Jou nal o Science and Educa ion (JSE)
Vol 6, Issue 1, Sep embe 2025, Pages 1148-1167
ISSN: 2745-5351 (Media Online)
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.2139/ss n.5672371
En iching S uden s’ Cogni i e Engagemen and Highe -
O de Thinking Skills (HOTS) in Endo he mic and
Exo he mic Reac ions Using Sma Pedagogy
Vic o Oluwa osin Ajayi 1* [0000-0001-7107-4486], Bibiana Mwuese Penda 2 [0009-0002-1610-4640],
Rachael Folake Ameh 2 [0009-0008-9000-2742], Geo ge Pa ience Chinasa 3 [0009-0003-6603-5898]
1
Depa men o Chemis y Educa ion, Kwa a S a e Uni e si y o Educa ion Ilo in, Kwa a S a e,
Nige ia
2
Depa men o Science Educa ion, Fede al Uni e si y Lokoja, Kogi S a e, Nige ia
*Co esponding Au ho : [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac . Sma pedagogy in ol es using inno a i e, echnology-suppo ed
eaching s a egies o c ea e adap able, pe sonalized, and e icien lea ning ex-
pe iences. The s udy in es iga ed whe he sma pedagogy, such as blended e-
ali y (BR) and i ual eali y (VR) lea ning app oaches, could en ich s uden s’
cogni i e engagemen and highe -o de hinking skills (HOTS) in he con ex o
endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions. A quasi-expe imen al non- andomized
p e- es , pos - es con ol g oup esea ch design was adop ed in his s udy. The
ins umen used o da a collec ion a e Endo he mic and Exo he mic Cogni i e
engagemen Scale (EECES) and Endo he mic and Exo he mic Highe -O de
Thinking Skills Tes (EEHOTST) a e he ins umen s used o da a collec ion.
RES and RHOTST we e alida ed and ial- es ed, which yielded eliabili y
alues o 0.87 and 0.92 using C onbach's Alpha and Kude -Richa dson (KR-21)
o mula, espec i ely. 5543 SS2 s uden s o e ing chemis y in senio seconda y
schools in Dekina LGA Kogi S a e, Nige ia was he popula ion o he s udy.
Mul i-s age sampling echniques we e used o selec 156 SS2 s uden s d awn
om 6 schools in Dekina LGA. Fou esea ch ques ions and ou null hypo he-
ses guided he s udy. The esea ch ques ions we e answe ed using Mean and
S anda d De ia ion sco es, while he null hypo heses we e es ed using Analysis
o Co a iance. I was es ablished among o he s ha he e was a signi ican di -
e ence in he mean cogni i e engagemen a ings and HOTS sco es o s uden s
augh endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using he BR lea ning app oach,
VR lea ning app oach, and con en ional discussion me hod [F2, 155=1505.004,
P<0.05] [F2, 155=139.001, P<0.05] espec i ely I was ecommended ha chem-
is y eache s should be encou aged o use sma pedagogy, such as blended e-
ali y (BR) and i ual eali y (VR) lea ning app oaches, o en ich s uden s’ cog-
ni i e engagemen and HOTS le el in endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions.
Keywo ds: Sma Pedagogy, S uden s’ Cogni i e engagemen , Highe -O de
Thinking Skills (HOTS) Le el, Endo he mic and Exo he mic Reac ions
1148 This is an openaccess a icle unde CC-BY-SA license
3Depa men o Science Educa ion, Nnamdi Azikiwe Uni e si y, Awka, Anamb a S a e, Nige ia
Jou nal o Science and Educa ion (JSE)
Vol 6, Issue 1, Sep embe 2025, Pages 1148-1167
ISSN: 2745-5351 (Media Online)
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.2139/ss n.5672371
1
In oduc ion
Chemis y d i es na ional de elopmen by enhancing human capi al and inc easing
na ional p oduc i i y, especially in ag icul u e, heal h, manu ac u ing, and ene gy
sec o s. Endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions, which a e he main ocus o his
s udy, endo he mic eac ions gi e ene gy in o in ol e he abso p ion o ene gy om
hei su oundings, ypically as hea , causing he su oundings o become colde , no
wa me . Examples o endo he mic p ocesses include pho osyn hesis, e apo a ion,
mel ing ice, and he dissolu ion o ammonium chlo ide in wa e , whe e hea is aken
in om he en i onmen . his abso p ion o ene gy can lead o a dec ease in he em-
pe a u e o he sys em, esul ing in a cooling e ec in he su ounding en i onmen .
