Rajapakse, Asanka; Emad, Gholam Reza
A icle
Wo kplace us a ion leading o ask de ia ion and
acciden s a sea: A sociocul u al pe spec i e on he
ma i ime human elemen
Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics (AJSL)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Ko ean Associa ion o Shipping and Logis ics, Seoul
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Rajapakse, Asanka; Emad, Gholam Reza (2025) : Wo kplace us a ion leading
o ask de ia ion and acciden s a sea: A sociocul u al pe spec i e on he ma i ime human elemen ,
Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics (AJSL), ISSN 2352-4871, Else ie , Ams e dam, Vol. 41, Iss. 1,
pp. 28-37,
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Wo kplace us a ion leading o ask de ia ion and acciden s a sea – A
sociocul u al pe spec i e on he ma i ime human elemen
Asanka Rajapakse
*
, Gholam Reza Emad
Aus alian Ma i ime College, Uni e si y o Tasmania, Launces on, 58, Wa mb unn C es, Be wick, VIC 3806, Aus alia
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Task De ia ion
F us a ions
Sea a ing
Wo k as Imagined and Wo k as Done
Human elemen
Ma i ime acciden s
ABSTRACT
Sea a ing con inues o be isky despi e he emendous in e na ional e o o cu b ma i ime acciden s. While
onboa d, sea a e s, as he p incipal human elemen in he ma i ime indus y, mus ace my iad physical and
men al s esses and dynamic sa e y challenges. So a , many o hese challenges ha e emained ou o he scope
o he ma i ime indus y and esea ch communi ies. Ou ea lie esea ch add essed some human elemen - ela ed
challenges, including ime cons ain s, a igue and pe o ming simul aneous asks. This s udy add esses a c ucial
elemen ha has ye o be adequa ely esea ched: sea a e s’ us a ion a hei wo kplace. I is essen ial because
managing he high a e o ma i ime acciden s due o ask de ia ion and i s unde lying ac o o us a ion has
been a signi ican challenge o he go e ning au ho i ies o he ma i ime indus y. This esea ch cons i u es a
signi ican quali a i e in es iga ion, u ilising in e iews o explo e an unde lying ac o con ibu ing o ma i ime
acciden s. We show ha wo kplace us a ion is a signi ican cause o ask de ia ion, leading o dange ous
si ua ions a sea. This pape p esen s ou easons o us a ion a sea: physical ha dship in conduc ing a ask,
social isola ion, wo king wi h undesi able people, and se e ed expec a ions. Addi ionally, he main s eps ha he
ma i ime indus y can ake o mi iga e sea a e s’ us a ion a sea a e ecommended.
In oduc ion
Shipping is he li eblood o he wo ld economy. Mo e han 80 % o
wo ld ade by olume is done by ships (UNCTAD, 2023). Un o una ely,
he high equency o ma i ime acciden s and hei consequences emain
he indus y’s main challenges (IUMI, 2017; EMSA, 2023). A signi ican
pa o he a e ma h o a ma i ime acciden is he in es iga i e analysis
o i s oo causes (Hy en & Ludwig, 2017). The in es iga ion in o
ma i ime acciden s shows ha sea a e s’ ask de ia ion signi ican ly
con ibu es o mos acciden s (Rajapakse e al., 2022). Task de ia ion
occu s when sea a e s, o achie e he assigned objec i es bes , de ia e
om he p esc ibed ac ion asks p o ided by hei shipping companies
(Le eson, 2004; Rajapakse & Emad, 2021).
The wo ld ma i ime egula o y body, In e na ional Ma i ime O ga-
nisa ion (IMO), has adop ed ma i ime sa e y egula ions such as he
In e na ional Sa e y Managemen (ISM) code and he S anda ds o
T aining, Ce i ica ion, and Wa chkeeping o Sea a e s (STCW Con en-
ion) wi h he aim o minimising acciden s a sea. Howe e , s udies show
hese e o s ha e achie ed less- han-pe ec esul s (Ba alden & Sydnes,
2014; Knudsen & Hassle , 2011). This migh be because he ma i ime
indus y pe cei es shipping as a echnical linea ope a ion o e looking
he complexi y o he sea a e s’ ole in conduc ing asks in a dynamic
wo k en i onmen (Ol edal & Lü zh¨
o , 2018).
The exis ing li e a u e indica es ha acciden heo ies and models
ha e eme ged om di e se disciplines, adap ing o socie al changes.
This unde sco es he in icacy o ma i ime acciden s wi hin a socio-
echnical con ex (Awal & Hasegawa, 2017; Dekke , 2004; Rasmussen,
1982; Reason, 1990, 2000; Sande s & McCo mick, 1993; Sulgan &
Sosedo a, 2016). P io esea ch also demons a es he dynamic na u e
o he shipping indus y, wi h sea a e s’ mispe o med non- echnical
skills being iden i ied as a p ima y con ibu o o ma i ime acciden s
(Galie iko ´
a, 2019; Rajapakse e al., 2019; Saeed e al., 2017).
The ma i ime indus y exhibi s complexi y, encompassing indepen-
den ye in e connec ed componen s ha gi e ise o non-linea ope a-
ional p ocesses. (Caschili & Medda, 2012). The deg ee o sea a e s’
in ol emen in onboa d ope a ions may add o he complexi y and un-
ce ain y in e ms o human ac o a ibu es such as us a ion (Dingus
e al., 2016; S aye e al., 2014). Hence, he way wo k is conduc ed by
sea a e s (Wo k as Done) may be di e en o he manne an icipa ed by
he shipping companies (Wo k as Imagined) (Hollnagel, 2014;
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (A. Rajapakse).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
The Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/ajsl
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.ajsl.2025.01.001
Recei ed 20 Feb ua y 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 20 Decembe 2024; Accep ed 9 Janua y 2025
The Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics 41 (2025) 28–37
29
Rajapakse e al., 2019). Recognising dis inc ions be ween
Wo k-As-Imagined (WAI) and Wo k-As-Done (WAD) wi hin a wo kplace
has been emphasised as a c ucial elemen o o ganisa ions aiming o
a ain op imal sa e y (Ca alho e al., 2018; Dekke , 2003). Hence,
comp ehending he easons behind hese a ia ions is impe a i e o
ensu ing sa e and eliable ma i ime ope a ions (Ande son e al., 2016;
B ai hwai e e al., 2017).
Many schola s ha e de ailed he di ec ac o s o an inciden o isky
ac ions aboa d ships (e.g. ine ec i e communica ion o inadequa e su-
pe ision), ye hey ail o explain he unde lying psychological easons
ha could cause disc epancies be ween WAI and WAD in he ma i ime
domain (Be gs ¨
om e al., 2009; Lü zh¨
o e al., 2006; P ae o ius &
Lundh, 2013; P ae o ius & Hollnagel, 2014; Rajapakse & Emad, 2021;
de V ies, 2017; Yuen e al., 2020). This esea ch aimed o unde s and he
ac o s causing sea a e s’ us a ion a sea and how hey may in luence
ask de ia ion, leading o dange ous si ua ions a sea. Insigh s on ac o s
causing sea a e s us a ion leading o acciden s may assis he ma i-
ime indus y in in oducing measu es o minimise his p oblem.
