Ma co Ba a alle
An En anglemen o A , Ecology, and Social S uggles: Po o Ma ghe a as Dialec;cal Image
ABSTRACT
Fi s ly, looking a poli ical ecology, he a icle de elops a c i ique o he concep o sus ainabili y. I
hen ocuses on he (o en o e looked) ole o social s uggles in he No heas o I aly in ela ion o
he ansi ion om Fo dism o he dis ic economy. F om his pe spec i e, he e usal o wo k is
shown no only as a beha io ha con ibu es o he ans o ma ion o he p oduc ion model, bu as a
phenomenon inex icably linked o he denuncia ion o he en i onmen al and social unsus ainabili y
o ac o y wo k. A has also played a signi ican ole in highligh ing he con adic ions o he Vene o
p oduc ion model. Spanning he pe iod om 1968 o he p esen day and na owing he ield o
analysis o Venice (in pa icula Po o Ma ghe a), he a icle examines a numbe o case s udies loca ed
a he in e sec ion be ween a , social con lic , and he en i onmen . I is no simply a ma e o e oking
he Fo dis pas o ci ies wi h i s accompanying s uggles and in e sec ions be ween aes he ics and
poli ics. Ra he , i emphasizes how he in e es o con empo a y a is s and c i ics in wo ke s' s uggles
agains noxiousness esponds o he need o disco e an al e na i e genealogy o Venice's p esen .
These pas s uggles a e summoned as dialec ical images o edeem a ci y educed o a symbol o
ex ac i e policies ( i s linked o hea y indus y, hen o ou is i ica ion), highligh ing he p esence
and ele ance o deep- oo ed and esis an subjec i i ies.
The Unsus ainable Con inui y o Indus ial and ou is Pa adigms in Venice
Is i s ill possible o ely on he concep o sus ainabili y wi hou i s c i icizing i as an ideologically
mobilized concep in and by neolibe al discou se? The g ea wa e o he Eu opean clima e mo emen
seems o ha e b oken on he ocks o he pandemic and wa . Eu opean ins i u ions a e snubbing g een
issues and ocusing i mly on ea mamen .
1
The se ial ailu es o he a ious COPs, in he absence o
millions o young people demanding accoun abili y, a e once again no longe making he news. One
wonde s whe he , ne o i s esilience (ano he buzzwo d) in he policy ocabula y, he wo d
sus ainabili y has no now been de ini i ely emp ied o meaning. The inc easingly d ama ic da a on
global wa ming and he poli ical choices o he majo global powe s seem o con i m his la e
imp ession.
A e all, c i icism o he concep is no hing new. In he ield o poli ical ecology, almos hi y yea s
ago, John Bellamy Fos e p oblema ized he man a o sus ainable de elopmen , a guing ha no hing
would change wi hou a p io c i ique o he concep o de elopmen :
Ne e heless, he emphasis h oughou emains on sus aining de elopmen . In con as , o hose
who a e conce ned p ima ily wi h sus aining he ea h and c ea ing li able, sus ainable
communi ies, a he han wi h sus aining de elopmen o expanding p o i s, he con lic be ween
economic g ow h and he en i onmen is much mo e likely o be emphasized. (Fos e , 1996: 130).
Can we hink o g een capi alism as a model o sus ainabili y? Some schola s a e skep ical, as i is
essen ially abou making sus ainabili y a new e ain o capi al accumula ion. As ea ly as 1998, James
O'Conno a gued: “One scena io is ha he des uc ion o he en i onmen can lead o as new
indus ies designed o es o e i . Imagine lake d edging equipmen , o es cleaning machines, land
e i alize s, ai es o e s, acid ain comba an s.” (O’Conno , 1998: 27)
E en locally, he si ua ion is d ama ic. In Venice, he e ec s on heal h and he en i onmen o he
indus ial de elopmen o Po o Ma ghe a a e well known, especially du ing he pe iod o apid
g ow h be ween he 1920s and he 1970s. Laegambien e w i es:
The con amina ion o he en i onmen al ma ices was mainly caused by indus ial ac i i ies and
indus ial was e, which we e used and dumped in he a ea h oughou he las cen u y. In he 1970s,
o example, 22,000 ons o oxic was e we e disposed o in he sea each yea , inc easingly u he
om he coas and inally also on land in a my iad o uncon olled si es. Bu he spills con inued in
he ollowing yea s. (Legambien e, 2025: 2)
1
In nego ia ions unde way wi h he Eu opean Pa liamen , Membe S a es ha e whi led a €10 billion clima e und down o €1.5 billion and
aimed i a de ense ins ead.” Paddy Bel on, “EU shi s budge p io i ies om clima e o de ense as Uk aine akes cen e s age,” B ussels
Signal, Feb ua y 1, 2024. [1] h ps://b usselssignal.eu/2024/02/eu-shi s-budge -p io i ies- om-clima e- o-de ence-as-uk aine- akes-
cen e-s age/?u m_sou ce=cha gp .com (Accessed, 28/04/2025)
In 1998, Po oma ghe a was decla ed a si e o na ional in e es (S.I.N.). Wi h his designa ion, he s a e
iden i ies la ge pollu ed a eas ha ha e been decla ed dange ous. SINs should be subjec o u gen
emedia ion, bu a e almos hi y yea s, Ma ghe a is s ill wai ing.
In e ms o heal h cos s, in 2003 he e we e 248 dea hs o Enichem wo ke s linked o exposu e o CVM,
inyl chlo ide monome , (Pi as u e al., 2003). Also no ewo hy is he ial in which Felice Casson ( hen
public p osecu o ), on he basis o da a collec ed by o me wo ke Gab iele Bo olozzo, b ough a
g oup o Mo edison execu i es o ial, accused o ha ing concealed, despi e being awa e o hem, he
ha m ul e ec s o CVM on wo ke s' heal h. In 2001, he cou acqui ed all he de endan s. In
subsequen appeals, he e dic was o e u ned o some ex en , bu only mino sen ences we e handed
down (Be in, Dianese, 2002).
I we conside he ci y o Venice, pa icula ly he his o ic pa , he unsus ainabili y o mass ou ism is
e iden when obse ing wo ends
These a e he depopula ion o he ci y, because o local esiden s lea ing, and he con inuous g ow h
o he ou ism sec o , ep esen ed by an inc ease in he numbe o day ippe s and o e nigh s ays.
