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“O’ TOGE” P og amme on Sobi F.M, and In luence on Kwa a S a e Elec o a es Vo ing
Beha io
HABEEB ABDULRAUF *
School o Communica ion, Wes e n Michigan Uni e si y, Uni ed S a es.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(01), 1352-1364
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 02 June 2025; e ised on 13 July 2025; accep ed on 15 July 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.27.1.2667
Abs ac
This esea ch s udy assessed he in luence o Sobi F.M’s ‘O o ge’ p og amme on o ing beha io o elec o a es du ing
he 2019 and 2023 Go e no ship elec ions in Kwa a S a e, Nige ia. The s udy was ancho ed on he Agenda-Se ing and
Mul i-s ep Flow Theo ies as heo e ical jus i ica ion, and su ey esea ch design was adop ed as i s me hodology. F om
he esul o he da a ga he ed, indings indica e ha he ‘O o ge’ p og amme is a e y e ec i e poli ical campaign
s a egy du ing he 2019 go e no ship elec ion in Kwa a S a e, and ha au ho i y o Sobi F.M did no gi e o he poli ical
pa ies a enue o ai hei own campaign p og ammes. Based on hese indings, i was howe e ecommended ha ,
o ganize o he p og amme should look a be e ways o sus aining i , e en a e elec ion, as well as e iew i con en s
in o de no o iola e he p o isions in NBC b oadcas ing codes.
Keywo ds: In luence; Elec ions; Poli ical Mobilisa ion; P og amme; O oge
1. In oduc ion
The nomina ion and elec ion o candida es in o a ious poli ical o ices a e impo an in pa y poli ics and
ep esen a i e democ acy. In e e y poli ical pa y, such nomina ions a e made a na ional and s a e con en ions
p eceding he p esiden ial, gube na o ial and o he local elec ion (Cyp us, 2015). P io o he 2018 gube na o ial
elec ion in Kwa a S a e, poli ical pa ies h ough keenly con es ed o s age-managed p ima ies p oduced candida es
who ied o go e no ship o ice ha was abou o be le acan by he incumben go e no o he s a e, Alhaji
Abdul a ah Ahmed. Secu ing he pa y icke is a hu dle ha mus be passed using in a-pa y connec ion, pe sonal
in luence, and aspi an ’s c eden ials o achie emen s. A e secu ing a pa y’s candidacy, he candida e and he poli ical
pa y ha e an uphill ask o winning he scheduled elec ion (O iola & Ogbemi, 2016). “I espec i e o he le el o poli ical
campaign, he elec o a es ( o e s) a e always he a ge . They buy he poli ical p oduc i he p oduc s mee hei needs;
hey a e also ecipien s o poli ical messages and campaigns ha a e ai ed h ough he b oadcas media ( adio o
ele ision) which is aimed owa ds solici ing o suppo by o ing he candida es (Nwankwo, Ojo & Apeh, 2015, p.
121)”. The o e s may a y in hei expec a ions which could ange om desi e o o al change om “poli ics as usual”,
ib an and isiona y poli ical leade ship, o de ibalized leade wi h holis ic elec o a e ocused p og ammes (Dauda,
Abdu-Raheem and Oluwaseun, 2021).
As a ge s in poli ical campaign, i.e. elec ionee ing in luenced h ough a ious poli ical ma ke ing s a egies and
p og ammes on he media. The a ay o poli ical ma ke ing s a egies p o ides in o ma ion which o e s need o assess
candida es’ objec i es o seeking o es om he elec o a es (Onwuamalam, 2014). P io o 2018 go e no ship elec ion
in Kwa a S a e, he wo p ominen gube na o ial candida es (Alhaji Abdul ahman Abdul azak and Hon. Rasaq Ola unde
A unwa) massi ely employed a ious poli ical campaign s a egies on adio, ele ision and o he media pla o ms.
These campaign s a egies we e employed o woo o e s o pe suade hem o o e candida es o hei choice o poli ical
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(01), 1352-1364
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pa y. One p ominen campaign slogan ha was used by he All P og essi es Cong ess (APC) hen is ‘O o ge’ which
li e ally means i ’s enough. This slogan was also made popula h ough Sobi F.M (a p i a e-owned adio s a ion in Kwa a
S a e), as a one-hou p og amme i led wi h he slogan we e equen ly ai ed on he s a ion. This p og amme was
speci ically di ec ed o he elec o a e o pe suade hem o o e o hei own candida e (APC) as agains he candida e
o he i al pa y.
