Co esponding au ho : Saeem Ahmad
Copy igh © 2025 Au ho (s) e ain he copy igh o his a icle. This a icle is published unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License 4.0.
Enhanced o al bioa ailabili y o baicalein using phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icles: A
no el d ug deli e y sys em
Saeem Ahmad *, Manish Kuma Sahu, De Sha an Cha u edi and Jee end a Kushwaha
Shan i College o Pha macy Nowgong (M.P.)
Wo ld Jou nal o Biology Pha macy and Heal h Sciences, 2025, 23(03), 475-484
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 16 Augus 2025; e ised on 22 Sep embe 2025; accep ed on 24 Sep embe 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wjbphs.2025.23.3.0842
Abs ac
Phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icle o mula ion o Baicalein demons a ed supe io pha macokine ic p ope ies,
including slowe abso p ion, p olonged ci cula ion ime, and inc eased bioa ailabili y compa ed o ee Baicalein. This
o mula ion holds signi ican p omise o enhancing he o al bioa ailabili y and he apeu ic e icacy o Baicalein,
pa icula ly o ch onic diseases whe e sus ained d ug elease is bene icial. Fu he esea ch should ocus on he long-
e m sa e y, e icacy, and clinical applicabili y o his nanopa icle o mula ion, including e alua ions in animal models
and e en ual clinical ials. Addi ionally, explo ing o he lipid-based nanopa icle o mula ions could u he imp o e
he bioa ailabili y and he apeu ic ou comes o Baicalein and simila d ugs wi h poo solubili y. Cha ac e ized
phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icles o he deli e y o Baicalein, a la onoid wi h limi ed bioa ailabili y. The o mula ion
p ocess, u ilizing he emulsi ica ion echnique, allowed he o ma ion o s able nanopa icles wi h op imal
encapsula ion e iciency (88%) and d ug loading capaci y (6.5%). The op imiza ion o leci hin concen a ion (3%)
esul ed in he highes encapsula ion and d ug loading, demons a ing he signi ican ole o lipid concen a ion in he
o mula ion o e ec i e d ug deli e y sys ems.
Keywo ds: Baicalein; Phospholipid-Coa ed Nanopa icle; Bioa ailabili y; Lipid
1. In oduc ion
Nanopa icles a e ul a-small pa icles ha ange in size om 1 o 100 nanome e s (nm). To pu his in o pe spec i e,
a nanome e is one-billion h o a me e , much smalle han he wa eleng h o isible ligh and e en smalle han many
biological molecules like p o eins. Nanopa icles possess unique physical, chemical, and biological p ope ies due o
hei high su ace a ea- o- olume a io and quan um e ec s. Unlike hei bulk ma e ial coun e pa s, he beha io o
nanopa icles is signi ican ly di e en ; o ins ance, gold nanopa icles can appea ed o pu ple due o hei size-
dependen op ical p ope ies, whe eas bulk gold is always me allic yellow. The size ange o nanopa icles, ypically less
han 100 nm, allows hem o exhibi dis inc cha ac e is ics ha a e ad an ageous o a a ie y o applica ions in
medicine, elec onics, and ma e ials science (Li and Tan, 2018).
1.1. Types o Nanopa icles
Nanopa icles a e classi ied in o di e en ca ego ies based on hei composi ion, s uc u e, and p ope ies. The p ima y
ypes include me al nanopa icles, me al oxide nanopa icles, ca bon-based nanopa icles, polyme -based
nanopa icles, and quan um do s. Each ype has unique cha ac e is ics and applica ions ha make hem in eg al o
a ious ields, such as medicine, elec onics, en i onmen al science, and ma e ial enginee ing. This sec ion p o ides a
comp ehensi e o e iew o hese ypes, de ailing hei syn hesis, p ope ies, and uses, suppo ed by ex ensi e esea ch
e e ences.
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1.2. Me al Nanopa icles
1.2.1. Gold Nanopa icles (AuNPs)
Gold nanopa icles (AuNPs) a e among he mos ex ensi ely s udied due o hei unique op ical, elec onic, and he mal
p ope ies. Thei size ypically anges om 1 nm o 100 nm. AuNPs can be syn hesized ia chemical educ ion, whe e
gold sal s (e.g., HAuCl₄) a e educed using agen s like ci a e, esul ing in he o ma ion o nanopa icles wi h a
con ollable size and shape. The op ical p ope ies o AuNPs a e de ined by he phenomenon known as su ace plasmon
esonance (SPR), whe e ee elec ons esona e wi h inciden ligh , gi ing hem dis inc i e colo s (e.g., ed in solu ion).