Some da a can easily demons a e his. In 1951, he his o ic ci y o Venice eached i s highes numbe
o esiden s. Almos 174,800 people we e li ing in i s six dis ic s. Today, on he one hand, only 30%
o ha numbe emain, namely 52,988 inhabi an s. On he o he hand, he numbe o ou is s om
all o e he wo ld g ows e e y yea (wi h a end o +3% o o e nigh s ays in 2017 compa ed o he
p e ious yea . […]. F om 2008 o 2018, he numbe o ou is s a i ing in he his o ic ci y inc eased
om 2,075,000 o 3,156,000. This g ow h is as ounding i we also ake in o accoun o e nigh s ays,
which ha e g own om 5,677,000 o 7,862,000. (Be occhi, Visen in, 2019: 6)
In he same a icle, he au ho s highligh he key ole o social mo emen s in esponding o his
d ama ic si ua ion o o e ou ism. This is he case o he No G andi Na i Commi ee, which since 2012
has ans o med he igh agains he passage o c uise ships in o a ba le ha “became a so o
synecdoche o he ou ism p oblem's complexi y”(Be occhi, Visen in, 2019: 3). The commi ee's na al
ba les, blockades, and demons a ions a e an excellen s a ing poin o unde s anding he ole o an
aspec ha is o en o e looked in he classic genealogies no only o he ci y o Venice bu o he en i e
No heas model, wi h impo an epe cussions also on he issue o i s en i onmen al and social
sus ainabili y. I am e e ing o he ole o social s uggles, ha o la ge (o small) ac o ies, bu also
he biopoli ical con lic linked o he a ious exp essions o ejec ion o he o ms o li ing ha
cul u ally and socially cha ac e ized he Vene o egion du ing he ansi ion om Fo dism o
indus ial dis ic s. Social s uggles, he e o e, played an ac i e ole in he socio-economic e olu ion o
he e i o y.
Re usal o wo k. Social S uggles and he o ma ion o he Vene o model
Le us s a wi h he emo al o con lic in he p ocess o analyzing he Vene o Model. The de ini ion
o “indus ializa ion wi hou ac u es” (Fuà, 1983) is well known, desc ibing he p ocess o ansi ion
om a u al o an indus ial dimension in he NEC (No heas and Cen e ) a ea. The au ho a gues
ha he p e-exis ing cha ac e is ics o an ag a ian wo ld o ganized mainly as smallholdings,
sha ec opping, and land en al would ha e de eloped in his a ea a DNA de o ed o sel -employmen ,
which would explain he subsequen success o he dis ic model. Fuà highligh s some cha ac e is ics
ha shielded his wo ld om he bi e class s uggle ha had cha ac e ized he la ge Fo dis ac o y.
These include he p oximi y o he wo kplace o he place o bi h, he equen amily ies ha
cha ac e ize wo king ela ionships, he possibili y o eso ing o supplemen a y jobs in ag icul u e
and comme ce, and he sho social dis ance and mobili y be ween he posi ions o he pad oncino
(small business owne ) and he wo k o ce. A key elemen in he success o he dis ic economy was
he p esence o elemen s such as spi i o ini ia i e, sense o esponsibili y and a ce ain
an h opological p oximi y be ween employe s and hei wo k o ce. The e is also a ecu ing e e ence
o he wo k e hic, a eal pilla in he iden i y o he no heas e n en ep eneu who inhe i ed i om
he p e-exis ing socie y build a ound ag icul u e and c a (Fuà, 1983).
Enzo Rullani and B uno Anas asia a e also among he majo con ibu o s o he de ini ion o dis ic
economy heo y. I would be inco ec o say ha hey ne e conside ed he ole o con lic in his
s o y, bu hey did so om a pa ial pe spec i e. In a 2011 ex , hey ejec a hesis ha unila e ally
de ines dis ic de elopmen as a eac ion o he labo s uggles o Fo dism. This would ce ainly be a
simplis ic posi ion, since a socio-economic dynamic o such complexi y canno be explained ei he as
a me e esponse o social s uggles o as he chao ic emana ion o a wo k e hic ha con ibu es o
p oducing a clima e o unchallenged social cohesion.
In Do e Va il No des (Whe e is he No heas Going?), published in 2005, Rullani looks a he c isis in
he dis ic s (e iden well be o e he global inancial collapse o 2008) and a gues ha , gi en he
molecula na u e o his sys em, i is illuso y o hink o op-down o ganiza ional s a egies. Ra he ,
he schola a gues, we need o hink abou enhancing he o ganizing o ces ha he sys em al eady
possesses, wo king on he e ain o sel -o ganiza ion. Bu sel -o ganiza ion was p ecisely he
p e oga i e o ce ain au onomous wo ke g oups ha ma ked he con lic s o he la e 1960s and ea ly
1970s. I was in he Ma ghe a pe ochemical dis ic ha a as a ea o wo ke sel -o ganiza ion ook
shape du ing his pe iod, alle gic o he guidelines o he adi ional ade unions and he Communis
Pa y, which was clea ly pe cei ed as an o ganiza ion dis an om he eal needs o he wo ke s. I
was hese a eas ha iewed wi h some su e ing he imposi ion o he o de s by ins i u ions a
emo ed om he e i o y. I was hese a eas ha ough agains he noxiousness o la ge-scale
indus y, adop ing beha io s o e usal o wo k ha ce ainly had o do wi h he ma e ial condi ions
o exploi a ion, bu also wi h a cul u e ha ejec ed he wo k e hic ha pa adoxically uni ed he
conse a i e, ca holic and p ope y-owning Vene o wi h socialis o hodoxy. Many o he i s
ins ances o ou sou cing ( he so called imp ese sys em), wi h a ious asks being delega ed om la ge
indus y o small businesses, ook place in o de o unde mine he demands o he wo ke s. On he
o he hand, he spa ial sp ead o p oduc ion and he boom in sel -employmen also occu ed as a esul
o he wo ke s' ejec ion o he ha sh condi ions o wage labo .
