Workplace frustration leading to task deviation and accidents at sea: A sociocultural perspective on the maritime human element

Rajapakse, Asanka; Emad, Gholam Reza A icle Wo kplace us a ion leading o ask de ia ion and acciden s a sea: A sociocul u al pe spec i e on he ma i ime human elemen Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics (AJSL) P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: Ko ean Associa ion o Shipping and Logis ics, Seoul Sugges ed Ci a ion: Rajapakse, Asanka; Emad, Gholam Reza (2025) : Wo kplace us a ion leading o ask de ia ion and acciden s a sea: A sociocul u al pe spec i e on he ma i ime human elemen , Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics (AJSL), ISSN 2352-4871, Else ie , Ams e dam, Vol. 41, Iss. 1, pp. 28-37, h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.ajsl.2025.01.001 This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/329754 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen (insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en, gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e. Te ms o use: Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal and schola ly pu poses. You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public. I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ The Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics 41 (2025) 28–37 A ailable online 15 Janua y 2025 2092-5212/© 2025 The Au ho (s). Published by Else ie B.V. on behal o The Ko ean Associa ion o Shipping and Logis ics, Inc. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/). Wo kplace us a ion leading o ask de ia ion and acciden s a sea – A sociocul u al pe spec i e on he ma i ime human elemen Asanka Rajapakse * , Gholam Reza Emad Aus alian Ma i ime College, Uni e si y o Tasmania, Launces on, 58, Wa mb unn C es, Be wick, VIC 3806, Aus alia ARTICLE INFO Keywo ds: Task De ia ion F us a ions Sea a ing Wo k as Imagined and Wo k as Done Human elemen Ma i ime acciden s ABSTRACT Sea a ing con inues o be isky despi e he emendous in e na ional e o o cu b ma i ime acciden s. While onboa d, sea a e s, as he p incipal human elemen in he ma i ime indus y, mus ace my iad physical and men al s esses and dynamic sa e y challenges. So a , many o hese challenges ha e emained ou o he scope o he ma i ime indus y and esea ch communi ies. Ou ea lie esea ch add essed some human elemen - ela ed challenges, including ime cons ain s, a igue and pe o ming simul aneous asks. This s udy add esses a c ucial elemen ha has ye o be adequa ely esea ched: sea a e s’ us a ion a hei wo kplace. I is essen ial because managing he high a e o ma i ime acciden s due o ask de ia ion and i s unde lying ac o o us a ion has been a signi ican challenge o he go e ning au ho i ies o he ma i ime indus y. This esea ch cons i u es a signi ican quali a i e in es iga ion, u ilising in e iews o explo e an unde lying ac o con ibu ing o ma i ime acciden s. We show ha wo kplace us a ion is a signi ican cause o ask de ia ion, leading o dange ous si ua ions a sea. This pape p esen s ou easons o us a ion a sea: physical ha dship in conduc ing a ask, social isola ion, wo king wi h undesi able people, and se e ed expec a ions. Addi ionally, he main s eps ha he ma i ime indus y can ake o mi iga e sea a e s’ us a ion a sea a e ecommended. In oduc ion Shipping is he li eblood o he wo ld economy. Mo e han 80 % o wo ld ade by olume is done by ships (UNCTAD, 2023). Un o una ely, he high equency o ma i ime acciden s and hei consequences emain he indus y’s main challenges (IUMI, 2017; EMSA, 2023). A signi ican pa o he a e ma h o a ma i ime acciden is he in es iga i e analysis o i s oo causes (Hy en & Ludwig, 2017). The in es iga ion in o ma i ime acciden s shows ha sea a e s’ ask de ia ion signi ican ly con ibu es o mos acciden s (Rajapakse e al., 2022). Task de ia ion occu s when sea a e s, o achie e he assigned objec i es bes , de ia e om he p esc ibed ac ion asks p o ided by hei shipping companies (Le eson, 2004; Rajapakse & Emad, 2021). The wo ld ma i ime egula o y body, In e na ional Ma i ime O ga- nisa ion (IMO), has adop ed ma i ime sa e y egula ions such as he In e na ional Sa e y Managemen (ISM) code and he S anda ds o T aining, Ce i ica ion, and Wa chkeeping o Sea a e s (STCW Con en- ion) wi h he aim o minimising acciden s a sea. Howe e , s udies show hese e o s ha e achie ed less- han-pe ec esul s (Ba alden & Sydnes, 2014; Knudsen & Hassle , 2011). This migh be because he ma i ime indus y pe cei es shipping as a echnical linea ope a ion o e looking he complexi y o he sea a e s’ ole in conduc ing asks in a dynamic wo k en i onmen (Ol edal & Lü zh¨ o , 2018). The exis ing li e a u e indica es ha acciden heo ies and models ha e eme ged om di e se disciplines, adap ing o socie al changes. This unde sco es he in icacy o ma i ime acciden s wi hin a socio- echnical con ex (Awal & Hasegawa, 2017; Dekke , 2004; Rasmussen, 1982; Reason, 1990, 2000; Sande s & McCo mick, 1993; Sulgan & Sosedo a, 2016). P io esea ch also demons a es he dynamic na u e o he shipping indus y, wi h sea a e s’ mispe o med non- echnical skills being iden i ied as a p ima y con ibu o o ma i ime acciden s (Galie iko ´ a, 2019; Rajapakse e al., 2019; Saeed e al., 2017). The ma i ime indus y exhibi s complexi y, encompassing indepen- den ye in e connec ed componen s ha gi e ise o non-linea ope a- ional p ocesses. (Caschili & Medda, 2012). The deg ee o sea a e s’ in ol emen in onboa d ope a ions may add o he complexi y and un- ce ain y in e ms o human ac o a ibu es such as us a ion (Dingus e al., 2016; S aye e al., 2014). Hence, he way wo k is conduc ed by sea a e s (Wo k as Done) may be di e en o he manne an icipa ed by he shipping companies (Wo k as Imagined) (Hollnagel, 2014; * Co esponding au ho . E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (A. Rajapakse). Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec The Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/ajsl h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.ajsl.2025.01.001 Recei ed 20 Feb ua y 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 20 Decembe 2024; Accep ed 9 Janua y 2025 The Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics 41 (2025) 28–37 29 Rajapakse e al., 2019). Recognising dis inc ions be ween Wo k-As-Imagined (WAI) and Wo k-As-Done (WAD) wi hin a wo kplace has been emphasised as a c ucial elemen o o ganisa ions aiming o a ain op imal sa e y (Ca alho e al., 2018; Dekke , 2003). Hence, comp ehending he easons behind hese a ia ions is impe a i e o ensu ing sa e and eliable ma i ime ope a ions (Ande son e al., 2016; B ai hwai e e al., 2017). Many schola s ha e de ailed he di ec ac o s o an inciden o isky ac ions aboa d ships (e.g. ine ec i e communica ion o inadequa e su- pe ision), ye hey ail o explain he unde lying psychological easons ha could cause disc epancies be ween WAI and WAD in he ma i ime domain (Be gs ¨ om e al., 2009; Lü zh¨ o e al., 2006; P ae o ius & Lundh, 2013; P ae o ius & Hollnagel, 2014; Rajapakse & Emad, 2021; de V ies, 2017; Yuen e al., 2020). This esea ch aimed o unde s and he ac o s causing sea a e s’ us a ion a sea and how hey may in luence ask de ia ion, leading o dange ous si ua ions a sea. Insigh s on ac o s causing sea a e s us a ion leading o acciden s may assis he ma i- ime indus y in in oducing measu es o minimise his p oblem. Backg ound Causes o us a ion in he wo kplace F us a ion in he wo kplace can a ise om a ious sou ces, o en con ibu ing o dec eased job sa is ac ion, lowe p oduc i i y, and highe u no e a es. Bo h quali a i e s udies in di e se wo k en i- onmen s e eal c i ical pa e ns in he ac o s leading o us a ion. Role ambigui y and ole con lic Role ambigui y, whe e employees a e unce ain abou hei e- sponsibili ies, and ole con lic , whe e con lic ing demands a ise, a e wo signi ican sou ces o us a ion. Resea ch has demons a ed ha unclea job oles lead o con usion, s ess, and dissa is ac ion (Rizzo e al., 1970). These ac o s a e p ominen in ma i ime con ex s whe e unclea esponsibili ies may con ibu e o sea a e a igue, which in u n inc eases he likelihood o acciden s (Rajapakse & Emad, 2021). The inabili y o p io i ize o mee con lic ing expec a ions exace ba es us a ion and is o en linked o wo kplace s ess and bu nou (Schmid e al., 2014). Wo k o e load and ime p essu e Wo k o e load, whe e employees pe cei e hey ha e oo much wo k in oo li le ime, is ano he c i ical con ibu o o wo kplace us a ion. Time p essu e, combined wi h inadequa e esou ces, can lea e em- ployees eeling helpless and o e whelmed (LePine e al., 2005). This sense o being o e bu dened, especially common in high-p essu e en- i onmen s such as sea a ing, leads o emo ional exhaus ion and inc eased us a ion, po en ially esul ing in unsa e beha iou s (Spec o & Jex, 1998). Lack o au onomy Au onomy, o he deg ee o con ol employees ha e o e hei wo k, signi ican ly a ec s us a ion le els. When wo ke s eel hey ha e li le in luence o e how hey pe o m hei asks, hei sense o owne ship diminishes, leading o dissa is ac ion (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). In ma i ime s udies, limi ed au onomy, pa icula ly among sea a e s acing igid o ganiza ional hie a chies, has been iden i ied as a ac o ha ampli ies a igue and us a ion, inc easing he likelihood o acciden s a sea (Spa ks e al., 2001). Ine ec i e communica ion and poo leade ship Poo communica ion be ween employees and managemen is ano he signi ican sou ce o us a ion. Ine ec i e communica ion leads o misunde s andings and unme expec a ions, con ibu ing o eelings o isola ion and aliena ion in he wo kplace (Clampi & Downs, 1993). In high- isk en i onmen s like shipping, poo communica ion can exace ba e s ess, a igue, and ul ima ely, us a ion (B aun & Cla ke, 2016). Mo eo e , leade ship s yle plays a c ucial ole, wi h au oc a ic o unsuppo i e manage s linked o heigh ened us a ion (De Hoogh & Den Ha og, 2009). Un ai ea men and lack o ecogni ion Pe cei ed inequi ies in ea men , such as un ai wo k assignmen s, lack o p omo ions, o inadequa e ewa ds, signi ican ly con ibu e o wo kplace us a ion. Acco ding o equi y heo y, employees compa e hei inpu o he ou comes hey ecei e, and pe cei ed imbalances esul in dissa is ac ion (Adams, 1965). In he ma i ime sec o , whe e long hou s and demanding condi ions a e common, he absence o ecogni ion o ha d wo k o en ampli ies eelings o us a ion and demo i a ion (Allen & Rogelbe g, 2013). In e pe sonal con lic s and a igue In e pe sonal con lic s be ween colleagues o supe iso s a e a equen sou ce o us a ion in he wo kplace. These con lic s can s em om di e ences in wo k s yle, alues, o goals, which dis up eamwo k and collabo a ion (Jehn, 1995). In ma i ime se ings, hese con lic s can lead o s ained ela ionships and inc eased s ess, u he con ibu ing o a igue. S udies ha e shown ha a igue among sea a e s is closely linked o us a ion and unsa e beha iou s, wi h in e pe sonal con lic s compounding hese e ec s (De D eu & Weinga , 2003). F us a ion and unsa e beha iou As shown in Fig. 1, esea ch shows ha us a ion is one o he unde lying ac o s dis ac ing sea a e s, leading o ask de ia ion a sea. Subs an ial esea ch suppo s he ac ha us a ion has a consid- e able e ec on cogni ion and physical, emo ional, and beha iou al a - ibu es o people a wo k in indus ies such as heal h, a ia ion, and oad anspo a ec ing sa e y (A kes e al., 1988; Be kowi z, 1989; Beiss- winge e al., 2015; B andenbu g e al., 2017; Fessle e al., 2004; Gaspe & Clo e, 1998; Ge e al., 2017; Le ne & Tiedens, 2006; Low- ens ein & Le ne , 2003; Mesken e al., 2007; NTSB, 1994). These s udies show ha us a ion causes headaches, o ge ulness, lack o concen- a ion, lack o a en ion o de ail, con usion, e o s in decision-making, lack o con idence, and ca elessness, which lead o consequen ial ou - comes a wo kplaces. Fu he , us a ion has been iden i ied as a igge o ange (Be kowi z, 1993), esul ing in ac o s such as agg essi e beha iou and isky beha iou (Ge e al., 2017; Nesbi e al., 2007; P ech e al., 2017; Szasz e al., 2010; Wickens e al., 2016; Zhang & Chan, 2016). While us a ion is also associa ed wi h isky beha iou s a wo k (Baumann & DeS eno, 2012; Jeon e al., 2014; Lennon & Wa son, 2015; S ephens & G oege , 2011; S ephens & Oh suka, 2014; S ephens e al., 2016), us a ion may di e a en ion equi ed o sa ely pe o m a ask (S aye e al., 2014). Resea ch ca ied ou in he oad anspo a ion indus y ound ha d i ing unde he in luence o us a ion inc eases he isk o a oad acciden by a ac o o 9.8 (Dingus e al., 2016). Fu he , Nesbi & Conge (2011) iden i ied us a ion as a sou ce o dis ac ion. Engaging in asks while expe iencing us a ion has been iden i ied as a o m o impai men , as suppo ed by mul iple s udies ha highligh i s signi i- cance as a key con ibu o o unsa e beha iou (Dahlen e al., 2005). The e o e, i can be a gued ha an impai ed pe cep ion o he bene i s o unde aking a pa icula heal h-seeking beha iou du ing a wo k ask may nega i ely a ec isk- aking beha iou (G ee e al., 2015; Konko e al., 2019; Minhad e al., 2017). Fu he , Wang e al. (2020) show ha A. Rajapakse and G.R. Emad The Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics 41 (2025) 28–37 30 a us a ed a i ude has a nega i e e ec on anspo sa e y awa eness. O he s udies show ha he human abili y o ollow a p ocedu e could be comp omised while us a ed due o educed accu acy, ocus and lack o sound judgemen , esul ing in ask de ia ion (Nad