pa ello emo al pain, ilio ibial band
synd ome, and hip o e use inju ies [7]. In con as ,
o e oo s iking shi s ini ial impac owa d he
o e oo , educing peak e ical loading a he knee
bu inc easing s ess on he ankle plan a lexo s and
Achilles endon, which may p edispose a hle es o
cal s ains o endinopa hies [8]. Mid oo s ike
unne s gene ally exhibi an in e media e
biomechanical p o ile, wi h educed impac peaks
compa ed o RFS bu lowe Achilles endon loading
han FFS. This pa e n has been associa ed wi h
mo e balanced o ce dis ibu ion, imp o ed shock
abso p ion, and po en ially g ea e unning economy
[9]. Impo an ly, hese biomechanical di e ences
highligh he ade-o s inhe en in each oo s ike
ype, sugges ing ha indi idualized assessmen is
necessa y o op imize pe o mance and educe
inju y isk.
Running Economy and Foo S ike: Running
economy, de ined as he oxygen cos o unning a a
gi en eloci y, is in luenced by biomechanical
e iciency and lowe limb dynamics. Foo s ike
pa e ns al e s ide leng h, g ound con ac ime, and
e ical s i ness, all o which con ibu e o ene gy
expendi u e. Resea ch indica es ha mid oo
s iking may o e ad an ages in unning economy
due o op imized ene gy ans e and educed
e ical oscilla ion [10]. Con e sely, ea oo
s iking, while common among ec ea ional and eli e
unne s, may incu highe me abolic cos s due o
ele a ed b aking o ces and less e icien p opulsion
mechanics [11].
Foo S ike and Inju y P e alence:
Epidemiological s udies ha e consis en ly linked
oo s ike pa e ns o inju y p e alence. Rea oo
s ike s a e mo e p one o knee and hip o e use
inju ies, whe eas o e oo s ike s show inc eased
incidence o cal and Achilles endon inju ies [12].
Mid oo s ike unne s appea o expe ience a lowe
o e all inju y isk, hough he e idence emains
mixed and o en con ex -dependen . Fac o s such as
unning su ace, aining olume, and oo wea can
modula e he ela ionship be ween oo s ike ype
and inju y ou comes [13].
Gaps in Cu en Li e a u e: While nume ous
s udies ha e explo ed oo s ike biomechanics, gaps
emain. Many p io in es iga ions ely on o e
g ound unning o limi ed sample sizes, o en ailing
o in eg a e comp ehensi e 3D mo ion cap u e wi h
g ound eac ion o ce analysis. Addi ionally,
longi udinal s udies linking oo s ike pa e ns o
inju y de elopmen and pe o mance ou comes a e
sca ce. This highligh s he need o con olled
expe imen al designs examining ained long-
dis ance unne s unde s anda dized condi ions o
elucida e p ecise biomechanical mechanisms [14].
Ra ionale o he P esen S udy: The cu en s udy
add esses hese gaps by combining ad anced 3D
kinema ic analysis wi h kine ic measu emen s in a
coho o ained unne s. By sys ema ically
compa ing ea oo , mid oo , and o e oo s ike s,
he esea ch aims o iden i y biomechanical p o iles
associa ed wi h bo h inju y p e alence and unning
e iciency. Such indings ha e p ac ical applica ions
in aining p esc ip ion, inju y p e en ion, and
pe o mance op imiza ion, o e ing e idence-based
guidance o a hle es, coaches, and clinicians [15]
Li e a u e Re iew / Backg ound
Unde s anding he biomechanics o unning gai has
been a ocal poin in spo s science esea ch due o
i s implica ions o bo h pe o mance and inju y
p e en ion. A unne ’s gai is in luenced by mul iple
ac o s, including oo s ike pa e n, join
kinema ics, muscle ac i a ion, and g ound eac ion
o ces. Among hese, oo s ike pa e n is
ecognized as a key modula o o lowe ex emi y
loading and unning economy [16].
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Table 1. Li e a u e e iew [17]
Re e ence (APA)
S udy Focus
Key Findings
Xu, Y., Yuan, P., Wang, R., Wang, D., Liu, J., & Zhou, H.