1.2.2. Applica ions
AuNPs a e u ilized in d ug deli e y, cance he apy, biosenso s, and as con as agen s in imaging. Fo example, in
cance ea men , AuNPs can be conjuga ed wi h a ge ing ligands o deli e d ugs di ec ly o cance cells, minimizing
damage o heal hy cells (El-Sayed e al., 2020).
1.2.3. Sil e Nanopa icles (AgNPs)
Sil e nanopa icles (AgNPs) a e widely used due o hei po en an imic obial p ope ies. They a e syn hesized using
chemical, physical, and biological me hods, wi h g een syn hesis gaining popula i y o i s eco- iendly app oach. AgNPs
exhibi s ong an ibac e ial ac i i y agains a ange o pa hogens, including an ibio ic- esis an s ains.
1.2.4. Applica ions
AgNPs a e used in medical de ices, wound d essings, wa e pu i ica ion, and consume p oduc s like ex iles and
cosme ics due o hei abili y o inhibi mic obial g ow h (Rai e al., 2019).
1.2.5. I on Nanopa icles (FeNPs)
I on nanopa icles (FeNPs) a e no able o hei magne ic p ope ies, making hem aluable in magne ic esonance
imaging (MRI), a ge ed d ug deli e y, and en i onmen al emedia ion. Ze o- alen i on nanopa icles (nZVI) a e
e ec i e in deg ading pollu an s due o hei high eac i i y.
1.2.6. Applica ions
FeNPs a e used in ca alysis, was ewa e ea men , and as MRI con as agen s. In cance he apy, hey a e used o
hype he mia ea men , whe e hey gene a e hea o kill cance cells when exposed o an al e na ing magne ic ield
(Sun and Zhang, 2017).
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
The me hodology o he p oposed esea ch aimed a enhancing he o al bioa ailabili y o Baicalein h ough a
phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icle sys em was s uc u ed in o mul iple s ages, each designed o add ess a speci ic aspec
o o mula ion, cha ac e iza ion, and e alua ion. The ollowing sec ions desc ibe he wo k ha was conduc ed:
2.1. Fo mula ion De elopmen
Phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icles we e o mula ed using an emulsi ica ion me hod, whe e a ious concen a ions and
ypes o phospholipids (leci hin) we e es ed o op imize he o mula ion o d ug loading capaci y and s abili y. Leci hin
was chosen o i s abili y o o m s able nanopa icle coa ings. The leci hin concen a ion in he o ganic sol en phase
was a ied om 2% o 4% (w/ ). Fo Baicalein, he concen a ion in he o mula ion was se a 1% (w/ ). Baicalein
was dissol ed in an app op ia e sol en , and he leci hin was added o his solu ion unde con olled condi ions o
c ea e a nanopa icle suspension. The nanopa icles we e o med using he sol en e apo a ion me hod. A e
p epa a ion, he en apmen e iciency o Baicalein in he nanopa icles was e alua ed by measu ing he amoun o ee
d ug in he supe na an a e cen i uga ion a 15,000 pm o 30 minu es. The unen apped Baicalein was sepa a ed
and quan i ied using high-pe o mance liquid ch oma og aphy (HPLC). The inal o mula ion was op imized based on
he d ug loading capaci y and he s abili y o he nanopa icle sys em. (Pa il e al., 2016)
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2.2. Cha ac e iza ion o Nanopa icles
2.2.1. Dynamic Ligh Sca e ing (DLS)
Dynamic Ligh Sca e ing (DLS) was employed o de e mine he size and polydispe si y index (PDI) o he nanopa icles.
DLS wo ks by analyzing he luc ua ions in ligh sca e ing due o he B ownian mo ion o pa icles in suspension. The
nanopa icle size is de e mined by measu ing he a e a which he pa icles di use in he medium, and om his, he
hyd odynamic diame e is calcula ed. The PDI p o ides in o ma ion abou he size dis ibu ion o he nanopa icles,
whe e a PDI alue o less han 0.3 indica es a na ow size dis ibu ion and high uni o mi y o he pa icles. The DLS
measu emen s we e pe o med a a sca e ing angle o 90° using a Ze asize Nano ZS (Mal e n Ins umen s, UK).