Backg ound
Causes o us a ion in he wo kplace
F us a ion in he wo kplace can a ise om a ious sou ces, o en
con ibu ing o dec eased job sa is ac ion, lowe p oduc i i y, and
highe u no e a es. Bo h quali a i e s udies in di e se wo k en i-
onmen s e eal c i ical pa e ns in he ac o s leading o us a ion.
Role ambigui y and ole con lic
Role ambigui y, whe e employees a e unce ain abou hei e-
sponsibili ies, and ole con lic , whe e con lic ing demands a ise, a e
wo signi ican sou ces o us a ion. Resea ch has demons a ed ha
unclea job oles lead o con usion, s ess, and dissa is ac ion (Rizzo
e al., 1970). These ac o s a e p ominen in ma i ime con ex s whe e
unclea esponsibili ies may con ibu e o sea a e a igue, which in u n
inc eases he likelihood o acciden s (Rajapakse & Emad, 2021). The
inabili y o p io i ize o mee con lic ing expec a ions exace ba es
us a ion and is o en linked o wo kplace s ess and bu nou (Schmid
e al., 2014).
Wo k o e load and ime p essu e
Wo k o e load, whe e employees pe cei e hey ha e oo much wo k
in oo li le ime, is ano he c i ical con ibu o o wo kplace us a ion.
Time p essu e, combined wi h inadequa e esou ces, can lea e em-
ployees eeling helpless and o e whelmed (LePine e al., 2005). This
sense o being o e bu dened, especially common in high-p essu e en-
i onmen s such as sea a ing, leads o emo ional exhaus ion and
inc eased us a ion, po en ially esul ing in unsa e beha iou s (Spec o
& Jex, 1998).
Lack o au onomy
Au onomy, o he deg ee o con ol employees ha e o e hei wo k,
signi ican ly a ec s us a ion le els. When wo ke s eel hey ha e li le
in luence o e how hey pe o m hei asks, hei sense o owne ship
diminishes, leading o dissa is ac ion (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). In
ma i ime s udies, limi ed au onomy, pa icula ly among sea a e s acing
igid o ganiza ional hie a chies, has been iden i ied as a ac o ha
ampli ies a igue and us a ion, inc easing he likelihood o acciden s
a sea (Spa ks e al., 2001).
Ine ec i e communica ion and poo leade ship
Poo communica ion be ween employees and managemen is
ano he signi ican sou ce o us a ion. Ine ec i e communica ion
leads o misunde s andings and unme expec a ions, con ibu ing o
eelings o isola ion and aliena ion in he wo kplace (Clampi & Downs,
1993). In high- isk en i onmen s like shipping, poo communica ion
can exace ba e s ess, a igue, and ul ima ely, us a ion (B aun &
Cla ke, 2016). Mo eo e , leade ship s yle plays a c ucial ole, wi h
au oc a ic o unsuppo i e manage s linked o heigh ened us a ion
(De Hoogh & Den Ha og, 2009).
Un ai ea men and lack o ecogni ion
Pe cei ed inequi ies in ea men , such as un ai wo k assignmen s,
lack o p omo ions, o inadequa e ewa ds, signi ican ly con ibu e o
wo kplace us a ion. Acco ding o equi y heo y, employees compa e
hei inpu o he ou comes hey ecei e, and pe cei ed imbalances
esul in dissa is ac ion (Adams, 1965). In he ma i ime sec o , whe e
long hou s and demanding condi ions a e common, he absence o
ecogni ion o ha d wo k o en ampli ies eelings o us a ion and
demo i a ion (Allen & Rogelbe g, 2013).
In e pe sonal con lic s and a igue
In e pe sonal con lic s be ween colleagues o supe iso s a e a
equen sou ce o us a ion in he wo kplace. These con lic s can s em
om di e ences in wo k s yle, alues, o goals, which dis up eamwo k
and collabo a ion (Jehn, 1995). In ma i ime se ings, hese con lic s can
lead o s ained ela ionships and inc eased s ess, u he con ibu ing
o a igue. S udies ha e shown ha a igue among sea a e s is closely
linked o us a ion and unsa e beha iou s, wi h in e pe sonal con lic s
compounding hese e ec s (De D eu & Weinga , 2003).
F us a ion and unsa e beha iou
As shown in Fig. 1, esea ch shows ha us a ion is one o he
unde lying ac o s dis ac ing sea a e s, leading o ask de ia ion a sea.
Subs an ial esea ch suppo s he ac ha us a ion has a consid-
e able e ec on cogni ion and physical, emo ional, and beha iou al a -
ibu es o people a wo k in indus ies such as heal h, a ia ion, and oad
anspo a ec ing sa e y (A kes e al., 1988; Be kowi z, 1989; Beiss-
winge e al., 2015; B andenbu g e al., 2017; Fessle e al., 2004;
Gaspe & Clo e, 1998; Ge e al., 2017; Le ne & Tiedens, 2006; Low-
ens ein & Le ne , 2003; Mesken e al., 2007; NTSB, 1994). These s udies
show ha us a ion causes headaches, o ge ulness, lack o concen-
a ion, lack o a en ion o de ail, con usion, e o s in decision-making,
lack o con idence, and ca elessness, which lead o consequen ial ou -
comes a wo kplaces.
Fu he , us a ion has been iden i ied as a igge o ange
(Be kowi z, 1993), esul ing in ac o s such as agg essi e beha iou and
isky beha iou (Ge e al., 2017; Nesbi e al., 2007; P ech e al., 2017;
Szasz e al., 2010; Wickens e al., 2016; Zhang & Chan, 2016). While
us a ion is also associa ed wi h isky beha iou s a wo k (Baumann &
DeS eno, 2012; Jeon e al., 2014; Lennon & Wa son, 2015; S ephens &
G oege , 2011; S ephens & Oh suka, 2014; S ephens e al., 2016),
us a ion may di e a en ion equi ed o sa ely pe o m a ask
(S aye e al., 2014).
Resea ch ca ied ou in he oad anspo a ion indus y ound ha
d i ing unde he in luence o us a ion inc eases he isk o a oad
acciden by a ac o o 9.8 (Dingus e al., 2016). Fu he , Nesbi &
Conge (2011) iden i ied us a ion as a sou ce o dis ac ion. Engaging
in asks while expe iencing us a ion has been iden i ied as a o m o
impai men , as suppo ed by mul iple s udies ha highligh i s signi i-
cance as a key con ibu o o unsa e beha iou (Dahlen e al., 2005).
The e o e, i can be a gued ha an impai ed pe cep ion o he bene i s o
unde aking a pa icula heal h-seeking beha iou du ing a wo k ask
may nega i ely a ec isk- aking beha iou (G ee e al., 2015; Konko
e al., 2019; Minhad e al., 2017). Fu he , Wang e al. (2020) show ha
A. Rajapakse and G.R. Emad
The Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics 41 (2025) 28–37
30
a us a ed a i ude has a nega i e e ec on anspo sa e y awa eness.
O he s udies show ha he human abili y o ollow a p ocedu e could be
comp omised while us a ed due o educed accu acy, ocus and lack
o sound judgemen , esul ing in ask de ia ion (Nad ian e al., 2019;
Rajapakse & Emad, 2021).
Wi h he in oduc ion o he ISM code, shipping companies need o
p o ide hei c ew wi h wo k p ocedu es and checklis s in he ship’s
sa e y managemen sys em (SMS) o enhance sa e y. These mus be
ollowed linea ly o mos echnical wo k sea a e s conduc a sea.
