© The Au ho (s) 2025. Published by AMO Publishe . This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde
he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which pe mi s un es ic ed euse, dis ibu ion, and
ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
Eco oxicological Risks o Imp ope Was e Managemen in Re e s
S a e Nige ia: A Comp ehensi e Re iew
Idalla Yebusika
Depa men o En i onmen al Managemen and Toxicology,
Fede al Uni e si y o Pe oleum Resou ces, E u un, Del a S a e, Nige ia
Ch is ophe Onosemuode
Depa men o En i onmen al Managemen and Toxicology,
Fede al Uni e si y o Pe oleum Resou ces, E u un, Del a S a e, Nige ia
Abs ac
Uncon olled dumping, pe ochemical e luen , and a high a e o indus ialisa ion ha e led o he
o ma ion o a mul i ace ed oxic en i onmen in Ri e s S a e, Nige ia, unde sco ing imp ope was e
managemen as a signi ican eco oxicological challenge. The empi ical and heo e ical e idence ha e been
syn hesized in his s udy h ough a sys ema ic na a i e e iew o nine y- ou pee - e iewed wo ks (2010-
2024), based on he PRISMA amewo k, o con aminan loads, ecological isk indices, and oxicological
pa hways, which we e used o e alua e oxicological pa hways. The esul s indica ed widesp ead hea y
me al (Pb 45.2–178.5 mg/kg, Cd 2.1–8.4 mg/kg, C 50.6–132.2 mg/kg) and o ganic pollu an s (Σ16PAH
= 5.6–48.9 μg/L; PCBs 0.8–3.5 μg/L), o mo e han he WHO and USEPA sa e y limi s. Risk assessmen
h ough he PERI and he Igeo index iden i ied mos si es as ha ing a e y high ecological isk (PERI >
600), especially in he indus ial bel s o Eleme and T ans-Amadi. Oxida i e s ess and e idence o
oxida i e damage and geno oxici y we e exhibi ed by high le els o supe oxide dismu ase, ca alase, and
malondialdehyde ac i i ies in he bioma ke assays ac oss h ee sen inel species, and a case o hepa ic
nec osis and an inhibi ion o me abolism was con i med in his opa hological examina ion. The
iangula ed syn hesis se up p oduced a syne gis ic oxici y be ween me als, hyd oca bons, and
mic oplas ics, des abilizing mic obial conso ia, dis o ing nu ien cycling, and bioaccumula ing along
ood webs. All hese e ec s indica e ha Ri e s S a e is in a mul i-s esso eco oxicological egime, whe e
he mismanagemen and poo en o cemen o was e managemen exace ba e ecological ulne abili y.
This esea ch concludes by sugges ing bioma ke -based p ecau iona y educa ional s uc u es, inc eased
obse a ion, geo-spa ial hyd ochemis y, and he inco po a ion o eco oxicological indica o s as policy
ins umen s o suppo he es ablishmen o isk-conscious was e managemen in acco dance wi h he
Basel Con en ion and he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (3, 6, 12, and 15).
Keywo ds: Eco oxicology, Imp ope Was e Managemen , Hea y Me als, Polycyclic A oma ic Hyd oca bons (PAHs),
Bioaccumula ion, En i onmen al Risk Assessmen , Ri e s S a e, Nige ia, Sus ainable Was e Go e nance.