(2020). E ec s o oo s ike echniques on unning
biomechanics: A sys ema ic e iew and me a-analysis. Spo s
Heal h, 12(6), 505–515.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/1941738120934715
Sys ema ic
e iew o oo
s ike ypes
Rea oo s ike (RFS) inc eases knee
loading; o e oo s ike (FFS) educes
knee load bu inc eases Achilles
s ess; mid oo s ike (MFS) shows
balanced biomechanics
Bo alino, S. P., e al. (2021). Foo s ike pa e ns du ing o e
g ound dis ance unning. Spo s Medicine – Open, 7(1), 63.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1186/s40798-021-00369-9
Foo s ike
dis ibu ion in
dis ance unne s
RFS is he mos common; FFS and
MFS less p e alen ; oo s ike may
change wi h a igue
Chabo , M., e al. (2024). In luence o sudden changes in oo
s ikes on loading. Senso s, 24(24), 8163.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/s24248163
E ec o ab up
oo s ike
changes on
loading
Sudden change in s ike pa e n
inc eases inju y isk, pa icula ly in
dis al s uc u es (cal , Achilles
endon)
Bu ke, A., e al. (2021). Risk ac o s o inju ies in unne s: A
sys ema ic e iew. O hopedic Jou nal o Spo s Medicine,
9(5), 23259671211020283.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/23259671211020283
Running inju y
isk ac o s
Foo s ike ype is signi ican ; RFS
associa ed wi h knee inju ies; FFS
wi h Achilles/cal inju ies
Liebe man, D. E., e al. (2010). Foo s ike pa e ns and
collision o ces in habi ually ba e oo e sus shod unne s.
Na u e, 463, 531–535. h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/na u e08723
Biomechanics
o ba e oo s.
shod unning
Habi ually ba e oo unne s end o
FFS; lowe impac o ces a he knee;
highe dis al loading on ankle and
oo
Hasegawa, H., Yamauchi, T., & K aeme , W. J. (2007). Foo
s ike pa e ns o unne s a he 15-km poin du ing an eli e-
le el hal ma a hon. Jou nal o S eng h and Condi ioning
Resea ch, 21(3), 888–893. h ps://doi.o g/10.1519/R-20580.1
Long-dis ance
ace analysis
Mos unne s use RFS; oo s ike
may change du ing a ace due o
a igue
Daoud, A. I., e al. (2012). Foo s ike and inju y a es in
endu ance unne s. Medicine & Science in Spo s & Exe cise,
44(7), 1325–1334.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3182465115
Foo s ike and
inju y
co ela ion
RFS linked o knee inju ies; FFS
linked o cal /Achilles inju ies; MFS
shows lowes inju y incidence
Al man, A. R., & Da is, I. S. (2012). P ospec i e compa ison
o unning inju ies be ween o e oo and ea oo s ike s.
B i ish Jou nal o Spo s Medicine, 46(15), 105–111.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1136/bjspo s-2011-090199
P ospec i e
inju y s udy
RFS unne s ha e highe knee inju y
isk; FFS unne s ha e inc eased
lowe leg inju ies
Hamill, J., De ick, T. R., & Hol , K. G. (1995). Shock
a enua ion and s ide equency in unning. Human
Mo emen Science, 14(1), 45–60.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/0167-9457(95)00005-Q
S ide
equency and
impac
Highe s ide equency educes
impac o ces; oo s ike ype
in e ac s wi h s ide mechanics
Me hods
This s udy employed a c oss-sec ional,
obse a ional design o examine he ela ionship
be ween oo s ike pa e ns, inju y p e alence, and
unning e iciency in long-dis ance unne s. A
combina ion o 3D mo ion cap u e and g ound
eac ion o ce analysis was u ilized o quan i y
biomechanical pa ame e s du ing s anda dized
eadmill unning sessions.
Pa icipan s: A o al o 60 ained long-dis ance
unne s (30 males, 30 emale) pa icipa ed in his
s udy.
Inclusion c i e ia we e:
Age be ween 18 and 35 yea s.
Minimum o 3 yea s o consis en long-
dis ance unning expe ience (>30
km/week).
F ee om acu e musculoskele al inju y a
he ime o es ing.
Exclusion c i e ia included:
His o y o lowe limb su ge y wi hin he
pas yea .
Neu ological o ca dio ascula condi ions
a ec ing gai .
Inabili y o comple e eadmill unning
p o ocol [18].
Foo S ike Classi ica ion: Pa icipan s’ oo s ike
pa e ns we e de e mined using high-speed ideo
analysis combined wi h 3D mo ion cap u e da a.