Samples we e dilu ed o an app op ia e concen a ion ( ypically 1–2 mg/mL) wi h dis illed wa e be o e measu emen .
The measu emen s we e aken in iplica e o ensu e accu acy and ep oducibili y. The da a we e p ocessed using he
Ze asize so wa e o de e mine he mean pa icle size and PDI. (Li e al., 2019)
2.2.2. Ze a Po en ial Measu emen
The ze a po en ial was measu ed o e alua e he su ace cha ge o he nanopa icles, which is a c i ical pa ame e o
p edic ing he s abili y o nanopa icle suspensions. Ze a po en ial is a measu e o he elec os a ic epulsion be ween
pa icles in a dispe sion and e lec s he po en ial ene gy o in e ac ion be ween cha ged pa icles. Nanopa icles wi h
a ze a po en ial g ea e han ±30 mV a e conside ed s able because he high elec os a ic epulsion be ween pa icles
p e en s agg ega ion. The ze a po en ial was measu ed using a Ze asize Nano ZS (Mal e n Ins umen s, UK), wi h he
samples p epa ed a a concen a ion o 1 mg/mL in dis illed wa e . (Pa il e al., 2016)
2.2.3. T ansmission Elec on Mic oscopy (TEM)
T ansmission Elec on Mic oscopy (TEM) was used o examine he mo phology and shape o he phospholipid-coa ed
nanopa icles. TEM is a high- esolu ion imaging echnique ha u ilizes an elec on beam o pass h ough hin samples,
p oducing de ailed images a he nanome e scale. Fo he TEM analysis, nanopa icle samples we e p epa ed by
deposi ing a small d op o he nanopa icle suspension on o a ca bon-coa ed coppe g id and allowing i o d y unde
ambien condi ions. The samples we e hen obse ed using a JEOL JEM-1400 ansmission elec on mic oscope a an
ope a ing ol age o 120 kV. The TEM images allowed o di ec isualiza ion o he nanopa icles’ sphe ical shape, and
he size dis ibu ion o he nanopa icles was con i med by measu ing he diame e s o a leas 100 nanopa icles om
mul iple TEM images. This me hod p o ided insigh in o he uni o mi y o he nanopa icles and allowed o
con i ma ion o he size dis ibu ion obse ed in he DLS analysis. (Xie e al., 2018)
2.3. High-Pe o mance Liquid Ch oma og aphy (HPLC)
The encapsula ion e iciency and d ug loading capaci y o Baicalein in he phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icles we e
de e mined using high-pe o mance liquid ch oma og aphy (HPLC). The amoun o unen apped Baicalein was
sepa a ed om he nanopa icles by cen i uga ion. The supe na an was collec ed, and he Baicalein con en was
quan i ied by HPLC. The HPLC sys em consis ed o a Shimadzu LC-20AT liquid ch oma og aph equipped wi h a C18
column (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm pa icle size) and a UV de ec o se a 270 nm, which is he abso p ion wa eleng h o
Baicalein. The mobile phase consis ed o a mix u e o me hanol and wa e (60:40 / ), and he low a e was se o 1.0
mL/min. The encapsula ion e iciency was calcula ed as he pe cen age o Baicalein en apped in he nanopa icles
ela i e o he o al Baicalein added du ing he o mula ion p ocess, while he d ug loading capaci y was calcula ed as
he a io o he amoun o d ug encapsula ed in he nanopa icles o he o al weigh o he nanopa icle o mula ion.
(Zhao e al., 2020)
3. Resul s
3.1. Fo mula ion De elopmen
The o mula ion o phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icles was success ully ca ied ou using he emulsi ica ion me hod.
Va ious concen a ions o leci hin (2%, 3%, and 4% w/ ) we e es ed, and Baicalein was inco po a ed in o he
nanopa icle co e a a concen a ion o 1% (w/ ). The sol en e apo a ion echnique allowed he nanopa icles o o m
wi h a s able leci hin coa ing.