S a ing in he ea ly 1970s, wo k began o exceed he concen a ed spa iali y o he ac o y and sp ead
ou in a ne wo k ac oss he e i o y ( ans o ming om wage labo o sel -employmen ). Simila ly,
wo ke s' s uggles c ossed he ac o y ga es, c ea ing connec ions wi h he social dimension. S uggles
such as he sel - educ ion o u ili y bills and he occupa ion o houses we e ca ied ou in wo king-
class neighbo hoods, and, oge he wi h women, people ough o he ecogni ion o ca e wo k.
Secondly, economis s o ge ha he con lic in he so-called so ansi ion did no only a ec la ge
ac o ies, bu also smalle ones. The magazine Vene ica signi ican ly i led a monog aphic issue
dedica ed o hese s uggles, which we e ce ainly pe iphe al bu none heless widesp ead, Ri oluzioni
di Paese (Coun yside Re olu ions). In his con ex , he bea e s o hese demands we e no limi ed o
ac o y wo ke s, bu included en i e communi ies, g oups o women, and educa ed igu es mo i a ed
by a pionee ing e hical ision o wo k. By choosing hese s uggles as a poin o obse a ion on he
decen aliza ion o p oduc ion, i loses he denig a ing ai s o “basemen capi alism” (capi alismo da
so oscala) (Rullani, 2021: 10) and akes on hose (sys ema ically igno ed) o a “small-scale con lic ”
(Boschie o, Fa e o, Zazza a, 2010).
In gene al, he g ea es limi a ion o he app oach o schola s such as Rullani o Fuà, lies in hei
igno ance o he con ibu ion o he de ini ion o he Vene o model made by hose new, educa ed and
p eca ious subjec s who, om he mid-1970s onwa ds, challenged he ways o li e ha cha ac e ized
he No heas a he dawn o pos -Fo dism. The philosophe Mau izio Lazza a o, a na i e o T e iso,
he son o a bus d i e and a seams ess, mo ed o he small illage o Meduna di Li enza a a e y
young age. In an in e es ing biog aphical ex , he s a s om his amily's wo king condi ions and his
own pe sonal poli ical and cul u al educa ion o pain a di e en pic u e comap ed o ha o he
ollowe s o he so ansi ion. Lazza a o a gues ha he social s uggles o he 1970s con ibu ed o
he No heas 's ansi ion om a Fo dis -ag icul u al economy o a dis ic -based one, whe eas o icial
heo is s o indus ial dis ic s end o e ase his ole in o de o cons uc a ic ional con inui y be ween
adi ion and pos -Fo dism (Lazza a o, 1997).
Lazza a o’s posi ion may seem pa adoxical, bu i is no . In ac , Lazza a o's heo e ical ma ix can be
aced back o Ope aismo, a he e odox cu en o I alian Ma xism (de eloped du ing he 1960s) ha
coun s among i s ounda ions T on i's assump ion o he so-called p imacy o esis ance (T on i, 2019).
This assump ion sub e ed o hodox Ma xis me hodology, which in e p e ed wo ke s' s uggles as a
consequence o capi alis de elopmen , sugges ing ins ead ha i was p ecisely hese s uggles, by
challenging he s a us quo, ha d o e capi alis de elopmen o wa d, o cing he o he side o
espond h ough o ganiza ional and echnological leaps. This “disco e y” was based on he g ea
i ali y and adicalism o he s uggles o he so-called “mass wo ke ” du ing he 1960s. Lazza a o's
discou se mus he e o e be placed wi hin his genealogy. He does no claim c edi o ha ing de ined
he Vene o model as an e ec i e business model. On he con a y, he au ho is awa e o he de ea o
he mo emen s o 1968 and e en mo e so o hose o he 1970s (which he had helped o anima e), bu
he ne e heless in ends o claim an ac i e ole o s uggles in he de elopmen o capi alis modes o
p oduc ion.
The c i ique o he concep o indus ializa ion wi hou ac u es has al eady been discussed in pa ,
bu Lazza a o econs uc s he pain ul s o y o he emig a ion o some o his ela i es. In e acing he
ypical day o his a he and mo he , a way o li e eme ges ha o ced he o me o wo k g ueling
shi s and he la e o suppo he amily, no only wi h o dina y ca e wo k, bu also wi h
ex ao dina y wo k as a kni e a home, a commi men ha doubled du ing pe iods when he
husband, a ac o y wo ke , was on s ike. Mo eo e , e en he heo y o seamless indus ializa ion
ecognizes ha he NEC a ea is cha ac e ized by he massi e use o so called “hal -s eng h labo ” (i.e.,
gi en he in o mali y o ela ionships, he possibili y o employing housewi es, s uden s, and he
elde ly) and he o e use o ull labo , s a ing wi h ha o he small business owne who o en willingly
wo ks beyond no mal wo king hou s (Fuà, 1983). Bu i is a he p ice o emig a ion, ha sh dynamics
o sel -exploi a ion, and pe manen , albei la en , con lic wi hin his amily ha he young Mau izio
gains he oppo uni y o a end school. The au ho ecoun s he pa h o his poli iciza ion h ough a
double ack, he i s being a gene a ional ejec ion o his pa en s' way o li e as wage wo ke s.
Lazza a o, like many young people om Vene o, a ends chu ch and plays socce . Bu when, albei
wi h some delay, ock music begins o sp ead, he socce eam u ns in o a band, and i is h ough his
o m o exp ession ha coun e -imagina ies and coun e -conduc s a e in oduced. These began o
ans o m he young man's (and an en i e gene a ion's) iew o eali y, c i icizing es ablished alues,
including ha o wage labo . I was a bipa isan c i ique ha spa ed nei he he conse a i e poin o
iew, ha o he Ca holic wo k o ce, no he poin o iew o he o icial socialis ideology.
Fu he mo e, as we ha e seen p e iously, he s uggles o he la ge Fo dis ac o ies had also sp ead
a beyond he ac o y ga es. Al hough s ill in i s in ancy, he sp awling me opolis was no only
sp eading a ce ain (s ill unconscious) way o doing business, bu also a conscious way o o ganizing
social con lic .