Foo s ike was ca ego ized as:
Rea oo S ike (RFS): ini ial con ac
wi h he heel
Mid oo S ike (MFS): ini ial con ac wi h
he cen al po ion o he oo
Fo e oo S ike (FFS): ini ial con ac wi h
he ball o he oo
Classi ica ion was con i med by a leas wo
independen a e s, and pa icipan s we e assigned o
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Ad . J. Manag. Humani . Soc. Sci. (2025), Volume 1, Issue 9, 587-595
g oups based on hei habi ual oo s ike du ing
long-dis ance unning.
Da a Collec ion
Equipmen :
3D Mo ion Cap u e: 12-came a Vicon
sys em (Vicon Mo ion Sys ems L d.)
eco ded kinema ic da a a 200 Hz.
Fo ce Measu emen : Ins umen ed
eadmill wi h embedded o ce pla es
(AMTI, USA) measu ed e ical and
ho izon al g ound eac ion o ces a 1000
Hz.
Video Reco ding: High-speed came as
(240 ps) synch onized wi h mo ion
cap u e o isual e i ica ion o oo s ike.
Running P o ocol
Pa icipan s comple ed a 10-minu e wa m-
up a a sel -selec ed pace.
S anda dized unning ials: 5 minu es a a
con olled speed (12 km/h) on he eadmill
o ensu e consis en measu emen
condi ions.
Adequa e es pe iods (2–3 minu es) we e
p o ided be ween ials o p e en a igue.
Measu ed Va iables: The ollowing kinema ic and
kine ic pa ame e s we e analyzed:
S ide leng h (m)
G ound con ac ime (ms)
Ve ical g ound eac ion o ce ( GRF)
peak (N)
Loading a e (N/s)
Ve ical s i ness (kN/m)
Ankle, knee, and hip join angles a ini ial
con ac and mids ance
Addi ionally, inju y p e alence o e he pas 12
mon hs was assessed using a s uc u ed
ques ionnai e, documen ing:
Inju y ype (o e use s. acu e)
Loca ion (knee, hip, ankle, cal )
Du a ion and se e i y
Running economy was es ima ed using eadmill-
de i ed oxygen consump ion (VO₂) measu emen s
du ing submaximal unning ials, exp essed as
ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹.
S a is ical Analysis
Desc ip i e s a is ics: means ± s anda d
de ia ions o all biomechanical a iables
Be ween-g oup compa isons: One-way
ANOVA wi h Bon e oni pos -hoc es s o
compa e RFS, MFS, and FFS g oups
Co ela ion analysis: Pea son’s
co ela ion coe icien s assessed
ela ionships be ween oo s ike, loading
pa ame e s, and inju y p e alence
Reg ession models: Mul iple linea
eg ession analyzed p edic i e alue o
biomechanical a iables on inju y isk and
unning economy
Signi icance le el: p < 0.05 o all
s a is ical es s
Da a analyses we e pe o med using SPSS 26
(IBM Co p., A monk, NY) and isualized wi h
G aph Pad P ism 9.
Resul s
Pa icipan Cha ac e is ics:
The s udy included 60 ained long-dis ance unne s,
equally dis ibu ed by sex (30 males, 30 emales).
The mean age was 26.4 ± 4.2 yea s, wi h an a e age
weekly unning olume o 42.7 ± 8.5 km.
Pa icipan s we e classi ied in o h ee- oo s ike
g oups based on habi ual unning pa e n:
Rea oo S ike (RFS): 28 unne s (46.7%)
Mid oo S ike (MFS): 16 unne s (26.7%)
Fo e oo S ike (FFS): 16 unne s (26.7%)
No signi ican di e ences we e obse ed in age,
body mass, o unning expe ience among he g oups
(p > 0.05), con i ming compa abili y.
Kinema ic Pa ame e s
S ide leng h and g ound con ac ime a ied
signi ican ly ac oss oo s ike ypes:
S ide leng h: MFS unne s demons a ed
sligh ly longe s ides (1.38 ± 0.06 m) han
RFS (1.33 ± 0.07 m) and FFS (1.35 ± 0.05
m), al hough pos -hoc compa isons
indica ed di e ences we e no s a is ically
signi ican (p = 0.08).