Con e sely, exo he mic eac ions gi e ene gy ou o i in ol e he elease o ene gy
(usually as hea ) in o hei su oundings, making he su oundings ho e . This occu s
because he new chemical bonds o med in he p oduc s a e s onge han he bonds
ha we e b oken in he eac an s, esul ing in a ne elease o ene gy om he sys em
o he en i onmen . Common examples o exo he mic eac ions a e combus ion, he
us ing o i on, espi a ion, and neu aliza ion eac ions. These examples illus a e a
ange o exo he mic p ocesses, om apid and ene ge ic eac ions like bu ning o
slowe , mo e sus ained p ocesses like us ing and he me abolic ene gy elease wi hin
li ing o ganisms. Essen ial p ocesses such as cellula espi a ion and pho osyn hesis
ely on endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions o p o ide ene gy and sus ain li e. In
o he wo ds, endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions can be obse ed in e e yday p o-
cesses. Endo he mic eac ions a e c ucial o cooling applica ions, and exo he mic
eac ions a e i al o ene gy p oduc ion h ough combus ion and uel ou bodies wi h
cellula espi a ion, demons a ing hei essen ial oles in powe ing indus y and daily
li e. Endo he mic eac ions, which abso b hea , a e u ilized o cooling in applica ions
like ins an ice packs, while exo he mic eac ions, which elease hea , a e essen ial o
ene gy p oduc ion ia combus ion and powe ing li e p ocesses such as cellula espi-
a ion, he eby unde pinning much o ou indus ial and daily ac i i ies. Despi e he
impo ance o endo he mic and exo he mic o ou indus ial and daily ac i i ies,
WAEC Chie Examine s’ epo (2023/2024) highligh consis en s uden s’ weakness
in endo he mic and exo he mic in in e nal and ex e nal examina ions, a ibu ing i o
he di icul y in iden i ying and dis inguishing eac ions, misin e p e ing empe a u e
changes, inco ec ly ela ing bond b eaking and ailu e o unde s and ene gy ans e
in e m o sys em and su ounding.
The impo ance o endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions o daily li e canno be
o e emphasized. Thus, e ec i e class oom eaching o endo he mic and exo he mic
eac ions should be gi en mo e se ious a en ion. S uden s’ cogni i e engagemen
du ing class oom ins uc ions has been epo ed o be e y poo in Nige ia (Ahmed,
2022). Cogni i e engagemen e e s o s uden s’ in es men and in e es in hei lea n-
ing, mo i a ion o lea n, goal se ing, pe cep ion o ele ance o lea ning, e o di-
ec ed owa d lea ning, and use o sel - egula ed lea ning app oaches (Pohl, 2020).
S uden s’ cogni i e engagemen is he ac i e in es men o e o in hinking, lea n-
ing, and p oblem-sol ing, cha ac e ized by a deep in e es in a ask, he use o sel -
egula ed lea ning, and he desi e o comp ehend complex ideas (Ro gans & Schmid ,
2011). In educa ional con ex s, i ’s a c ucial indica o o lea ning gains, whe e s u-
den s who a e mo e cogni i ely engaged a e mo e likely o achie e highe -o de
1149 This is an openaccess a icle unde CC-BY-SA license
Jou nal o Science and Educa ion (JSE)
Vol 6, Issue 1, Sep embe 2025, Pages 1148-1167
ISSN: 2745-5351 (Media Online)
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.2139/ss n.5672371
hinking skills and o e all academic success. Ahmed (2022) opines ha s uden s’ low
cogni i e engagemen may lead o nega i e a i udes and poo willingness o pu in
he necessa y e o owa d lea ning, while high cogni i e engagemen may lead o
en iched lea ning ou comes, imp o ed ocus, deepe unde s anding, and en iched
highe -o de hinking skills (HOTS). S uden s o en show low cogni i e engagemen
in chemis y due o ine ec i e eaching me hods, leading o a oidance o class oom
pa icipa ion (Ajewole, 2023). S uden s wi h low cogni i e engagemen can c ea e a
nega i e sel - ul illing p ophecy, whe e s uden s don’ pu o h hei bes highe -
o de hinking skills o sol e p oblems. The impo ance o s uden s’ cogni i e en-
gagemen and i s impac on hei highe -o de hinking skills (HOTS) should be gi en
mo e se ious a en ion. Thus, eaching app oaches ha equi e lea ne s o cons uc
meaning and ac i ely pa icipa e, a he han jus passi ely ecei e in o ma ion, a e
c ucial o en ich s uden s’ cogni i e engagemen and HOTS.
S uden s’ cogni i e engagemen le el may en ich o weaken hei highe -o de
hinking skills (HOTS) le el. This is because s uden s who possess highe cogni i e
engagemen a e likely o ha e highe HOTS due o hei pa icipa ion, in es ed ime,
and e o di ec ed owa d lea ning. HOTS is associa ed wi h Bloom’s axonomy. In
Bloom’s axonomy, HOTS s ands o Highe -O de Thinking Skills, ep esen ing he
op h ee le els o cogni i e p ocesses. I helps g oup ques ions in o highe -o de
hinking skills (HOTS) ca ego ies such as analysis, syn hesis (c ea ion), and e alua-
ion. HOTS equi es deepe cogni i e p ocessing, c i ical hinking, and he abili y o
apply knowledge o no el si ua ions and sol e complex p oblems. HOTS in ol es
c i ical hinking, e lec i e hinking, me a-cogni ion, and c ea i e hinking (Bowke &
Fazioli, 2016). HOTS is he capaci y o use skills, knowledge, and alues in e lec-
ion, easoning, decision-making, p oblem-sol ing, and p omo ing inno a ion and
c ea i i y (Sulaiman, Muniyan, Madh an, Hasan & Rahim, 2017). HOTS is he abil-
i y o use in o ma ion, skills, and alues in decision-making, p oblem-sol ing, deep
hinking, and inno a ion (Kwasi & Acho , 2025). HOTS is essen ial o p oblem-
sol ing (iden i y and esol e complex p oblems e ec i ely). S uden s’ low o weak
HOTS abili ies can mani es as a eliance on o e memo iza ion, di icul y analyzing
in o ma ion, and a s uggle wi h p oblem-sol ing and independen hough .