I was always in he shadow o he bell owe , a dusk, ha he i s gene a ion o educa ed Vene o
p ole a ians me he young and no -so-young wo ke s e u ning o he illage a e hei shi . And
he pa ish unin en ionally p o ided e ile g ound o an encoun e be ween gene a ions, bu abo e
all be ween wo phases o p oduc ion ha we e abou o exchange hei p imacy. Many o hese
wo ke s, especially he younge ones, we e conscious in e p e e s o wha was called he “ e usal o
wo k”, a s a egy ha p oduced a b eak (as we ha e seen) bo h wi h he employe s and wi h he pa ies
and ade unions ha we e he gua dians o socialis ideology.
The poin o Lazza a o's ex is ha his encoun e be ween di e en wo lds and subjec s, his singula
conca ena ion wi h he ansi ion om Fo dism o pos -Fo dism, was no only comple ely igno ed by
he analysis o dis ic heo y, bu also played a undamen al ole in igge ing he decen aliza ion o
p oduc ion. The e usal o wo k, exp essed bo h agains he condi ion o p o essional exploi a ion and
di ec ly in he social dimension, is he e o e a leas as use ul a ool as he wo k e hic o an a chaeology
o he No heas model.
Ha ing cla i ied he gene al weigh o social s uggles and e usal o wo k in he p oduc i e
decen aliza ion o he No heas , a speci ic aspec should be emphasized. I was he wo ke s'
mobiliza ions in Po o Ma ghe a ha b ough o he o e he unsus ainabili y o la ge-scale indus y
in Vene o, especially he s uggles agains ha m ul wo king condi ions in he 1960s and 1970s.
This is no he place o econs uc in de ail he s o y o he pe ochemical wo ke s close o Po e e
Ope aio and hen, om 1972, o ganized in he Assemblea Au onoma di Po o Ma ghe a, bu i was
hese au onomous wo ke angua ds who o ganized he s uggles agains ac o y pollu ion. Fel in
and Sacche o summa ize he c ux o ha season o mobiliza ion as ollows
O e he 1970s, he quan i a i e demand o ‘mo e money, less wo k’ p oposed by ea ly wo ke ism
in i s s a egy o e usal appea ed insu icien , because educ ions in wo king hou s migh spa e
wo ke s om wo kplace-based noxiousness bu would no necessa ily hal en i onmen al
deg ada ion. This p oblem called o a quali a i e s uggle o e ‘wha , how, and how much o
p oduce’ o impose a ansi ion o a sys em based on collec i e needs, unde s ood as in ol ing a
sus ainable ela ionship be ween humani y and he en i onmen . In o he wo ds, i was deemed
‘mo e alid o change he con en o p oduc ion a he han aking o e he p oduc i e appa a us’
(CL, Janua y 1980, 1). Such shi was e lec ed upon in Con ola o o’s second o las issue in he
ollowing e ms: “The con adic ion exis ing wi hin e e y one o us be ween a ‘desi e o p oduce’
and he ‘ e usal o wo k’ pushed us o a emp ‘p oduc i e’ expe imen s ha we e quali a i ely and
quan i a i ely di e en om he p oduc ion we endu ed e e y day. (Fel in, Sacche o, 2021: 831)
A + wo ke s. Assemblage and In e en ion in Po o Ma ghe a
On Feb ua y 27, 1973, a is Gio anni Rubino and poe Co ado Cos a (soon o become membe s o
he Colle i o au onomo pi o i di Po a Ticenese), oge he wi h wo ke I alo Sb ogiò and he
Assemblea Au onoma di Po o Ma ghe a (Au onomous Assembly o Po o Ma ghe a), hois ed a
mannequin wea ing a gas mask on a wooden c uci ix and ca ied i in p ocession h ough he po ,
plan ing i in on o he Mon edison ac o y ga es. As Jacopo Galimbe i ecalls
The speci ic igge o Mo edison was a labo inspec ion ha equi ed Po o Ma ghe a's ac o y
wo ke s o always keep a gas mask wi hin each. Such a secu i y measu e gla ingly con adic ed he
managemen 's a emp s o unde mine he isks o chlo ine and me cu y apou .“ (Galimbe i, 2022:
239)
In addi ion o he mannequin, he p o es e s pain ed a la ge sign on he ac o y wall ha ead
“Mo edison” (mo e means dea h in I alian), a play on wo ds ha dis o s he eal name o he
company: Mon edison. The ac ion las ed jus o e an hou . I seems ha a local p ies , scandalized by
he blasphemy o he a i ac , called he police, who in e ened o clea he demons a ion and emo e
he c uci ix. In ac , he e is a pho og aph showing he wo ke Ch is su ounded by io police in ull
gea , comple e wi h helme s, shields, and ba ons.
In addi ion o he ac ion, Rubino had exhibi ed a se ies o p epa a o y d awings a he Galle ia
Apollinai e in Milan in an exhibi ion ha had opened he day be o e he ac ion, on Feb ua y 26, and
which would close he ollowing day o ea o e alia ion. The a is also p oduced a bookle en i led
Mo edison. Cos'è noci i à (Mo edison. Wha Is Noxiousness), w i en wi h Co ado Cos a, I alo
Sb ogiò, Da io Paccino, and E o e Tibaldi. The olume included pho og aphs o he demons a ion,
ex s, and pho omon ages. Finally, a ilm o he in e en ion was included by En ico C ispol i in he
exhibi ion L'ambien e come sociale (The En i onmen as Social), a e i able summa o he in e wining
o aes he ics and poli ics du ing he so called Long I alian 1968 ( he pe iod om 1968 o he end o he
1970s), as well as I aly's pa icipa ion in he 1976 Venice A Biennale.
The s o y o Mo edison in oduces he heme o he ole o a in denouncing he noxiousness o
Vene ian indus y and he social unsus ainabili y o i s p oduc ion model, ai s ha , as e idenced by
he s o y o PFAS pollu ion
2
and ou is ex ac i ism in Venice and he lagoon, would be upda ed in
he ansi ion o he dis ic economy.
Wha ole does a play, hen? To answe his ques ion, a b ie me hodological dig ession is necessa y.
In his a icle, he wo d a is used as a mobile concep , including unde he same de ini ion p ac ices
ha all wi hin and dis up ins i u ional phenomenology. Mo edison is, a he same ime, an exhibi ion
by an a is in a Milanese galle y, a demons a ion by an au onomous assembly o pe ochemical
wo ke s agains pollu ion, a publica ion, and a sho documen a y p esen ed a he Venice Biennale.