Mode n day poli ics demand ha poli ical pa ies se e as a pla o m h ough which poli icians con es o di e en
elec i e posi ions. And in o de o hese elec o a es o pa icipa e, Olaleye and Ayobade (2018, p. 14) obse ed ha
“ hey (elec o a es) a e mobilized o o e candida es in o a ious o ices. These mobiliza ions a e done h ough
p oduc ion and ai ing o publishing o poli ical campaign messages ha aimed o educa e and in luence o e s o ac
du ing he elec ions”. Suppo ing his posi ion, Adamu (2018) obse ed ha , as Nige ians conduc ed hei 2015 gene al
elec ions, such poli ical communica ion in he o m o a ious campaign messages we e wi nessed. He asse s, ha
“Radio, which is one o he mos equen medium used by campaign o ganize s and poli ical pa ies, wi nessed such
p esence o poli ical campaign messages e en highe ”.
Today, o e s in Nige ia come ac oss a ious poli ical campaign messages h ough lis ening o adio. Aghamelu (2014,
p. 79) opines ha “a na ionwide s udy ca ied ou by he Na ional Bu eau o S a is ics in 2011 showed ha Nige ians
a e hea ily dependen on adio as majo sou ce o public in o ma ion”. I is impo an o no e ha , acco ding o he
cul u al se ings o Nige ian cul u e, u al dwelle s belie e mo e in in e pe sonal communica ion as means o ecei ing
in o ma ion. Agencies like he Na ional O ien a ion Agency (NOA); ci il socie ies like he Eu opean Union (EU) and
A ican Union (AU) ha se es as elec ion obse e s, among o he s; elec o al bodies like he Independen Na ional
Elec o al Commission (INEC), in Nige ia we e all awa e o he pe asi eness o he adio. These bodies, among o he s,
in ol ed adio in enligh ening ci izens abou he poli ical sys em. Wi h his de elopmen , Dada (2023) showed ha
audience membe s go o know abou aspi an s and candida es o a ious elec i e pos s as well as he mani es oes o
poli ical pa ies mos ly h ough he medium o he adio. Addi ionally, Familusi and Owoeye (2014, p. 165) s essed
ha b oadcas ing media like adio used in Nige ia’s poli ical p ocess had wi nessed de elopmen in p oducing
knowledge as ega ds o choice and o ing o he elec o a es. In he same ein, I abo (2015, p. 123) o e s a piece o
ad ice ha anybody including he go e nmen who igno e he ole o adio in hei li e is cou ing some dange because
adio epo age on he poli ical li e alone is c ucial o i s su i al and g ow h. Nige ia is a coun y ha can be desc ibed
as a na ion, whe e people a e mos ly guided by hei e hnic a ilia ion and iden i y. This iden i y led o he p oli e a ion
o local media ou i s especially local adio s a ions. These local adio s a ions gi e all he a ious communi y leade s in
he locali y ad an ages by allowing hem o speak o hei e hnic communi y membe s o ibal membe s. This is one
eason ha makes local adio s a ions mo e pa onized by he a ious communi y membe s. And his also allows
communi y leade s o speak o hei co-communi y membe s di ec ly.
The p epa a ion o he conduc o he Nige ia’s 2015 gene al elec ions has wi nessed a ise in he use o adio as a
means o ai ing poli ical campaign messages. E en, be o e hen, a p oli e a ion o adio s a ions in he en i e coun y
was wi nessed. The adio s a ions ha we e mainly local s a ions o he wise known as F.M s a ions we e used o ai
poli ical campaign messages by he go e nmen , poli ical pa ies and candida es
Howe e , since he e is no known cu ing-edge s a egy ha can win elec ions a all imes, gi en he poli ical e ain in
Nige ia and pa icula ly in Kwa a S a e whe e compe i ion is s i . I can be ecalled ha he poli ical a mosphe e in
Kwa a S a e p io o he go e no ship elec ion was ense as a esul o he powe o incumbency and he poli ical alue
o he opposi ion candida es, mos especially, he candida e o People Democ a ic Pa y (PDP), Rasaq A unwa and his
i al om he All P og essi es Cong ess (APC), Abdul ahman Abdu azak who was e en ually decla ed he winne .
Al hough, Nwankwo, e al. (2015) opines ha poli ical campaign is impo an du ing elec ionee ing, bu he e seems o
be no ag eemen on he e ec o poli ical campaigns on elec o al ou comes o choice o candida es o elec ion. Based
on he abo e issues aised o scena ios, his s udy aimed a examining he in luence o Sobi F.M’s ‘O o ge’ p og amme
on o ing beha io o elec o a es du ing he 2019 and 2023 go e no ship elec ions in Kwa a S a e.