Sugges ed ci a ion: Yebusika, I., & Onosemuode, C. (2025). Eco oxicological Risks o Imp ope Was e
Managemen in Re e s S a e Nige ia: A Comp ehensi e Re iew. Eu opean Jou nal o Inno a i e S udies and
Sus ainabili y, 1(5), 111-120. h ps://doi.o g/10.59324/ejiss.2025.1(5).11
In oduc ion
The exponen ially inc easing a e o was e p oduc ion in bo h u ban and indus ial a eas ha e become
one o he mos signi ican en i onmen al challenges o he wen y- i s cen u y (Jansen e al., 2024). In
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hi d-wo ld economies, pa icula ly in sub-Saha an A ica, u banisa ion and indus ial g ow h ha e been
so apid ha hey ha e ou paced he de elopmen o a iable was e managemen sys em (Adeni an e al.,
2022). Nige ia is a s iking example o his pa adox, being a coun y o apid economic g ow h ye acing
a g owing numbe o was e sys ems ha exceed i s en i onmen al managemen capabili ies (Obaho and
Asibo , 2025; Nwosu e al., 2024). Ri e s S a e, si ua ed in he s a egic Nige Del a egion, p o ides a
clea pic u e o his imbalance. Al hough he s a e is blessed wi h popula hyd oca bon ese es and an
ex ensi e ne wo k o i e s, c eeks, and we lands, i has expe ienced obus ecological deg ada ion due
o he unselec i e disposal o was es, a isanal e ining, and insecu e ins i u ional amewo ks (Okonkwo
e al., 2025). This un us wo hy was e low has led o a oxic en i onmen in which domes ic was e,
indus ial e luen s, and pe ochemical esidues me ge, a ec ing soil e ili y, su ace and g oundwa e
quali y, and posing a isk o biodi e si y.
Eco oxicology p o ides an in e p e i e app oach o c i ical analysis o hese dynamics. Being an
in e disciplina y science, ying oge he oxicology as well as ecology and en i onmen al chemis y, i
a emp s o explain he bonding o xenobio ic compounds (in pa icula , polycyclic a oma ic
hyd oca bons (PAHs), polychlo ina ed biphenyls (PCBs), and hea y me als such as cadmium, me cu y,
and lead) wi h biology sys ems and abio ic elemen s o cause ha m ul ecological e ec s (Newman, 2010).
In Ri e s S a e, se e al biomoni o ing s udies ha e epo ed he p esence o hea y me als and pe sis en
o ganic pollu an s (POPs) in soils, sedimen s, and aqua ic sys ems a high le els (Nkwocha e al., 2020;
Odu e al., 2022). The pollu ion sou ces mos equen ly exceed he in e na ional s anda ds es ablished
by he Wo ld Heal h O ganisa ion (WHO) and he Uni ed S a es En i onmen al P o ec ion Agency
(USEPA), indica ing a high ex en o ecological s ess (WHO, 2020). These pollu an s exhibi
bioaccumula i e and biomagni ying p ope ies, allowing o p og essi e concen a ion h oughou he
ood web, om plank onic o ganisms o ish, and ul ima ely o human consume s (Eze e al., 2024). These
mechanisms o ans e ing ecological isk exace ba e oxicological dange s and con ibu e o ch onic
exposu e, pa icula ly o ulne able popula ions ha ely on hem o local ood sou ces.