Wha p e ails, he e o e, is he hyb id phenomenology ha Ge ald Raunig, e e ing o Gilles Deleuze
and Felix Gua a i, de ines as “ ans e sal conca ena ion” (Raunig, 2007) be ween a is ic and
e olu iona y machines,
empo a y o e laps, mic opoli ical a emp s a ans e sal conca ena ion o a machines and
e olu iona y machines, in which bo h o e lap, no o inco po a e one ano he , bu a he o en e
in o a conc e e exchange ela ionship o a limi ed ime.” (Raunig, 2007: 18)
I is he e o e a ques ion o de e i o ializing common no ions o a and poli ics in o de o c ea e,
albei empo a ily, e i o ies o ui ul indis inc ion, whe e disciplina y oles and bounda ies a e
implici ly o e come. I is, again hinking o Mo edison, a ma e o comings and goings: om he
galle y o he squa e, om he news ( he echo o he ini ia i e in local and non-local newspape s) o
he exhibi ion, om he ac o y o he Biennale, om he ma gins o he cen e , om he mainland o
he lagoon.
Recen ly, Clai e Bishop, looking mainly a he adi ion o La in Ame ican mili an a o he 1970s, has
isola ed a speci ic ype o a is ic p ac ice ha she has de ined h ough he ca ego y o ‘in e en ion’:
“I de ine in e en ions as sel -ini ia ed ac ions ha add ess he polis h ough he use o public space,
employing an e e yday isual language, and ha nessing he media o o ce an issue in o public
consciousness and spa k deba e.” (Bishop, 2022: 115)
This ypology includes, o example, a p o o-en i onmen alis pe o mance by Nicolás Ga cía
U ibu u. In 1968, du ing he Venice Biennale, he A gen ine a is pou ed a la ge quan i y o
luo escein in o he G and Canal. This is a non-pollu ing pigmen whose e ec is o colo he wa e an
in ense luo escen g een. And his is exac ly wha happened o he G and Canal o he lagoon ci y
du ing U ibu u's in e en ion, who epea ed he ac ion in a ious places a ound he wo ld as a
wa ning agains he endemic p oblem o wa e pollu ion. Be ween 1968 and 1970 alone, he colo ed he
Eas Ri e in New Yo k, he Seine in Pa is, and he Rio de la Pla a in Buenos Ai es.
Now, o he pu poses o ou a icle, which ocuses on he link be ween a , social s uggles, and
sus ainabili y (social and en i onmen al) in Venice, i is impo an o men ion ha he same
in e en ion, again in he Lagoon, has ecen ly been epea ed by Ex inc ion Rebellion, an in e na ional
mo emen igh ing o clima e jus ice. On Decembe 9, 2023, i y- i e yea s a e U ibu u, he wa e s
o he G and Canal, along wi h o he wa e ways in Milan, Tu in, Bologna, and Rome, we e dyed g een.
Th ough his widesp ead ac ion, dubbed Acque e di (G een Wa e s), Ex inc ion Rebellion ac i is s
sough o denounce he ailu e o COP 28, he UNFCC Con e ence o he Pa ies, held ha yea in
Dubai. In any case, an analysis o he p ess co e age shows ha he images o he G and Canal colo ed
g een we e he ones ha ci cula ed he mos . This is due o Venice's s a us as a global icon, no only as
2
PFAS s ands o Pe - and Poly luo oalkyl Subs ances, a la ge g oup o human-made chemicals used in indus y and consume p oduc s o
hei wa e , g ease, and hea esis ance. In Vene o, massi e PFAS con amina ion, linked o decades o chemical dumping by he Mi eni plan
in T issino, pollu ed g oundwa e ac oss h ee p o inces. The c isis exposed o e 300,000 esiden s o heal h isks: See: Mas an onio, M.,
Bai, E., Uccelli, R., Co diano, V., Sc epan i, A., & C osignani, P. (2018). D inking wa e con amina ion om pe luo oalkyl subs ances (PFAS):
an ecological mo ali y s udy in he Vene o Region, I aly. The Eu opean Jou nal o Public Heal h, 28(1), 180-185.
a gene ic symbol o beau y, bu also as a symbol o ex ac i e policies and hei e ec s. In he Fo dis
e a, hese e ec s mani es ed hemsel es abo e all in he pollu ing impac o Po o Ma ghe a, wi h he
associa ed ha m ul consequences ha ha e been discussed. Subsequen ly, om he 1980s onwa ds,
Venice became an emblema ic case o he e ec s o o e ou ism, which, as is well known, has caused
and con inues o cause a p og essi e depopula ion o he his o ic ci y. I was abo e all he No G andi
Na i Commi ee ha p oduced a c ack in he image o Venice as a place a he me cy o ou is
ex ac i ism. I did so in o e wel e yea s o s uggle, wi h mobiliza ions o en conduc ed h ough
pe o ma i e g amma . Think o p ac ices such as collec i e di es, na al ba les, and wa e pa ades
led by la ge ca ni al puppe s. Simila ly, he ac ion o Ex inc ion Rebellion, beyond he heme ha he
o ganize s in ended o con ey ( he ailu e o COP 28 o add ess he global challenges o he clima e
c isis), ound i sel highligh ing local con adic ions, symbolically placing Venice on a double on .
On he one hand, he ci y (like any coas al se lemen ) is h ea ened by ising sea le els, which also
calls in o ques ion he s abili y o he Mo.S.E. ( he sys em o unde wa e dams ha p o ec s he lagoon
om high wa e s), a echnological de ice designed decades ago wi hou aking in o accoun he e ec s
o global wa ming on sea le els.
3
On he o he hand, he mys e ious colo ing o he G and Canal has
led he media and ci izens o wonde whe he his ges u e was no a bla an p o es agains he social
unsus ainabili y o an ex ac i e ou ism model, esponsible o he wo sening exodus o he
popula ion om he his o ic ci y o he mainland. I is wo h no ing ha hese complain s and
ques ions we e aised by Ex inc ion Rebellion h ough a eenac men (using he same subs ance,
luo escein, used by U ibu u) o an a is ic pe o mance ha ook place in he mids o he 1968
p o es s.