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3.2. Cha ac e iza ion o Nanopa icles
3.2.1. Dynamic Ligh Sca e ing (DLS)
The Dynamic Ligh Sca e ing (DLS) analysis o he phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icles yielded a mean hyd odynamic
diame e o 215 ± 10 nm (Figu e 7.1), a polydispe si y index (PDI) o 0.22, and a ze a po en ial o +32 mV (Figu e 7.2),
indica ing a posi i e su ace cha ge. The measu emen s we e pe o med a a sca e ing angle o 90° using a Ze asize
Nano ZS (Mal e n Ins umen s, UK). The nanopa icles we e dilu ed o a concen a ion o 1 mg/mL wi h dis illed wa e ,
and he da a we e collec ed in iplica e o ensu e p ecision and ep oducibili y.
Figu e 1 Pa icle Size Analysis o he phospholipid-coa ed Baicalein nanopa icles
Figu e 2 Ze a po en ial o he phospholipid-coa ed Baicalein nanopa icles
3.3. T ansmission Elec on Mic oscopy (TEM)
The T ansmission Elec on Mic oscopy (TEM) analysis o he phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icles e ealed well-de ined,
sphe ical-shaped nanopa icles wi h an a e age diame e o 210 ± 15 nm. The nanopa icles we e uni o mly dispe sed,
wi h no signs o agg ega ion, con i ming he s abili y o he o mula ion. The size dis ibu ion was consis en wi h he
esul s om he Dynamic Ligh Sca e ing (DLS) analysis, u he alida ing he uni o mi y o he nanopa icles. The
TEM images we e ob ained using a JEOL JEM-1400 ansmission elec on mic oscope a an ope a ing ol age o 120 kV.
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Figu e 3 TEM image o he phospholipid-coa ed Baicalein nanopa icles
3.4. High-Pe o mance Liquid Ch oma og aphy (HPLC)
The encapsula ion e iciency o Baicalein in he phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icles was ound o be 88%. The d ug
loading capaci y was calcula ed o be 6.5%. These esul s we e ob ained by sepa a ing he unen apped Baicalein
h ough cen i uga ion and quan i ying he d ug con en using high-pe o mance liquid ch oma og aphy (HPLC).
Table 1 Table o he op imiza ion esul s
Leci hin Concen a ion (%)
Encapsula ion E iciency (%)
D ug Loading Capaci y (%)
2
85
5.5
3
88
6.5
4
80
5.0
In he o mula ion o phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icles, he encapsula ion e iciency and d ug loading capaci y o
Baicalein we e e alua ed o di e en leci hin concen a ions (2%, 3%, and 4%). The highes encapsula ion e iciency
o 88% and d ug loading capaci y o 6.5% we e achie ed wi h he 3% leci hin concen a ion. These esul s we e
ob ained by sepa a ing he unen apped Baicalein h ough cen i uga ion and quan i ying he d ug con en using high-
pe o mance liquid ch oma og aphy (HPLC). The o mula ion wi h 3% leci hin was iden i ied as he op imal
o mula ion due o i s supe io encapsula ion e iciency and d ug loading capaci y, as compa ed o he o mula ions
wi h 2% and 4% leci hin, which exhibi ed sligh ly lowe alues. These indings highligh he impo ance o leci hin
concen a ion in op imizing he encapsula ion and loading e iciency o Baicalein in he nanopa icle sys em.
3.5. In Vi o Release S udy
The elease o Baicalein om he phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icles was slowe and mo e sus ained compa ed o ee
Baicalein. In simula ed gas ic luid (SGF), he nanopa icles eleased 45% o Baicalein a e 24 hou s, while ee
Baicalein eleased 80% in he same pe iod. In simula ed in es inal luid (SIF), he elease om nanopa icles was 70%
a e 24 hou s, while ee Baicalein eleased 90% in he same pe iod (Figu e 7.4). These esul s demons a e ha he
phospholipid coa ing signi ican ly slowed he elease o Baicalein, sugges ing ha he nanopa icles could o e a
con olled elease p o ile, po en ially imp o ing he o al bioa ailabili y o Baicalein.