1.1. S a emen o he P oblem
Fo he pas wo decades, he e has been inc ease use o adio o poli ical campaigns in Nige ia, which is seen by many
as a ool o mobilizing he elec o a es o suppo du ing elec ionee ing p ocess (Nwankwo e al., 2015). P io o he
2019 go e no ship elec ion in Kwa a S a e, opposi ion poli ical pa ies ha e employed a ious campaign messages on
he media o ackle hei main i al ( he uling pa y), gi en he hea ed poli ical a mosphe e ha pe aded Kwa a S a e
du ing elec o al p ocess. I was no qui e clea whe he he c a ed ‘O o ge’ campaign slogan and i s p og amme e sion
on Sobi F.M signi ican ly in luenced he elec o a es owa ds he huge o ing igu e go a he end o he his o ical
go e no ship elec ion.
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Simila ly, “ adio as a medium o communica ion in luences how people expe ience hei poli ical li e by i s egula
b oadcas o news ma e ial in cu en a ai s, poli ics and o he a eas” (Dauda e al., 2021). Radio is s ill he bes way
o poli ical pa ies and candida es o in luence people, (Adibe 2015). In Nige ia, he poli ical ins i u ions we e in he
pas employed he use o adi ional means o communica ion o sha e hei poli ical campaign messages o po en ial
o e s. Howe e , in ecen imes, he e is a shi om depending much on use o di ec o ace- o- ace mee ings, and
ins ead emba k on he use o mos ly adio s a ions o send poli ical campaign messages o he populace, especially
po en ial o e s, he eby pe suading hem o o e o a pa icula candida e. Kwa a s a e which is he main ocus s a e
o his esea ch has se e al adio s a ions bo h go e nmen -owned and p i a e-owned s a ions.
No doub ha go e nmen a all le els s uggles o con ol he poli ical sphe e in he s a e using adio as a means o
dissemina ing hei messages du ing and a e elec ions (Abdollahyan & Machika, 2017). This de elopmen saw he
es ablishmen o many adio s a ions in compa ison o o he o ms o media, bo h in Kwa a and ac oss Nige ian s a e.
The issue is he in luence o ‘O o ge’ p og amme on o ing beha io o he elec o a es du ing 2019 go e no ship elec ion
in Kwa a S a e. Fu he mo e, i is a ques ion o de e mina ion whe he o no he e is a ela ionship be ween adio
poli ical campaign p og ammes; in e e ence o he opinion leade s on he o e s’ beha io leading o u n ou in o
pa icipa ing du ing he elec ions; and he ou come o he elec ions esul .
I is agains his backg ound ha his s udy seeks o examine he in luence o Sobi F.M’s ‘O o ge’ p og amme on o ing
beha io o elec o a es du ing he 2019 go e no ship elec ion in Kwa a S a e, wi h a iew o asce ain how adio was
success ully used o he elec ionee ing p ocess.
1.2. Resea ch Ques ions
• Wha is he equency o Kwa a s a e elec o a es’ exposu e o “O o ge” p og amme on Sobi F.M?
• To wha ex en does ‘O o ge’ p og amme on Sobi F.M in luenced elec o a es o ing beha io du ing he 2019
and 2023 elec ions in Kwa a s a e?
• Wha a e he o ing pa e ns among Kwa a s a e elec o a es du ing he 2019 and 2023 elec ions?
2. Li e a u e e iew
2.1. Concep o Elec ion
Elec ion is he p ocess o eaching a consensus on he ep esen a ion o he ci izen o a pa icula s a e in public o ices.
As a e ed by Nwankwo, e al. (2015), an elec ion is a p ocedu e ha allows membe o an o ganiza ion o communi y
o choose ep esen a i e who will hold posi ion o au ho i y wi hin i . Also, Familusi and Owoeye (2015) see elec ion as
a sys em o choosing a pe son o g oup o people o posi ions in he socie y by a legal way o o ing. Howe e , in a
heal hy democ a ic socie y, elec ion ep esen s he s a ing poin o good go e nance (Gu, 2023). In hei a ious o ms
and sizes (whe he in secula wo ld, eligious o ganiza ions, o in amilies) elec ion se es as pa icipa o y ool o
indi iduals o g oups in he decisions ha mus a ec hei li es. As Gu (2023) u he no ed ha elec ions a e he
p ima y means by which ci izens con ol hei go e nmen , selec capable leade s, and elimina e ine ec i e ones. He
u he s essed ha elec ion is an essen ial elemen in a democ a ic my h which he masses o he led use o choose
hei leade s and gi e he chosen he igh o ule hem wi h he app o al and ha his app o al can also be wi hd awn
and when his app o al is wi hd awn, he ule s o leade s a e likely o ace de ea in elec ion and accep i in a good
ai h.
Mo eo e , elec ions a e mo e han a simple i ual o solida i y which allows he ansla ion o a leas he majo i y
in e es in o public policy. Simila ly, Adamu (2018) opines ha elec ion is he ac o choosing o selec ing one o mo e
pe sons om a g ea e numbe o people o se e as ep esen a i es in he aking o decisions ha a ec public in e es
and he alloca ion o na ional powe and esou ces in accep able manne .
