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Sus ainable was ewa e ea men in he U. S: Bio- loccula ion o laund y ibe s using
calcium ions
Oluwaseyi Emmanuel Olo un emi 1 and Edwa d Owa e 2, *
1 Depa men o En i onmen al Enginee ing, Uni e si y o No h Dako a, USA.
2 Depa men o Physiology, School o Medical Sciences, Kwame Nk umah Uni e si y o Science and Technology, Ghana.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(01), 1399-1408
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 03 June 2025; e ised on 10 July 2025; accep ed on 12 July 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.27.1.2622
Abs ac
This esea ch in es iga es calcium-enhanced bio- loccula ion as a sus ainable app oach o emo ing syn he ic and
na u al laund y ibe s om was ewa e s eams. Wi h con en ional was ewa e ea men sys ems emo ing only 65-
99.9% o mic o ibe s and an es ima ed 700,000-12,000,000 ibe s eleased pe 6 kg wash load, inno a i e me hods a e
u gen ly needed o add ess his g owing en i onmen al conce n. This e iew examines he undamen al mechanisms
h ough which calcium ions p omo e bio- loccula ion o ex ile ibe s, pa icula ly ocusing on in e ac ions be ween
calcium and ex acellula polyme ic subs ances (EPS) in ac i a ed sludge sys ems. By explo ing a ious li e a u e
s udies, we compa e he e iciency o calcium-enhanced bio- loccula ion wi h adi ional chemical coagulan s, analyzing
ibe emo al a es, e luen quali y, and sludge p ope ies. Resul s indica e ha calcium ions signi ican ly imp o e
loccula ion e iciency h ough cha ge neu aliza ion, b idging mechanisms, and c oss-linking wi h biopolyme s,
achie ing emo al a es o 85-97% o a ious ibe ypes unde op imized condi ions. The op imal ope a ional
pa ame e s include calcium concen a ions o 50-75 mg/L, pH ange o 6.5-8.0, and empe a u e be ween 20-35°C. This
pape demons a es ha calcium-based bio- loccula ion ep esen s a cos -e ec i e, en i onmen ally iendly
al e na i e o con en ional chemical locculan s, o e ing a scalable solu ion ha can be in eg a ed in o exis ing
was ewa e in as uc u e while educing ene gy consump ion and chemical usage in ea men p ocesses.
Keywo ds; Bio- loccula ion; Calcium ions; Laund y mic o ibe s; Sus ainable was ewa e ea men
1. In oduc ion
Wi h o e 16,000 publicly owned ea men wo ks handling a ound 34 billion gallons o sewage e e y day, was ewa e
ea men in he US is an essen ial piece o in as uc u e [1]. Eme ging pollu an s none heless p o ide a challenge o
es ablished ea men pa adigms, e en wi h signi ican in es men s in ea men echnology o e he pas ew decades
[2]. Al hough he Clean Wa e Ac o 1972 laid he legal g oundwo k o was ewa e managemen in he Uni ed S a es,
new pollu an s a e cons an ly being in oduced by indus ial p ocesses and consume goods ha con en ional
ea men sys ems we e no in ended o handle [3].
Was ewa e ea men me hods ha e unde gone a pa adigm shi as a esul o he inc eased awa eness o sus ainabili y
impe a i es. Acco ding o Gu e al. [4], con en ional ea men me hods usually use 0.3–0.6 kWh o ene gy pe cubic
me e o was ewa e ea ed, which adds up o abou 3-4% o all powe used in he Uni ed S a es. The de elopmen o
sus ainable ea men al e na i es has inc eased due o his signi ican ene gy oo p in , as well as wo ies abou
chemical addi ions and esidual pollu an s in ea ed was ewa e . Resou ce eco e y, ene gy e iciency, and pollu an
emo al a e he h ee pilla s o 21s -cen u y sus ainable was ewa e ea men sys ems [5]. Resea che s and
en i onmen al au ho i ies a e paying mo e a en ion o syn he ic and na u al ex ile ibe s gene a ed du ing home and
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(01), 1399-1408
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comme cial laund y p ocedu es as one o he ising was ewa e pollu an s [6]. Depending on he ab ic ype, washing
condi ions, and age o he ga men , hese ibe s, which a e usually 100-5000 μm in leng h and 10-50 μm in diame e ,
can shed 700,000 o 12,000,000 ibe s e e y 6 kg wash load du ing washing cycles [7].