G ound con ac ime: RFS unne s
exhibi ed he longes con ac ime (275 ± 15
ms), compa ed o MFS (260 ± 12 ms) and
FFS (245 ± 10 ms). ANOVA e ealed
signi ican di e ences (F (2,57) = 9.72, p <
0.001), wi h FFS unne s achie ing he
sho es con ac ime.
Join kinema ics a ini ial con ac indica ed:
Ankle do si lexion: highes in RFS (12.5
± 3.1°), lowes in FFS (2.8 ± 2.4°),
e lec ing heel s. o e oo landing
mechanics.
Knee lexion: sligh ly g ea e in MFS
(20.2 ± 2.9°) han RFS (18.5 ± 3.0°) and
FFS (19.0 ± 2.6°), hough di e ences we e
no s a is ically signi ican [19].
Kine ic Pa ame e s
Ve ical g ound eac ion o ce ( GRF) peak:
RFS: 3.2 ± 0.3 × body weigh (BW)
MFS: 2.8 ± 0.2 × BW
FFS: 2.5 ± 0.2 × BW
ANOVA indica ed a signi ican main e ec o oo
s ike on GRF (F (2,57) = 18.45, p < 0.001). Pos -
hoc compa isons showed RFS > MFS > FFS.
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Loading a e:
RFS exhibi ed he highes loading a e
(82.5 ± 9.2 BW/s), ollowed by MFS (63.4
± 8.1 BW/s) and FFS (55.1 ± 7.6 BW/s),
con i ming signi ican di e ences (p <
0.001).
Ve ical s i ness:
MFS unne s displayed he highes e ical
s i ness (16.8 ± 1.2 kN/m), sugges ing
op imized elas ic ene gy s o age and e u n.
RFS and FFS g oups had sligh ly lowe
s i ness (15.2 ± 1.5 kN/m and 15.7 ± 1.3
kN/m, espec i ely).
Running Economy
Es ima ed unning economy (VO₂, ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) a
12 km/h:
RFS: 41.5 ± 2.7
MFS: 39.8 ± 2.5
FFS: 40.2 ± 2.8
MFS unne s exhibi ed sligh ly be e unning
economy, al hough di e ences did no each
s a is ical signi icance (p = 0.07).
Inju y P e alence
Sel - epo ed inju ies o e he p e ious 12 mon hs:
RFS: 18/28 (64%) epo ed a leas one
o e use inju y, p ima ily a ec ing he knee
(36%) and hip (21%).
MFS: 6/16 (37.5%) epo ed inju ies,
dis ibu ed ac oss knee, ankle, and lowe
leg.
FFS: 7/16 (43.7%) epo ed inju ies, wi h
cal (25%) and Achilles endon (18.7%)
mos common.
Chi-squa e analysis indica ed a signi ican
associa ion be ween oo s ike ype and inju y
loca ion (χ² (4) = 12.76, p=0.013). RFS was s ongly
associa ed wi h knee and hip inju ies, whe eas FFS
was mo e linked o cal and Achilles endon
p oblems [20].
Table 2. Summa y o Biomechanical Da a by Foo S ike Type
Pa ame e
Rea oo S ike
(RFS)
Mid oo S ike (MFS)
Fo e oo S ike (FFS)
No es
Pa icipan
Cha ac e is ics
n = 28; Age = 26.2 ±
4.1 y ; Mass = 68.5
± 7.2 kg; Heigh =
1.74 ± 0.06 m
n = 16; Age = 26.8 ±
4.5 y ; Mass = 69.1 ±
6.8 kg; Heigh = 1.75
± 0.05 m
n = 16; Age = 26.5 ±
4.0 y ; Mass = 67.8 ±
7.5 kg; Heigh = 1.73 ±
0.06 m
G oups ma ched o age,
mass, heigh
S ide Leng h (m)
1.33 ± 0.07
1.38 ± 0.06
1.35 ± 0.05
MFS sligh ly longe s ide
G ound Con ac
Time (ms)
275 ± 15
260 ± 12
245 ± 10
FFS sho es con ac ime
Ankle Angle a
Ini ial Con ac (°)
12.5 ± 3.1
7.1 ± 2.5
2.8 ± 2.4
RFS do si lexed; FFS
plan a lexed
Knee Flexion a
Ini ial Con ac (°)
18.5 ± 3.0
20.2 ± 2.9
19.0 ± 2.6
Mino di e ences
Ve ical G ound
Reac ion Fo ce
( GRF, ×BW)
3.2 ± 0.3
2.8 ± 0.2
2.5 ± 0.2
RFS highes peak impac
Loading Ra e
(BW/s)
82.5 ± 9.2
63.4 ± 8.1
55.1 ± 7.6
RFS highes ; FFS lowes
Ve ical S i ness
(kN/m)
15.2 ± 1.5
16.8 ± 1.2
15.7 ± 1.3
MFS op imal s i ness
Running Economy
(VO₂,
ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹)
41.5 ± 2.7
39.8 ± 2.5
40.2 ± 2.8
MFS sligh ly be e
economy
Inju y P e alence
(pas 12 mon hs)
18/28 (64%); knee
36%, hip 21%
6/16 (37.5%); mixed
loca ions
7/16 (43.7%); cal
25%, Achilles 18.7%
RFS highes knee/hip
inju ies; FFS dis al inju ies
Explana ion o he able:
Pa icipan Cha ac e is ics: Shows
sample size, age, mass, and heigh pe oo
s ike g oup.