Howe e , when p epa ing he wo k p ocedu es, i is imp obable o he
designe s o o esee phenomena such as us a ion, which may dis ac
sea a e s when ollowing he p ocedu e a sea. The un o eseen conse-
quences a ising om he dynamic and challenging cha ac e is ics
inhe en in he ma i ime indus y, combined wi h he unp edic able
human ac o , can lead o a di e gence be ween he en isioned wo k
p ocedu es (WAI) designed by wo k planne s and he ac ual wo k pe -
o med by sea a e s (WAD) (Fenneman & F ankenhuis, 2020; Ma e al.,
2023). These disc epancies may lead o acciden s a sea (Hollnagel,
2021).
The li e a u e on esea ch pe o med on us a ion and acciden s in
he ma i ime domain emains limi ed in he con ex o WAI and WAD.
Mo e impo an ly, no compelling indings om he exis ing s udies
could be disce ned ega ding he ac o s con ibu ing o sea a e us-
a ion h ough an exhaus i e li e a u e examina ion. This can be
obse ed in he eac ion o he ma i ime indus y o mi iga ing ask
de ia ions wi h me hods such as igh e p ocedu es, ex ended aining,
and u ilising echnology (Dekke , 2018; Emad & Ro h, 2008, 2009;
Rajapakse & Emad, 2023), lea ing unde lying ac o s such as sea a e
us a ion unadd essed. Consequen ly, ma ine acciden epo s
demons a e ha hese app oaches ailed o achie e he desi ed sa e y
esul s (Ba alden & Sydnes, 2014). As pe he au ho s’ knowledge, he
p esen s udy is he i s ha seeks o unde s and wo kplace us a ion
and how i may con ibu e o ask de ia ions, which may lead o acci-
den s a sea.
WAI & WAD and i s impac on ask de ia ion
Sea a e s mus ollow he p esc ibed p ocedu e o each echnical
ope a ion hey need o pe o m onboa d ships. These p ocedu es a e p e-
planned as linea ope a ions by he shipping company a he blun end
(WAI). In con as , sea a e s’ ope a ions a he sea’s sha p end a e dy-
namic, e ol ing, and non-linea (WAD) (Hollnagel, 2014; Ol edal &
Lü zh¨
o , 2018). The misma ch be ween WAD and WAI while a emp ing
o pe o m hese ma i ime ope a ions and he obliga ion o align hem
can us a e sea a e s (Rajapakse e al., 2021). Mos acciden in-
es iga ions blame sea a e s a he sha p end o acciden s because hey
ailed o ollow he p ocedu es co ec ly (Chan e al., 2016).
Shipping companies ely on he p ocedu es in he Sa e y Manage-
men Sys em (SMS) o e alua e sea a e s’ sa e y pe o mance and o
demons a e compliance wi h egula o y s anda ds, such as he In e -
na ional Sa e y Managemen (ISM) Code, o s akeholde s (Valdez Banda
e al., 2019). Resea ch indica es ha a ious human ac o s, a bo h
pe sonal and o ganiza ional le els, can compel ask pe o me s o
de ia e om he p ocedu es ou lined in a ship’s SMS o comple e asks
mo e e icien ly (Dekke , 2006). The eby, sea a e s may sign o on
p ocedu es and checklis s wi hou ully adhe ing o hem (Rajapakse &
Emad, 2021). This p ac ice esul s in disc epancies be ween he docu-
men ed compliance and he ac ual execu ion o asks. Al hough hese
de ia ions do no always lead o acciden s (Kon ogiannis, 1999), hey
c ea e la en isks. I such de ia ions a e no iden i ied and co ec ed in
Fig. 1. Task De ia ion a Sea Model. Sou ce: Rajapakse e al# (2019).
A. Rajapakse and G.R. Emad
The Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics 41 (2025) 28–37
31
ime, hey could lead o signi ican and ad e se ou comes.
Ma ine au ho i ies in es iga ing hese consequen ial ou comes
blame sea a e s o hese inciden s. Howe e , sa e y science is expe i-
encing a pa adigm shi om blaming humans o e o s leading o ac-
ciden s (Sa e y-I) o he signi icance o a sys emic app oach o he
human elemen in p e en ing acciden s (Sa e y-II). Howe e , he ship-
ping indus y is ye o suppo he pa adigm shi (Tepe i e al., 2019). So
a , ins umen s such as he ISM code ha e la gely o e looked ask de-
ia ion among sea a e s ega ding human elemen s, such as he ole o
sea a e us a ion in p e en ing acciden s (Rajapakse e al., 2022).
His o ically, ask de ia ion due o us a ion has been examined
om sociobiological assessmen s (F eud, 1930; Lo enz, 1974), p edic -
able consequences (Dolla d e al., 1939), e enge mechanism
(Be kowi z, 1993), quan i iable cha ac e is ics o pe sonali y (Buss &
Du kee, 1957), & as an un a ou able pe sonal beha iou issue (Tillman
& Hobbs, 1949). Ne e heless, acciden s caused by us a ion emain an
elusi e opic o s udy.
Resea ch me hod
This s udy, pa o a b oade in es iga ion examining he in luence o
human ac o s in haza dous ma i ime condi ions (Rajapakse & Emad,
2021), employed a quali a i e app oach o gain deep insigh s om
pa icipan s (Be na d, 2013). Quali a i e esea ch enables he con-
s uc ion o meaning and emphasizes in e p e ing da a wi hin i s speci ic
con ex (B aun & Cla ke, 2019). Th ough his me hod, he s udy
accessed pa icipan s’ expe iences, pe spec i es, and in e p e a ions
(Su on & Aus in, 2015), allowing o a comp ehensi e unde s anding o
how sea a e s pe cei e hei expe iences and he easons behind be-
ha iou s ha may lead o ma i ime acciden s.
Da a collec ion
One- o-one in-dep h in e iews we e ca ied ou o ga he da a o
his esea ch s udy. In e iewees we e selec ed based on hei in ol e-
men in ma i ime acciden s and inciden s, which p o ided he con ex-
ual basis o he in e iews. The in e iews enabled he esea che o
cap u e eliable pe spec i es o esea ch pa icipan s in he subjec
ma e (DeVane & Squi e, 2012). Fu he , encou aging in e iewees o
openly exp ess hei hough s and eelings allowed o he p epa a ion o
de ailed epo s ha p o ided comp ehensi e accoun s o he inciden s
discussed (Be g, 2007, Rajapakse e al., 2022). In con as o o he da a
collec ion me hods, he ideo- eco ded one- o-one in e iews p o ided
addi ional da a ega ding people’s one o oice, in e up ions, body
ges u es, pauses and di e en manne isms, which added o he ichness
o he collec ed da a (D ew, 2009; Yin, 2011).
Da a om six y-one in e iews we e used o he s udy. In e iewees
comp ised deck and engine o ice s, c ew, and he ca e ing depa men
s a . Thei na ionali ies ep esen ed a ious geog aphical a eas,
including Aus alia, Eu ope, Asia, and Wes A ica. Du ing he in-
e iews, he pa icipan s we e pa o an ac i e ma i ime wo k o ce o
di e en indus y sec o s, including anke essels, con aine ca ie s,
bulk ca ie s, gene al ca go ships, ee e ca ie s, and o sho e suppo
essels.