In 2011, on he occasion o he 54 h Venice Biennale, Ma inella Sena o e p esen ed a adio d ama
en i led Es man Radio D ama. The wo k is di ided in o ou chap e s and econs uc s he his o y o he
wo ke s' s uggles o he 1960s and 1970s a he Ma ghe a pe ochemical plan . I does so h ough he
oices o he p o agonis s, a g oup o o me wo ke s, some o whom belonged o he same
Au onomous Assembly wi h which Rubino and Cos a had collabo a ed on Mo edison in 1972. The
ack al e na es be ween exce p s o con e sa ions be ween he a is and he wo ke s and pa s ead
by a na a o (who, om hei dic ion, appea s o be a p o essional ac o ). The in e iews ouch on he
hemes o ac o y li e, ecoun ed in he i s pe son: he impac o he wo king en i onmen on young
people, he diso ien a ion, he ole o women in poli ical o ganiza ion, he c iminal neglec and
excessi e powe o he manage s, he beginning o he s uggles, he ebellion agains he bosses and
he ha m ul wo king condi ions, he impo ance o s udy and wo ke knowledge. The na a o , on he
o he hand, eads le e s om p ison w i en by an uniden i ied wo ke o Ad iana (his wi e, his
pa ne ?). We know ha he is hi y-six yea s old and has jus spen his second New Yea 's E e in
Rebibbia p ison. We know ha he is om Venice, ha , e en imp isoned, he is mobilizing o many
imp o emen s in he li es o p isone s. We know ha he misses he Lagoon, he Vene o moun ains,
his com ades, and his lo ed ones. In eali y, i is a mon age o le e s om wo mili an s o Po e e
Ope aio and he Au onomous Assembly o Po o Ma ghe a, a es ed du ing he in es iga ion o Ap il
7, 1979, aimed a disman ling he Au onomia mo emen (o which Toni Neg i was also a membe ).
Al hough he las wo ds o his le e a e wo ds o hope wi h which he sende bids a ewell o he
ecipien , he oice o he p isone ine i ably b ings o mind Gli In isibili (The in isible), a no el in
which Nanni Bales ini, w i e and mili an o Po e e Ope aio, desc ibes he p ison li e o mili an s in
he 1970s and he diso ien a ion o hei e u n o eedom a e he auma ic decline o he long I alian
1968.
The a is wan ed o cons uc a non-in asi e, ense soundscape, as is cus oma y in adio d amas, o
con ex ualize he oices o he wo ke s and he na a o . The soundscape is ha o Po o Ma ghe a,
whe e he lapping o he wa e and he blowing o he wind mix wi h he noises o he ac o y, he
assembly line, me allic sounds, hamme ing, and si ens ( hose o he ac o ies and hose o he police).
We a e no lis ening o a piece o music, bu he ac o y sounds ha open he adio d ama b ing o
mind La Fabb ica illumina a (1967), a composi ion o sop ano and ou magne ic apes, composed by
Luigi Nono wi h ly ics by Giuliano Scabia. La Fabb ica Illumina a was bo n om an ambien eco ding
o he I alside ac o y in Genoa, and he ly ics a e aken om wo ke s' s a emen s, o example om
union lea le s, as well as om a quo e by Cesa e Pa ese. The aim o he wo a is s was o denounce
he ha sh wo king condi ions a he plan . The i s e se, in ac , eads
They called i he ac o y o he dead
3
See: Mel, Ricca do A., Luca Ca niello, and Luigi D'Alpaos. "How long he Mo.SE ba ie s will be e ec i e in
p o ec ing all u ban se lemen s wi hin he Venice Lagoon? The wind se up cons ain ." Coas al enginee ing 168
(2021): 103923.
wo ke s exposed
o bu ns
o ha m ul umes
o la ge masses o mol en s eel
exposu e o wo ke s
o ex emely high empe a u es
ou o eigh hou s only wo a e paid o he wo ke
exposu e o wo ke s
o p ojec ed ma e ials
human ela ions o speed up he pace
exposu e o wo ke s
o alls
o gla ing ligh s
o high ol age cu en
how many MAN-MINUTES o die?
(Nono, Scabia, 2010: XXXVI)
As he con e sa ion be ween Ma inella Sena o e and he o me wo ke s o he pe ochemical plan
ocuses on he e ec s o chemical agen s on he wo ke s' bodies, on he diseases and dea hs caused by
he compounds used in he manu ac u ing p ocess, he link be ween La Fabb ica e Illumina a and Es man
Radio D ama becomes mo e e iden : bo h ocus on denouncing he noxiousness and unsus ainabili y
o ac o y li e.
Es man Radio D ama was b oadcas by 75 adio s a ions in I alian. The e is also an English e sion,
pe o med by s uden s o he Royal Sco ish Academy o Music and D ama in Glasgow.
In he exhibi ion, Ma inella Sena o e p esen ed he adio d ama in he o m o an ins alla ion wi h a
minimalis se ing: an old ac o y desk leaning agains he wall, a chai and a adio om he same
pe iod, ou MP3 playe s on he wall, equipped wi h headphones, ex s, and a chi al pho og aphs.
Po o Ma ghe a and he Vene ian mainland we e also he backd op o h ee expe iences combining
pa icipa o y hea e , anima ion, and dance. Two da e back o he 1970s, and one o be ween 2017 and
2018. Le us men ion hem. Albei b ie ly.
In 1974, Giuliano Scabia and his class om he DAMS in Bologna a i ed in Mi a (a own in he
Vene ian mainland) wi h he Go illa Quad umano. This was a a eling hea e disposi i e ha was, a
he same ime, esea ch in o peasan hea e ( ea o di s alla, in English: ba n hea e), a pe o mance in
he public space, and a ool o engaging in dialogue wi h local communi ies o in es iga e ancien
cul u al adi ions and cu en social issues. Mi a, a small own on he B en a Ri ie a, a ew kilome e s
om Po o Ma ghe a and he Venice Lagoon, was unde going a pe iod o ansi ion a ha ime.