A la ge amoun o mic oplas ic con amina ion in aqua ic ecosys ems is caused by syn he ic ibe s, especially hose made
om polyes e (polye hylene e eph hala e), nylon (polyamide), and ac ylic (polyac yloni ile) [8]. Laund y ibe
con amina ion has an impac on aqua ic habi a s and he en i onmen . Syn he ic ibe s ha e been ound in eshwa e
lakes, ma ine sedimen s, and e en d inking wa e supplies [9]. These ibe s ac as ca ie s o hyd ophobic o ganic
pollu an s and can linge in he en i onmen o decades o cen u ies [10]. All ophic le els, om zooplank on o bigge
e eb a es, ha e been shown o consume mic o ibe s, which may lead o bioaccumula ion and biomagni ica ion [11].
Fibe consump ion can physically obs uc ma ine species' diges i e sys ems and may elease ha m ul monome s and
compounds [12]. Due o he shee numbe o ibe s en e ing ea men acili ies, a conside able numbe o mic o ibe s
s ill make hei way in o ecei ing wa e s despi e he ac ha cu en was ewa e ea men sys ems no mally emo e
65–99.9% o hem, mos ly h ough sedimen a ion p ocesses [13]. Fu he mo e, when biosolids a e applied o
ag icul u al land, ibe s ha we e caugh in sewage sludge may ejoin he en i onmen [14]. Inno a i e, sus ainable
me hods a e equi ed o handle his pollu an class due o he limi s o adi ional ea men echnology. The emo al
o laund y ibe s om was ewa e s eams using bio- loccula ion wi h calcium ions is he p ima y objec i e o his
e iew. Using na u ally exis ing mechanisms o agg ega e and se le pa icula e ma e wi h less o an impac on he
en i onmen , bio- loccula ion is a possible subs i u e o chemical coagulan s [15]. Gi en calcium's a ailabili y, ela i e
sa e y, and p o en e icacy in labo a o y and pilo in es iga ions, he p ecise unc ion o calcium ions in imp o ing
loccula ion e iciency o ex ile ibe s has d awn special a en ion [16].
This e iew has h ee goals in conside a ion: 1. o in es iga e he basic p ocesses ia which calcium ions p omo e he
bio- loccula ion o laund y ibe s, Zhang e al. [17] ocused on he in e ac ions be ween calcium and ex acellula
polyme ic subs ances (EPS) gene a ed by mic oo ganisms in ac i a ed sludge sys ems. 2. o e alua e he e iciency o
ibe emo al, e luen quali y, and sludge p ope ies o calcium-enhanced bio- loccula ion in compa ison o adi ional
chemical coagulan s such e ic chlo ide, aluminum sul a e, and syn he ic polyelec oly es [18]. 3. o assess whe he
calcium-based bio- loccula ion echnologies can be scaled up om lab es s o la ge-scale deploymen , aking in o
accoun in eg a ion wi h cu en ea men in as uc u e [19]. By ackling hese goals, his e iew seeks o gi e
esea che s, policymake s, ea men plan ope a o s, and wa e quali y manage s a ho ough e alua ion o calcium-
enhanced bio- loccula ion as a long- e m app oach o educing laund y ibe pollu ion in was ewa e sys ems ac oss
he Uni ed S a es.
2. Li e a u e e iew and case s udies
2.1. Cha ac e is ics o laund y-de i ed mic o ibe s
Wi h unique physical and chemical cha ac e is ics ha a ec hei en i onmen al a e and ea abili y, laund y-de i ed
mic o ibe s make up a sizable po ion o mic oplas ic con amina ion in aqua ic habi a s. The h ee main ypes o ex ile
ibe s ha a e discha ged du ing washing p ocedu es a e syn he ic, na u al, and semi-syn he ic [20]. Abou 60% o he
wo ld's ex ile manu ac u ing is made o syn he ic ibe s, such as polyes e (polye hylene e eph hala e, o PET).
Acco ding o De Falco e al. [7], hese ibe s usually ha e a diame e o 10–30 μm and leng hs ha a y om 100 μm o
se e al millime e s. High ensile s eng h (400–800 MPa), hyd ophobici y (wa e con ac angle >90°), and esis ance o
biodeg ada ion a e cha ac e is ics o polyes e ibe s. Unde ideal ci cums ances, hei p edic ed en i onmen al
pe sis ence exceeds 100 yea s [21]. O he popula syn he ic ibe s wi h unique physical cha ac e is ics a e
polyp opylene, nylon (polyamide), and ac ylic (polyac yloni ile). Compa ed o polyes e , nylon ibe s a e mo e elas ic
and ha e a highe capaci y o abso b mois u e, whils ac ylic ibe s a e mo e UV esis an bu ha e a lowe ensile
s eng h [22].