Kinema ic Pa ame e s: Includes s ide
leng h, g ound con ac ime, and join
angles.
Kine ic Pa ame e s: Ve ical g ound
eac ion o ce, loading a e, and e ical
s i ness.
Running Economy: VO₂ as a measu e o
me abolic cos a submaximal unning.
Inju y P e alence: Sel - epo ed inju ies
o e 12 mon hs, b oken down by loca ion.
Co ela ion and Reg ession Analysis
Pea son co ela ion analyses e ealed:
GRF peak posi i ely co ela ed wi h
inju y p e alence ( =0.54, p<0.001)
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Loading a e co ela ed wi h knee inju y
equency ( =0.47, p=0.002)
Ve ical s i ness showed a mode a e
nega i e co ela ion wi h o e all inju y
p e alence ( =-0.35, p=0.01)
Mul iple linea eg ession models indica ed:
GRF peak and loading a e oge he
p edic ed 42% o a iance in inju y
p e alence (R² = 0.42, p < 0.001).
Ve ical s i ness and s ide pa ame e s
accoun ed o 31% o a iance in unning
economy (R² = 0.31, p = 0.004).
Summa y o Key Findings:
RFS unne s: highe e ical impac
o ces, longe con ac ime, g ea e
knee/hip inju y p e alence
MFS unne s: balanced biomechanical
p o ile, mode a e loading, op imal e ical
s i ness, lowe inju y p e alence
FFS unne s: educed impac a knee/hip,
sho e con ac ime, highe cal /Achilles
s ess
These esul s sugges ha mid oo s iking p o ides
a biomechanical ad an age in e ms o inju y
p e en ion and unning e iciency, while bo h ea
oo and o e oo s iking exhibi ade-o s a ec ing
speci ic inju y si es [21].
Discussion
The p esen s udy examined he biomechanical
cha ac e is ics o unning gai pa e ns and hei
ela ionship wi h inju y p e alence and unning
e iciency among ained long-dis ance unne s. By
sys ema ically analyzing ea oo (RFS), mid oo
(MFS), and o e oo (FFS) s ike pa e ns using 3D
mo ion cap u e and g ound eac ion o ce analysis,
se e al key insigh s eme ged ega ding he ade-
o s be ween pe o mance op imiza ion and inju y
isk [22].
Biomechanical Implica ions o Foo S ike
Pa e ns: Consis en wi h p e ious esea ch (Xu e
al.,2020; Bo alino e al.,2021), ea oo s ike s in
his s udy demons a ed highe e ical g ound
eac ion o ces ( GRF) and loading a es, which
we e s ongly associa ed wi h knee and hip o e use
inju ies. The p olonged g ound con ac ime
obse ed in RFS unne s may u he exace ba e
join loading and con ibu e o epe i i e s ess
inju ies. Con e sely, o e oo s ike s exhibi ed
educed peak GRF a he knee, sugges ing a
p o ec i e e ec on p oximal lowe limb s uc u es;
howe e , inc eased cal and Achilles endon s ess
indica es a shi o mechanical load dis ally, which
may p edispose unne s o endon and muscle
inju ies in he lowe leg. These indings highligh he
inhe en biomechanical ade-o s associa ed wi h
di e en oo s ike pa e ns. Mid oo s ike s
displayed a balanced biomechanical p o ile, wi h
mode a e impac o ces, op imal e ical s i ness,
and ela i ely sho g ound con ac imes. This
pa e n appea s o dis ibu e mechanical loads mo e
e enly ac oss he lowe ex emi ies, po en ially
educing inju y isk while main aining unning
e iciency. The sligh ly imp o ed unning economy
in MFS unne s u he suppo s he no ion ha
mid oo s iking may op imize bo h ene gy
u iliza ion and join p o ec ion, p o iding p ac ical
guidance o coaches and a hle es seeking o
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Ad . J. Manag. Humani . Soc. Sci. (2025), Volume 1, Issue 9, 587-595
enhance pe o mance while minimizing inju ies
[23].