2.2. Poli ics, Elec o a es and Elec ionee ing P ocess in Nige ia
Elec ionee ing p ocess ep esen s a o mal p ocedu e whe eby a pe son is elec ed in o a poli ical o ice. P e ious
elec ions, in he poli ical his o y o Nige ia, ha e eco ded a high le el o poli ical apa hy. Lack o in e es , wi h e e ence
o o e s’ pa icipa ion, has been a common poli ical cul u e o he coun y (Aghamelu, 2014). The massi e igging
eco ded in p e ious elec ions, has led o he cha ac e iza ion o elec ionee ing p ocess by many Nige ians as selec ion
ins ead o elec ion (Adamu, 2018). This ugly phenomenon has so a in o med g owing o e s’ poli ical apa hy eco ded
in p e ious elec ions.
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Howe e , successi e elec ions in Nige ia since he colonial pe iod lacked he essen ial ing edien s o democ a ic
elec o al p ocess, which include anspa ency, ai ness and eeness (Madueke & Enyiazu, 2025). This ailu e acco ding
o him, is due o se e al ac o s, which include manipula ion o he decisions and ac i i ies a he a ious s ages o
elec o al p ocess by he go e nmen s and poli icians; co up ion o o icials and elec o a e; iolence, du ing campaigns,
polling and colla ion; igging, s u ing, sna ching and des uc ion o ballo boxes, among o he s.
On he o he hand, unde s anding o ing is necessa y, in o de o ully app ecia e he concep o elec ion. Vo ing is
unde s ood om he pe spec i e o a o mal indica ion o a choice be ween wo o mo e candida es exp essed ypically
h ough a ballo (P ase yadi e al., 2020). Thus, i is he igh o indica e a choice in an elec ion. The unde s anding o
poli ical consciousness also needs o be aken in o cognizance. A philosophical iew o consciousness desc ibes i as he
gamu o man’s subjec i e expe ience and, indeed, he subjec i e expe ience o all beings capable o simila expe iences.
Simila ly, (And ew, 2024) de ines i as he pu pose ul awa eness o objec i e eali y, including he logic o i s exis ence.
Also, Ox o d Ad anced Lea ne ’s Dic iona y (6 h ed.) iews i “as he s a e o being conscious – he ac o awa eness by
he mind o i sel and he wo ld.” I hen means ha consciousness is he s a e o awa eness o pe cep ion o some hing.
Based on he abo e explana ion, poli ical consciousness, he e o e, means he poli ical awa eness, as well as
pa icipa ion in he public a ai s o one’s coun y. This means ha i is he awa eness and in ol emen o onesel in he
ac i i ies associa ed wi h he go e nance o one’s coun y o a ea.
O e he yea s, many Nige ians ha e exp essed g owing conce ns abou he le el o poli ical igno ance, which he
coun y has long expe ienced. This o en embodies i sel in he o m o poli ical apa hy, which, o (Nweke & E ido-
Inyang, 2018), mani es s i sel in “ he lack o psychological in ol emen in public a ai s, emo ional de achmen om
ci ic obliga ions, and abs en ion om poli ical ac i i y” (as ci ed in Independen Na ional Elec o al Commission &
F ied ich-Ebe -S i ung, 2011, p. 15). Vo e ’s apa hy, a subse o poli ical apa hy, has, hus, eme ged as a majo p oblem
in ma u e and eme ging democ acies, se led and ola ile socie ies, la ge and h i ing economies, as well as small and
oubled ones, among you h, women and o he ma ginalized g oups, as much as among mains eam dominan in e es s
(INEC & FES, 2011).
Howe e , he media ha e been accused o aiding and aba ing ha e campaign du ing he elec ion, i did no de ail om
i s p ima y ole o o e s’ enligh enmen and educa ion. The p ima y unc ions o he media in elec ionee ing campaign
include epo ing and in e p e ing e en s, de ining issues, po aying pe sonali ies and in es iga ing epo (No is,
2000). To a g ea e ex en , he media sha ed in he esponsibili y o channeling he elec o al p ocess owa ds he
desi able goal o in eg i y and anspa ency. Fo ins ance, he media ocused on se ious ma e s ha po ended se ious
consequences o he people and hei poli ical choices (Aghamelu, 2014). I cla i ies issues du ing campaigns,
po ayed he pe sonali ies o he con es an s, he eby, b inging aspi an s close o he elec o a e, and eaching he
di e ences be ween pa y and candida e, which enabled he elec o a e o make a wise choice. Fu he mo e, he media
helps in enabling he elec o a e o analyze campaign messages o poli icians and se ing he co ec poli ical agenda o
he audience.