Resea ch pa icipan s we e asked o elucida e, o he bes o hei
ecollec ion, he ci cums ances and ch onological sequence o e en s
ha led o ma i ime acciden s associa ed wi h de ia ions om assigned
asks. In ins ances whe e us a ion was ci ed as a cause o ask de-
ia ions, pa icipan s in he esea ch we e p omp ed o expound upon
he unde lying easons o such us a ions. In adhe ence o e hical
equi emen s, no addi ional in o ma ion conce ning he acciden was
acqui ed aside om de ails on i s na u e.
The Human Resea ch E hics Commi ee (Tasmania) Ne wo k (HREC)
app o ed he in e iew s uc u e used in he s udy. The HREC, a
collabo a i e ini ia i e be ween he Depa men o Heal h and Human
Se ices and he Uni e si y o Tasmania, has app o ed his s udy wi h
he p ojec e e ence numbe H 0016348. The in e iewees we e ei he
di ec ly in ol ed in o wi nessed hese acciden s and inciden s. “Di ec ly
in ol ed” indica es ha he pa icipan was he sea a e pe o ming he
ask o was a eam membe engaged in he ask ha led o he acciden .
“Wi nessed” e e s o pa icipan s who we e p esen a he acciden o
inciden loca ion and obse ed he e en s leading up o he acciden .
The in e iews las ed hi y minu es o h ee hou s and we e eco -
ded and ansc ibed e ba im. Da a on e en s leading up o se en y- ou
ma i ime acciden s we e ob ained. These in e iews we e supplemen ed
wi h casual discussions wi h wel e o he senio ma ine o ice s.
Al hough insigh s gained om hese con e sa ions enhanced he un-
de s anding o da a collec ed h ough in e iews, hey we e excluded
om he da a analysis phase, as hey we e no ga he ed unde HREC
egula o y guidelines.
Gi en ha he in e iewees had di ec in ol emen o wi nessed he
acciden s and inciden s unde s udy, his esea ch has diligen ly ol-
lowed e hical esea ch p o ocols es ablished by he Human Resea ch
E hics Commi ee (Tasmania) Ne wo k (HREC) o ensu e hei ano-
nymi y. To pa icipa e in he s udy, all esea ch pa icipan s we e
equi ed o p o ide in o med consen h ough a consen o m e iewed
and app o ed by he HREC.
Da a analysis
A heo e ical hema ic analysis (TA) app oach was applied o iden-
i y ecu ing pa e ns wi hin he quali a i e in e iew da a collec ed.
TA se es as an e ec i e me hodology o de ec ing hemes wi hin a
da ase and in e p e ing hei signi icance (B aun & Cla ke, 2016; Ja -
adi & Za ea, 2016). Among he a ious me hods o hema ic analysis,
his s udy u ilized B aun & Cla ke’s (2006) six-s ep amewo k, which is
widely ega ded as a ounda ional and epu able app oach o quali a i e
da a analysis, gaining signi ican popula i y o e he pas decade (B aun
e al., 2016).
The six s ages o his amewo k include amilia izing wi h he da a,
gene a ing codes, de eloping hemes, e iewing and e ising hemes,
naming hemes, and inally w i ing up he analysis. Ini ial and majo
codes we e es ablished h ough heo e ical sa u a ion (Be aux, 1981;
Be na d, 2000), achie ed by con inuously e ining pa e ns un il no new
p ope ies eme ged (Cha maz, 2006; Glase , 2001). These codes
cap u ed analy ically signi ican aspec s o he in e iew da ase and
in o med he de elopmen o hemes.
The codes we e hen clus e ed o c ea e cohe en and pa e ned
hemes ac oss he da ase . These hemes we e o ganized in o dis inc
ca ego ies ha ep esen ed key ideas ele an o he esea ch ques ion,
speci ically add essing "why sea a e us a ion pe sis s, po en ially
leading o acciden s."
The e iew phase ensu ed ha he analysis emained aligned wi h
he esea ch ques ion and accu a ely ep esen ed he da a, be o e p o-
ceeding o he inal phase o de ining hemes. The w i ing phase
in ol ed compiling and e ining he exis ing analy ic insigh s, p o iding
a clea p esen a ion o he da a analysis p ocess.
Findings
Fou ca ego ies eme ge ha impede he objec i e o an aligned WAD
(by sea a e s) wi h WAI (by shipping companies) due o us a ion a
sea, as depic ed in Table 1. F us a ion among sea a e s impac s hei
decisions and guides hei ac ions o de ia e om he plans and p o-
cedu es, ega dless o whe he he decisions a e ela ed o he sou ce o
us a ion (Le ne & Kel ne , 2000).
The i s ca ego y in he indings o his esea ch is physical ha dship
o conduc he ask. Sea a e s ge us a ed when he job ask becomes
physically oo demanding. As a esul , sea a e s de ia e om he ship-
ping company’s ask—discha ging ship du ies. A he same ime, ill o
medically un i is also a con ibu ing ac o . Managing he physical
s ain while conduc ing he ask is some imes pe cei ed as a sepa a e
A. Rajapakse and G.R. Emad
The Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics 41 (2025) 28–37
32
job. Fu he , he sequence o asks canno be execu ed in he p esc ibed
o de some imes due o unexpec ed ci cums ances no p edic ed a he
planning s age (Kalisch & Aebe sold, 2010; ¨
Os e man & Hul , 2016;
Spoone e al., 2015) demanding mo e physical ac i i ies. Fu he ,
ex e nal and in e nal sa e y, secu i y, en i onmen and quali y audi s in
po we e some imes oo physically demanding, especially a e he
nigh ou asho e wi hou su icien es , causing us a ion among
sea a e s.
The second ca ego y is isola ion om lo ed ones and socie y. Sea-
a e s a e con inuously us a ed due o he na u e o shipping, which
equi es sea a e s o be away om lo ed ones and he communi y o an
ex ended pe iod. This is exace ba ed when he communica ion a -
angemen s p o ided by he shipping company o sea a e s a e limi ed
o b oken down (Bo o nik, 2007; Caesa , 2016). Fu he , amily and
pe sonal issues cause us a ion which may lead o ask de ia ion. On
some occasions, sea a e s unde he in luence o us a ion due o
pe sonal amily ma e s may display agg essi e beha iou , which is a
cause o dange ous si ua ions a sea (Fessle e al., 2004).
The hi d ca ego y is wo king wi h undesi able people. I is e iden
om his s udy ha wo king wi h undesi able people is a cause o
us a ion and may lead o acciden s due o ask de ia ions. Sea a e s
a e impac ed by colleagues, supe iso s, ship companies, po ope a o s,
audi o s, and pe sonnel on nea by ships. The mo e us a ed sea a e s
eel he mo e hey pe cei e o he s as esponsible o an ad e se e en
(Quigley and Tedeschi, 1996). This, in u n, leads o ask de ia ion due
o unp eceden ed judgmen s and isky choices (Fessle e al., 2004;
Le ne & Kel ne , 2001).