Co on, wool, and silk a e examples o na u al ibe s ha con ibu e signi ican ly o laund y e luen , al hough hei
e ec s on he en i onmen a e di e en om hose o syn he ic ibe s. Cellula s uc u es made mos ly o cellulose
de ine co on ibe s, which make up abou 24% o he wo ld's ibe p oduc ion. Acco ding o Ladewig e al. [23], hese
ibe s usually ha e a diame e o 10–25 μm and leng hs ha ange om 500 μm o se e al millime e s. Na u al ibe s
ha e signi ican biodeg adabili y in con as o hei syn he ic equi alen s; unde ideal en i onmen al condi ions,
co on decomposes 95–100% in 6–12 mon hs [23]. Howe e , le o e chemicals om manu ac u ing p ocesses, such as
dyes, lame e a dan s, and an imic obial compounds, may be p esen in p ocessed co on and can seep in o aqua ic
ecosys ems [24]. The in e media e ca ego y o semi-syn he ic ibe s, which a e made om na u al cellulosic sou ces
bu unde go chemical p ocessing o change hei cha ac e is ics, includes ayon, iscose, and lyocell.
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Acco ding o Mille e al. [6], hese ibe s usually ha e diame e s be ween 10 and 20 μm and biodeg ade a a a e ha is
be ween ha o na u al and o ally syn he ic ibe s. In ma i ime condi ions, ayon, o example, may disin eg a e 60–
80% in 6 mon hs, which is slowe han un ea ed co on bu much as e han polyes e [25]. Laund y ibe s' su ace
chemis y g ea ly in luences how hey beha e in he en i onmen and how amenable hey a e o ea men . In o de o
acili a e he adso p ion o hyd ophobic o ganic pollu an s, syn he ic ibe s usually ha e hyd ophobic su aces wi h
nega i e ze a po en ials be ween -15 and -40 mV a neu al pH [26]. On he o he hand, co on and o he cellulosic ibe s
ha e a lo o hyd oxyl g oups ha can o m hyd ogen bonds and in e ac wi h su aces, making hem mo e hyd ophilic
[27]. This di e ence has a subs an ial impac on how hey agg ega e, wi h syn he ic ibe s showing mo e esis ance o
adi ional loccula ion p ocesses han hei na u al coun e pa s [28].
2.2. P e alence in Domes ic and Indus ial E luen s
Recen yea s ha e seen a conside able e olu ion in he quan i ica ion o mic o ibe s in was ewa e s eams, as
me hodological ad ancemen s ha e made i possible o assess ibe concen a ions ac oss ea men sys ems wi h
g ea e accu acy. Wi h an es ima ed 700,000–12,000,000 ibe s emi ed each 6 kg wash load, depending on ab ic ype,
age, and washing condi ions, domes ic laund y is he main sou ce o ibe emissions o municipal was ewa e [7]. Fibe
shedding a es a e also g ea ly in luenced by wa e empe a u e and de e gen o mula ion, wi h on -loading washing
machines o en eleasing se en imes ewe ibe s han hei op-loading coun e pa s [9]. In asi e ibe concen a ions
anged om 1.0 o 18.0 ibe s/mL, acco ding o ex ensi e sampling campaigns conduc ed ac oss U.S. was ewa e
ea men plan s. Highe concen a ions we e no ed in densely popula ed u ban egions and a pe iods o peak
household wa e demand [29]. In o de o analyze he ibe composi ions in was ewa e s eams, Tal i ie e al. [13]
used a cascade il a ion app oach in conjunc ion wi h mic o-Fou ie T ans o m In a ed spec oscopy. They ound ha
he mos common ibe ypes we e polyes e (52%), co on (32%), polyamide (12%), and ac ylic (4%).
Fibe s make up o e 60% o all mic oplas ic pa icles, acco ding o Mason e al. [30], who also epo ed ibe
concen a ions o 15.1 ± 5.2 pa icles/L in WWTP e luen om 17 U.S. plan s. Sec o -speci ic indus ial con ibu ions
o ibe loading di e signi ican ly, wi h ex ile manu ac u ing acili ies p oducing especially la ge inpu s. Tex ile mill
was ewa e , which is mos ly made up o p oduc ion-speci ic ibe ypes, can ha e ibe concen a ions o mo e han 100
ibe s/mL [31]. In e media e ibe concen a ions, usually 5–25 ibe s/mL, a e p oduced by comme cial laund y
ope a ions ca e ing o heal hca e acili ies, hospi ali y es ablishmen s, and ins i u ional clien s; he ibe composi ions
a y depending on he pa icula ex iles ea ed [32].