Kwasi and Acho (2025) lamen ed ha poo s uden s’ highe -o de hinking skills
(HOTS) le els ha e o en been blamed on ine ec i e eaching me hods. Conside ing,
HOTS a e c ucial o s uden s as hey os e c i ical hinking, c ea i i y, and p oblem
sol ing, mo ing beyond o e memo iza ion o enable deepe lea ning, adap abili y,
and success in academic, u u e ca ee s, and eal-wo ld challenges. The e is a need o
a lea ning pa adigm o shi om low-le el hinking skills o lea ning highe -o de
hinking skills such as analysis, syn hesis (c ea ion), and e alua ion. Thus, p epa ing
he s uden s o become success ul indi iduals, eache s need o ensu e ha hei each-
ing is e ec i e. Consequen ly, conside ing he as speed o change and inno a ion in
knowledge, he use o in eg a ion o sma echnology du ing eaching and lea ning
p ocesses seems necessa y. The in eg a ion o sma echnology in eaching and lea n-
ing (sma pedagogy) is he s a egic use o digi al ools and de ices o enhance he
educa ional expe ience, mo ing beyond a s a ic, ex book-d i en model o an in e ac-
i e and adap able one. Sma pedagogy is an eme ging and apidly g owing a eas ha
ha e he po en ial o ans o m exis ing eaching s a egies, lea ning en i onmen s,
and educa ional ac i i ies.
1150 This is an openaccess a icle unde CC-BY-SA license
Jou nal o Science and Educa ion (JSE)
Vol 6, Issue 1, Sep embe 2025, Pages 1148-1167
ISSN: 2745-5351 (Media Online)
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.2139/ss n.5672371
Sma pedagogy o e s a mode n, e icien pa hway o en ich class oom ac i e pa -
icipa ion and eaching e iciency by ocusing on s uc u ed lesson planning, ac-
i e/inclusi e class oom, and con inuous echnology in eg a ion (Ajayi, Ameh, Penda,
2025). Sma pedagogy is a se o inno a i e eaching app oaches, me hods, and p ac-
ices o p o ide sma ea u es. Tha is, sma pedagogy in ol es using inno a i e,
echnology-enhanced s a egies and me hods o c ea e an adap i e, sel -lea ning, and
op imized educa ional en i onmen , cha ac e ized by ‘sma ea u es’ such as adap a-
ion, sensing, in e ing, an icipa ion, sel -lea ning, and sel -op imiza ion o educa ion
p ocesses, objec s, and en i onmen . Sma pedagogy e e s o eaching me hods ha
le e age apid, echnology-enhanced, and esea ch-backed s a egies o c ea e a dy-
namic class oom en i onmen . This asse ion calls o he need o ind sma peda-
gogy, such as blended eali y (BR) and i ual eali y (VR) lea ning app oaches ha
may ha e he po en ial o en ich s uden s’ cogni i e engagemen and highe -o de
hinking skills (HOTS) le el
Blended eali y (BR) lea ning app oach in eg a es he physical and digi al wo ld o
c ea e an in e ac i e, seamless lea ning expe ience. Tha is, BR in ol es adding digi-
al in o ma ion o objec s o you eal-wo ld pe cep ion. Blended eali y lea ning ap-
p oach is a lea ning en i onmen ha os e s bo h ace- o- ace ins uc ion and digi al
me hods o ins uc ion (Mo e a-Gu ie ez, 2016). In blended eali y, in-pe son lea n-
ing is “blended” wi h echnology-based ins uc ion o bes mee he di e se needs o
s uden s. S uden s can engage in digi al ins uc ion h ough ins uc ional ideos, con-
en on lea ning managemen sys ems, and he use o echnology-based cogni i e
engagemen pla o ms and ools (Ac ee, 2017). Blended eali y enables he eache o
combine online lea ning con en wi h adi ional eache - acili a ed ins uc ional s a -
egies, hus o e ing s uden s mo e lea ning p ospec s (Fazal and B yan , 2019).
Blended lea ning has been shown o posi i ely co ela e wi h s uden s’ a i udes o-
wa d he lea ning p ocess (Lozano, 2020).