The ou h ca ego y is se e ed expec a ions. F us a ion a ises when
ci cums ances do no occu in he ways expec ed, which may lead o ask
de ia ions (F aine e al., 2007; Hennessy, 2008; Hennessy & Wiesen hal,
1999; O’B ien e al., 2004; Shina & Comp on, 2004). This s udy con-
i ms ha a ange o issues ela ed o he human elemen causes disap-
poin men s in sea a e s a sea, including inancial losses, amily issues,
and e en ac ions aken by o he ships ega ding na iga ion. These ca -
ego ies a e u he elucida ed below.
Physical ha dship o conduc a ask
This esea ch shows ha manda o y in e na ional sa e y egula ions
en o ced by ma i ime au ho i ies equi e a medical examina ion o all
sea a e s o assess i ness o wo k a sea be o e joining. Howe e , some
ac i i ies assigned o sea a e s on boa d may be pe cei ed o be beyond
he physical capaci y o he indi iduals, which causes ask de ia ion due
o us a ion. A junio o ice (R9) explained:
We need o unde s and ha e e yone is no equally s ong. One o he ABs
was asked wi h mo ing 200 L oil d ums using a ba el mo e . Bu he was no
s ong enough o mo e hem o e all he pipe p o ec ion amps on deck. He
was so p * ** ** (ang y) o and ended up lea ing hem he e and he e
wi hou lashing. Du ing hea y wea he , he ba els mo ed and des oyed
pipes and ship ailing. Some wen o e boa d, and i was e y dange ous o
s op hem om mo ing.
Olde sea a e s may also be ulne able o us a ion due o a ious
asks. Wo k a sea includes physically demanding wo k such as climbing
high s ai wells and ladde s, which some olde sea a e s may no be able
o pe o m e icien ly e en hough hey a e clea ed o wo k onboa d
(Agyemang & Ojo, 2023). Resea ch pa icipan s also men ioned ha
wo king in un a ou able wea he condi ions caused us a ion among
sea a e s leading o ask de ia ion. These inciden s a e in line wi h many
o he inciden s whe e esea ch pa icipan s men ioned ha hey could
no hink clea ly, go us a ed and ook w ong decisions which we e
di e en o wha hey had p e iously ag eed o du ing wo k ask p e-
s a mee ings (Ge e al., 2017; P ech e al., 2017; Zhang and Chan,
2016). As an example, a mas e (R36) men ioned:
We we e going o pump ou wa e om he spide buoy space (FPSO).
Se ing hoses and Wildon pump is i ing wo k. A e we se up e e y hing he
wildon pump wouldn’ wo k. One o my eam membe s inspec ing he wildon
pump ended up smashing i on he g a ing in he p ocess o emo ing he ai
hose damaging i . He was clea ly upse and he ha d wo k had lipped his
swi ch.
The da a analysis shows ha when sea a e s unde ook wo k asks
ha we e subs an ially di icul o beyond hei physical capaci y, hey
demons a ed us a ion and, in some ins ances, agg ession. This is due
o he con adic ions wi hin he componen o he subjec in he sea-
a e s’ ac i i y sys em. No ably, some imes i is e iden ha when sea-
a e s lea e ships on sho e lea e in po s, hey do no ge su icien es
be o e hey ake o e du ies again, which may esul in us a ion.
Simila ly, du ing audi s in po , sea a e s, especially o ice s who do no
ge he s a ua y es , may ge us a ed. This could lead o ask de ia ion
causing disc epancies be ween WAI and WAD.
Addi ionally, when he co ec ools a e no a ailable o ca y ou a
speci ic ask, and mo e physical exe ion is equi ed o comple e asks,
sea a e s a e us a ed, leading o ask de ia ion. Some pa icipan s
esponded ha sea a e s keep wo king in a igued si ua ions because o
ea o ep imand o nega i e app aisal i ound es ing du ing an un-
scheduled b eak pe iod. This causes us a ion and possibly leads o
ask de ia ion. As a sea a e (R53) explained:
We didn’ ha e he p ope chipping guns (de- us ing machine)bu we we e
chipping wi h much hea ie guns which should no ha e been used o mo e
han 20 minu es a a ime wi h 20 minu es b eaks in be ween. They su e
unnecessa ily hinking ha hey’d ge bad epo s i hey es ed. They keep
chipping away he whole day us a ed and hu ; hey all sick, hey make
Table 1
Ca ego ies and hemes.
Ca ego ies and hei hemes
Physical
ha dship o
conduc he ask
Physical
sepa a ion om
lo ed ones
Wo king wi h
undesi able
people
Se e ed
Expec a ions
Lack o physical
i ness
Isola ion and
Loneliness o long
pe iods
Un ai ea men Pos poned o
cancelled sho e
lea e due o wo k
Too i ed a e
sho e lea e
Missing impo an
unc ions a home
Pe cei ed un ai
app aisal epo s
Delays o p omised
p omo ions
Illness while a
wo k
Single pa en s
wo ied abou kids
a home
One o mo e
eam membe s
disag ee on
execu ion
me hod o he job
Lack o human
esou ces on boa d
o ma ch wo kload
Ad e se wea he
condi ions
Someone ill in he
amily
Language
ba ie s
Pe cei ed
unnecessa y
pape wo k
Fea o
ep imand o
nega i e
app aisal i
ound es ing
Dea h in he
amily
Pe cei ed
damage o
epu a ion
Delays o jobs
because o
pape wo k /
pe mi enewal
Fa ou i ism –
physically
s enuous asks
no assigned
equally
Slow o no Wi-Fi
onboa d making i
di icul o
communica e wi h
amily
Wo king wi h
colleagues who
a e no amilia
wi h job asks
Pe cei ed inancial
losses
Simul aneous
asks
Going h ough
di o ce o b eak
up wi h pa ne
Supe iso
blaming /
insul ing his own
eam wi h o he
supe iso s
Unexpec ed pilo
e o s
Low quali y ood Isola ion om
long- ime iends
Lack o us
among sea a e s
Unexpec ed
manoeu ing
ac ions om o he
ships
Inadequa e
equipmen o
conduc jobs
P essu e om
shipping company
o con inue
ope a ing essel in
spi e o
b eakdowns
Audi s and
Inspec ions
Delayed sign o
A. Rajapakse and G.R. Emad
The Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics 41 (2025) 28–37
33
mis akes. Wha I’m going o say is ha i is no he bes ship o be.
O he hemes which eme ged, causing us a ion in sea a e s, a e
una oidable simul aneous asks conduc ed wi h physical ha dship o
achie e goals (Rajapakse e al., 2019) and a ou i ism among he c ew
which esul s in mo e physical wo k ca ied ou by ew indi iduals. Ou
da a shows ha low-quali y ood onboa d ( ools) can also cause us-
a ion due o physical ha dship. As a junio o ice (R21) esponded:
The ood onboa d became useless and I’m su e mas e was up o monkey
business wi h ou ood allowances. Boys (sea a e s) couldn’ ea much o he
ood. We migh no do some jobs gi en o us because o no s eng h wi hou
ea ing. How o wo k p ope ly wi h emp y s omach? Many acciden s du ing his
(mas e ’s) 3 mon hs on boa d.
As he abo e exce p s show, pe cei ed physical ha dship when pe -
o ming asks causes us a ion, he eby con adic ing he objec o
conduc ing ’WAD aligned wi h WAI’.