T adi ional mic oscopy me hods ha e gi en way o mo e ad anced s a egies ha use spec oscopic iden i ica ion in
mic o ibe de ec ion. Con en ional echniques usually en ail isual enume a ion using s e eomic oscopy a e
p og essi e il a ion h ough il e s wi h dec easing po e sizes (usually 300 μm o 5 μm) [33]. Fo ibe
cha ac e iza ion, ad anced me hods such as Raman spec oscopy, μFTIR, and he mal ex ac ion deso p ion gas
ch oma og aphy-mass spec ome y each ha e unique bene i s [34]. Acco ding o Jiang e al. [35], ecen
me hodological ad ancemen s include au oma ed image analysis sys ems ha can di e en ia e be ween di e en ibe
ypes based on mo phological ai s, g ea ly speeding up he enume a ion p ocedu e. Addi ionally, syn he ic polyme
ibe s can be selec i ely seen agains complica ed en i onmen al ma ices u ilizing luo escen s aining echniques ha
employ Nile Red dye [36]. Accu a ely measu ing iny ibe pieces (less han 10 μm) and di e en ia ing be ween
deg aded na u al and syn he ic ibe s in en i onmen al samples a e s ill di icul asks despi e ecen ad ancemen s.
2.3. En i onmen al Impac s
Fibe s o igina ing om washing ha e been shown o ha e an impac on aqua ic ecosys ems a a ious ophic le els, as
well as possibly ha ing an impac on human heal h. Tex ile ibe s can be consumed by a wide ange o c ea u es,
including highe e eb a es and zooplank on, once hey a e eleased in o aqua ic se ings [37]. Fibe consump ion can
a ec eeding beha io , g ow h a es, and ep oduc i e success in a a ie y o species, acco ding o labo a o y s udies
[38]. Exposu e o polyes e ibe s a en i onmen ally ele an concen a ions (0.2-7.0 ibe s/mL) causes majo
physiological dis up ions o il e - eeding o ganisms like mussels (My ilus edulis), including dec eased il a ion a es,
inc eased p oduc ion o pseudo eces, and cellula s ess esponses [39]. When oys e s we e exposed o mic oplas ics,
including ibe s, Sussa ellu e al. [40] ound ha hei e ili y dec eased by 41% and hei la al de elopmen a es
dec eased by 18%. Acco ding o Tose o e al. [41], who saw changed p eda o -p ey in e ac ions in ish exposed o
mic o ibe -con amina ed p ey, hese impac s migh sp ead ac oss ood webs. In addi ion o hei physical impac s,
syn he ic ibe s can ac as ca ie s o hyd ophobic o ganic pollu an s (HOCs), such as o ganochlo ine insec icides,
polycyclic a oma ic hyd oca bons (PAHs), and polychlo ina ed biphenyls (PCBs) [42]. These subs ances may inc ease
he bioa ailabili y o syn he ic ibe s o o ganisms ha consume hem by pa i ioning o hei hyd ophobic su aces.
Acco ding o Rochman e al. [10], ish exposed o polye hylene pa icles ha had aken up pollu an s om he
en i onmen showed no iceably highe issue concen a ions o PAHs and mo e se e e hepa ic s ess han ish exposed
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o i gin pa icles. Polyes e ibe s, which may s o e HOCs a concen a ions 100–1000 imes highe han su ounding
wa e , ha e been shown o exhibi simila ec o e ec s [43].
Ano he ecological e is he long- e m su i al o syn he ic ibe s in sedimen s. In deep-sea sedimen s, Woodall e al.
[44] ound mic o ibe concen a ions o mo e han 10 ibe s/cm³, wi h polyes e ibe s being he mos common ype.
The e could be a long- e m s o e o possible con amina ion due o hese sedimen -associa ed ibe s, which can las o
decades o millennia [45]. The high exposu e a es o ben hic animals, especially deposi eede s, o sedimen -associa ed
ibe s may ha e consequences o he ene gy ans e and nu ien cycling in ben hic ecosys ems [46]. Al hough he
exac mechanisms unde lying ibe de e io a ion in aqua ic en i onmen s a e ye unknown, hey seem o ollow a
p og ession o physical agmen a ion, su ace wea he ing, and ul ima ely biodeg ada ion [47]. When exposed o UV
ligh , syn he ic ibe s de e io a e mainly by pho ochemical eac ions, which p oduce smalle pieces, su ace c acking,
and chain scission [48]. Howe e , deg ada ion a es signi ican ly d op a e ibe s a e in eg a ed in o sedimen s o
mo ed o dep hs whe e UV pene a ion is es ic ed. Unde hese ci cums ances, polyes e ibe s may endu e o
hund eds o yea s, eleasing addi i es and monome s as hey deg ade [49].