Vi ual eali y (VR) lea ning app oach ully imme ses he lea ne in a comple ely
digi al, simula ed en i onmen , blocking ou he eal wo ld. Tha is, VR anspo s
you en i ely o a digi al wo ld. VR lea ning has been used o b idge he gap be ween
heo e ical knowledge and eal-wo ld applica ion by simula ing au hen ic scena ios in
a con olled se ing (She man & C aig, 2018). Vi ual eali y (VR) is an in e ac i e
compu e -simula ed en i onmen ha de ec s a pa icipan ’s ac ions and adjus s eed-
back o c ea e an imme si e expe ience (She man & C aig, 2018). In his s udy, he
VR app oach in ol es he in eg a ion o i ual eali y lea ning expe iences in o class-
oom ins uc ion. I is an in e ac i e eaching/lea ning app oach in which lea ne s can
di ec ly in e ac wi h i ual objec s, es hei ideas, and obse e hei esul s in eal
ime. The use o he VR app oach allows he possibili y o ep esen ing abs ac con-
cep s and i ually manipula ing hem, p o iding a sui able pla o m o unde s and-
ing chemis y concep s and hei ela ion o he physical wo ld. The VR app oach
p o ides s uden s wi h in ima e insigh s in o en i onmen s ha a e ypically inacces-
sible, while keeping hem engaged in he lea ning p ocess. Fo example, in his s udy,
a chemis y eache used a VR app oach o each s uden s abou endo he mic and
exo he mic eac ions by p o iding an imme si e, in e ac i e, and sa e i ual labo a-
o y en i onmen whe e s uden s can isualize molecula ene gy changes in 3D and
manipula e eac ion condi ions wi hou isk.
1151 This is an openaccess a icle unde CC-BY-SA license
Jou nal o Science and Educa ion (JSE)
Vol 6, Issue 1, Sep embe 2025, Pages 1148-1167
ISSN: 2745-5351 (Media Online)
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.2139/ss n.5672371
Ryan and Deci’s (2000) Sel -De e mina ion Theo y (SDT) and Bloom’s (1956)
Taxonomy a e e ec i e educa ional amewo ks ha ancho his esea ch, wi h SDT
os e ing cogni i e engagemen by sa is ying needs o au onomy, compe ence, and
ela edness, while Bloom’s Taxonomy p o ides a s uc u ed way o design cu icula
and assessmen s ha p omo e highe -o de hinking skills (HOTs) and cogni i e en-
gagemen , mo ing s uden s beyond o e memo iza ion o c i ical analysis and c ea i e
wo k. In o he wo ds, Bloom’s Taxonomy p o ides a amewo k o s uc u ing lea n-
ing objec i es and p omo ing deepe cogni i e p ocesses like analysis and c ea ion.
Bo h heo ies, when applied wi hin a sma pedagogy con ex , c ea e mo e balanced,
in e ac i e, and e ec i e lea ning en i onmen s ha lead o deepe s uden unde -
s anding and g ow h. Thus, hese cons uc i is p inciples emphasize ac i e lea ning
and knowledge cons uc ion h ough expe ience, na u ally align wi h he goals o
SDT and he uppe le els o Bloom’s Taxonomy, c ea ing a obus app oach o e ec-
i e eaching.
Gende inequali y has emained a pe ennial p oblem o global scope. I has o do
wi h socially cons uc ed di e ences, which lead o o ms o inequali y such ha he
male is ega ded as supe io and all-knowing and he emale as in e io and incompe-
en (Ajayi, 2025). Some s udies indica e ha boys achie e be e (Penda, 2024), ei-
he no di e ence (Ajayi & Audu, 2023; Ameh, So & Ajayi, 2025) o gi ls ou pe -
o m boys (Ahmed, 2022) ha e been demons a ed. S udies on gende di e ences
con inued o yield inconsis en esul s, and i has usually been a ibu ed o unequal
exposu e o males and emales o lea ning ins uc ions ele an o chemis y lea ning.
A s udy by Jib il, Issa, Onojah, Ade ele, and Onojah (2022). concluded ha blended
lea ning enhanced s uden s’ academic pe o mance in he educa ional echnology
concep han he con en ional me hod. Likewise, Ola unde-Aiyedun and Adams
(2022) concluded ha lea ne s’ achie emen and e en ion in science a e signi ican ly
imp o ed by blended eali y. Danmal, Onansanya, A anda, and Abdullahi (2024)
sugges ed ha i ual eali y (VR) echnology e ec i ely enhances STEM educa ion
o a - isk s uden s a he seconda y school le el when compa ed wi h he adi ional
me hod o eaching. Thus, he sca ci y o s udies on en iching bo h male and emale
s uden s’ cogni i e engagemen and highe -o de hinking skills in he con ex o en-
do he mic and exo he mic eac ions using sma pedagogy necessi a ed his s udy.
1.1
Pu pose o he S udy
The pu pose o he s udy was o ind ou i sma pedagogy, such as blended eali y
(BR) and i ual eali y (VR), could en ich s uden s’ cogni i e engagemen and high-
e -o de hinking skills le el in he con ex o endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions.