Physical sepa a ion om lo ed ones and socie y
Sea a e s a e subjec ed o a sha ed wo king and li ing en i onmen –
he con ines o a ship s eaming in he ocean (Oldenbu g and Jensen,
2012). This esea ch con i ms ha sea a e s conside hei ime onboa d
lonely and secluded om socie y (Dimi o a & Blanpain, 2010).
Resea ch pa icipan s spoke o how acciden s happen because sea a e s
a e us a ed due o his isola ion and being away om lo ed ones
(Thomas & Bailey, 2009). This condi ion is agg a a ed on essen ial days
o hem and hei lo ed ones, such as bi hdays and weddings. Also, due
o he na u e o wo k, sea a e s will likely miss he passing o lo ed ones.
They a e no mos o he ime e en able o a end he une als. Resea ch
pa icipan s spoke o how wo king in hese ci cums ances leads o ask
de ia ion due o he shee us a ion o being away a sea, causing
con adic ions be ween WAI and WAD, leading o acciden s. Fo
example, a junio o ice (R53) explained:
I had in o med he company ha he baby was due on (da e) I couldn’
ind elie on ime. I old hem I don’ ca e I jus need o ge down. I was inally
elie ed passing Singapo e. I was so us a ed and my wi e and my whole
amily e y upse hinking I was no going o make i . I didn’ do any wo k
hose ew days and he cap ain knew i . He always came on b idge du ing my
wa ch (laughing). He was no e y su e o me.
Resea ch pa icipan s also spoke o how sea a e s a e dis ac ed and
us a ed when hey lea n ha lo ed ones a e going h ough illnesses
and pain, which some imes leads o acciden s. Howe e , acciden in-
es iga ions in hese cases usually blame sea a e s o no ollowing
company p ocedu es o checklis s wi hou in es iga ing he unde lying
causes. This esea ch ound ha some sea a e s do no a emp o co ec
o challenge hese inconsis en indings bu accep hem as hei a e. In
pa icula , an Able Seaman (R23) s a ed:
My wi e was p egnan and sick. The baby was de o med and he doc o s
had ad ised he o go o abo ion, bu she didn’ wan o. I couldn’ be wi h
he because o house loan and ca loan. My mo he and wi e igh ing a home
as well. Tha was a bad ime in my sea li e and I was like a mad man. The
moo ing acciden du ing his bad ime because always mad. Acciden epo
blamed me and OS (o dina y seaman) o no ollowing chie ma es signal
and no amilia wi h moo ing winch ope a ion. This is a e and li e.
Resea ch pa icipan s also poin ed ou ha sea a e us a ion
leading o ask de ia ions occu s du ing di o ce o ela ionship
b eakups. Mos o hem ied o hide i om hei colleagues because
hey we e emba assed abou hei si ua ion. Howe e , hey displayed
undesi able beha iou du ing wo k, consis en ly esul ing in isky
decision-making and acciden s. This may be due o he uniqueness o he
wo k con ex a sea since, in mos o he wo k en i onmen s, hey could
seek assis ance om amily, iends, and e en p o essional psycholo-
gis s. A mas e (R24) explained:
When o ice s o c ew a e going h ough cou cases i is ex emely icky
o wo k wi h hem. You can’ only us hem o ge h ough jobs sa ely, bu i
is e y di icul o speak o hem abou a job. They don’ a gue wi h me, bu I
always ge complain s om o he s ha hey a e no sa e o wo k wi h because
o hei agg essi e beha iou o no eason. Ne e know when he nex ac-
ciden is wi h hese people.
This esea ch also suppo s ha he quali y o communica ion a-
cili ies on boa d is a c i ical ac o ha can cause sea a e s’ us a ion
(Thomas & Bailey, 2006; Thomas e al., 2003), leading o ask de ia ion.
Resea ch pa icipan s spoke o how dealing wi h di icul ies in con-
ac ing lo ed ones, especially when i is expensi e, caused us a ion on
boa d. A mas e (R57) di ulged:
The 2
nd
ma e was making phone calls du ing he midnigh o 0400 wa ch
on he sa phone and udging he imings on call log. He was caugh a e only
2 mon hs since he s a ed doing i . His excuse was he was doing i ou o
us a ion simply because sa was oo expensi e and he had issues a home.
Tha is apa om he ac ha he was o ally neglec ing his wa ch which was
a majo issue. He was sen home he nex po , bu in eali y, his would ha e
no happened i he company p o ided us wi h be e in e ne o call home.
Two sides o he s o y he e. Bu he 2
nd
e sion is no only accep ed bu no
e en conside ed o my knowledge.
This esea ch has shown ha isola ion om lo ed ones and socie y
con ibu es o sea a e us a ion, causing disc epancies be ween WAD
and WAI. Thus, sea a e s de ia e om hei asks, which has he po-
en ial o cause acciden s a sea.
Wo king wi h undesi able people
Ou esea ch pa icipan s ag ee ha wo king wi h undesi able peo-
ple causes us a ion among sea a e s leading o ask de ia ion and
subsequen consequen ial e en s. This esea ch ound ha un ai ea -
men onboa d is pe cei ed as undesi able. This phenomenon is common
in o he wo kplaces (Ba on, 1994; Kinney, 1995; Man ell, 1994), which
mos ly goes un epo ed. Howe e , esea ch pa icipan s men ioned ha
sea a e s some imes engage in agg ession agains hei supe iso s
(Neuman & Ba on, 1997). Fo example, a mas e (R32) explained:
They (shipping company) has all ce i ica e copies and all documen s.
They don’ need o ask me. Bu when hey need some hing hey always ask
me. I ha e o ca e o all hese nonsense o he wise i can a ec my job you
know. These people easily s * ** * ( uin) my happiness i I don’ do wha hey
ask.
Resea ch pa icipan s showed ha sea a e s a e subjec ed o un ai
ea men in di e en ci cums ances by elemen s in he shipping in-
dus y hie a chy, onboa d as well as asho e. Responden s men ioned
ha when sea a e s "spoke up" o poin ou sa e y conce ns, unsa e
p ac ices o wel a e conce ns on boa d, hey we e some imes blamed
and labelled as " ouble make s". This a ec ed hei chances o e-
employmen in he same company. Gaps in in e pe sonal us among
sea a e s lead o a de e io a ing sa e y cul u e and human e o s
(andMaka o a,2017).
Also, pe cei ed acism is equen on boa d. Some esea ch pa ici-
pan s sha ed hei expe ience on how some supe iso s and colleagues
did no e en espond when hey g ee ed hem. Abuse by senio o ice s is
also p e alen , and some imes physical abuse, bu hese cases almos
always go un epo ed. Howe e , some sea a e s beha ed agg essi ely,
e bally and some imes physically in some si ua ions owa ds he pe son
(s) mis ea ing hem. They we e dismissed on beha iou al iola ion
g ounds wi hou in es iga ion. A junio enginee (R26) men ioned:
When I was a cade , chie (enginee ) shou ed a me in il h in he (engine)
con ol oom all he ime in on o o he s du ing ea ime o a ious hings.
Some we e genuine mis akes bu i was hell. He once kicked me as well bu no
one said any hing because he was a senio chie enginee in he company and
he could sack anyone any ime. I inju ed my inge s du ing a simple li on ha
ship because I was always upse . We can’ change hese people. The e was
also a senio cap ain who sacked second ma es all he ime. The unny hing is
company obliged all he ime wi hou a leas an in es iga ion jus by going on
he cap ain’s bad epo .