The lack o p ope was e managemen in Ri e s S a e does no me ely exis as a ma e o aes he ic
deg ada ion, bu ins ead cons i u es a deep eco oxicological c isis. Cons an pollu an s dis up mic obial
g oups ha play a c i ical ole in he ecycling o nu ien s, s ain soil physicochemical condi ions, and
a ec he yields o ecosys ems. These solid leacha es, along wi h he chemical leacha es, a e cha ac e ized
by inc eased biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and nu ien en ichmen le els, leading o
eu ophica ion and hopelessness (Nwankwoala and Amadi, 2023). Subsequen ly, he esul ing ecological
imbalance leads o he selec i e loss o sensi i e species and he in asi e p oli e a ion o oppo unis ic
axa, which ha ms he sus ainabili y o ecosys ems (Ojei o e al., 2022). Also, he insidious e ec on he
domain o domes ic consump ion is when—pou ing oxic was e in o shallow wells and bo eholes, which
a e an indispensable pa o he pe spec i es o many pe i-u ban communi ies— he ascen o pollu ing
wa e in o d inking sou ces may ep esen a hidden dange o human heal h (Weli and A okoyu, 2020;
Isangadighi & Udeh, 2023 and Essien e al., 2025a). This cumula i e s ess indica es a sys emic issue in
en i onmen al go e nance and a complex nexus be ween was e mismanagemen and oxicological
bu den. Howe e , wi h e e -g owing scien i ic e idence, ins i u ional and egula o y amewo ks in
Ri e s S a e a e p ima ily eac i e. Incomple e en i onmen al di ec i es, a sho age o eco oxicology
in o ma ion, and insu icien implemen a ion o he Nige ian Na ional En i onmen al Regula ions ha e
had a limi ing e ec on p oac i e in e en ions (Eighemhena io & Iboaya, 2025). Thus, he eal alue o
ecological and human heal h haza ds is s ill unde -cha ac e ized. The solu ion o his knowledge gap lies
in syn hesizing a ailable empi ical and heo e ical knowledge holis ically. This is hus a e iew a icle ha
summa izes mul idisciplina y e idence o assess he eco oxicological isks associa ed wi h imp ope was e
managemen in Ri e s S a e. I ques ions he oxici y mechanisms, isks o he ecosys em, and human
exposu e ou e, and es ablishes gaps in policy ha ende he en i onmen ulne able. The pape
ul ima ely p oposes a pa adigm shi owa ds a mo e eco oxicologically awa e app oach o was e
managemen in he Nige Del a egion, one ha balances economic de elopmen wi h en i onmen al
sus ainabili y.
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Me hodology
A sys ema ic na a i e e iew esea ch design in his s udy was in line wi h he P e e ed Repo ing I ems
o a Sys ema ic Re iew and Me a-Analysis (PRISMA) empla e because i used an app oach o c i ically
analyze and syn hesise quali a i e indings on he eco oxicological isks associa ed wi h inapp op ia e
was e disposal in Ri e s S a e, Nige ia (Mohe e al., 2020). The e iew was conduc ed in he spi i o
bo h sys ema ic e iews and hei in e p e a ion, u ilising a na a i e syn hesis o ensu e me hodological
accu acy and p o ide comp ehensi e co e age o bo h empi ical and heo e ical esul s. Li e a u e
sea ches we e conduc ed using Scopus, ScienceDi ec , Web o Science, PubMed, and Google Schola ,
among he leading scien i ic da abases, o ob ain ele an li e a u e, as well as in o ma ion om
go e nmen al agencies, con e ence pape s, and in e na ional bodies such as he UNEP, WHO, and FAO.
The iden i ied sou ces we e published be ween 2010 and 2024, which implies a apid a e o
indus ialisa ion and, consequen ly, he g ow h o he pe ochemical indus y and popula ion in Ri e s
S a e (Odu e al., 2021). P ope ly designed sea ch que ies based on Boolean ope a o s and con olled
keywo ds like “Eco oxicology, Was e managemen , Ri e s S a e, Nige ia, Hea y me als, PAHs, Soil
con amina ion, Aqua ic oxici y, and En i onmen al isk assessmen we e used o make su e e e y ype
o s udy con aining he desi ed in o ma ion would be e ie ed. This sea ch yielded 428 o iginal
documen s, which unde wen a s ingen sc eening p ocess in ol ing bo h abs ac and ull- ex
assessmen s based on inclusion and exclusion c i e ia. The s udies had o be quali ied i hey epo ed
empi ical da a o concep ual analysis ha di ec ly explained imp ope was e managemen and
eco oxicological e ec s, speci ically, in soil, sedimen , wa e , o bio a. A icles wi hou en i onmen al
da a, a icles ha only deal wi h socioeconomic aspec s, and a icles published be o e 2010, excep hose
undamen al o oxicological heo y, we e excluded. A e quali y sc eening and he elimina ion o
duplica ion, 94 me hodologically sound a icles emained o de ailed syn hesis and elucida ion.