Speci ically, he s udy was se ou o:
1. De e mine he e ec s o he blended eali y (BR) app oach, i ual eali y (VR)
app oach, and discussion me hod on s uden s’ cogni i e engagemen in endo he -
mic and exo he mic eac ions.
2. Asce ain he in e ac ion e ec o ea men s and gende on s uden s’ cogni i e en-
gagemen in endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions.
3. Find ou he e ec s o he BR app oach, VR app oach, and discussion me hod on
s uden s’ highe -o de hinking skills in endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions.
1152 This is an openaccess a icle unde CC-BY-SA license
Jou nal o Science and Educa ion (JSE)
Vol 6, Issue 1, Sep embe 2025, Pages 1148-1167
ISSN: 2745-5351 (Media Online)
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.2139/ss n.5672371
4. Asce ain he in e ac ion e ec o ea men s and gende on s uden s’ highe -o de
hinking skills le el in endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions.
1.2
Resea ch Ques ion
The ollowing esea ch ques ions guided his s udy:
1. Wha is he mean cogni i e engagemen a ings di e ence among s uden s augh
endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using he blended eali y (BR) app oach,
i ual eali y (VR) app oach, and discussion me hod?
2. Wha is he in e ac ion e ec o ea men s and gende on s uden s’ cogni i e en-
gagemen a ing in endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions?
3. Wha is he mean di e ence in highe -o de hinking skills sco es among s uden s
augh endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using he BR app oach, VR ap-
p oach, and discussion me hod?
4. Wha is he in e ac ion e ec o ea men s and gende on s uden s’ highe -o de
hinking skills sco es in endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions?
1.3
Hypo heses
The ollowing null hypo heses guided he s udy:
1. The e is no signi ican di e ence in he cogni i e engagemen a ings o s uden s
augh endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using he BR app oach, VR ap-
p oach, and discussion me hod.
2. The e is no signi ican in e ac ion e ec o ea men s and gende on he cogni i e
engagemen a ings o s uden s in endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions.
3. The e is no signi ican di e ence in he highe -o de hinking skills sco es o s u-
den s augh endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using he BR app oach, VR ap-
p oach, and discussion me hod.
4. The e is no signi ican in e ac ion e ec o ea men s and gende on he highe -
o de hinking skills sco es o s uden s in endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions.
2
Me hod
The esea ch design adop ed in his s udy is quasi-expe imen al. The s udy a ea is
Dekina LGA, Kogi S a e, Nige ia. Dekina LGA o Kogi S a e is loca ed in he middle
bel a ea o Kogi S a e, on he A233 highway. Dekina LGA is be ween la i udes 7
41’41” N and longi udes 7 01’20” E wi h a o al land mass a ea o 2461 Km (950 Sq.
0
0
2
ml) and has an es ima ed popula ion o 260 312 (NPC, 2006). 5543 Senio Seconda y
2 s uden s in he 39 go e nmen -app o ed Senio Seconda y Schools in Dekina LGA
is he popula ion o his s udy. A sample o 156 Senio Seconda y 2 s uden s was
pu posi ely sampled om 6 schools ou o he 39 Senio Seconda y Schools in Deki-
na LGA. The Endo he mic and Exo he mic Cogni i e Engagemen Scale (EECES)
and he Endo he mic and Exo he mic Highe -O de Thinking Skills Tes (EEHOTST)
a e he ins umen s used o da a collec ion.
1153 This is an openaccess a icle unde CC-BY-SA license
Jou nal o Science and Educa ion (JSE)
Vol 6, Issue 1, Sep embe 2025, Pages 1148-1167
ISSN: 2745-5351 (Media Online)
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.2139/ss n.5672371
The Endo he mic and Exo he mic Cogni i e Engagemen Scale (EECES) was a e-
sea che -made 25-i em ques ionnai e ha was in ended o help s uden s exp ess hei
le el o class oom cogni i e engagemen in lea ning and sol ing p oblems ela ed o
endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions. RES is a 4-poin Like modi ied a ing scale
wi h 4 esponse op ions. The op ions a e Ve y High Ex en (VHE), High Ex en (HE),
Low Ex en (LE), and Ve y Low Ex en (VLE). RES is a 4-poin Like scale wi h
numbe indica o s as 4 (VHE), 3 (HE), 2 (LE), and 1 (VLE). Beyond me e unde -
s anding o he endo he mic and exo he mic eac ion expe imen . The Endo he mic
and Exo he mic Highe -O de Thinking Skills Tes (EEHOTST) was 40 mul iple-
choice es s designed o assess s uden s’ highe -o de hinking skills (apply, analyze,
e alua e, and c ea e). The highe -o de hinking skills ques ions we e d awn om
WAEC and NECO pas ques ions on endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions.