ian e al., 2019; Rajapakse & Emad, 2021). Wi h he in oduc ion o he ISM code, shipping companies need o p o ide hei c ew wi h wo k p ocedu es and checklis s in he ship’s sa e y managemen sys em (SMS) o enhance sa e y. These mus be ollowed linea ly o mos echnical wo k sea a e s conduc a sea. Howe e , when p epa ing he wo k p ocedu es, i is imp obable o he designe s o o esee phenomena such as us a ion, which may dis ac sea a e s when ollowing he p ocedu e a sea. The un o eseen conse- quences a ising om he dynamic and challenging cha ac e is ics inhe en in he ma i ime indus y, combined wi h he unp edic able human ac o , can lead o a di e gence be ween he en isioned wo k p ocedu es (WAI) designed by wo k planne s and he ac ual wo k pe - o med by sea a e s (WAD) (Fenneman & F ankenhuis, 2020; Ma e al., 2023). These disc epancies may lead o acciden s a sea (Hollnagel, 2021). The li e a u e on esea ch pe o med on us a ion and acciden s in he ma i ime domain emains limi ed in he con ex o WAI and WAD. Mo e impo an ly, no compelling indings om he exis ing s udies could be disce ned ega ding he ac o s con ibu ing o sea a e us- a ion h ough an exhaus i e li e a u e examina ion. This can be obse ed in he eac ion o he ma i ime indus y o mi iga ing ask de ia ions wi h me hods such as igh e p ocedu es, ex ended aining, and u ilising echnology (Dekke , 2018; Emad & Ro h, 2008, 2009; Rajapakse & Emad, 2023), lea ing unde lying ac o s such as sea a e us a ion unadd essed. Consequen ly, ma ine acciden epo s demons a e ha hese app oaches ailed o achie e he desi ed sa e y esul s (Ba alden & Sydnes, 2014). As pe he au ho s’ knowledge, he p esen s udy is he i s ha seeks o unde s and wo kplace us a ion and how i may con ibu e o ask de ia ions, which may lead o acci- den s a sea. WAI & WAD and i s impac on ask de ia ion Sea a e s mus ollow he p esc ibed p ocedu e o each echnical ope a ion hey need o pe o m onboa d ships. These p ocedu es a e p e- planned as linea ope a ions by he shipping company a he blun end (WAI). In con as , sea a e s’ ope a ions a he sea’s sha p end a e dy- namic, e ol ing, and non-linea (WAD) (Hollnagel, 2014; Ol edal & Lü zh¨ o , 2018). The misma ch be ween WAD and WAI while a emp ing o pe o m hese ma i ime ope a ions and he obliga ion o align hem can us a e sea a e s (Rajapakse e al., 2021). Mos acciden in- es iga ions blame sea a e s a he sha p end o acciden s because hey ailed o ollow he p ocedu es co ec ly (Chan e al., 2016). Shipping companies ely on he p ocedu es in he Sa e y Manage- men Sys em (SMS) o e alua e sea a e s’ sa e y pe o mance and o demons a e compliance wi h egula o y s anda ds, such as he In e - na ional Sa e y Managemen (ISM) Code, o s akeholde s (Valdez Banda e al., 2019). Resea ch indica es ha a ious human ac o s, a bo h pe sonal and o ganiza ional le els, can compel ask pe o me s o de ia e om he p ocedu es ou lined in a ship’s SMS o comple e asks mo e e icien ly (Dekke , 2006). The eby, sea a e s may sign o on p ocedu es and checklis s wi hou ully adhe ing o hem (Rajapakse & Emad, 2021). This p ac ice esul s in disc epancies be ween he docu- men ed compliance and he ac ual execu ion o asks. Al hough hese de ia ions do no always lead o acciden s (Kon ogiannis, 1999), hey c ea e la en isks. I such de ia ions a e no iden i ied and co ec ed in Fig. 1. Task De ia ion a Sea Model. Sou ce: Rajapakse e al# (2019). A. Rajapakse and G.R. Emad The Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics 41 (2025) 28–37 31 ime, hey could lead o signi ican and ad e se ou comes. Ma ine au ho i ies in es iga ing hese consequen ial ou comes blame sea a e s o hese inciden s. Howe e , sa e y science is expe i- encing a pa adigm shi om blaming humans o e o s leading o ac- ciden s (Sa e y-I) o he signi icance o a sys emic app oach o he human elemen in p e en ing acciden s (Sa e y-II). Howe e , he ship- ping indus y is ye o suppo he pa adigm shi (Tepe i e al., 2019). So a , ins umen s such as he ISM code ha e la gely o e looked ask de- ia ion among sea a e s ega ding human elemen s, such as he ole o sea a e us a ion in p e en ing acciden s (Rajapakse e al., 2022). His o ically, ask de ia ion due o us a ion has been examined om sociobiological assessmen s (F eud, 1930; Lo enz, 1974), p edic - able consequences (Dolla d e al., 1939), e enge mechanism (Be kowi z, 1993), quan i iable cha ac e is ics o pe sonali y (Buss & Du kee, 1957), & as an un a ou able pe sonal beha iou issue (Tillman & Hobbs, 1949). Ne e heless, acciden s caused by us a ion emain an elusi e opic o s udy. Resea ch me hod This s udy, pa o a b oade in es iga ion examining he in luence o human ac o s in haza dous ma i ime condi ions (Rajapakse & Emad, 2021), employed a quali a i e app oach o gain deep insigh s om pa icipan s (Be na d, 2013). Quali a i e esea ch enables he con- s uc ion o meaning and emphasizes in e p e ing da a wi hin i s speci ic con ex (B aun & Cla ke, 2019). Th ough his me hod, he s udy accessed pa icipan s’ expe iences, pe spec i es, and in e p e a ions (Su on & Aus in, 2015), allowing o a comp ehensi e unde s anding o how sea a e s pe cei e hei expe iences and he easons behind be- ha iou s ha may lead o ma i ime acciden s. Da a collec ion One- o-one in-dep h in e iews we e ca ied ou o ga he da a o his esea ch s udy. In e iewees we e selec ed based on hei in ol e- men in ma i ime acciden s and inciden s, which p o ided he con ex- ual basis o he in e iews. The in e iews enabled he esea che o cap u e eliable pe spec i es o esea ch pa icipan s in he subjec ma e (DeVane & Squi e, 2012). Fu he , encou aging in e iewees o openly exp ess hei hough s and eelings allowed o he p epa a ion o de ailed epo s ha p o ided comp ehensi e accoun s o he inciden s discussed (Be g, 2007, Rajapakse e al., 2022). In con as o o he da a collec ion me hods, he ideo- eco ded one- o-one in e iews p o ided addi ional da a ega ding people’s one o oice, in e up ions, body ges u es, pauses and di e en manne isms, which added o he ichness o he collec ed da a (D ew, 2009; Yin, 2011). Da a om six y-one in e iews we e used o he s udy. In e iewees comp ised deck and engine o ice s, c ew, and he ca e ing depa men s a . Thei na ionali ies ep esen ed a ious geog aphical a eas, including Aus alia, Eu ope, Asia, and Wes A ica. Du ing he in- e iews, he pa icipan s we e pa o an ac i e ma i ime wo k o ce o di e en indus y sec o s, including anke essels, con aine ca ie s, bulk ca ie s, gene al ca go ships, ee e ca ie s, and o sho e suppo essels. Resea ch pa icipan s we e asked o elucida e, o he bes o hei ecollec ion, he ci cums ances and ch onological sequence o e en s ha led o ma i ime acciden s associa ed wi h de ia ions om assigned asks. In ins ances whe e us a ion was ci