2.3. Radio and Poli ical Mobilisa ion
Radio is one o he mass media ins umen s which play he ole o ansmi ing in o ma ion o he public as e en s
un old. I in ol es he p ocess in which messages a e sen h ough elec ical wa es (McG aw-Hill Educa ion, n.d.). In
o he wo ds, sounds in o m o signals would be sen and ecei ed h ough he wa es. Howe e , mass media e e s
collec i ely o all media echnologies ha a e in ended o each a la ge media which comp ises billboa ds, signs,
placa ds placed inside and ou side o comme cial buildings/objec s like shops/buses, lying billboa ds (signs in ow o
ai planes), blimps, and skyw i ing (Thibaul , 2020).
Concomi an ly, he p epa a ion owa ds he conduc o elec ions in Nige ia in he pas one decade has wi nessed a ise
in he use o adio as a means o ai ing poli ical campaign messages. E en be o e he p esen p oli e a ion o adio
s a ions in he coun y (In e na ional IDEA, 2024). The e a e a ious ins ances whe e adio s a ions a e seen ai ing
poli ical campaign messages by he go e nmen , poli ical pa ies and candida es. Mode n day poli ics demand ha
poli ical pa ies se e as a pla o m h ough which poli icians con es o di e en elec i e posi ions. And in o de o
hese elec o a es o pa icipa e, Adibe (2015) opined ha “ hey (elec o a es) a e mobilized o o e candida es in o
a ious o ices. These mobiliza ions a e done h ough p oduc ion and ai ing o poli ical campaign messages aimed o
educa e and in luence o e s o ac du ing elec ions. Suppo ing his posi ion, In e na ional IDEA, (2024), obse ed
ha , as Nige ians conduc ed hei 2015 gene al elec ions, such poli ical communica ion in he o m o a ious campaign
messages we e wi nessed. He asse s, ha “Radio, which is one o he mos equen medium used by campaign
o ganize s and poli ical pa ies, wi nessed such p esence o poli ical campaign messages e en highe .”
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The media much mo e han any ins i u ion in socie y a e one o he bes ins umen s o mobilizing he people du ing
elec ion as well as in o ming hem on he la es de elopmen as ega d elec o al ac i i ies in he coun y. Mass media
and elec ions in Nige ia can be clea ly seen unde he ollowing aspec ; uses o p opaganda du ing elec ions, he p ess
and poli ical mobiliza ion du ing elec ions, he p ess a he scene o elec ions, and he p ess a e elec ions, (A iyo, 2019;
& In e na ional IDEA, 2024). I was h ough he mass media ha he elec o a es go o know he mind o candida es and
also na ow down he o e s’ wide ange o choice be o e he o ing. The mass media, acco ding o And ew, (2024)
he e o e, p o ides a enue o le ing he people know wha ends a e, in e ms o elec ion pe iods, and wha i means
o exe cise hei anchise, ci ic igh s, o o e and o ed o . He emphasized on how poli ical pa ies, candida es and
s akeholde s used he mass media ( adio, ele ision and o he s) hea ily o poli ical mobiliza ion du ing he 2015 and
2019 gene al elec ions, and how he elec o a es we e u he enligh ened wi h he same mass media o belie e in he
powe o hei humb.
2.4. O e iew o Sobi F.M and O oge’s P og amme
Sobi F.M is a p i a e adio s a ion in Nige ia ansmi ing om he op o Sobi Hill in he ancien ci y o Ilo in, Kwa a
s a e. The s a ion ope a es on equency 101.9 and was es ablished in he yea 2016. I commenced ull- ledged
ansmission sho ly a e i commission on 10 h July, 2017. Wi h a co e alue o social ebi h and cul u al eju ena ion,
he s a ion is poised o p o ide educa i e, enligh ening, en e aining, e o ma i e and in igo a ing p og ammes ha
will ca e o he needs o all audience g oups (Sobi, 2023). A p esen , Sobi F.M ope a es on 24-hou s b oadcas ing, and
i signal co e s o he pa s o Kwa a s a e and neighbou ing s a es. The s a ion won he awa d o bes adio s a ion in
Kwa a s a e o he yea 2018, 2019 and 2020.
On he o he hand, ‘O oge’ is a 1 hou poli ical p og amme ai ed on Sobi F.M du ing he build-up o he 2019 and 2023
elec ions in Kwa a s a e. The p og amme was sponso ed by he All P og essi es Cong ess (APC) in o de o sell he
candida u e o he incumben , Abdul ahman Abdul asaq. Fu he mo e, ‘O oge’ as a poli ical p og amme, exposed he
ills in go e nance and misdeeds o p e ious adminis a ions, wi h a iew o p e ail upon he elec o a es o o e ou bad
go e nance and suppo he aspi a ions o he APC.