The ins uc ional lesson plans, Endo he mic and Exo he mic Cogni i e Engage-
men Scale (EECES), and Endo he mic and Exo he mic Highe -O de Thinking Skills
Tes (EEHOTST) we e ace alida ed by p esen ing hem o h ee expe s in Chemis-
y Educa ion/Measu emen and E alua ion. Upon alida ion, he eliabili y o he
ins umen s was es ablished by adminis e ing RES and RHOTST o a andomly se-
lec ed 34 SS2 s uden s o a senio seconda y school, which is no pa o he schools
used o he main s udy. A e 1 week o 3 pe iods o eaching, he RES and RHOTST
we e adminis e ed. C onbach's Alpha was used o asce ain he eliabili y index o
RES, which ga e a eliabili y alue o 0.87. The in e nal consis ency o RHOTST,
which yielded a eliabili y alue o 0.92, was es ed using he Kude -Richa dson (KR-
21) o mula. Du ing he main s udy, six chemis y eache s we e ained by he e-
sea che using a blended eali y (BR) lesson plan and i ual eali y (VR) lea ning
plan and discussion lesson plans, espec i ely, and his las ed o 1 week. A e he
aining, wo in ac classes we e assigned andomly o expe imen al g oup 1 (BR ap-
p oach g oup), expe imen al g oup 2 (VR app oach g oup), and he Con ol g oup
(Discussion g oup).
Be o e ac ual eaching commences, he Endo he mic and Exo he mic Cogni i e
Engagemen Scale (EECES) and Endo he mic and Exo he mic Highe -O de Think-
ing Skills Tes (EEHOTST) we e adminis e ed as a p e- es by he chemis y eache s,
and his las ed o one week. Du ing lessons, he eache s augh he expe imen al
g oup 1 endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using he BR app oach lesson plan, he
eache s augh he expe imen al g oup 2 endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using
he VR app oach lesson plan, while he con ol g oup was augh he same expe i-
men al g oup 2 endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions opics using a discussion lesson
plan. This las ed o h ee weeks. A he end o hese ac ual eaching pe iods, he p e-
es was eshu led and adminis e ed as a pos - es , which las ed o one week. The
esea ch ques ions we e answe ed using Mean and S anda d De ia ion sco es, while
he null hypo heses we e es ed using Analysis o Co a iance.
3
Resul s
3.1
Resea ch Ques ion 1
Wha is he mean cogni i e engagemen a ings di e ence among s uden s augh
endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using he blended eali y (BR) app oach, i u-
1154 This is an openaccess a icle unde CC-BY-SA license
Jou nal o Science and Educa ion (JSE)
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ISSN: 2745-5351 (Media Online)
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.2139/ss n.5672371
al eali y (VR) app oach, and discussion me hod? Table 1 and Figu e 1 p esen ed he
answe o esea ch ques ion one
Table 1. Mean Cogni i e Engagemen and S anda d De ia ion Sco es o S uden s Taugh En-
do he mic and Exo he mic Reac ions using he BR app oach, VR app oach, and Discussion
Me hod
G oup
N
PRE- EEES
POST- EEES
Mean Gain
wi hin G oup
�
�
BR app oach
Discussion
Mean di .
be ween
51
53
1.13
1.14
0.18
0.16
3.79
2.28
0.31
0.24
2.66
1.14
0.01
1.51
1.52
G oups
VR app oach
Discussion
Mean di .
be ween
52
53
1.12
1.14
0.15
0.16
3.68
2.28
0.33
0.24
2.56
1.14
-0.02
1.40
1.42
G oups
BR app oach
VR app oach
Mean di .
be ween
51
52
1.13
1.12
0.01
0.18
0.15
3.79
3.68
0.11
0.31
0.33
2.66
2.56
0.10
G oups
Sou ce: Field Expe imen s, 2025. EECES: Endo he mic & Exo he mic Cogni i e
engagemen Scale; : Mean; : S anda d de ia ion
Fig. 1. P e-EECES, Pos -EECES, and mean gain in e ec o BR app oach, VR app oach, and
Discussion Me hod on S uden s’ Cogni i e engagemen in Endo he mic and Exo he mic Reac-
ions
1155 This is an openaccess a icle unde CC-BY-SA license
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ISSN: 2745-5351 (Media Online)
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The summa y o he P e-EECES, Pos -EECES, and mean gain a ings o s uden s
augh endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using he BR app oach, VR app oach,
and discussion me hod a e ep esen ed in Figu e 1. The da a in Table 1 show ha he
g oss mean di e ence be ween s uden s in he BR app oach and DM g oups was 1.52
in a ou o he BR app oach. This implies ha s uden s in he BR g oup had highe
cogni i e engagemen han s uden s in he discussion g oup. Simila ly, he o e all
mean di e ence be ween s uden s in he VR g oup and DM g oups was 1.42 in a ou
o VR. This implies ha s uden s in he VR app oach g oup had highe cogni i e en-
gagemen han hose in he discussion g oup. Simila ly, he o e all mean di e ence
be ween s uden s in he BR app oach and VR app oach g oups was 0.10. Ne e he-
less, he mino di e ence is in a ou o he blended eali y app oach. This implies
ha s uden s in he BR g oup had sligh ly highe cogni i e engagemen han hei
coun e pa s in he VR app oach g oup. Las ly, s uden s augh using he BR app oach
had sligh ly highe cogni i e engagemen han hose augh using he VR app oach.