Fa me s we e becoming ac o y wo ke s and he adi ions o he wo ld o hose who wo ked he land
we e disappea ing, bu a he same ime, a new class consciousness was eme ging in he s uggles o
he pe ochemical indus y and Mi a Lanza (a local ac o y). The Go illa's s ay in Mi a ook he o m
o an u ban pa ade wi h loa s and puppe s (pa o he s age design c ea ed by he DAMS oupe),
mee ings wi h local poli ical ep esen a i es (Mi a was one o he ew municipali ies go e ned by he
Communis Pa y in he deeply Ca holic Vene o egion), se e al assemblies, and a pe o mance du ing
he local Fes i al dell'Uni à ( he PCI's popula es i al o ma , widesp ead h oughou I aly).
The same yea , Luca Ronconi, he di ec o o an edi ion o he Thea e Biennale ocused on
decen aliza ion, in i ed h ee di e en di ec o s o s age h ee e sions o he O hello in h ee
di e en enues. One o hese, Cassio Go e na a Cip o (Cassius ules in Cyp us) , w i en by Gio gio
Manganelli and di ec ed by Gianni Se a, was s aged a he Pe olchimico ac o y. Mau izio Massabò
clea ly unde lines he poli ical s akes o he play
Cassio go e na a Cip o was a decen alized show, meaning i was s aged ou side o any space
no mally used o hea ical pe o mances, o e en o any o he kind o pe o mance o ic ion. The
p emie e ook place in a ully ope a ional ac o y, he Pe olchimico, wi h an audience mainly made
up o wo ke s, in i ed by he ac o y commi ee and he g oup esponsible o he 150-hou cou ses
4
,
hus wi hin e y speci ic social con ex s ha played a pa icula ole in he amewo k o e e yone's
“ igh o cul u e.” I was a di icul cul u e, in his speci ic case, commencing wi h Manganella's ex
o ‘O hello’, which was pa o a ci il and poli ical gamble by he en i e Biennale. (Massabò, 2006:
64)
4
The so-called 150 hou s we e one o he achie emen s o he wo ke s' s uggles du ing he ho au umn o
1969. Th ough his measu e, wo ke s we e en i led o 150 paid hou s e e y h ee yea s o de o e o s udy,
aining, o cul u al ac i i ies.
Mo e ecen ly, be ween 2017 and 2018, o celeb a e he cen ena y o Po o Ma ghe a, cho eog aphe
Lau a Boa o led a pe o ma i e u ban walk in ol ing dance s, singe s, musicians, and ac o s. Wo king
along a 2km s e ch o ailway inside he indus ial a ea, he pe o me s ecalled, wi h pa icula
a en ion, he wo ke s' s uggles agains ha m ul condi ions. The e en in ol ed o e 100 people.
Nos algia VS Subjec i i y. Ma ghe a as a dialec ical image
E en a , some imes, looks a ac o ies wi h nos algia and complacency. This is he case, o example,
wi h Gian Ma ia Tosa i's S o ia della no e e des ino delle come e (His o y o he Nigh and Des iny o
Come s), I alian pa icipa ion a he 2022 Venice A Biennale. Fo he occasion, he Roman a is
pu chased machines and u ni u e om a ious bank up ac o ies and eassembled hem in he Tese
Delle Ve gini (o which he I alian Pa ilion occupies a po ion o aling 1,800 m2) a he A senale,
c ea ing a mammo h ins alla ion ha ep oduced he spaces o a ac o y: o ices, wo kshops, and
se ice ooms. The isi consis ed o a jou ney h ough his e oca i e Fo dis se ing. Howe e , wha
Tosa i p esen ed was no he I alside ac o y in Genoa, no was i Pe olchimico. On he con a y, i
was a gene ic ac o y, econs uc ed wi h he indulgence o someone assembling a beau i ul uin. One
would be emp ed o compa e he a is 's gaze o ha (si pa a lice ) o Benjamin's Angelus No us.
Pe haps i was he winds o he pandemic and he Russian in asion o Uk aine ha caugh Tosa i's
wings, pushing him owa d he u u e, wi h his back u ned, o e ing him he spec acle o a landscape
in uins. The di e ence is ha while Benjamin's angel melancholic gaze is an in i a ion o e olu ion,
o he adical o ganiza ion o pessimism (Löwy, 2016), Tosa i’s poin o iew is simply nos algic. He
aes he icizes he he spec acle o he Fo dis uins, because his sophis ica ed as e is enough o
ans igu e he ac o y in o an e he eal, poe ic, ly ical, and mo ing space. An ope a ion ha appea s
Pasolinian, bu is ac ually a emo ed om he poe o iginally om Casa sa della Delizia. Pasolini, a
leas , was nos algic o he oughness o a ce ain p ole a ia , he o sp ing o a wo ld s addling he
coun yside and he ci y ha was disappea ing. Tosa i's ac o y, on he o he hand, is ull o isi o s
bu emp y o subjec i i y. Fo dism becomes a banal d eam, he epic, he agedy o he clash be ween
classes is los , bu so is e e y es imony, e e y bodily memo y, e e y singula expe ience. The e is no
genealogy, i is gen e pain ing, a as e o uin, an adhe ence o he pic u esque. A new mani es a ion
o old academicism.
This is no he case, howe e , o hose who, bo h om he poin o iew o esea ch and a , a e
e isi ing he a chi es o he wo ke s' s uggles in Po o Ma ghe a. The wo ke s' mobiliza ions o he
1960s and 1970s highligh ed he issue o noxiousness. This challenge uni ed wo ke s and a is s in a
peculia in e wining o poli ics and aes he ics du ing he yea s a ound he ho au umn. O e he las
en yea s, a ious c i ics and a is s ha e been engaged in a edisco e y o hose s uggles.