In o ma ion ex ac ion was a sys ema ic abula me hod, whe e i al in o ma ion ob ained du ing he
s udy was o ganized in e ms o he esea ch design, including he loca ion, ype o pollu ion, mode o
analysis, eco oxicological pa ame e s, and main esul s. The pa icula a en ion was d awn o he s udies
whe e in ensi e analy ical me hods such as a omic abso p ion spec opho ome y (AAS), gas
ch oma og aphy-mass spec ome y (GC-MS), and induc i ely coupled plasmamass spec ome y (ICP-
MS) a e used because hese app oaches a e discussed as being p ecise when i comes o quan i ica ion o
he main agen s o pollu ion, namely, hea y me als and o ganic oxins (Nkwocha e al., 2020). The
ex ac ed da a we e ca ego ized in o ou b oad dimensions, which we e labelled as soil con amina ion,
aqua ic oxici y, bioindica o esponse, and pa hways o public heal h exposu es. Analy ical in e p e a ion
was based on an eco oxicological e alua ion model, which inco po a ed such indices as Po en ial
Ecological Risk Index (PERI) Hakanson (1980), Pollu ion Load Index (PLI), Geo-accumula ion Index
(Igeo) and En ichmen Fac o (EF) o hea y me als, and he Risk Quo ien (RQ) and Haza d Index (HI)
models o o ganic con aminan s (Li e al., 2021; Na ional Resea ch Council, Global A ai s, Technology
o Sus ainabili y P og am, and Commi ee on Inco Syn hesis was conside ed o in e sec ho oughly as
independen s udies; consis ency and educed bias was achie ed h ough he alida ion o con e sing
indings. The quali y o me hods and analy ical eliabili y we e e alua ed based on he adequacy o he
sample size, p ecision o he ool used, and s a is ical anspa ency (Adeni an e al., 2022; Essien e al.,
2025b). D awing on a syn hesis be ween empi ical measu emen s and heo e ical cons uc s, his e iew
p esen s a uni ied unde s anding o how inadequa e was e managemen exace ba es eco oxicological
h ea s in he land and wa e ecology o Ri e s S a e, while ensu ing epis emic soundness and
me hodological quali y assu ance.
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Resul s
Table 1. Majo Sou ces and Types o Pollu an s Iden i ied in Ri e s S a e
Sou ce o Was e
Dominan
Pollu an s
Analy ical
Techniques Used
En i onmen al
Medium
Eco oxicological
Conce n
Re e ences
Municipal solid
was e (Po
Ha cou ,
Ahoada)
Pb, Cd, C , Zn
AAS, ICP–MS
Soil, g oundwa e
Soil e ili y decline,
mic obial inhibi ion
Nkwocha e
al. (2020)
Pe ochemical
e luen s (Eleme
Indus ial A ea)
PAHs, PCBs,
Fe, Ni
GC–MS, AAS
Sedimen , wa e
Aqua ic oxici y,
oxida i e s ess in
ish
Odu e al.
(2021)
A isanal c ude
e ining (Bonny,
Bodo)
C ude oil
hyd oca bons,
Pb, V, As
GC–FID, AAS
Soil, mang o e
sedimen s
Geno oxici y,
bioaccumula ion
Eze e al.
(2021)
Aba oi was e
and leacha es
N, P, Pb,
mic obial load
Spec opho ome y,
cul u e assays
Su ace wa e
Eu ophica ion,
pa hogen exposu e
Indus ial
was ewa e
(Onne, T ans-
Amadi)
C , Cu, Ni,
cyanides
AAS
G oundwa e ,
opsoil
Me al oxici y,
enzyme inhibi ion
Adeni an e
al. (2022)
Medical and
domes ic was e
Hg, Pb, dioxins,
pa hogens
ICP–OES,
mic obiology
Dumpsi e soils,
uno
Endoc ine
dis up ion,
in ec ion isk
Nwosu e al.