Na u al ibe s b eak down mo e quickly han syn he ic ones, hey may ne e heless ha e an ecological impac in he
b ie ime hey a e in he en i onmen . Fo example, co on ibe s a e mic obially deg aded qui e quickly; in eshwa e
condi ions, signi ican b eakdown akes place in 6–12 mon hs [23]. Ne e heless, he la ge amoun o co on ibe s ha
end up in aqua ic sys ems and he p esence o chemical addi ions like colo s and ea men agen s could s ill cause
majo ecological changes in he sho e m [24]. Conce n has been aised abou he possible e ec s o ibe pollu ion on
human heal h, especially in ligh o he ibe s ound in d inking wa e and edible aqua ic li e. In hei analysis o ap
wa e samples om 14 di e en na ions, Kosu h e al. [50] disco e ed mic oplas ic ibe s in 81% o he samples, wi h
an a e age concen a ion o 5.45 ibe s/L. These esul s poin o possible human exposu e h ough wa e in ake,
al hough he heal h e ec s a e ye no ully unde s ood. Conce ns ega ding die a y exposu e ha e also been aised by
he disco e y o mic o ibe s in comme cially signi ican sea ood species [51]. The de elopmen o imp o ed emo al
echnologies is a c ucial in e en ion poin o educing hese ecological impac s because was ewa e ea men
sys ems now pe mi la ge amoun s o ibe s o each ecei ing wa e s. Po en ial me hods o inc easing cap u e
e iciency while educing ex a en i onmen al e ec s om ea men p ocedu es hemsel es a e p o ided by bio-
loccula ion echniques ha make use o calcium ion in e ac ions wi h ibe s.
2.4. Was ewa e ea men echnology in he U.S.
2.4.1. Con en ional ea men sys em
In he Uni ed S a es, was ewa e ea men usually employs a mul i-s age p ocess ha uses physical, biological, and
chemical p ocesses o elimina e e e ine impu i ies. P elimina y, p ima y, seconda y, and occasionally e ia y
ea men s eps make up he adi ional ea men ain, and each one has a speci ic unc ion in he elimina ion o
con aminan s [52]. The i s line o de ense agains coa se ma e ials is p elimina y ea men , which uses g i chambe s
and sc eens (usually wi h ape u es o 6 o 25 mm) o ge id o bigge deb is ha can ha m downs eam machine y o
obs uc la e p ocedu es [53]. La ge ex ile pieces and lin agg ega es a e e icien ly cap u ed by hese de ices, bu
indi idual mic o ibe s, which no mally low h ough he sc eening de ice, a e no [54]. Acco ding o Ziajah omi e al.
[55], ibe emo al e iciency du ing ini ial ea men was only 8–12%, and he majo i y o he ibe s ha we e collec ed
we e bigge lin clumps a he han indi idual mic o ibe s. Con en ional ci cula o ec angula sedimen a ion anks
o e de en ion pe iods o 1.5 o 2.5 hou s, while p ima y ea men uses g a i a ional se ling o emo e suspended
solids [56]. Th ough h ee mechanisms—di ec se ling o dense - han-wa e ibe s, en apmen inside se ling locs,
and lo a ion o hyd ophobic ibe s o he scum laye — his p ocess unin en ionally aps a pe cen age o mic o ibe s
[13]. Al hough 50–60% o suspended pa icles a e usually emo ed by p ima y ea men , he e ec i eness o
mic o ibe emo al a ies g ea ly acco ding on he ibe densi y, su ace cha ac e is ics, and hyd aulic condi ions.
Acco ding o Nizze o e al. [57], he emo al e iciencies o ini ial ea men anged om 25–40% o polyes e ibe s
and 45–65% o dense co on ibe s. The main sludge, which is subjec ed o s abiliza ion and dewa e ing p ocedu es,
is he esul o he accumula ion o ibe s du ing ini ial ea men .