ed as a cause o ask de- ia ions, pa icipan s in he esea ch we e p omp ed o expound upon he unde lying easons o such us a ions. In adhe ence o e hical equi emen s, no addi ional in o ma ion conce ning he acciden was acqui ed aside om de ails on i s na u e. The Human Resea ch E hics Commi ee (Tasmania) Ne wo k (HREC) app o ed he in e iew s uc u e used in he s udy. The HREC, a collabo a i e ini ia i e be ween he Depa men o Heal h and Human Se ices and he Uni e si y o Tasmania, has app o ed his s udy wi h he p ojec e e ence numbe H 0016348. The in e iewees we e ei he di ec ly in ol ed in o wi nessed hese acciden s and inciden s. “Di ec ly in ol ed” indica es ha he pa icipan was he sea a e pe o ming he ask o was a eam membe engaged in he ask ha led o he acciden . “Wi nessed” e e s o pa icipan s who we e p esen a he acciden o inciden loca ion and obse ed he e en s leading up o he acciden . The in e iews las ed hi y minu es o h ee hou s and we e eco - ded and ansc ibed e ba im. Da a on e en s leading up o se en y- ou ma i ime acciden s we e ob ained. These in e iews we e supplemen ed wi h casual discussions wi h wel e o he senio ma ine o ice s. Al hough insigh s gained om hese con e sa ions enhanced he un- de s anding o da a collec ed h ough in e iews, hey we e excluded om he da a analysis phase, as hey we e no ga he ed unde HREC egula o y guidelines. Gi en ha he in e iewees had di ec in ol emen o wi nessed he acciden s and inciden s unde s udy, his esea ch has diligen ly ol- lowed e hical esea ch p o ocols es ablished by he Human Resea ch E hics Commi ee (Tasmania) Ne wo k (HREC) o ensu e hei ano- nymi y. To pa icipa e in he s udy, all esea ch pa icipan s we e equi ed o p o ide in o med consen h ough a consen o m e iewed and app o ed by he HREC. Da a analysis A heo e ical hema ic analysis (TA) app oach was applied o iden- i y ecu ing pa e ns wi hin he quali a i e in e iew da a collec ed. TA se es as an e ec i e me hodology o de ec ing hemes wi hin a da ase and in e p e ing hei signi icance (B aun & Cla ke, 2016; Ja - adi & Za ea, 2016). Among he a ious me hods o hema ic analysis, his s udy u ilized B aun & Cla ke’s (2006) six-s ep amewo k, which is widely ega ded as a ounda ional and epu able app oach o quali a i e da a analysis, gaining signi ican popula i y o e he pas decade (B aun e al., 2016). The six s ages o his amewo k include amilia izing wi h he da a, gene a ing codes, de eloping hemes, e iewing and e ising hemes, naming hemes, and inally w i ing up he analysis. Ini ial and majo codes we e es ablished h ough heo e ical sa u a ion (Be aux, 1981; Be na d, 2000), achie ed by con inuously e ining pa e ns un il no new p ope ies eme ged (Cha maz, 2006; Glase , 2001). These codes cap u ed analy ically signi ican aspec s o he in e iew da ase and in o med he de elopmen o hemes. The codes we e hen clus e ed o c ea e cohe en and pa e ned hemes ac oss he da ase . These hemes we e o ganized in o dis inc ca ego ies ha ep esen ed key ideas ele an o he esea ch ques ion, speci ically add essing "why sea a e us a ion pe sis s, po en ially leading o acciden s." The e iew phase ensu ed ha he analysis emained aligned wi h he esea ch ques ion and accu a ely ep esen ed he da a, be o e p o- ceeding o he inal phase o de ining hemes. The w i ing phase in ol ed compiling and e ining he exis ing analy ic insigh s, p o iding a clea p esen a ion o he da a analysis p ocess. Findings Fou ca ego ies eme ge ha impede he objec i e o an aligned WAD (by sea a e s) wi h WAI (by shipping companies) due o us a ion a sea, as depic ed in Table 1. F us a ion among sea a e s impac s hei decisions and guides hei ac ions o de ia e om he plans and p o- cedu es, ega dless o whe he he decisions a e ela ed o he sou ce o us a ion (Le ne & Kel ne , 2000). The i s ca ego y in he indings o his esea ch is physical ha dship o conduc he ask. Sea a e s ge us a ed when he job ask becomes physically oo demanding. As a esul , sea a e s de ia e om he ship- ping company’s ask—discha ging ship du ies. A he same ime, ill o medically un i is also a con ibu ing ac o . Managing he physical s ain while conduc ing he ask is some imes pe cei ed as a sepa a e A. Rajapakse and G.R. Emad The Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics 41 (2025) 28–37 32 job. Fu he , he sequence o asks canno be execu ed in he p esc ibed o de some imes due o unexpec ed ci cums ances no p edic ed a he planning s age (Kalisch & Aebe sold, 2010; ¨ Os e man & Hul , 2016; Spoone e al., 2015) demanding mo e physical ac i i ies. Fu he , ex e nal and in e nal sa e y, secu i y, en i onmen and quali y audi s in po we e some imes oo physically demanding, especially a e he nigh ou asho e wi hou su icien es , causing us a ion among sea a e s. The second ca ego y is isola ion om lo ed ones and socie y. Sea- a e s a e con inuously us a ed due o he na u e o shipping, which equi es sea a e s o be away om lo ed ones and he communi y o an ex ended pe iod. This is exace ba ed when he communica ion a - angemen s p o ided by he shipping company o sea a e s a e limi ed o b oken down (Bo o nik, 2007; Caesa , 2016). Fu he , amily and pe sonal issues cause us a ion which may lead o ask de ia ion. On some occasions, sea a e s unde he in luence o us a ion due o pe sonal amily ma e s may display agg essi e beha iou , which is a cause o dange ous si ua ions a sea (Fessle e al., 2004). The hi d ca ego y is wo king wi h undesi able people. I is e iden om his s udy ha wo king wi h undesi able people is a cause o us a ion and may lead o acciden s due o ask de ia ions. Sea a e s a e impac ed by colleagues, supe iso s, ship companies, po ope a o s, audi o s, and pe sonnel on nea by ships. The mo e us a ed sea a e s eel he mo e hey pe cei e o he s as esponsible o an ad e se e en (Quigley and Tedeschi, 1996). This, in u n, leads o ask de ia ion due o unp eceden ed judgmen s and isky choices (Fessle e al., 2004; Le ne & Kel ne , 2001). The ou h ca ego y is se e ed expec a ions. F us a ion a ises when ci cums ances do no occu in he ways expec ed, which may lead o ask de ia ions (F aine e al., 2007; Hennessy, 2008; Hennessy & Wiesen hal, 1999; O’B ien e al., 2004; Shina & Comp on, 2004). This s udy con- i ms ha a ange o issues ela ed o he human elemen causes disap- poin men s in sea a e s a sea, including inancial losses, amily issues, and e en ac ions aken by o he ships ega ding na iga ion. These ca - ego ies a e u he elucida ed below. Physical ha dship o conduc a ask This esea ch shows ha manda o y in e na ional sa e y egula ions en o ced by ma i ime au ho i ies equi e a medical examina ion o all sea a e s o assess i ness o wo k a sea be o e joining. Howe e , some ac i i ies assigned o sea a e s on boa d may be pe cei ed o be