(2024)
Table 2. Summa y o Eco oxicological Indica o s and Risk Cha ac e iza ion
Pollu an
Mean
Concen a ion
Range
Igeo
Classi ica ion
PERI
Sco e
Ecological
Risk Le el
Ecological E ec
Obse ed
Re e ences
Lead (Pb)
45.2–178.5 mg/kg
S ong o
ex eme
320–
450
High
Enzyme inhibi ion,
neu o oxici y
Nkwocha e
al. (2020)
Cadmium
(Cd)
2.1–8.4 mg/kg
Mode a e o
s ong
190–
260
High
Bioaccumula ion,
DNA damage
Li e al. (2021)
Ch omium
(C )
50.6–132.2 mg/kg
S ong
210–
280
High
Ca cinogenic
po en ial, oxida i e
s ess
Adeni an e al.
(2022)
Nickel (Ni)
18.3–72.4 mg/kg
Mode a e
140–
210
Mode a e
Reduced e ili y in
soil auna
Odu e al.
(2021)
PAHs (Σ16)
5.6–48.9 μg/L
Se e e
—
High
Mu agenici y, aqua ic
mo ali y
Adeni an e al.
(2022)
PCBs
0.8–3.5 μg/L
Mode a e
—
Mode a e
Endoc ine
dis up ion, ish li e
damage
Nwosu e al.
(2024)
Table 3. Summa y o Majo Pollu an s Iden i ied om Imp ope
Was e Managemen in Ri e s S a e
Pollu an Type
Common
Sou ces
A e age Repo ed
Concen a ion
Range
A ec ed
Ecosys em
Eco oxicological
E ec s
Re e ence
Hea y Me als (Pb,
Cd, C , Hg)
E-was e,
Indus ial
sludge,
Leacha e
0.02–3.8 mg/L
Soil and
Su ace Wa e
Bioaccumula ion in
ben hic auna;
inhibi ion o
pho osyn hesis
(Oko o e al.,
2021)
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PAHs (Polycyclic
A oma ic
Hyd oca bons)
Open
bu ning, Oil
esidues
0.1–6.3 mg/kg
Sedimen and
Bio a
Geno oxici y;
endoc ine dis up ion in
ish
Owoh-E e e,
e al. (2023)
Mic oplas ics
U ban
uno s,
Plas ic dumps
120–540
pa icles/m³/m³
Ri e s and
Es ua ies
Physical inges ion: a
ec o o oxins
A ah e al.
(2023)
Pa hogenic Mic obes
Municipal
solid was e
Va iable
Soil, Wa e
Disease ansmission,
eu ophica ion
Ab aham
(2011)
Table 4. Bioindica o Response and Toxici y Pa hways
Indica o O ganism
Bioma ke Measu ed
Obse ed E ec
Toxicological Mechanism
Re e ence
Tilapia guineensis
Ca alase (CAT),
SOD
Ele a ed oxida i e
s ess
ROS o e p oduc ion
(Akani e al.,
2020)
Penaeus monodon
DNA s and b eaks
Gene ic mu a ion
PAH-DNA adduc
o ma ion
Chima e al.,
2022
Anada a senilis
Hea y me al load
Reduced g ow h
Bioaccumula ion, me abolic
inhibi ion
Wokocha e al.,
2019
Pe ioph halmus ba ba us
Li e his opa hology
Nec osis, lipid
degene a ion
Ch onic exposu e o me als
and PAHs
Kawano & Blob,
2022
Table 5. Compa a i e Ecological Risk Indices om Li e a u e
Loca ion in
Ri e s S a e
Con amina ion Fac o
(C )
Pollu ion Load
Index (PLI)
Ecological Risk
Index (RI)
Risk Le el
Classi ica ion
Re e ence
Eleme
4.8
2.6
152
High Risk
Oko o e al.,
2021
Ok ika
3.5
1.9
110
Conside able Risk
Edeh e al.,
2022
Po Ha cou
Me opolis
2.4
1.3
68
Mode a e Risk
Wokocha e al.,
2019
T ans-Amadi
Indus ial Axis
6.2
3.4
210
Ve y High Risk
Table 6. Summa y o Eco oxicological Knowledge Gaps Iden i ied
Thema ic A ea
Obse ed Gap
Resea ch Need
Policy Rele ance
Bioaccumula ion Dynamics
Limi ed empo al
moni o ing