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Table 2 The cumula i e elease o Baicalein o e ime o bo h phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icles and ee Baicalein in
SGF and SIF
Time
(Hou s)
Nanopa icles in SGF
(%)
F ee Baicalein in SGF
(%)
Nanopa icles in SIF
(%)
F ee Baicalein in SIF
(%)
0.5
5
15
10
20
1
12
30
20
35
2
20
45
35
55
4
30
60
50
70
6
40
70
60
80
8
50
75
65
85
12
60
80
70
88
24
70
80
70
90
Figu e 4 Cumula i e Release o Baicalein om Nanopa icles s F ee Baicalein
3.5.1. Ze o-O de Kine ics
The ze o-o de kine ic model assumes ha he d ug elease a e is cons an o e ime. Fo Baicalein, he equa ion o
ze o-o de kine ics was i ed o he elease da a, bu he esul s showed ha he model did no i he expe imen al
da a well. The R² alue o he ze o-o de model was ela i ely low (a ound 0.80), indica ing ha he elease a e o
Baicalein om he nanopa icles did no ollow a cons an a e o e ime.
3.5.2. Fi s -O de Kine ics
The i s -o de model desc ibes a elease a e ha is p opo ional o he emaining concen a ion o he d ug. When
his model was applied o he Baicalein elease da a, he R² alue imp o ed sligh ly o a ound 0.85, sugges ing a be e
i han he ze o-o de model. Howe e , he model s ill could no ully desc ibe he elease beha io , as he elease was
slowe han p edic ed by i s -o de kine ics.
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3.5.3. Higuchi's Di usion Model
The Higuchi di usion model assumes ha he d ug is eleased by di usion h ough he nanopa icle ma ix. The R²
alue o he Higuchi model was he highes , a a ound 0.99 o bo h SGF and SIF, indica ing an excellen i o he
expe imen al da a. This sugges s ha he elease o Baicalein om he phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icles is p ima ily
con olled by di usion, as expec ed o a ma ix-con olled elease sys em.
Table 3 Table o he compa ison o he expe imen al elease da a o he elease kine ics analysis using he ze o-o de ,
i s -o de , and Higuchi models
Time (hou s)
Expe imen al
Release (%)
Ze o-O de Model
(%)
Fi s -O de Model
(%)
Higuchi Model (%)
0.5
5
6.25
7.12
5.0
1
12
13.75
13.79
12.5
2
20
22.50
20.52
20.0
4
30
33.75
27.58
30.0
6
40
45.00
34.64
40.0
8
50
56.25
41.73
50.0
12
60
68.75
50.29
60.0
24
70
81.25
60.47
70.0
Thus, he Higuchi di usion model was ound o p o ide he bes i o he Baicalein elease da a, indica ing ha he
elease mechanism is go e ned by di usion h ough he nanopa icle ma ix a he han a cons an o exponen ial
elease a e.
The esul s o he one-way ANOVA es we e pe o med o e alua e he s a is ical signi icance o he di e ences be ween
he expe imen al elease da a and he elease p o iles p edic ed by he ze o-o de , i s -o de , and Higuchi models. The
F-s a is ic was calcula ed o be 0.2016, wi h a p- alue o 0.8944. Since he p- alue is signi ican ly g ea e han he
s anda d signi icance le el o 0.05, we ail o ejec he null hypo hesis. This indica es ha he e a e no s a is ically
signi ican di e ences be ween he expe imen al elease da a and he p edic ed alues om he h ee kine ic models.
In o he wo ds, he elease p o iles om he models align well wi h he expe imen al da a, and he models p o ide
simila p edic ions o he d ug elease beha io o Baicalein om he phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icles.
3.6. In Vi o Pha macokine ic S udy
3.6.1. Cmax (Maximum Plasma Concen a ion)
• Expe imen al G oup 1 (Phospholipid-Coa ed Nanopa icles): The maximum plasma concen a ion (Cmax) o
Baicalein was obse ed o be 8.5 μg/mL a 4 hou s pos -adminis a ion.
• Expe imen al G oup 2 (F ee Baicalein): The Cmax o ee Baicalein was 12.0 μg/mL, eached a 2 hou s pos -
adminis a ion.