beyond he physical capaci y o he indi iduals, which causes ask de ia ion due o us a ion. A junio o ice (R9) explained: We need o unde s and ha e e yone is no equally s ong. One o he ABs was asked wi h mo ing 200 L oil d ums using a ba el mo e . Bu he was no s ong enough o mo e hem o e all he pipe p o ec ion amps on deck. He was so p * ** ** (ang y) o and ended up lea ing hem he e and he e wi hou lashing. Du ing hea y wea he , he ba els mo ed and des oyed pipes and ship ailing. Some wen o e boa d, and i was e y dange ous o s op hem om mo ing. Olde sea a e s may also be ulne able o us a ion due o a ious asks. Wo k a sea includes physically demanding wo k such as climbing high s ai wells and ladde s, which some olde sea a e s may no be able o pe o m e icien ly e en hough hey a e clea ed o wo k onboa d (Agyemang & Ojo, 2023). Resea ch pa icipan s also men ioned ha wo king in un a ou able wea he condi ions caused us a ion among sea a e s leading o ask de ia ion. These inciden s a e in line wi h many o he inciden s whe e esea ch pa icipan s men ioned ha hey could no hink clea ly, go us a ed and ook w ong decisions which we e di e en o wha hey had p e iously ag eed o du ing wo k ask p e- s a mee ings (Ge e al., 2017; P ech e al., 2017; Zhang and Chan, 2016). As an example, a mas e (R36) men ioned: We we e going o pump ou wa e om he spide buoy space (FPSO). Se ing hoses and Wildon pump is i ing wo k. A e we se up e e y hing he wildon pump wouldn’ wo k. One o my eam membe s inspec ing he wildon pump ended up smashing i on he g a ing in he p ocess o emo ing he ai hose damaging i . He was clea ly upse and he ha d wo k had lipped his swi ch. The da a analysis shows ha when sea a e s unde ook wo k asks ha we e subs an ially di icul o beyond hei physical capaci y, hey demons a ed us a ion and, in some ins ances, agg ession. This is due o he con adic ions wi hin he componen o he subjec in he sea- a e s’ ac i i y sys em. No ably, some imes i is e iden ha when sea- a e s lea e ships on sho e lea e in po s, hey do no ge su icien es be o e hey ake o e du ies again, which may esul in us a ion. Simila ly, du ing audi s in po , sea a e s, especially o ice s who do no ge he s a ua y es , may ge us a ed. This could lead o ask de ia ion causing disc epancies be ween WAI and WAD. Addi ionally, when he co ec ools a e no a ailable o ca y ou a speci ic ask, and mo e physical exe ion is equi ed o comple e asks, sea a e s a e us a ed, leading o ask de ia ion. Some pa icipan s esponded ha sea a e s keep wo king in a igued si ua ions because o ea o ep imand o nega i e app aisal i ound es ing du ing an un- scheduled b eak pe iod. This causes us a ion and possibly leads o ask de ia ion. As a sea a e (R53) explained: We didn’ ha e he p ope chipping guns (de- us ing machine)bu we we e chipping wi h much hea ie guns which should no ha e been used o mo e han 20 minu es a a ime wi h 20 minu es b eaks in be ween. They su e unnecessa ily hinking ha hey’d ge bad epo s i hey es ed. They keep chipping away he whole day us a ed and hu ; hey all sick, hey make Table 1 Ca ego ies and hemes. Ca ego ies and hei hemes Physical ha dship o conduc he ask Physical sepa a ion om lo ed ones Wo king wi h undesi able people Se e ed Expec a ions Lack o physical i ness Isola ion and Loneliness o long pe iods Un ai ea men Pos poned o cancelled sho e lea e due o wo k Too i ed a e sho e lea e Missing impo an unc ions a home Pe cei ed un ai app aisal epo s Delays o p omised p omo ions Illness while a wo k Single pa en s wo ied abou kids a home One o mo e eam membe s disag ee on execu ion me hod o he job Lack o human esou ces on boa d o ma ch wo kload Ad e se wea he condi ions Someone ill in he amily Language ba ie s Pe cei ed unnecessa y pape wo k Fea o ep imand o nega i e app aisal i ound es ing Dea h in he amily Pe cei ed damage o epu a ion Delays o jobs because o pape wo k / pe mi enewal Fa ou i ism – physically s enuous asks no assigned equally Slow o no Wi-Fi onboa d making i di icul o communica e wi h amily Wo king wi h colleagues who a e no amilia wi h job asks Pe cei ed inancial losses Simul aneous asks Going h ough di o ce o b eak up wi h pa ne Supe iso blaming / insul ing his own eam wi h o he supe iso s Unexpec ed pilo e o s Low quali y ood Isola ion om long- ime iends Lack o us among sea a e s Unexpec ed manoeu ing ac ions om o he ships Inadequa e equipmen o conduc jobs   P essu e om shipping company o con inue ope a ing essel in spi e o b eakdowns Audi s and Inspec ions   Delayed sign o A. Rajapakse and G.R. Emad The Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics 41 (2025) 28–37 33 mis akes. Wha I’m going o say is ha i is no he bes ship o be. O he hemes which eme ged, causing us a ion in sea a e s, a e una oidable simul aneous asks conduc ed wi h physical ha dship o achie e goals (Rajapakse e al., 2019) and a ou i ism among he c ew which esul s in mo e physical wo k ca ied ou by ew indi iduals. Ou da a shows ha low-quali y ood onboa d ( ools) can also cause us- a ion due o physical ha dship. As a junio o ice (R21) esponded: The ood onboa d became useless and I’m su e mas e was up o monkey business wi h ou ood allowances. Boys (sea a e s) couldn’ ea much o he ood. We migh no do some jobs gi en o us because o no s eng h wi hou ea ing. How o wo k p ope ly wi h emp y s omach? Many acciden s du ing his (mas e ’s) 3 mon hs on boa d. As he abo e exce p s show, pe cei ed physical ha dship when pe - o ming asks causes us a ion, he eby con adic ing he objec o conduc ing ’WAD aligned wi h WAI’. Physical sepa a ion om lo ed ones and socie y Sea a e s a e subjec ed o a sha ed wo king and li ing en i onmen – he con ines o a ship s eaming in he ocean (Oldenbu g and Jensen, 2012). This esea ch con i ms ha sea a e s conside hei ime onboa d lonely and secluded om socie y (Dimi o a & Blanpain, 2010). Resea ch pa icipan s spoke o how acciden s happen because sea a e s a e us a ed due o his isola ion and being away om lo ed ones (Thomas & Bailey, 2009). This condi ion is agg a a ed on essen ial days o hem and hei lo ed ones, such as bi hdays and weddings. Also, due o he na u e o wo k, sea a e s will likely miss he passing o lo ed ones. They a e no mos o he ime e en able o a end he une als. Resea ch pa icipan s spoke o how wo king in hese ci cums ances leads o ask de ia ion due o he shee us a ion o being away a sea, causing con adic ions be ween WAI and WAD, leading o acciden s. Fo example, a junio o ice (R53) explained: I had in o med he company ha he baby was due on (da e) I couldn’ ind elie on ime. I old hem I don’ ca e I jus need o ge down. I was inally elie ed passing Singapo e. I was so us a ed and my wi e and my whole amily e y upse hinking I was no going o make i . I