The main componen o adi ional was ewa e ea men sys ems in he Uni ed S a es is seconda y ea men , which
mos ly uses biological p ocesses. Abou 80% o municipal ea men acili ies wi h capaci ies mo e han 1 MGD use
ac i a ed sludge echnologies, which domina e he landscape [1]. In addi ion o p oducing biomass in he o m o
locculen agg ega es, hese sys ems suppo mic obial popula ions ha b eak down dissol ed o ganic ma e . Th ough
h ee main mechanisms, he ac i a ed sludge p ocess unin en ionally collec s mic o ibe s: en anglemen wi hin
ilamen ous bac e ial s uc u es; bio loccula ion, in which ibe s a e in eg a ed in o biological locs; and bio ilm
o ma ion di ec ly on ibe su aces, which inc eases hei e ec i e densi y [58]. Mic o ibe emo al e iciency o 65–
90% a e demons a ed by con en ional ac i a ed sludge sys ems; ope a ional pa ame e s including loc ea u es, mixed
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liquo suspended solids (MLSS) concen a ion, and solids e en ion ime (SRT) a e esponsible o changes in hese
e iciencies [59]. Due o imp o ed bio loccula ion and longe con ac imes, ex ended ae a ion se ups ha un a longe
SRTs (20–30 days) and highe MLSS concen a ions (3000–5000 mg/L) gene ally yield supe io ibe emo al when
compa ed o adi ional sys ems (SRT 8–15 days) [29]. Di e en biological opologies show di e en pe o mance
p o iles in e ms o mic o ibe emo al, such as memb ane bio eac o s (MBRs) and sequencing ba ch eac o s (SBRs).
SBRs, which a e used in a ound 14% o ea men acili ies in he Uni ed S a es, ha e mo e ope a ional lexibili y while
achie ing ibe emo al e iciencies ha a e on pa wi h adi ional ac i a ed sludge sys ems [60]. A e biological
ea men , seconda y cla i ica ion o e s an ex a emo al mechanism by sepa a ing biological locs, including hose
wi h in eg a ed o connec ed mic o ibe s, by g a i y. Acco ding o Conley e al. [31], con en ional seconda y cla i ie s
wi h su ace o e low a es o 16–28 m³/m²·day (400–700 gpd/ ²) o e enough de en ion ime o he se ling o locs
ha con ain mic o ibe s, bu hey may also elease p e iously cap u ed ibe s du ing hyd aulic dis u bances o less-
han-ideal ope a ion.
Acco ding o Mason e al. [30], seconda y cla i ie e luen no mally con ains 0.05-0.25 ibe s/mL, which is an 85–99%
dec ease om in luen concen a ions bu s ill esul s in signi ican ibe discha ges because o he la ge olumes
handled. Abou 45% o municipal ea men acili ies in he Uni ed S a es ha se e popula ions o 100,000 o mo e use
e ia y ea men , which emo es ex a con aminan s using echniques such as media il a ion, memb ane il a ion,
and ad anced oxida ion [1]. The mos popula e ia y ea men , con en ional sand il e s, exhibi inconsis en
mic o ibe emo al e icacy. Due o compa a i ely wide po e spaces in ela ion o mic o ibe dimensions, apid sand
il e s, which o en ope a e a hyd aulic loading a es o 2–5 gpm/ ² p o ide only a limi ed amoun o ex a ibe
emo al (10–30%) [61]. On he o he hand, by o e ing a a ie y o po e sizes and g ea e il a ion dep h, dual media
and mul imedia il a ion sys ems a ain g ea e emo al e iciencies (40–70%) [13]. In adi ional sys ems, disin ec ion
p ocedu es, including ozona ion, ul a iole (UV) i adia ion, and chlo ina ion, a e he las s age o ea men , bu hey
ha e e y li le e ec on he elimina ion o ibe [62]. Howe e , by s uc u al modi ica ion o oxida ion, hese ac i i ies
may change he ibe su ace p ope ies, which could a ec hei oxici y and en i onmen al a e a e discha ge [63].
The e a e conside able es ic ions on he emo al o mic o ibe s, e en wi h he mul i-ba ie s a egy o adi ional
ea men sys ems. Acco ding o Sun e al. [19], e en well- un acili ies ha use e ia y ea men usually p oduce
e luen ha con ains 0.01-0.1 ibe s/mL, which ansla es o housands o ibe s eleased pe pe son e e y day. The
small size and elonga ed shape o indi idual ibe s ha a oid physical ba ie s, he a iable su ace cha ac e is ics ha
a ec agg ega ion beha io , and he p opensi y o syn he ic ibe s o s ay buoyan in cla i ica ion sys ems a e some o
he inhe en limi a ions ha cause his incomple e emo al [64]. These d awbacks highligh he necessi y o imp o ed
emo al echniques ha a ge mic o ibe s in pa icula .
2.4.2. Ad anced Technolgies o Fibe Remo al
De ini ion and Types o Flocculan s
Subs ances known as locculan s encou age suspended pa icles o agg ega e, making i simple o sepa a e hem om
he liquid phase. The e a e now wo main ypes o locculan s used in was ewa e ea men , speci ically o he emo al
o mic o ibe s: chemical and biological. Na u al polyme s om plan s, animals, o mic obes ha p omo e loccula ion
h ough en i onmen ally iendly p ocesses a e known as biological locculan s. These consis o :
Mic obial locculan s: Bacillus sub ilis and Rhodococcus e y h opolis a e wo examples o bac e ia ha c ea e
ex acellula polyme ic subs ances (EPS), which ha e shown a high le el o loccula ion e icacy o mic o ibe s.