Meanwhile, s uden s augh endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using a VR ap-
p oach had a highe cogni i e engagemen a ing han hose augh using he discus-
sion me hod.
3.2
Resea ch Ques ion 2
Wha is he in e ac ion e ec o ea men s and gende on s uden s’ cogni i e en-
gagemen a ing in endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions? Resea ch ques ion wo is
p esen ed in Figu e 1:
Fig. 2. In e ac ion ba cha o ea men s and gende on s uden s’ cogni i e engagemen in
endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions
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3.8
Hypo hesis 4
The e is no signi ican in e ac ion e ec o ea men s and gende on he highe -o de
hinking skills sco es o s uden s in endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions. The da a
analysis o Table 5, is used o explain hypo hesis 4.
The able p esen s a wo-way ANCOVA o HOTS sco es o s uden s augh endo-
he mic and exo he mic eac ions using he BR app oach, VR app oach, and he Dis-
cussion me hod (DM). The able p esen s he in e ac ion e ec o ins uc ional s a e-
gies and gende . The da a in Table 3 e eal ha he e is no signi ican in e ac ion
e ec o ea men s and gende on he mean HOTS sco es o s uden s in endo he mic
and exo he mic eac ions [F2, 155=.195, P<0.05]. The null hypo hesis is he e o e no
ejec ed. Meanwhile, he e ec size was 0.001 as sugges ed by he co esponding
pa ial e a squa ed alue, which is conside ed a small e ec size. This implies ha
only 0.1% o he in e ac ion in he highe -o de hinking skills sco es among g oups
was explained by ea men s and gende . Hence, he in e ac ion o ea men s and
gende on s uden s’ HOTS sco es has a small s a is ical e ec size.
4
Discussion
The s udy in es iga ed i sma pedagogy, such as blended eali y (BR) and i ual
eali y (VR) lea ning app oaches, could en ich s uden s’ cogni i e engagemen and
highe -o de hinking skills (HOTS) le el in he con ex o endo he mic and exo he -
mic eac ions in he Dekina Local Go e nmen A ea (LGA) o Kogi S a e, Nige ia.
The indings o his s udy sugges ed ha he di e ence in he cogni i e engagemen
a ing among s uden s augh endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using he BR
app oach, VR app oach, and discussion me hod was s a is ically signi ican . The pos -
hoc compa ison o he cogni i e engagemen a ing among he g oups sugges ed ha
s uden s augh endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using he BR app oach had
highe cogni i e engagemen han hei coun e pa s augh using he discussion
me hod. This is in line wi h Jib il, Issa, Onojah, Ade ele, and Onojah (2022). con-
cluded ha blended lea ning enhanced s uden s’ academic pe o mance in he educa-
ional echnology concep han he con en ional me hod. Likewise, his is in line wi h
Ajayi, Ameh, and Alabi (2025). Findings ha s uden s’ sel -con idence and c i ical
hinking abili y we e enhanced signi ican ly in iden i ying physical and chemical
changes when augh using echnology-assis ed cons uc i is app oaches compa ed o
hei coun e pa s using he modi ied lec u e me hod. The likely explana ion o his
ou come may be connec ed o he ac ha he blended eali y app oach allows lexi-
ble, pe sonalized lea ning expe iences, be e access o esou ces, and en iches a bal-
ance o ace- o- ace and digi al ins uc ion. The BR and VR app oach helped he
lea ne s o explo e concep s and gene a e in es iga ions h ough engaging, unde -
s andable, hands-on echnology ools and nea - eali y isual simula ions when com-
pa ed o he discussion me hod.
The pos -hoc compa ison o he cogni i e engagemen a ing among he g oups
sugges ed ha s uden s augh endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using he VR
app oach had signi ican ly highe cogni i e engagemen han hei coun e pa s augh
using he discussion me hod. This inding ag ees wi h Danmal, Onansanya, A anda,
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and Abdullahi (2024), who sugges ed ha i ual eali y (VR) echnology e ec i ely
enhances STEM educa ion o a - isk s uden s a he seconda y school le el when
compa ed wi h he adi ional me hod o eaching. The pos -hoc compa ison o he
cogni i e engagemen a ing among he g oups u he e ealed ha he di e ence
be ween s uden s augh endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using he BR app oach
and hose augh using he VR app oach was no s a is ically signi ican . The e was a
sca ci y o s udies compa ing he BR app oach and VR app oach on s uden s’ cogni-
i e engagemen in science subjec s be o e. Howe e , he likely explana ion o his
ou come may be a ibu ed o he ac ha bo h he BR app oach and VR app oach a e
used o help s uden s in building a i ual, in e ac i e lea ning en i onmen close o
he eal en i onmen h ough a a ie y o ad anced echnologies, and use s can in e -
ac wi h he i ual en i onmen o gain expe ience and knowledge, hus achie ing he
pu pose o eaching.