didn’ do any wo k hose ew days and he cap ain knew i . He always came on b idge du ing my wa ch (laughing). He was no e y su e o me. Resea ch pa icipan s also spoke o how sea a e s a e dis ac ed and us a ed when hey lea n ha lo ed ones a e going h ough illnesses and pain, which some imes leads o acciden s. Howe e , acciden in- es iga ions in hese cases usually blame sea a e s o no ollowing company p ocedu es o checklis s wi hou in es iga ing he unde lying causes. This esea ch ound ha some sea a e s do no a emp o co ec o challenge hese inconsis en indings bu accep hem as hei a e. In pa icula , an Able Seaman (R23) s a ed: My wi e was p egnan and sick. The baby was de o med and he doc o s had ad ised he o go o abo ion, bu she didn’ wan o. I couldn’ be wi h he because o house loan and ca loan. My mo he and wi e igh ing a home as well. Tha was a bad ime in my sea li e and I was like a mad man. The moo ing acciden du ing his bad ime because always mad. Acciden epo blamed me and OS (o dina y seaman) o no ollowing chie ma es signal and no amilia wi h moo ing winch ope a ion. This is a e and li e. Resea ch pa icipan s also poin ed ou ha sea a e us a ion leading o ask de ia ions occu s du ing di o ce o ela ionship b eakups. Mos o hem ied o hide i om hei colleagues because hey we e emba assed abou hei si ua ion. Howe e , hey displayed undesi able beha iou du ing wo k, consis en ly esul ing in isky decision-making and acciden s. This may be due o he uniqueness o he wo k con ex a sea since, in mos o he wo k en i onmen s, hey could seek assis ance om amily, iends, and e en p o essional psycholo- gis s. A mas e (R24) explained: When o ice s o c ew a e going h ough cou cases i is ex emely icky o wo k wi h hem. You can’ only us hem o ge h ough jobs sa ely, bu i is e y di icul o speak o hem abou a job. They don’ a gue wi h me, bu I always ge complain s om o he s ha hey a e no sa e o wo k wi h because o hei agg essi e beha iou o no eason. Ne e know when he nex ac- ciden is wi h hese people. This esea ch also suppo s ha he quali y o communica ion a- cili ies on boa d is a c i ical ac o ha can cause sea a e s’ us a ion (Thomas & Bailey, 2006; Thomas e al., 2003), leading o ask de ia ion. Resea ch pa icipan s spoke o how dealing wi h di icul ies in con- ac ing lo ed ones, especially when i is expensi e, caused us a ion on boa d. A mas e (R57) di ulged: The 2 nd ma e was making phone calls du ing he midnigh o 0400 wa ch on he sa phone and udging he imings on call log. He was caugh a e only 2 mon hs since he s a ed doing i . His excuse was he was doing i ou o us a ion simply because sa was oo expensi e and he had issues a home. Tha is apa om he ac ha he was o ally neglec ing his wa ch which was a majo issue. He was sen home he nex po , bu in eali y, his would ha e no happened i he company p o ided us wi h be e in e ne o call home. Two sides o he s o y he e. Bu he 2 nd e sion is no only accep ed bu no e en conside ed o my knowledge. This esea ch has shown ha isola ion om lo ed ones and socie y con ibu es o sea a e us a ion, causing disc epancies be ween WAD and WAI. Thus, sea a e s de ia e om hei asks, which has he po- en ial o cause acciden s a sea. Wo king wi h undesi able people Ou esea ch pa icipan s ag ee ha wo king wi h undesi able peo- ple causes us a ion among sea a e s leading o ask de ia ion and subsequen consequen ial e en s. This esea ch ound ha un ai ea - men onboa d is pe cei ed as undesi able. This phenomenon is common in o he wo kplaces (Ba on, 1994; Kinney, 1995; Man ell, 1994), which mos ly goes un epo ed. Howe e , esea ch pa icipan s men ioned ha sea a e s some imes engage in agg ession agains hei supe iso s (Neuman & Ba on, 1997). Fo example, a mas e (R32) explained: They (shipping company) has all ce i ica e copies and all documen s. They don’ need o ask me. Bu when hey need some hing hey always ask me. I ha e o ca e o all hese nonsense o he wise i can a ec my job you know. These people easily s * ** * ( uin) my happiness i I don’ do wha hey ask. Resea ch pa icipan s showed ha sea a e s a e subjec ed o un ai ea men in di e en ci cums ances by elemen s in he shipping in- dus y hie a chy, onboa d as well as asho e. Responden s men ioned ha when sea a e s "spoke up" o poin ou sa e y conce ns, unsa e p ac ices o wel a e conce ns on boa d, hey we e some imes blamed and labelled as " ouble make s". This a ec ed hei chances o e- employmen in he same company. Gaps in in e pe sonal us among sea a e s lead o a de e io a ing sa e y cul u e and human e o s (andMaka o a,2017). Also, pe cei ed acism is equen on boa d. Some esea ch pa ici- pan s sha ed hei expe ience on how some supe iso s and colleagues did no e en espond when hey g ee ed hem. Abuse by senio o ice s is also p e alen , and some imes physical abuse, bu hese cases almos always go un epo ed. Howe e , some sea a e s beha ed agg essi ely, e bally and some imes physically in some si ua ions owa ds he pe son (s) mis ea ing hem. They we e dismissed on beha iou al iola ion g ounds wi hou in es iga ion. A junio enginee (R26) men ioned: When I was a cade , chie (enginee ) shou ed a me in il h in he (engine) con ol oom all he ime in on o o he s du ing ea ime o a ious hings. Some we e genuine mis akes bu i was hell. He once kicked me as well bu no one said any hing because he was a senio chie enginee in he company and he could sack anyone any ime. I inju ed my inge s du ing a simple li on ha ship because I was always upse . We can’ change hese people. The e was also a senio cap ain who sacked second ma es all he ime. The unny hing is company obliged all he ime wi hou a leas an in es iga ion jus by going on he cap ain’s bad epo . When sea a e s a e unde he imp ession ha hei epu a ion among he o he c ew membe s on he ship is blemished due o mis akes, blame om supe iso s, umou s, and issues a home sea a e s ge us a ed A. Rajapakse and G.R. Emad The Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics 41 (2025) 28–37 34 and may engage in ask de ia ion. Simila ly, sea a e s expe ienced us a ion when hei supe iso s spoke nega i ely abou hem as a eam o indi idually o o he supe iso s. Addi ionally, pe cei ed un ai app aisal epo s by supe iso s a e a c i ical cause o us a ion o sea a e s. A mas e (R09) explained: When c ew ac ually ge nega i e app aisal epo , we discuss wi h hem how hey can imp o e and some o hem ake i objec i ely. Bu some ob i- ously hink i is un ai and disag ee and hink i will a ec hei u u e job p ospec s and ac anxious. Because hey wan o con inue o wo k peace ully, hey don’ w i e any opposing commen s bu I know om hei beha iou ha o one hey a e so unhappy o days i no mon hs and also hei quali y o wo k dec eases, y o hide mis akes, don’ help o he s and y o always