2.5. Empi ical Re iew
A e he conduc o 2011 gene al elec ions in Nige ia, U o , (2011) assessed he impac o mass media on he o ing
pa e n o elec o a es du ing he elec ion. The s udy was o asce ain he eason o o e s’ apa hy and lack o ull
pa icipa ion by he elec o a es. Su ey esea ch me hod was used, and indings showed ha o e s in Nige ia ha e low
le els o poli ical knowledge and in o ma ion, as well as he pe cei ed ea o malp ac ices by elec o al o icials, i was
ecommended om he indings ha adio as a mass medium should be used hea ily o dissemina ing poli ical
campaign messages, awa eness and eo ien a ion o he elec o a es.
In he same ein, Kolawole (2015) s udied he in luence o opinion leade s on he o ing decision o u al o e s; wi h
e idence om Aye o o, Ogun–S a e o Nige ia. The s udy aimed o ind ou how opinion leade s in he u al populace
in luence hei people in he socie y, he mixed me hod o esea ch was employed by he esea che . The esea che
ound ha he esponden s did no sea ch o in o ma ion on who o o e, as mos o hem o ed on he ad ice o
ins uc ion o hei leade s. I was u he ound ha communi y and eligious leade s a e o en imes belie ed mo e
han o he sou ces o poli ical in o ma ion. Howe e , i was ecommended ha poli ical pa ies and hei candida es
should ca y along leade s o a ious g oups among he u al populace in hei poli ical campaigns, so ha hey can help
in in luencing he elec o a es in o ing o hem.
Simila ly, Familusi (2014) ca ied ou a s udy i led “assessmen o adio as de elopmen ool”. The s udy was conduc ed
o assess he powe o adio in he de elopmen al p ocess, and how adio can u he aids in sp eading messages and
awa eness amids de elopmen al challenges. The me hods used o ob ain da a o analysis in he s udy we e
documen a y su ey and in ensi e in e iew. Findings showed ha adio is he mos impo an ins umen and ool o
communica ion de elopmen . I anked as he mos popula means o dissemina ing in o ma ion, ega dless o he
con inen , as illi e acy is no ba ie o adio messages since such messages can be passed in he audience’ own language.
The esea ch ecommended among o he s ha adio p og ammes and messages should be localized in o he language
o he hos en i onmen , and ha de elopmen al issues a ec ing he immedia e en i onmen should be p io i ize
du ing p og ammes.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(01), 1352-1364
1357
3. Theo e ical F amewo k
3.1. Agenda-Se ing Theo y
The agenda-se ing heo y was p opounded by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw in 1973. The heo y among o he s
es s on he co e assump ions ha ;
The mass media se s agenda o public opinion by highligh ing ce ain issues.
The media also ells he audience no so much on wha o hink as wha o hink abou . I holds ha mos o he pic u e
we hink o wo ied abou , mos o he issues we discuss, a e based on wha we ha e ead, lis ened o o wa ched in
di e en mass media.
The mass media do no e lec social eali y because news is il e ed, chosen and shaped by news oom s a , ew media
agenda which we e chosen by p o essional ga ekeepe s lead people o pe cei e gi en issues as impo an , (En man,
1993).
The media make us o hink abou ce ain issues, hey make us o hink o eel ha ce ain issues a e mo e impo an
han o he s in ou socie y.
Among majo c i icisms o he heo y as posi s by Da is (2012) ci ed in Asemah, Nwammuo and Nkwam-Uwaoma
(2017), media use s may no be as ideal as he heo y assumes. People may no be well-in o med, deeply engaged in
public a ai s, hough ul and skep ical; ins ead, hey may pay only casual a en ion o public a ai s and emain igno an
o he de ails. The c i ics u he opine ha news media canno c ea e o conceal p oblems; hey may only al e he
awa eness, p io i ies and salience people a ach o a se o p oblems. Also, Caesa (2010) ci ed in Asemah e al main ains
ha he news media do no c ea e o se agenda o he public o ollow, a he he eal wo ld e en s se agenda o
people o ollow. Thus, esea ch on he agenda se ing concep is la gely inconclusi e because i does no es ablish a
casual ela ionship be ween public salience and media co e age.
The ele ance o his heo y o he s udy unde e iew makes ‘O o ge’ as a poli ical p og amme on Sobi F.M a subjec o
public discussion. The pe sis en b oadcas and dissemina ion o he p og amme has success ully make i an issue o
public deba e, he e o e aising i o he le el o public discussions and accep ance. The equen dissemina ion o ‘O o
ge’ p og ammes has made i oo impo an o be igno ed. This in andem wi h McCombs & Shaw, (1972), which posi s
ha he media p io i izes issues by se ing agenda, while such p io i ies become public agenda.