Longi udinal
biomoni o ing
Ea ly wa ning sys em
Soil-Wa e In e ace
Lack o coupled assessmen
Geo-spa ial
hyd ochemis y
Si e p io i iza ion
Risk Communica ion
Weak communi y
in ol emen
Risk li e acy p og ams
Public heal h planning
Was e Go e nance
Poo in eg a ion o eco- isk
da a
Science–policy ansla ion
En i onmen al decision-
making
Discussion
The analysis o o e laying s udy ma e ial e eals an o e lay his o y o en i onmen al eco oxicology
des abiliza ion esul ing om imp ope was e handling in Ri e s S a e. Th oughou he discussed
li e a u e, a endency owa ds simul aneous con amina ion wi h hea y me als and hyd oca bons eme ges,
in i ing a mo e complex examina ion o he in e ace be ween oxicological in e ac ions and he impac
o indus ializa ion, u ban was e, and ecosys em dis up ion. The ac ha he measu ed concen a ions
o lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), ch omium (C ), and nickel (Ni) (Table 2) a e signi ican ly highe han he
h eshold concen a ions in he in e na ional sys em (WHO, 2020) indica es an inc ease in an h opogenic
s ess ac o s. Such me als emain as edox-sensi i e con aminan s and mus unde go p ocesses o
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specia ion, ion exchange, and complexa ion o egula e hei solubili y and bioa ailabili y as pH and Eh
condi ions change, as is common in he Nige Del a loodplains (Adeni an e al., 2022; Essien e al., 2025c).
Thei p esence in he soils o dumpsi es and in downs eam sedimen s suppo s oxic soil-wa e eedback
mechanisms, esul s in dec eased mic obial ichness and educed nu ien cycling, and leads o seconda y
g oundwa e aqui e con amina ion. This is consis en wi h he ecological s ess- esponse heo y, which
hypo hesizes ha con inued exposu e o xenobio ics igge s a se ies o consequences esul ing om
enzyma ic blockage and me abolic es ain in bio ic communi ies (Newman and Clemen s, 2022).
Pa hways o ch onic exposu e a e suppo ed by he high alues o Geo-accumula ion (Igeo) and Po en ial
Ecological Risk Index (PERI), which indica e ha Pb and Cd a e he p ima y ecological isk p oduce s,
accoun ing o mo e han 60% o oxici y syne gism (Li e al., 2021).
When biological endpoin s a e iangula ed wi h hese esul s, he e is some ob ious biochemical
ansla ion o chemical s ess. Phenomena such as he inc ease in he ac i i y o an ioxidan enzymes
supe oxide dismu ase (SOD) and ca alase (CAT) in Tilapia guineensis (Akani e al., 2020) a e also ea u es
o eac i e oxygen species (ROS) o e p oduc ion, which is one o he adap a ions o oxida i e s ess.
This biochemical inding suppo s he concen a ion le els o PAH con amina ion in he sedimen (Table
3), as well as benzo[a]py ene and an h acene hyd oca bons, which p oduce PAH DNA adduc s ha cause
geno oxic and ca cinogenic e ec s in aqua ic li e (Okoye & Nduka, 2021; Isangadighi & Ukudo, 2025).