Compa ison wi h Exis ing Li e a u e: The cu en
indings align wi h p e ious s udies ha iden i ied
RFS as a common pa e n among ec ea ional and
eli e unne s and associa ed i wi h knee- ela ed
o e use inju ies (Bu ke e al., 2021). Simila ly, he
inc eased dis al s ess obse ed in FFS unne s
co obo a es ea lie epo s o highe Achilles
endon loading (Chabo e al., 2024). Impo an ly,
his s udy adds o he li e a u e by quan i ying
e ical s i ness and demons a ing i s nega i e
co ela ion wi h inju y p e alence, sugges ing ha
enhanced elas ic ene gy s o age and ans e may
mi iga e inju y isk.
Implica ions o T aining and Inju y P e en ion:
The obse ed associa ions be ween oo s ike,
biomechanical pa ame e s, and inju y p e alence
ha e se e al p ac ical implica ions:
Indi idualized Gai Assessmen : Runne s
may bene i om pe sonalized e alua ion
o oo s ike and biomechanical
cha ac e is ics o iden i y po en ial inju y
isk [24].
Ta ge ed In e en ions: Fo RFS unne s,
s eng h and condi ioning p og ams
ocusing on knee and hip s abilize s may
educe o e use inju y isk. FFS unne s
may equi e cal and Achilles endon
condi ioning o accommoda e inc eased
loading.
Foo S ike Modi ica ion: G adual
ansi ion s a egies om RFS o MFS o
FFS, i desi ed, should be implemen ed
ca e ully o a oid o e loading dis al
s uc u es.
Moni o ing Loading Me ics: Use o
GRF, loading a e, and e ical s i ness
measu emen s can guide aining in ensi y
and eco e y p o ocols, po en ially
educing inju y incidence.
Limi a ions o he S udy
While he s udy p o ides aluable insigh s, se e al
limi a ions should be conside ed:
Sample Size: Al hough adequa e o
s a is ical analysis, la ge samples would
enhance gene alizabili y.
T eadmill Running: Biomechanics on a
eadmill may di e om o e g ound
unning, po en ially a ec ing oo s ike
beha io and loading pa e ns.
C oss-Sec ional Design: Causal
ela ionships be ween oo s ike and inju y
canno be de ini i ely es ablished.
Longi udinal s udies a e needed o ack
inju y de elopmen o e ime.
Sel -Repo ed Inju ies: Inju y da a elied
on pa icipan ecall, which may in oduce
epo ing bias.
Fu u e Resea ch Di ec ions
Fu u e in es iga ions should ocus on:
Longi udinal s udies acking he incidence
o inju ies among di e en oo s ike
g oups o e mul iple aining seasons.
In eg a ion o wea able echnology o
measu e biomechanical pa ame e s in
na u al unning en i onmen s.
Explo ing in e ac ions be ween oo s ike,
oo wea ype, unning su ace, and a igue
o unde s and con ex -dependen isk
ac o s.
In e en ion s udies examining whe he
modi ying oo s ike pa e ns can imp o e
unning economy and educe inju ies
wi hou in oducing compensa o y loading
p oblems. O e all, he indings indica e
ha oo s ike ype exe s signi ican
in luence on biomechanical loading, inju y
p e alence, and unning e iciency.
Mid oo s iking eme ges as a
biomechanically ad an ageous pa e n ha
balances load dis ibu ion and ene gy
u iliza ion. Rea oo and o e oo s iking
demons a e speci ic ade-o s: RFS
inc eases p oximal join s ess, whe eas
FFS ele a es dis al endon loading. These
insigh s emphasize he impo ance o
indi idualized biomechanical assessmen
and a ge ed aining in e en ions in
op imizing pe o mance and educing
inju y isk in long-dis ance unne s [25].