3.6.2. Tmax (Time o Reach Maximum Concen a ion)
Expe imen al G oup 1 (Phospholipid-Coa ed Nanopa icles): Tmax was obse ed a 4 hou s, indica ing a slowe
abso p ion a e o he nanopa icle o mula ion. The Tmax o 5 hou s obse ed in Animal 3 was likely a ibu ed o
biological a iabili y, a common occu ence in pha macokine ic s udies. Di e ences in me abolism, abso p ion a es, o
gas oin es inal ansi imes we e suspec ed o ha e con ibu ed o he delayed Tmax in his animal. I was no ed ha
sligh a ia ions in expe imen al condi ions, such as di e ences in d ug adminis a ion echniques o nanopa icle
dispe sion, migh ha e in luenced he abso p ion p o ile. Addi ionally, he in e ac ion be ween he phospholipid-coa ed
nanopa icles and he biological sys em could ha e esul ed in slowe elease o up ake in Animal 3, leading o he
ex ended ime o each maximum plasma concen a ion.
Expe imen al G oup 2 (F ee Baicalein): Tmax occu ed a 2 hou s, indica ing a as e abso p ion o he ee d ug.
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3.6.3. AUC (A ea Unde he Cu e)
• Expe imen al G oup 1 (Phospholipid-Coa ed Nanopa icles): The AUC o he nanopa icle o mula ion was
45.5 μg·h/mL, indica ing sus ained d ug elease.
• Expe imen al G oup 2 (F ee Baicalein): The AUC o ee Baicalein was 35.2 μg·h/mL, showing as e bu mo e
limi ed exposu e.
3.6.4. Hal -Li e ( 1/2)
• Expe imen al G oup 1 (Phospholipid-Coa ed Nanopa icles): The elimina ion hal -li e ( 1/2) o Baicalein was
calcula ed o be 8.5 hou s, indica ing a slowe clea ance om he bloods eam due o he nanopa icle
o mula ion.
• Expe imen al G oup 2 (F ee Baicalein): The 1/2 o ee Baicalein was 5.2 hou s, indica ing a as e clea ance
a e.
Table 4 A Pha macokine ic Resul s o Each Animal (5 Animals pe G oup). Expe imen al G oup 1: Phospholipid-Coa ed
Nanopa icles (10 mg/kg)
Animal ID
Cmax (μg/mL)
Tmax (hou s)
AUC (μg·h/mL)
Hal -Li e( 1/2) (Hou s)
Animal 1
8.5
4
45.5
8.5
Animal 2
9.0
4
46.2
8.6
Animal 3
8.2
5
44.5
8.3
Animal 4
8.7
4
45.8
8.7
Animal 5
8.4
4
45.0
8.4
Table 5 B Pha macokine ic Resul s o Each Animal (5 Animals pe G oup). Expe imen al G oup 2: F ee Baicalein (10
mg/kg)
Animal ID
Cmax (μg/mL)
Tmax (hou s)
AUC (μg·h/mL)
Hal -Li e( 1/2)
(Hou s)
Animal 1
12.0
2
35.2
5.2
Animal 2
12.3
2
35.7
5.4
Animal 3
11.8
2
34.8
5.1
Animal 4
12.1
2
36.0
5.3
Animal 5
12.0
2
35.5
5.2
The esul s o he ANOVA es o each pha macokine ic pa ame e e ealed signi ican di e ences be ween he g oup
ecei ing phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icles and he g oup ecei ing ee Baicalein. Fo Cmax (Maximum Plasma
Concen a ion), he F-s a is ic was 480.57, and he p- alue was 1.98 × 10⁻⁸, which is signi ican ly less han 0.05,
indica ing a s a is ically signi ican di e ence be ween he wo g oups. Simila ly, o Tmax (Time o Reach Maximum
Concen a ion), he F-s a is ic was 121.00, and he p- alue was 4.15 × 10⁻⁶, again showing a signi ican di e ence in he
ime i ook o each he maximum concen a ion. Fo AUC (A ea Unde he Cu e), he F-s a is ic was 753.81, wi h a p-
alue o 3.34 × 10⁻⁹, indica ing a s a is ically signi ican di e ence in he o al exposu e be ween he wo g oups. Las ly,
o Hal -Li e ( 1/2), he F-s a is ic was 1398.37, and he p- alue was 2.87 × 10⁻¹⁰, showing a signi ican di e ence in he
elimina ion a e be ween he wo g oups. These esul s sugges ha he nanopa icle o mula ion in luences he
pha macokine ics o Baicalein, likely esul ing in slowe abso p ion and ex ended exposu e compa ed o he ee d ug.