The indings o his s udy e ealed ha he di e ence in he highe -o de hinking
skills sco es among s uden s augh endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using he
BR app oach, VR app oach, and discussion me hod was s a is ically signi ican . The
pos -hoc compa ison o he highe -o de hinking skills sco es among he g oups
e ealed ha s uden s augh endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using he BR
app oach had signi ican ly highe highe -o de hinking skills han hei coun e pa s
augh using he discussion me hod. This is in line wi h Ola unde-Aiyedun and Adams
(2022), who concluded ha lea ne s’ achie emen and e en ion in science a e signi i-
can ly imp o ed by blended eali y when compa ed o he lec u e eaching me hod.
The likely explana ion o his ou come may be a ibu ed o he ac ha he sma
pedagogy helped he lea ne s o explo e concep s and gene a e in es iga ions using
echnology ools. Fu he mo e, he s uden s a e gi en he chance o exp ess hei
schema and expe ience he science ideas behind he ac i i y o sa is y hei cu iosi y
and hinking p ocesses using echnology ools and hands-on ac i i ies, compa ed o
he discussion me hod.
The pos -hoc compa ison o he highe -o de hinking skills sco es among he
g oups also e ealed ha s uden s augh endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using
he VR app oach had signi ican ly highe highe -o de hinking skills han hose
augh using he discussion me hod. This inding ag ees wi h Ajayi (2023), who ound
ha he VR app oach was mo e e ec i e in enhancing s uden s’ concep ual unde -
s anding and academic pe o mance in he opic o momen s in Physics han he con-
en ional eaching me hod. The likely explana ion o his ou come may be a ibu ed
o he ac ha he use o a VR echnology s a egy p o ides a o ma o s uden s o
unde s and he na u e o knowledge and he cons uc ion p ocesses o knowledge
using echnology ools. The pos -hoc compa ison o he highe -o de hinking skills
sco es among he g oups u he e ealed ha he di e ence be ween s uden s augh
endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using he BR app oach and hose augh using
he VR app oach was no s a is ically signi ican . One eason o he highe -o de
hinking skills o s uden s augh using he BR app oach and VR app oach could be
ha hey we e able o e lec on, in e p e , and sea ch o solu ions h ough exposu e
o eal si ua ions using echnology ools when compa ed o s uden s augh using a
discussion g oup. BR and VR app oaches in eg a es images, diag ams, audio, ideo,
and anima ion in a complex way by compu e , builds a eaching en i onmen based
on human cogni i e cha ac e is ics, o ganizes and p esen s eaching knowledge, e-
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ISSN: 2745-5351 (Media Online)
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.2139/ss n.5672371
lec s he di e si y and complexi y o he o m and con en o knowledge in o ma ion,
p o ides s uden s wi h a dynamic, open and ee o m o s uc u ed cogni ion, and is
conduci e o s uden s’ comp ehensi e mas e y and applica ion o he knowledge hey
ha e lea ned
The s udy e ealed ha he in e ac ion e ec be ween app oach and gende on he
cogni i e engagemen and highe -o de hinking skills o s uden s in endo he mic and
exo he mic eac ions is e y minimal, bu he ANCOVA es shows ha he in e ac-
ion e ec was no signi ican , espec i ely. This implies ha he e was no signi ican
in e ac ion be ween app oaches and gende on cogni i e engagemen and highe -o de
hinking skills o s uden s in endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions. Hence, ei he
sma pedagogy, such as he BR app oach o he VR app oach, can be used success-
ully i espec i e o gende in os e ing s uden s’ cogni i e engagemen and highe -
o de hinking skills. In his case, he e is no need o a sepa a ion o ins uc ional
app oach o male and emale s uden s, since ei he he BR app oach o he VR ap-
p oach could be used success ully o he h ee g oups.
5
Conclusion
Sma pedagogy c ea es lexible, pe sonalized, and adap i e lea ning en i onmen s,
en iching s uden s’ cogni i e engagemen and highe -o de hinking skills. I was
concluded ha he s uden s augh endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions using sma
pedagogy such as blended eali y (BR) and i ual eali y (VR) app oaches had highe
cogni i e engagemen and highe -o de hinking skills in answe ing o sol ing p ob-
lems ela ed o endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions, espec i ely, han hose augh
using he discussion me hod. Thus, ecommenda ions we e made:
1. Chemis y eache s should be encou aged o employ he use o he BR app oach
and VR app oach o en ich s uden s’ cogni i e engagemen and highe -o de
hinking skills in he con ex o endo he mic and exo he mic eac ions.
2. The Minis y o Educa ion and p o essional bodies should o ganize wo kshops
o sensi ize chemis y eache s on he use o blended eali y and i ual eali y
app oaches o en ich s uden s’ cogni i e engagemen and highe -o de hinking
skills.
3. Minis y o Educa ion and o he educa ional s akeholde s should ad oca e o
he inclusion o sma pedagogy, such as blended eali y and i ual eali y ap-
p oaches, in he cu iculum.
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