show hey a e be e by aking sho cu s ou o shee us a ion. App aisal epo s in oday’s o m is a ecipe o disas e . Mo eo e , sea a e s a e us a ed, which leads o ask de ia ion when hey a e pa o a eam bu do no ag ee wi h he p ocedu e ol- lowed and ag eed by he es . Resea ch pa icipan s men ioned how hei conce ns as eam membe s a e some imes dismissed. Howe e , he eam decides o go ahead wi h he job causing us a ion. Sea a e s a e also us a ed when o he eam membe s a e un amilia wi h he job asks and mus compensa e o hei sho comings. Addi ionally, lan- guage ba ie s when wo king wi h o he na ionali ies gi e ise o us- a ion leading o ask de ia ion among sea a e s, po en ially causing acciden s. Se e ed Expec a ions This s udy con i ms ha us a ion occu s due o unme expec a- ions o sea a e s leading o ask de ia ions, as also shown by o he e- sea che s (F aine e al., 2007; Hennessy, 2008; Hennessy & Wiesen hal, 1999; O’B ien e al., 2004; Shina & Comp on, 2004). Sea a e s ha e pe sonal expec a ions ega ding hei wo k en i onmen and hei u u e. When hese expec a ions a e cu sho by p e ailing ci cum- s ances, hey wo k unde he in luence o us a ion. This esea ch ound ha sea a e s equen ly expe ience disappoin men on boa d which may lead o ask de ia ion causing acciden s. Fo example, an elec ical enginee (R10) explained: 2nd enginee old i e o do a epai on he boile eed pump / disman le and o e haul. Fi e expec ed his job was pos poned because o wo h ee di icul shi s ea lie . Red ho a gumen no igh ing bu almos . Fi e s a ed o disman le he eed pump. He was uming when he s a ed he job. Because o he a gumen he o go o close (isola e suc ion and discha ge al es). I Hea d a e 30 minu es wo h ee people shou ing om below decks (2nd deck) because o he acciden . Delays o expec ed p omo ions a e ano he eason sea a e s ge us a ed. Some sea a e s wai many yea s expec ing p omised p o- mo ions, bu shipping companies make excuses o delay p omo ions e en u he . Also, some sea a e s expe ience sala y sha ing due o sala y scale adjus men s by shipping companies while onboa d, leading o se e e us a ion. These si ua ions lead o ask de ia ion, as a junio o ice (R28) explained: I had he alid con ac wi h my sala y clea ly s a ed o he whole ime ( enu e) on boa d. The company decided o dec ease junio o ice wages and mine was a ec ed oo. I was shocked and de as a ed. I had so many hings going on a home and I needed he money. I couldn’ igh he company. I was so upse and dep essed eeling helpless. I couldn’ concen a e on wa ch al- ways hinking abou he money cu . Basically, he hough o no doing a good job because my sala y was educed unning in my head. Fu he mo e, unexpec ed adminis a i e wo k, commonly called pape wo k on ships, us a es sea a e s. Resea ch pa icipan s spoke o how us a ing i is when jobs a e unexpec edly delayed because o pape wo k such as pe mi alida ion a shi change. Simila ly, sea a e s pe cei e many adminis a i e asks as unnecessa y and dis ac ing, causing us a ion. These us a ions lead o aking sho cu s and some imes neglec ing he job al oge he , hence ask de ia ion leading o po en ial acciden s. Ano he cause o sea a e us a ion on boa d is he lack o human esou ces o ma ch he expec ed wo kload e en hough he c ew sizes comply wi h in e na ional egula ions. A chie enginee (R18) explained an example o a sequence o e en s building up o an acciden : We couldn’ cope up wi h he wo k. We had o ge help om deck people o wo k in he engine oom o ge he epai s done on he genes (gene a o s) and main engine. Al hough we didn’ alk abou i , we knew ha we didn’ ha e enough people and we we e p e y us a ed abou i because i we had mo e people, i would be an easy couple o jobs. Jus because we ha e enough people as pe he sa e manning ce i ica e, doesn’ mean ha we ha e enough people o do he wo k sa ely. This is no wha we expec when we come o wo k on a ship. Resea ch esponden s poin ed ou ha wheelhouse us a ion occu s due o unexpec ed manoeu es om o he ships. Wa chkeepe s display agg essi e isk- aking manoeu es in iola ion o company p ocedu es in he pe cep ion o collision egula ions iola ions om o he ships leading o close-qua e s si ua ions and some imes acciden s. Ano he sou ce o us a ion is unexpec ed pilo e o s. A mas e (R56) explained: A mas e expec s he pilo o know his * ** * (be compe en ). Mos o he ime e e y hing goes smoo h. Some imes no . I i comes o a poin ha I need o ake o e he con om he pilo , we al eady in o deep * ** * ( ouble). I is e y di icul o sa e he si ua ion om he e. A his poin o ime you a e so us a ed o us ing his ellow (pilo ) o do a good job, i is so di icul o ge you * ** * (ac ) oge he in his s a e o ange o ollow p ocedu e and do he igh hing. Thus, i could be s a ed ha se e ed expec a ions cause disc epancies in WAD aligned wi h WAI a sea by sea a e s, esul ing in con adic ing he sa e ope a ion o ships. Discussion and conclusion Today, he e is a signi ican need o iden i y he sou ces o e oneous human ac ions and add ess unde lying con ibu ing ac o s o imp o e ma i ime sa e y. Al hough some ma i ime sa e y aspec s ha e imp o ed since he in oduc ion o sa e y ins umen s by he IMO, such as he ISM code (Ka akasnaki e al., 2018), he e is conside able oom o imp o emen in aligning wo k-as-imagined and wo k-as-done (Rajapakse and Emad, 2021). This esea ch explo es us a ion as a con ibu ing ac o o ask de ia ions and, subsequen ly, may lead o acciden s a sea among sea- a e s. The s udy emphasises he physical ha dships in ol ed in speci ic asks, such as hose beyond indi idual physical capaci ies, leading o us a ion and po en ial acciden s. Addi ionally, he isola ion om lo ed ones and socie y du ing ex ended pe iods a sea is iden i ied as a signi ican sou ce o us a ion, impac ing sea a e s’ men al s a es and con ibu ing o ask de ia ions. Wo king wi h undesi able indi iduals subjec ed o un ai ea men also leads o us a ion and subsequen ask de ia ions. Fu he , he s udy highligh s how unme expec a ions, such as delayed p omo ions, unnecessa y adminis a i e asks and sala y adjus men s, con ibu e o sea a e s’ us a ion and po en ial acciden s. O e all, he esea ch iden i ies mul iple elemen s wi hin he sea a e s’ ac i i y sys em ha , when con lic ing, esul in disc epancies be ween wo k-as-imagined (WAI) and wo k-as-done (WAD), po en ially jeop- a dising he sa e y o ma i ime ope a ions. In an e a whe e sa e y science is unde going a pa adigm shi om adi ional e o -based sa e y managemen (Sa e y-I) o one which conce ns he capabili y o he human elemen in sa e y managemen (Sa e y-II) (Hollnagel, 2014), he shipping indus y seems o esis he change. This could be he eason o consis en shipping mishaps h oughou he wo ld. This s udy suppo s he indings o Tepe i e al. (2019), which