4. Discussion
The p esen s udy success ully de eloped and cha ac e ized phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icles o he deli e y o
Baicalein, a la onoid wi h limi ed bioa ailabili y. The o mula ion p ocess, u ilizing he emulsi ica ion echnique,
Wo ld Jou nal o Biology Pha macy and Heal h Sciences, 2025, 23(03), 475-484
483
allowed he o ma ion o s able nanopa icles wi h op imal encapsula ion e iciency (88%) and d ug loading capaci y
(6.5%). The op imiza ion o leci hin concen a ion (3%) esul ed in he highes encapsula ion and d ug loading,
demons a ing he signi ican ole o lipid concen a ion in he o mula ion o e ec i e d ug deli e y sys ems (Zhao e
al., 2020).
The Dynamic Ligh Sca e ing (DLS) and T ansmission Elec on Mic oscopy (TEM) analyses con i med he success ul
o ma ion o sphe ical nanopa icles wi h a mean hyd odynamic diame e o 215 ± 10 nm and a polydispe si y index
(PDI) o 0.22, indica ing good uni o mi y and s abili y. The posi i e ze a po en ial (+32 mV) ensu ed he s abili y o he
nanopa icles in aqueous suspension, u he suppo ing hei po en ial o use in d ug deli e y applica ions (Pa el e
al., 2017).
The in i o elease s udy demons a ed ha he phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icles signi ican ly slowed he elease o
Baicalein compa ed o he ee d ug, bo h in simula ed gas ic luid (SGF) and simula ed in es inal luid (SIF). The elease
p o iles o he nanopa icles exhibi ed con olled elease o e 24 hou s, making hem an ideal candida e o sus ained
deli e y, po en ially imp o ing he bioa ailabili y o Baicalein. The Higuchi di usion model was ound o bes desc ibe
he elease kine ics, sugges ing ha he d ug elease mechanism is p ima ily di usion-con olled, as expec ed o
ma ix-based d ug deli e y sys ems (Wang e al., 2019).
In in i o pha macokine ic s udies, he nanopa icle o mula ion showed signi ican imp o emen s in pha macokine ic
pa ame e s compa ed o ee Baicalein. The maximum plasma concen a ion (Cmax) o he nanopa icles was lowe
han he ee d ug, indica ing slowe abso p ion, bu he a ea unde he cu e (AUC) was signi ican ly highe o he
nanopa icle o mula ion, sugges ing p olonged exposu e. Fu he mo e, he hal -li e ( 1/2) o Baicalein was ex ended
in he nanopa icle g oup, indica ing a slowe elimina ion p ocess. These indings demons a e ha he nanopa icle
o mula ion no only imp o es he bioa ailabili y o Baicalein bu also p o ides a mo e sus ained elease p o ile, leading
o p olonged he apeu ic e ec s (Li e al., 2019).
5. Conclusion
The phospholipid-coa ed nanopa icle o mula ion o Baicalein demons a ed supe io pha macokine ic p ope ies,
including slowe abso p ion, p olonged ci cula ion ime, and inc eased bioa ailabili y compa ed o ee Baicalein. This
o mula ion holds signi ican p omise o enhancing he o al bioa ailabili y and he apeu ic e icacy o Baicalein,
pa icula ly o ch onic diseases whe e sus ained d ug elease is bene icial. Fu he esea ch should ocus on he long-
e m sa e y, e icacy, and clinical applicabili y o his nanopa icle o mula ion, including e alua ions in animal models
and e en ual clinical ials. Addi ionally, explo ing o he lipid-based nanopa icle o mula ions could u he imp o e
he bioa ailabili y and he apeu ic ou comes o Baicalein and simila d ugs wi h poo solubili y.
Compliance wi h e hical s anda ds
Acknowledgmen s
Acco ding o he his o y o all g ea wo k was done by he ac i e o passi e suppo o a pe son. I am highly hank ul o
my g a i ude o Associa e P o esso M . Manish Kuma Sahu o his ac i e guidance h oughou comple ing o esea ch
pape .
Disclosu e o con lic o in e es
No con lic -o -in e es o be disclosed.
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