When sea a e s a e unde he imp ession ha hei epu a ion among
he o he c ew membe s on he ship is blemished due o mis akes, blame
om supe iso s, umou s, and issues a home sea a e s ge us a ed
A. Rajapakse and G.R. Emad
The Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics 41 (2025) 28–37
34
and may engage in ask de ia ion. Simila ly, sea a e s expe ienced
us a ion when hei supe iso s spoke nega i ely abou hem as a
eam o indi idually o o he supe iso s. Addi ionally, pe cei ed un ai
app aisal epo s by supe iso s a e a c i ical cause o us a ion o
sea a e s. A mas e (R09) explained:
When c ew ac ually ge nega i e app aisal epo , we discuss wi h hem
how hey can imp o e and some o hem ake i objec i ely. Bu some ob i-
ously hink i is un ai and disag ee and hink i will a ec hei u u e job
p ospec s and ac anxious. Because hey wan o con inue o wo k peace ully,
hey don’ w i e any opposing commen s bu I know om hei beha iou ha
o one hey a e so unhappy o days i no mon hs and also hei quali y o
wo k dec eases, y o hide mis akes, don’ help o he s and y o always show
hey a e be e by aking sho cu s ou o shee us a ion. App aisal epo s
in oday’s o m is a ecipe o disas e .
Mo eo e , sea a e s a e us a ed, which leads o ask de ia ion
when hey a e pa o a eam bu do no ag ee wi h he p ocedu e ol-
lowed and ag eed by he es . Resea ch pa icipan s men ioned how
hei conce ns as eam membe s a e some imes dismissed. Howe e , he
eam decides o go ahead wi h he job causing us a ion. Sea a e s a e
also us a ed when o he eam membe s a e un amilia wi h he job
asks and mus compensa e o hei sho comings. Addi ionally, lan-
guage ba ie s when wo king wi h o he na ionali ies gi e ise o us-
a ion leading o ask de ia ion among sea a e s, po en ially causing
acciden s.
Se e ed Expec a ions
This s udy con i ms ha us a ion occu s due o unme expec a-
ions o sea a e s leading o ask de ia ions, as also shown by o he e-
sea che s (F aine e al., 2007; Hennessy, 2008; Hennessy & Wiesen hal,
1999; O’B ien e al., 2004; Shina & Comp on, 2004). Sea a e s ha e
pe sonal expec a ions ega ding hei wo k en i onmen and hei
u u e. When hese expec a ions a e cu sho by p e ailing ci cum-
s ances, hey wo k unde he in luence o us a ion. This esea ch
ound ha sea a e s equen ly expe ience disappoin men on boa d
which may lead o ask de ia ion causing acciden s. Fo example, an
elec ical enginee (R10) explained:
2nd enginee old i e o do a epai on he boile eed pump / disman le
and o e haul. Fi e expec ed his job was pos poned because o wo h ee
di icul shi s ea lie . Red ho a gumen no igh ing bu almos . Fi e s a ed
o disman le he eed pump. He was uming when he s a ed he job. Because
o he a gumen he o go o close (isola e suc ion and discha ge al es). I
Hea d a e 30 minu es wo h ee people shou ing om below decks (2nd
deck) because o he acciden .
Delays o expec ed p omo ions a e ano he eason sea a e s ge
us a ed. Some sea a e s wai many yea s expec ing p omised p o-
mo ions, bu shipping companies make excuses o delay p omo ions
e en u he .
Also, some sea a e s expe ience sala y sha ing due o sala y scale
adjus men s by shipping companies while onboa d, leading o se e e
us a ion. These si ua ions lead o ask de ia ion, as a junio o ice
(R28) explained:
I had he alid con ac wi h my sala y clea ly s a ed o he whole ime
( enu e) on boa d. The company decided o dec ease junio o ice wages and
mine was a ec ed oo. I was shocked and de as a ed. I had so many hings
going on a home and I needed he money. I couldn’ igh he company. I was
so upse and dep essed eeling helpless. I couldn’ concen a e on wa ch al-
ways hinking abou he money cu . Basically, he hough o no doing a good
job because my sala y was educed unning in my head.
Fu he mo e, unexpec ed adminis a i e wo k, commonly called
pape wo k on ships, us a es sea a e s. Resea ch pa icipan s spoke o
how us a ing i is when jobs a e unexpec edly delayed because o
pape wo k such as pe mi alida ion a shi change. Simila ly, sea a e s
pe cei e many adminis a i e asks as unnecessa y and dis ac ing,
causing us a ion. These us a ions lead o aking sho cu s and
some imes neglec ing he job al oge he , hence ask de ia ion leading o
po en ial acciden s.
Ano he cause o sea a e us a ion on boa d is he lack o human
esou ces o ma ch he expec ed wo kload e en hough he c ew sizes
comply wi h in e na ional egula ions. A chie enginee (R18) explained
an example o a sequence o e en s building up o an acciden :
We couldn’ cope up wi h he wo k. We had o ge help om deck people
o wo k in he engine oom o ge he epai s done on he genes (gene a o s)
and main engine. Al hough we didn’ alk abou i , we knew ha we didn’
ha e enough people and we we e p e y us a ed abou i because i we had
mo e people, i would be an easy couple o jobs. Jus because we ha e enough
people as pe he sa e manning ce i ica e, doesn’ mean ha we ha e enough
people o do he wo k sa ely. This is no wha we expec when we come o
wo k on a ship.
Resea ch esponden s poin ed ou ha wheelhouse us a ion occu s
due o unexpec ed manoeu es om o he ships. Wa chkeepe s display
agg essi e isk- aking manoeu es in iola ion o company p ocedu es
in he pe cep ion o collision egula ions iola ions om o he ships
leading o close-qua e s si ua ions and some imes acciden s. Ano he
sou ce o us a ion is unexpec ed pilo e o s. A mas e (R56)
explained:
A mas e expec s he pilo o know his * ** * (be compe en ). Mos o he
ime e e y hing goes smoo h. Some imes no . I i comes o a poin ha I need
o ake o e he con om he pilo , we al eady in o deep * ** * ( ouble). I is
e y di icul o sa e he si ua ion om he e. A his poin o ime you a e so
us a ed o us ing his ellow (pilo ) o do a good job, i is so di icul o ge
you * ** * (ac ) oge he in his s a e o ange o ollow p ocedu e and do he
igh hing.
Thus, i could be s a ed ha se e ed expec a ions cause disc epancies
in WAD aligned wi h WAI a sea by sea a e s, esul ing in con adic ing
he sa e ope a ion o ships.
Discussion and conclusion
Today, he e is a signi ican need o iden i y he sou ces o e oneous
human ac ions and add ess unde lying con ibu ing ac o s o imp o e
ma i ime sa e y. Al hough some ma i ime sa e y aspec s ha e imp o ed
since he in oduc ion o sa e y ins umen s by he IMO, such as he ISM
code (Ka akasnaki e al., 2018), he e is conside able oom o
imp o emen in aligning wo k-as-imagined and wo k-as-done
(Rajapakse and Emad, 2021).