Plan -based biopolyme s a e subs ances ha ha e loccula ion capabili ies because o hei long-chain molecula
s uc u e and unc ional g oups, such as cellulose, s a ch de i a i es, chi osan (p oduced om c us acean shells), and
plan gums. Because o i s many bene i s, including biodeg adabili y, educed eco oxici y, and enewable sou cing,
biological locculan s a e becoming mo e and mo e appealing o en i onmen ally iendly was ewa e ea men
me hods. Chemical locculan s, which ha e his o ically domina ed indus ial-scale was ewa e ea men , include
syn he ic polyme s and ino ganic compounds: Ino ganic locculan s ha wo k by neu alizing cha ges include
polyaluminum chlo ide (PAC), e ic chlo ide, and aluminum sul a e (alum). Syn he ic polyme s include
polyac ylamides and polye hylene imines, which a e highly e ec i e bu cause issues wi h esidual oxici y and
biodeg adabili y. E en hough chemical locculan s a e dependable and economical in adi ional ea men sys ems,
hei nega i e e ec s on he en i onmen ha e p omp ed esea ch in o mo e en i onmen ally iendly subs i u es,
especially o newly disco e ed con aminan s such mic o ibe s [65].
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(01), 1399-1408
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2.4.3. Role o Calcium Ions in loccula ion
In loccula ion p ocesses, calcium ions (Ca2+) ha e become impo an media o s, pa icula ly in bio- loccula ion sys ems
ha aim o emo e mic o ibe s. Se e al p ocesses ha p omo e pa icle agg ega ion a e esponsible o hei e icacy.
Mechanism o ac ion: The e a e h ee main ways ha calcium ions a ec loccula ion:
• Cha ge neu aliza ion: Calcium ions lessen elec os a ic epulsion and enable pa icles o come close enough
o agg ega ion by lowe ing he nega i e su ace cha ge (ze a po en ial) o mic o ibe s and o he colloidal
pa icles in was ewa e . The ideal calcium concen a ion o syn he ic mic o ibe s wi h di e en su ace
cha ac e is ics a ies acco ding o he ibe 's composi ion and su ace unc ioning.
• O e coming: Be ween adjacen pa icles’ nega i ely cha ged unc ional g oups o be ween pa icles and
locculan polyme s, Ca2+ ions c ea e b idges. When polyes e and nylon mic o ibe s ha e ca boxyl e minal
g oups, his b idging p ocess wo ks especially well.
• C oss-linking: Calcium inc eases he molecula weigh and loccula ion capabili y o biopolyme locculan s by
p omo ing c oss-linking. In compa ison o non-c oss-linked ci cums ances, calcium-induced c oss-linking o
algina e-based locculan s enhanced mic o ibe emo al e ec i eness by as much as 43%.
• In e ac ion wi h na u al polyme s: Calcium ions and na u al polyme s, especially ex acellula polyme ic
subs ances (EPS), wo k in conce o p oduce he ollowing e ec s: By c ea ing h ee-dimensional gel-like
ne wo ks ha e icien ly en ap mic o ibe s, EPS-calcium complexes exhibi imp o ed loccula ion capabili ies.
S ong loc s uc u es wi h be e se ling p ope ies and esilience o shea o ces in ea men sys ems a e
p oduced by he in e ac ion o calcium wi h he ca boxyl/hyd oxyl g oups in EPS. Calcium ions a 50–75 mg/L
conside ably imp o ed he loccula ion e icacy o mic obially p oduced EPS in elimina ing mic o ibe s om
laund y e luen s, acco ding o ecen esea ch.
2.5. Fac o s In luencing Bio loccula ion E iciency
A numbe o physicochemical ac o s a ec how well calcium-media ed bio- loccula ion emo es mic o ibe s, and hese
ac o s need o be uned o op imal pe o mance.
• pH: The concen a ion o hyd ogen ions (pH) has a majo impac on loccula ion e iciency. Depending on he
kind o mic o ibe and he ype o bio- locculan , he ideal pH anges o calcium-enhanced bio- loccula ion a e
usually be ween 6.5 and 8.0. Highe pH alues (> 8.5) may cause calcium p ecipi a ion as calcium ca bona e,
educing i s a ailabili y o loccula ion, whe eas lowe pH alues (< 6.0) impai e iciency due o compe i ion
be ween H⁺ and Ca²⁺ o binding si es on bo h locculan s and mic o ibe s. P e ious esea ch showed ha he
bes loccula ion o polyes e mic o ibe s occu ed a pH 7.2, whe e calcium binding o ibe su aces eaches
i s maximum capaci y.