In he same way, bioaccumula ion o C and Ni in Anada a senilis and hepa ic nec osis in Pe ioph halmus
ba ba us (Table 4) demons a e c oss- oxic ac ion in con o mi y wi h he heo y o ophic ans e ,
which is a mechanism o magni ying con aminan s along ood chains. These o ganism in e ac ions
con i m he (quan i a i e) isk es ima es using PERI (Table 5) and, mo e impo an ly, show c oss-
alida ion be ween biochemical bioma ke s and ecological indica o s, one o he c ucial equi emen s o
mul i-sou ce e idence iangula ion. The inco po a ion o mic oplas ic classes as ec o s o pollu an s
(Table 3) in oduces a new ace : he adso p ion o me als and o ganic oxins on o hei hyd ophobic
su aces, which eac and es ablish mul i-pollu an co-deli e y and seconda y consump ion ia plank ons
and ben hic eede s. The combina ion o hea y me als, hyd oca bons, and mic oplas ics o ms
bioaccumula i e and oxic mixed pollu an s, wi h g ea e pe sis ence and bioa ailabili y—an e ec ha
is being obse ed on a global scale in indus ial del as, such as he Mekong and Ganges (OECD, 2021).
T iangula ed in e p e a ion o he soil, wa e , and bio a a he ecosys em le el e eals ha he unc ional
ecological se ices a e acing a sys emic h ea . The diminu ion o he physicochemically indica i e
ni i ying and phospha e-solubilizing bac e ial communi ies, occu ing in egions o was e ho spo s,
suppo s he dis up ion o biogeochemical biases by was e-gene a ed oxici y, and suppo s he legi imacy
o biogeochemical dis up ion, as epo ed in physicochemical s udies o enzyme inhibi ion and a ios o
nu ien s, ca alyzed by was e (Nwankwoala & Amadi, 2021; Acha e al., 2025). In he same measu e, he
eu ophica ion as e idenced by he aba oi leacha e a eas (Table 1) coincides wi h high ni ogen and
phospho us loads, mani es ing an ecological-biochemical nexus ha causes oxygen emo al and
impo e ished biodi e si y. The join p og essi e indices o isk (Table 5) e lec he spa ial dis ibu ions
o con amina ion, wi h he highes sco es o PERI being Eleme and T ans-Amadi (>200 on he sco e),
which is in line wi h hei high pe ochemical and indus ial densi y. This spa ial pa e n con as s wi h
he hyd ological links model o con aminan mig a ion, which in ol es plumes emana ing om high- isk
indus ial co es o pe i-u ban and es ua ine a eas. These ou es o con amina ion e lec he esea ch
wo ldwide in he coas al indus ialized zones, indica ing ha he geomo phological s uc u e signi ican ly
in luences he dis ibu ion o con aminan s.
Go e nance T iangula es. The e idence iangula es a sys emic disjunc ion be ween science and policy.
Al hough he e is conside able empi ical e idence o oxici y, he amewo ks go e ning was e con ol in
Ri e s S a e a e mos ly inpu - egula ing a he han ou pu - egula ing. The e is poo inco po a ion o
eco oxicological indices in he En i onmen al Impac Assessmen s (EIAs), which cons ains he abili y
o conduc a diagnos ic ea ly wa ning. Table 6 e eals a se e e knowledge gap: he lack o longi udinal
biomoni o ing means a lack o ime o isk end analysis; he e is also a lack o policy deba e due o he
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inabili y o communica e he isk o a ec ing any g oup. This applies o he la ge issue o democ a izing
en i onmen al da a, as scien i ic conclusions do no ul ima ely ind hei way o a ec ing communi y
adap a ions. Empi ical e idence, oxicological pa hways, and analysis o he policy iangula e o sugges
ha Ri e s S a e may be placed in a mul i-s esso egime, whe e laye s o uncon olled was e,
hyd oca bon leakages, and bac e ial in lux all in e sec o deg ade ecological s abili y and human heal h
secu i y wi hin he S a e. C oss-sec o al in eg a ion be ween geo-spa ial hyd ochemis y, bioma ke
su eillance, and isk li e acy p og ams among he popula ion would hen be a key componen o a
comp ehensi e mi iga ion pa adigm, in acco dance wi h in e na ional laws such as he Basel Con en ion
and SDGs 3, 6, 12, and 15.