This esea ch explo es us a ion as a con ibu ing ac o o ask
de ia ions and, subsequen ly, may lead o acciden s a sea among sea-
a e s. The s udy emphasises he physical ha dships in ol ed in speci ic
asks, such as hose beyond indi idual physical capaci ies, leading o
us a ion and po en ial acciden s. Addi ionally, he isola ion om
lo ed ones and socie y du ing ex ended pe iods a sea is iden i ied as a
signi ican sou ce o us a ion, impac ing sea a e s’ men al s a es and
con ibu ing o ask de ia ions. Wo king wi h undesi able indi iduals
subjec ed o un ai ea men also leads o us a ion and subsequen
ask de ia ions. Fu he , he s udy highligh s how unme expec a ions,
such as delayed p omo ions, unnecessa y adminis a i e asks and sala y
adjus men s, con ibu e o sea a e s’ us a ion and po en ial acciden s.
O e all, he esea ch iden i ies mul iple elemen s wi hin he sea a e s’
ac i i y sys em ha , when con lic ing, esul in disc epancies be ween
wo k-as-imagined (WAI) and wo k-as-done (WAD), po en ially jeop-
a dising he sa e y o ma i ime ope a ions.
In an e a whe e sa e y science is unde going a pa adigm shi om
adi ional e o -based sa e y managemen (Sa e y-I) o one which
conce ns he capabili y o he human elemen in sa e y managemen
(Sa e y-II) (Hollnagel, 2014), he shipping indus y seems o esis he
change. This could be he eason o consis en shipping mishaps
h oughou he wo ld. This s udy suppo s he indings o Tepe i e al.
(2019), which shows ha sa e y managemen sys ems on boa d a e
pe cei ed as echnically ocused, neglec ing human elemen s, such as
sea a e us a ion in ma i ime ope a ions. The s udy also suppo s he
indings o G ee e al. (2015) and Le ne and Tiedens (2006), which
A. Rajapakse and G.R. Emad
The Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics 41 (2025) 28–37
35
poin ou ha us a ion may hinde objec i i y, a ionali y and isk
a e sion abili ies, leading o undesi able si ua ions. The e o e, i is
appa en ha he shipping indus y may equi e a new ocus on policy,
p ocedu es, and sea a e s’ compe ence o cu b ma i ime acciden s.
To he bes o he au ho s’ knowledge, his s udy is he i s in he
ma i ime indus y ha aims o unde s and sea a e us a ion and how
i may con ibu e o ask de ia ions ha may lead o acciden s. Mo e
esea ch on ask de ia ion caused by us a ion a he wo kplace is
equi ed o shed mo e ligh on his elusi e opic.
The ollowing ac ions a e ecommended o he ma i ime indus y o
conside a ion as a s epping s one o imp o ing sa e y a sea by
add essing us a ion among sea a e s. These ha e been compiled om
he esponses p o ided by he pa icipan s in he esea ch.
•Shipping companies mus c ea e a ‘speak-up’ cul u e on hei ships
by ewa ding sea a e s o exp essing hei ideas, including when
us a ed. A g ie ance p ocedu e mus be implemen ed on e e y
ship, and sea a e s mus be educa ed on his so ha sea a e s’ us-
a ions a e in es iga ed and managed by shipping companies.
•Shipping companies mus educa e sea a e s o edesign jobs and
p o ide esou ces o edesigning jobs whe e equi ed so ha sea-
a e s o di e en physical capaci ies can conduc jobs.
•Shipping companies mus p o ide sea a e s wi h su icien Pe sonal
P o ec i e Equipmen (PPE) o use in ad e se wea he condi ions,
such as in cold o wa m clima es. Flag s a es should conside
implemen ing minimum le els o hese PPE o be ca ied on ships as
pe hei ading ou es.
•Flag s a es should conside implemen ing minimum s anda ds o
ood ega ding nu i ional alue on boa d ships, i espec i e o he
di e en na ionali ies wo king on boa d.
•Shipping companies should conside implemen ing os e s o hei
sea a e s o go asho e while in po s so ha pe sonnel going asho e
can ge enough es o p e en a igue.
•Flag s a es should implemen minimum s anda ds o p ope in e ne
connec ions on ships so sea a e s can use echnology o i ually
pa icipa e in essen ial unc ions a home.
•Shipping companies should implemen a ecip ocal c ew app aisal
sys em whe e supe iso s and subo dina es can assess each o he ’s
pe o mance.
•Shipping companies mus p o ide counselling se ices o sea a e s
and educa e hem on he bene i s o eaching ou o counselling
se ices in imes o us a ion.
•The inclusion o ’F us a ion’ as a haza d in he ’Job Risk Assess-
men ’ empla e p o ided o sea a e s by he shipping company may
assis sea a e s in implemen ing ac ions o nega e us a ions du ing
he job ask i hey exis .
•Shipping companies need o eassess and educe he maximum
du a ion sea a e s spend a sea and he minimum ime asho e on
aca ion be o e being called ou o wo k a sea again.
Limi a ions
The in e iews we e exclusi ely conduc ed wi h sea a e s in ol ed
in ma i ime acciden s and did no ep esen a b oade popula ion o
sea a e s. While his does no comp omise he o e all scien i ic in eg i y
o he s udy p esen ed, i s ands as a limi a ion wi hin his esea ch.
Ano he limi a ion o his esea ch was he es ic ion on p esen ing
pa icipan da a openly. Due o he sensi i e na u e o he in o ma ion
collec ed unde HREC egula ions, all p esen ed da a had o be ca e ully
anonymized, ensu ing no da a could be aced back o any speci ic in-
ciden s desc ibed by he pa icipan s.
An addi ional cons ain in his s udy is he a iabili y in indi iduals’
ole ance le els ega ding wo kplace challenges and domes ic issues,
po en ially in luencing ask de ia ions a sea. Hence, u he explo a ion
is wa an ed o unde s and his complex phenomenon be e .
Fu he , sea oyages on in e na ionally ading essels wi h
pe sonnel om di e en pa s o he wo ld a e highly a ec ed by
oyage-speci ic and o he sociocul u al elemen s in he ma i ime in-
dus y no cap u ed in his s udy, esul ing in he equi emen o u he
in es iga ion on how o coun e sea a e us a ion a sea. Conse-
quen ly, a solu ion o his in ica e p oblem is ye o be disco e ed.
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
Gholam Reza Emad: Supe ision, Me hodology, Fo mal analysis,
Da a cu a ion, Concep ualiza ion. Asanka Rajapakse: W i ing – e iew
& edi ing, W i ing – o iginal d a , Me hodology, In es iga ion, Fo mal
analysis, Da a cu a ion, Concep ualiza ion.
Decla a ion o Compe ing In e es
The au ho s whose names a e lis ed immedia ely below ce i y ha
hey ha e NO a ilia ions wi h o in ol emen in any o ganiza ion o
en i y wi h any inancial in e es (such as hono a ia; educa ional g an s;
pa icipa ion in speake s’ bu eaus; membe ship, employmen , consul-
ancies, s ock owne ship, o o he equi y in e es ; and expe es imony
o pa en -licensing a angemen s), o non- i nancial in e es (such as
pe sonal o p o essional ela ionships, a i lia ions, knowledge o be-
lie s) in he subjec ma e o ma e ials discussed in his manusc ip .
D . Asanka Rajapakse
D . Gholam Reza Emad
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A. Rajapakse and G.R. Emad