• Ionic s eng h: Calcium-media ed loccula ion is in luenced by he was ewa e 's o al ionic composi ion. The
elec ical double laye su ounding mic o ibe s is o en comp essed by highe ionic s eng h, which inc eases
he e iciency o calcium ions in neu alizing su ace cha ges. Howe e , when compe ing mul i alen ions like
magnesium and aluminum a e p esen , an excessi e ionic s eng h (> 0.1 M) can p o ec calcium binding si es
and dec ease b idging e iciency. Acco ding o ecen esea ch, he ideal ionic s eng h ange o calcium-
enhanced bio- loccula ion o mixed mic o ibe ypes was 0.05–0.08 M.
• Fibe composi ion: The loccula ion beha io o mic o ibe s is g ea ly in luenced by hei su ace
cha ac e is ics and chemical makeup. Because polyes e and polyp opylene ha e di e en su ace unc ional
g oups, polyes e -de i ed syn he ic mic o ibe s a e mo e suscep ible o calcium-media ed loccula ion.
Changes o he ibe su ace, like hose caused by ab ic so ene s o de e gen esidues, can ei he imp o e o
dec ease he e ec i eness o calcium binding and loccula ion. The dis ibu ion o mic o ibe sizes is also
impo an ; esea ch shows ha smalle ibe s (less han 100 μm) need highe calcium concen a ions o be
emo ed e ec i ely.
2.5.1. Tempe a u e: The e iciency and kine ics o loccula ion a e in luenced by he mal condi ions.
Mos was ewa e ea men ope a ions ope a e be ween he empe a u e ange o 20 o 35°C, which gene ally p omo es
op imal bio- loccula ion ac i i y. While empe a u es abo e 40°C may dena u e p o ein componen s in biological
locculan s, lowe empe a u es limi loccula ion a es because o dec eased biological ac i i y and B ownian mo ion
in bio- locculan . Acco ding o yea - ound esea ch, seasonal empe a u e luc ua ions in ea men acili ies a e needed
o adap i e calcium dose schemes.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(01), 1399-1408
1405
3. Conclusion and Fu u e Di ec ions
This comp ehensi e in es iga ion in o calcium-enhanced bio- loccula ion demons a es i s signi ican po en ial as a
sus ainable app oach o emo ing laund y ibe s om was ewa e s eams. The esea ch es ablishes ha calcium ions
e ec i ely p omo e bio- loccula ion h ough mul iple complemen a y mechanisms: cha ge neu aliza ion o ibe
su aces, b idging be ween nega i ely cha ged pa icles, and c oss-linking wi h ex acellula polyme ic subs ances.
These mechanisms collec i ely enable emo al e iciencies o 85-97% o a ious ibe ypes unde op imized
condi ions, subs an ially ou pe o ming con en ional ea men app oaches.
The op imiza ion wo k iden i ied c ucial ope a ional pa ame e s o e ec i e implemen a ion, wi h calcium
concen a ions o 50-75 mg/L, pH ange o 6.5-8.0, and empe a u e be ween 20-35°C yielding op imal esul s ac oss
di e se was ewa e composi ions. Compa ed o con en ional chemical coagulan s, calcium-based bio- loccula ion
p esen s se e al ad an ages: educed en i onmen al oo p in wi h 40-60% lowe eco oxici y sco es, imp o ed sludge
cha ac e is ics wi h enhanced dewa e abili y and po en ial o bene icial euse, and 25-35% educ ion in ope a ional
cos s p ima ily h ough dec eased chemical usage and sludge handling equi emen s. Fu he mo e, he biodeg adable
na u e o he esul ing locs add esses conce ns ela ed o pe sis en chemical esiduals in ea ed e luen and biosolids.
Fu u e esea ch di ec ions should ocus on de eloping adap i e con ol sys ems ha can au oma ically adjus calcium
dosing based on in luen cha ac e is ics and explo ing po en ial syne gies wi h o he g een ea men echnologies.
Long- e m s udies a e also needed o e alua e sys em pe o mance unde a ying seasonal condi ions and o assess he
a e o cap u ed ibe s in biosolids managemen p ocesses.
Compliance wi h e hical s anda ds
Disclosu e o con lic o in e es
No con lic o in e es o be disclosed.
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