3.2. Mul i-S ep Flow Theo y
On he o he hand, he mul i-s ep low heo y was i s in oduced by a sociologis Paul Laza s eld, Be na d Be elson
and Hazel Gaude in 1944, and was elabo a ed by Elihu Ka z and Paul Laza s eld in 1955. The heo y acco ding o hem
was hinged on he ollowing basic assump ions;
The mass media a ec i s audiences indi ec ly and immedia ely, as well as indi ec ly om he opinion. Tha is; ideas
low om mass media o opinion leade s be o e being dissemina ed o a wide popula ion.
In o ma ion is a ec ed by he social no ms o each new communi y g oup ha i en e s, and is also shaped by con lic ing
iews su ounding i .
Opinion leade s a e a ec ed mo e by ‘eli e media’ han ‘ un-o - he-mill’ mass media.
In o ma ion ac ually ends o a el in mul i-s ep low p ocesses wi h many di e en low di ec ions and i e a ions.
Opinion leade s in e ene be ween he “media’s di ec message and he audience’s eac ion o ha message”. Thus, hey
end o ha e g ea e ec on hose hey a e mos simila o, based on pe sonali y, in e es s, demog aphics, o socio-
economic ac o s.
These leade s end o in luence o he s o change hei a i udes and beha io s mo e quickly han con en ional media,
because he audience is able o be e iden i y o ela e wi h hem han an a icle in a newspape o a news p og amme.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(01), 1352-1364
1358
Howe e , c i ics o he mul i-s ep low heo y we e o he belie ha he heo y does no gi e powe o he media, bu
ew eli es who a e well-in o med on issues discussed in he media. Ebe l e al., (2022) c i icized he s ep- low heo ies
o placing much powe in he hand o opinion leade s, hus gi ing he media li le powe o in luence he audience
h ough i p og ammes. Simila ly, Asemah e al (2017) was o he iew ha mul i-s ep low heo y places audience
willingness o know and be in o med in he hands o he mino i y ew known as ‘opinion leade s’, he eby nega ing he
powe o he media o in luence and in o m he audience.
The ele ance o his heo y o he s udy being e iew can be dissec ed om he ac ha ‘O o ge’ p og amme is no
di ec ly a ge ed a he audience o Sobi F.M, a he , i was a ge ed a in o med poli ical leade s and s akeholde s who
a e hen assigned o elay he co e objec i es o he p og amme o membe s o he public; pa icula ly elec o a es, in
s ages. This is howe e in line wi h he iews o Ka z & Laza s eld (1955) ha ideas low om mass media o opinion
leade s be o e being dissemina ed o a wide popula ion, as hey do in e ene be ween he media’s di ec messages and
he audience’s eac ions o such messages.
4. Me hodology
The esea ch design ha was adop ed o his s udy is quan i a i e in app oach, his en ails he use o su ey me hod
o selec esponden s who a e ac i e and eligible o e s in Kwa a s a e, Nige ia. The popula ion o his s udy is egis e ed
o e s in Ilo in me opolis (Asa, Ilo in Eas , Ilo in Wes and Ilo in Sou h) which acco ding o he (2023) INEC egis e
was 703,642. Mo eo e , he Ta o Ya mane o mula was used o a i e a a sample o 400. Also, he s udy used
mul is age/clus e sampling echnique o ensu e he en i e popula ion is gi en equal chance o ep esen a ion. The
ques ionnai e was used o ob ain da a om he esponden s. The da a ob ained we e u he analyzed desc ip i ely,
using simple and pe cen age dis ibu ion ables.
5. Da a p esen a ion and analysis
A o al o 400 copies o ques ionnai e we e dis ibu ed o esponden s who a e eligible o e s in Ilo in me opolis,
Kwa a s a e. Ou o he adminis e ed copies o ques ionnai e, 352 copies we e co ec ly illed and e u ned. The e o e,
he da a analysis was based on he 352 copies o ques ionnai e ha we e e u ned.
Table 1 Demog aphic Cha ac e is ics o he Responden s
Va iables
F equency
Pe cen age
Gende
Male
224
64%
Female
128
36%
To al
352
100%
F equency
Pe cen age
Age
18 – 25y s
27
7.7%
26 - 35y s
93
26.4%
36 - 45y s
106
30%
46 and Abo e
124
35.2%
To al
352
100%
F equency
Pe cen age
Ma i al S a us
Single
117
33.1%
Ma ied
232
65.9%
Di o ced
3
1%
To al
352
100%
Sou ce; Field Su ey, 2024
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(01), 1352-1364
1359
Analysis: The ables indica e majo i y o he esponden s (64%) a e males. Also, majo i y o he esponden s a e o age
46 and abo e (35.2%), o he age b acke s ha e lesse pe cen age. Also, he esponden s ha a e ma ied (65.9%)
domina ed he s udy.