The hesis o his a icle is ha his edisco e y is no inged wi h nos algia, bu ha Ma ghe a lashes
oday as a dialec ical image. The no ion o dialec ical image was de eloped, despi e in a non-sys ema ic
way, by Wal e Benjamin in he The A cades P ojec (1999), and The Theses on The Philosophy o His o y
(2020). The dialec ical image appea s when he ma e ialis his o ian (who is also a e olu iona y)
ca ches he lee ing momen when he pas (a ce ain speci ic momen in he his o y o he s uggles o
he opp essed) connec s wi h he p esen and opens up he possibili y o i s ans o ma ion. As
Michael Löwy a gues:
The concep o dialec ics is bo owed he e by Benjamin om Hegelo-Ma xis ph aseology: he is
a emp ing o accoun o he na u e o a ‘sal ua y image’ ha seeks o achie e he subla ion -
Au hebung- o he con adic ions be ween pas and p esen , heo y and p ac ice (Lowy, 2016: 40)
Le ’s go back o Po o Ma ghe a. The de ea o hose pas mo emen s eappea like a lash o eopen a
pe spec i e on he ci y's p esen , o p ojec i beyond he legacy o decades o ex ac i e policies,
beyond pas and p esen ha m ulness and unsus ainabili y. In his wo k o esea ch and eac i a ion
h ough a , he cliché ha he con adic ion be ween wo k and he en i onmen is i econcilable also
alls. No ha his dialec ic is non-exis en ; on he con a y, i has his o ically ma ked a ious i s
be ween he ade unions and en i onmen alis wo lds. Ye , a p ac ice, p o es his con adic ion o
be sho -sigh ed. Wha shines h ough ins ead is he pionee ing aspec o he s uggles agains
noxiousness, o ganized abo e all by Po e e Ope aio and he Au onomous Assembly o Po o
Ma ghe a du ing he long I alian 1968. These mobiliza ions, ahead o hei ime, many decades be o e
he clima e c isis became an issue on he agenda, wo ked a he in e sec ion o social and
en i onmen al unsus ainabili y, highligh ing no only he need o sa egua d jobs (in ac , hey did no
adhe e o he labo ideology o he o icial wo ke s' mo emen ), bu also he need o ans o m a mode
o p oduc ion cha ac e ized by noxiousness.
While he economy o he No heas was ans o ming acco ding o he dis ic model, he decline o
Po o Ma ghe a le oom o he ou is i ica ion o he his o ic ci y, a big business ha coincided wi h
a adical depopula ion o he island. Those who igh on he on lines o ac i ism, hose who pu sue
a is ic o esea ch wo k, oday ha e o con end no only wi h indus ial decline and he Fo dis legacy
o a pollu ed e i o y, bu also wi h he ma e iali y o he depopula ion o he his o ic ci y and a sense
o collec i e up oo ing: he eal p ice o pay o he unin e up ed cascade o money ha he ou ism
indus y pou s in o he ci y o Venice. I is di icul o imagine ha he cu en model will e e become
sus ainable. A e all, in he 1960s and 1970s, la ge pe ochemical companies conside ed hei
p oduc ion model o be sus ainable o he en i onmen and heal h; only social s uggles called his
assump ion in o ques ion. Ne e be o e has he e been so much alk o sus ainable ou ism as he e is
oday, while Venice is becoming depopula ed, while he e is a e usal o egula e ou is en als, while
he Po is planning new exca a ions, he cons uc ion o la ge islands o oxic sludge
5
, and he e u n
o la ge c uise ships o he lagoon.
So, looking a he wo ke s' s uggles o he pas h ough he lens o a , means edisco e ing a
oo edness in s uggles oday, a space o social agency ha appea s c ushed by he combined e ec s
o ou is i ica ion and secu i y measu es ha cha ac e ize u ban policies in his conjunc u e,
6
means
no se ling o “d eams and come s”. I means edisco e ing genealogies om he pas ha open up
he condi ions o hinking a di e en p esen . This is exac ly wha Giuliano Scabia, e lec ing abou
his wo k in Mi a, sugges s, and i seems he pe ec quo e o close his chap e
“I is no a ques ion o eco e y, bu o esea ch. Fi s and o emos , i is a way o posi ioning
ou sel es, o c ea ing ou own cul u e, wi hou delega ing i o encyclopaedias o cul u e p oduce s,
o hose who al eady know and come o show us hei knowledge. All cul u e, in all he o ms we
ha e desc ibed, mus i s be eli ed.” (G uppo di d amma u gia 2 dell’Uni e si à di Bologna,
Scabia: 198)
REFERENCES
Benjamin, W. 1999. The a cades p ojec . Ha a d Uni e si y P ess.
Benjamin, W. 2020. Theses on he Philosophy o His o y. In C i ical heo y and socie y (pp. 255-263).
Rou ledge.
Be occhi, D., Visen in F. 2019. The o e whelmed ci y: Physical and social o e -capaci ies o global
ou ism in Venice. Sus ainabili y 11.24 6937: 1-19.
Be in, G., Dianese, M. 2002. Pe olkille , Milano: Fel inelli.
Bishop, C. 2024. Diso de ed A en ion: How We Look a A and Pe o mance Today. London: Ve so Books,.
Boschie o, A., Fa e o, G., Zazze a, G. 2010. Il No des p ima del No des . Vene ica. Ri oluzioni di Paese,
21/2010 anno XXIV, Cie e Edizioni, Ve ona.
Fuá, G. 1983. Ru al indus ializa ion in la e de eloped coun ies: he case o no heas and cen al
I aly. Banca Nazionale del La o o Qua e ly Re iew, No. 147: 351-377.
Fuà, G., Zacchia, C. (eds.) 1983. Indus ializzazione senza a u e. Bologna: Il mulino.
Fel in L., Sacche o, D. 2021. The wo k- echnology nexus and wo king-class en i onmen alism:
Wo ke ism e sus capi alis noxiousness in I aly’s Long 1968. Theo y and socie y 50 (2021): 815-835.
5
The so-called “T ezze 2” p ojec en isages cons uc ing a new a i icial island—an expanded e sion o he
exis ing T esse island in on o Po o Ma ghe a—designed o hold d edged ma e ials, indus ial sludge and
pollu ed mud. This is pa o he plan o b ing back he c uise ships o he ci y, a e hei ban in 2021.
6
I am e e ing o he new I alian secu i y law, Dec e o Sicu ezza (D.L. 4 ap ile 2025, n. 44), con e ed in o L. 9
giugno 2025, n. 80. Recen ly he I alian Sup eme Cou wa ned abou he dec ee’s he e ogeneous scope and
disp opo iona e sanc ions, including c iminalizing peace ul p o es s, iola ed p inciples o p opo ionali y,
cla i y, and equali y be o e he law. Read he ull ex he e: h ps://www.giu isp udenzapenale.com/wp-
con en /uploads/2025/06/Rel.33-2025.pd