Finally, his iangula ed syn hesis pain s a pic u e ha poo was e managemen in Ri e s S a e should
no be iewed as a soli a y ecological issue, bu a he as an eco oxicological synd ome, cumula i e in i s
e ec s, bo h chemically, biologically, and ins i u ionally acili a ed. I is a gued ha sus ainable
emedia ion needs o be ans o med in o an ecological isk managemen app oach, g ounded in
biomoni o ing expe ise, communi y in ol emen , and science-policy in eg a ion as pilla s o esilience.
Conclusion
This e iew con i ms ha mul iple eco oxicological c ises caused by inadequa e was e managemen in
Ri e s S a e en ail he e e yday in e ac ion o con amina ion wi h hea y me als, pe sis en o ganic
compounds, as well as eme ging con aminan s such as mic oplas ics in he soil, wa e , and bio ic
s uc u es. The o al sum o he oxic load om ci ies, indus y, pe ochemical, and a isanal e ining
p ocesses has dis up ed ecological homeos asis, al e ed he unc ions o mic obes, and caused geno oxic,
oxida i e, and bioaccumula i e impac s a he ophic le els. The empi ical da a om he examined
li e a u e indica e ha pollu an concen a ions emain signi ican ly abo e in e na ional s anda ds,
esul ing in he majo i y o he conside ed a eas being classi ied as high o e y high ecological isk. The
use o bioindica o s o gene a e mechanis ic cues e eals biochemical s ess pa hways cha ac e ized by a
high deg ee o an ioxidan enzyme ac i i y, DNA agmen a ion, and his opa hological changes,
con i ming sub-le hal oxici y and ecological s ess. The esis ance o hese pollu an s in he abio ic s o es
and hei subsequen ans e be ween ophic ie s unde sco es he need o in eg a ed eco oxicology
moni o ing and adap i e was e managemen models. On he whole, i is possible o s a e ha he exis ing
eac i e and incomple e manne o go e nance is no longe adequa e o hal he si ua ion o inc easing
ecological deg ada ion, hus gi ing ise o he necessi y o a pa adigm shi owa ds p e en ion-based,
isk- ocused, and science- and e idence-d i en in e en ions ha can secu e en i onmen al sus ainabili y
and sa e human li es.
Recommenda ions
Based on he e idence syn hesized, en i onmen al go e nance in Ri e s S a e mus be edesigned o
p io i ize in eg a i e eco oxici y e alua ion as he co e o was e managemen policy and p ac ice.
Regula o s a e equi ed o es ablish longi udinal biomoni o ing sys ems o measu e he end o
con aminan s, o m ecological ea ly wa nings, and inco po a e bioindica o -based diagnos ics in o
en i onmen al assessmen p o ocols. To acili a e e idence-based decision-making, he use o indices
such as PERI, PLI, and Igeo should be equi ed in En i onmen al Impac Assessmen s (EIAs). In
addi ion, was e managemen sys ems should mo e pas compliance-based models o ecologically
ou come-based egula ions ha would b ing local s anda ds in o he in e na ional a ena. Recen
ecommenda ions include hose om he USEPA, WHO, and OECD o eco oxicological guidelines.
Science-policy ansla ion, on he one hand, equi es an academic policy pa ne ship o suppo policy
collabo a ion; on he o he hand, he communi y will become in ol ed in was e managemen h ough
he p o ision o isk communica ion and eco-li e acy p og ams. Ul ima ely, bo h egula o y e o m and
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echnological in es men in was e ea men and ecosys em es o a ion p og ams a e essen ial o mi iga e
he cumula i e ecological and oxicological isks iden i ied, enhance esilience in he B azilian ecosys em,
and achie e he objec i es o sus ainable en i onmen al s ewa dship unde SDGs 3, 6, 12, and 15.
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