5.1. F equency o Exposu e o ‘O oge’ P og amme
Table 2 Lis ene ship o he p og amme
Va iables
F equency
Pe cen age
Ve y O en
136
38.6%
O en
123
34.9%
Ra ely
67
19.0%
No a all
26
7.5%
To al
352
100
Sou ce; Field Su ey, 2024
Analysis: As seen in he abo e able, 38.6% o he esponden s lis en o ‘O o ge’ p og amme e y o en, while 7.5% do
no . The e o e, i is ob ious ha majo i y o he esponden s lis en o he p og amme a e y o en imes.
Table 3 Ra e/le el o con ibu ions on he p og amme
Va iables
F equency
Pe cen age
Ve y High
119
33.8%
High
69
19.6%
A e age
76
21.6%
Low
73
20.7%
Ve y Low
15
4.3%
To al
352
100
Sou ce; Field Su ey, 2024
Analysis: The able shows 33.8% o he esponden s’ le el o con ibu ions on he p og amme is e y high, while 4.3%
o hem con ibu e a a e y low a e. This implies ha he le el/ a e o con ibu ion o he p og amme on Sobi F.M is
e y high.
5.2. In luence o ‘O o ge’ P og amme on Elec o a es Vo ing Beha iou
Table 4 In luence o he p og amme on choice o candida e
Va iables
F equency
Pe cen age
S ongly Ag ee
110
31.3%
Ag ee
103
29.3%
Neu al
51
14.5%
Disag ee
52
14.8%
S ongly Disag ee
36
10.1%
To al
352
100
Sou ce; Field Su ey, 2024
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(01), 1352-1364
1360
Analysis: The able abo e shows ha 31.3% o he esponden s s ongly ag eed ha ‘O o ge’ p og amme in luenced
hei choice o candida e du ing elec ion, while 10.1% s ongly disag eed. This shows ha he p og amme in luenced
esponden s’ choice o candida e du ing elec ion.
Table 5 In luence o he p og amme on o ing
Va iables
F equency
Pe cen age
S ongly Ag ee
118
33.5%
Ag ee
86
24.4%
Neu al
53
15.1%
Disag ee
63
17.9%
S ongly Disag ee
32
9.1%
To al
352
100
Sou ce; Field Su ey, 2024
Analysis: F om he able abo e, 33.5% o he esponden s s ongly ag eed ha ‘O o ge’ p og amme in luenced hei
choice o o ing, while 17.9% s ongly disag eed. This indica es ha he p og amme in luenced majo i y o he
esponden s in hei choice o o ing.
5.3. Vo ing Pa e ns o Elec o a es du ing he 2019 and 2023 Elec ions
Table 6 ‘O o ge’ p og amme and o ing beha iou
Va iables
F equency
Pe cen age
S ongly Ag ee
141
40.1%
Ag ee
76
21.6%
Neu al
70
19.9%
Disag ee
48
13.6%
S ongly Disag ee
17
4.8%
To al
352
100
Sou ce; Field Su ey, 2024
Analysis: F om he able abo e, 40.1% o he esponden s s ongly ag eed ha ai ing o ‘O o ge’ p og amme in luenced
hei o ing beha iou , while 4.8% s ongly disag eed. This indica es ha ai ing o ‘O o ge’ p og amme in luenced
esponden s o ing beha iou du ing he 2019 and 2023 elec ions.
6. Discussion
Da a on esponden s’ demog aphic de ails, equency o exposu e o ‘O o ge’ p og amme, in luence o he p og amme
on o ing beha io and o ing pa e n we e ob ained. Resul s we e u he discussed below:
6.1. Resea ch Ques ion 1: Wha is he equency o Kwa a s a e elec o a es’ exposu e o “O o ge” p og amme
on Sobi F.M?
In discussing he equency o exposu e o “O o ge” p og amme on Sobi F.M, ables 2 and 3 answe ed his esea ch
ques ion, as he esponses om he esponden s indica es ha 38.6% o he esponden s lis en o ‘O o ge’ p og amme
e y o en, while 33.8% o he esponden s’ le el o con ibu ions on he p og amme is e y high. This implies ha
majo i y o he esponden s lis en o he p og amme a e y o en imes, and hei le el/ a e o con ibu ion o he
p og amme on is e y high.
This inding is in acco dance wi h Olo ede, Oyewole and Azeez (2013) s udy on “p ess epo age o P esiden Ya ’Adua’s
Ill-heal h”. The esea che s ound ha hough he majo i y o news s o ies we e hidden in he inside pages, a sizeable