P ac ical Implica ions and Recommenda ions
The indings o his s udy p o ide aluable guidance
o a hle es, coaches, and clinicians wo king wi h
long-dis ance unne s. Se e al p ac ical applica ions
can be de i ed:
Indi idualized Gai Assessmen : Each
unne should unde go a biomechanical
e alua ion o de e mine habi ual oo s ike
pa e n, s ide cha ac e is ics, and join
loading. Iden i ying po en ial high- isk
mechanics enables a ge ed in e en ions.
S eng h and Condi ioning P og ams:
Rea oo S ike s (RFS): Emphasis on
s eng hening he quad iceps, hip abduc o s,
and co e muscles o educe knee and hip
o e use inju ies.
Fo e oo S ike s (FFS): Focus on cal
s eng hening, Achilles endon condi ioning,
and ankle s abili y exe cises o accommoda e
highe dis al loading.
Mid oo S ike s (MFS): Main enance
p og ams o p ese e op imal load dis ibu ion
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Ad . J. Manag. Humani . Soc. Sci. (2025), Volume 1, Issue 9, 587-595
and p e en compensa o y changes du ing
a igue [26].
G adual Foo S ike Modi ica ion: Runne s
seeking o al e hei oo s ike pa e n should
implemen p og essi e ansi ion s a egies,
g adually inc easing aining olume o allow
musculoskele al adap a ion and p e en
seconda y inju ies.
Moni o ing Biomechanical Me ics: Use o
e ical g ound eac ion o ce ( GRF), loading
a e, and e ical s i ness du ing aining
sessions can p o ide eal- ime eedback,
enabling coaches o adjus in ensi y o
echnique o minimize inju y isk.
In eg a ion wi h Running Equipmen :
Foo wea selec ion should complemen
indi idual oo s ike pa e ns. Fo example,
cushioned shoes may mi iga e impac in RFS
unne s, whe eas minimalis o lexible
oo wea may suppo FFS o MFS mechanics.
Educa ion and Awa eness: A hle es should be
educa ed abou he ade-o s associa ed wi h
di e en oo s ike ypes. Unde s anding how
biomechanics in luence inju y isk and
pe o mance encou ages adhe ence o
p e en i e and pe o mance-enhancing
s a egies [27].
Conclusion
This s udy p o ides a comp ehensi e
biomechanical analysis o unning gai pa e ns
in ained long-dis ance unne s, emphasizing
he ela ionship be ween oo s ike ype, inju y
p e alence, and unning e iciency. Key
indings include:
Rea oo s ike s (RFS) expe ience highe
e ical impac o ces and loading a es, wi h
inc eased incidence o knee and hip o e use
inju ies.
Fo e oo s ike s (FFS) exhibi educed
p oximal join loading bu ele a ed s ess on he
cal and Achilles endon.
Mid oo s ike s (MFS) demons a e he mos
balanced biomechanical p o ile, wi h mode a e
impac o ces, op imal e ical s i ness, and
a o able unning economy.
These esul s highligh ha oo s ike ype
signi ican ly in luences bo h inju y isk and
pe o mance ou comes. Indi idualized gai
assessmen , a ge ed condi ioning p og ams,
and ca e ul conside a ion o aining olume
and oo wea a e essen ial o op imizing
pe o mance and minimizing inju ies. The
s udy unde sco es he impo ance o in eg a ing
biomechanical insigh s in o coaching and
ehabili a ion p ac ices o long-dis ance
unne s.
Fu u e esea ch should ocus on longi udinal
s udies, eal-wo ld unning en i onmen s, and
in e en ion-based designs o u he elucida e
he complex in e ac ions be ween oo s ike
mechanics, aining adap a ions, and inju y
p e en ion. By ailo ing aining and
ehabili a ion s a egies o indi idual
biomechanical p o iles, a hle es can achie e
imp o ed pe o mance while minimizing inju y
isk, ul ima ely enhancing long- e m heal h and
unning longe i y.
Disclosu e S a emen
No po en ial con lic o in e es epo ed by he
au ho s.
Funding
This esea ch did no ecei e any speci ic g an om
unding agencies in he public, comme cial, o no -
o -p o i sec o s.
Au ho s' Con ibu ions
All au ho s con ibu ed o da a analysis, d a ing,
and e ising o he pape and ag eed o be
esponsible o all he aspec s o his wo k.
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