shows ha sa e y managemen sys ems on boa d a e pe cei ed as echnically ocused, neglec ing human elemen s, such as sea a e us a ion in ma i ime ope a ions. The s udy also suppo s he indings o G ee e al. (2015) and Le ne and Tiedens (2006), which A. Rajapakse and G.R. Emad The Asian Jou nal o Shipping and Logis ics 41 (2025) 28–37 35 poin ou ha us a ion may hinde objec i i y, a ionali y and isk a e sion abili ies, leading o undesi able si ua ions. The e o e, i is appa en ha he shipping indus y may equi e a new ocus on policy, p ocedu es, and sea a e s’ compe ence o cu b ma i ime acciden s. To he bes o he au ho s’ knowledge, his s udy is he i s in he ma i ime indus y ha aims o unde s and sea a e us a ion and how i may con ibu e o ask de ia ions ha may lead o acciden s. Mo e esea ch on ask de ia ion caused by us a ion a he wo kplace is equi ed o shed mo e ligh on his elusi e opic. The ollowing ac ions a e ecommended o he ma i ime indus y o conside a ion as a s epping s one o imp o ing sa e y a sea by add essing us a ion among sea a e s. These ha e been compiled om he esponses p o ided by he pa icipan s in he esea ch. •Shipping companies mus c ea e a ‘speak-up’ cul u e on hei ships by ewa ding sea a e s o exp essing hei ideas, including when us a ed. A g ie ance p ocedu e mus be implemen ed on e e y ship, and sea a e s mus be educa ed on his so ha sea a e s’ us- a ions a e in es iga ed and managed by shipping companies. •Shipping companies mus educa e sea a e s o edesign jobs and p o ide esou ces o edesigning jobs whe e equi ed so ha sea- a e s o di e en physical capaci ies can conduc jobs. •Shipping companies mus p o ide sea a e s wi h su icien Pe sonal P o ec i e Equipmen (PPE) o use in ad e se wea he condi ions, such as in cold o wa m clima es. Flag s a es should conside implemen ing minimum le els o hese PPE o be ca ied on ships as pe hei ading ou es. •Flag s a es should conside implemen ing minimum s anda ds o ood ega ding nu i ional alue on boa d ships, i espec i e o he di e en na ionali ies wo king on boa d. •Shipping companies should conside implemen ing os e s o hei sea a e s o go asho e while in po s so ha pe sonnel going asho e can ge enough es o p e en a igue. •Flag s a es should implemen minimum s anda ds o p ope in e ne connec ions on ships so sea a e s can use echnology o i ually pa icipa e in essen ial unc ions a home. •Shipping companies should implemen a ecip ocal c ew app aisal sys em whe e supe iso s and subo dina es can assess each o he ’s pe o mance. •Shipping companies mus p o ide counselling se ices o sea a e s and educa e hem on he bene i s o eaching ou o counselling se ices in imes o us a ion. •The inclusion o ’F us a ion’ as a haza d in he ’Job Risk Assess- men ’ empla e p o ided o sea a e s by he shipping company may assis sea a e s in implemen ing ac ions o nega e us a ions du ing he job ask i hey exis . •Shipping companies need o eassess and educe he maximum du a ion sea a e s spend a sea and he minimum ime asho e on aca ion be o e being called ou o wo k a sea again. Limi a ions The in e iews we e exclusi ely conduc ed wi h sea a e s in ol ed in ma i ime acciden s and did no ep esen a b oade popula ion o sea a e s. While his does no comp omise he o e all scien i ic in eg i y o he s udy p esen ed, i s ands as a limi a ion wi hin his esea ch. Ano he limi a ion o his esea ch was he es ic ion on p esen ing pa icipan da a openly. Due o he sensi i e na u e o he in o ma ion collec ed unde HREC egula ions, all p esen ed da a had o be ca e ully anonymized, ensu ing no da a could be aced back o any speci ic in- ciden s desc ibed by he pa icipan s. An addi ional cons ain in his s udy is he a iabili y in indi iduals’ ole ance le els ega ding wo kplace challenges and domes ic issues, po en ially in luencing ask de ia ions a sea. Hence, u he explo a ion is wa an ed o unde s and his complex phenomenon be e . Fu he , sea oyages on in e na ionally ading essels wi h pe sonnel om di e en pa s o he wo ld a e highly a ec ed by oyage-speci ic and o he sociocul u al elemen s in he ma i ime in- dus y no cap u ed in his s udy, esul ing in he equi emen o u he in es iga ion on how o coun e sea a e us a ion a sea. Conse- quen ly, a solu ion o his in ica e p oblem is ye o be disco e ed. CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen Gholam Reza Emad: Supe ision, Me hodology, Fo mal analysis, Da a cu a ion, Concep ualiza ion. Asanka Rajapakse: W i ing – e iew & edi ing, W i ing – o iginal d a , Me hodology, In es iga ion, Fo mal analysis, Da a cu a ion, Concep ualiza ion. Decla a ion o Compe ing In e es The au ho s whose names a e lis ed immedia ely below ce i y ha hey ha e NO a ilia ions wi h o in ol emen in any o ganiza ion o en i y wi h any inancial in e es (such as hono a ia; educa ional g an s; pa icipa ion in speake s’ bu eaus; membe ship, employmen , consul- ancies, s ock owne ship, o o he equi y in e es ; and expe es imony o pa en -licensing a angemen s), o non- i nancial in e es (such as pe sonal o p o essional ela ionships, a i lia ions, knowledge o be- lie s) in he subjec ma e o ma e ials discussed in his manusc ip . D . Asanka Rajapakse D . Gholam Reza Emad Re e ences Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequi y in social exchange. Ad ances in Expe imen al Social Psychology, 2, 267–299. Agyemang, E., & Ojo, T. K. (2023). “I is jus annoying and ime-was ing”: Unde s anding jaywalke s’ disdain o oo b idge use in u ban Ghana. ISSN 2214-1405 Jou nal o T anspo Heal h, 31(2023), A icle 101634. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. j h.2023.101634. Allen, J. A., & Rogelbe g, S. G. (2013). Manage -led g oup mee ings: A con ex o p omo ing employee engagemen . G oup O ganiza ion Managemen , 38(5), 543–569. Ande son, J. E., Ross, A. J., & Jaye, P. (2016). Modelling Resilience and Resea ching he Gap be ween Wo k-As-Imagined and Wo k-As-Done. Resilien Heal h Ca e: Reconciling Wo k-As-Imagined and Wo k-As-Done, 133–141. A kes, H. R., Dawes, R. M., & Ch is ensen, C. (1988). Fac o s in luencing he use o a decision ule in ap obabilis ic ask. In J. Dowie, & A. S. Els ein (Eds.), P o essional judgmen : a eade in clinical decisionmaking. New Yo k: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess. Awal, Z. I., & Hasegawa, K. (2017). A S udy on Acciden Theo ies and Applica ion o Ma i ime Acciden s. P ocedia Enginee ing, 194, 298–306. ISSN 1877-7058. Ba on, R. A. (1994). The physical en i onmen o wo k se ings; E ec s on ask pe o mance, in e pe sonal ela ions, and job sa is ac ion. In In. B. M. S aw, & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Resea ch in o ganiza ional beha io , 16 pp. 1–46). G eenwich, CT: JAI P ess. Ba alden, B., & Sydnes, A. K. (2014). Ma i ime sa e y and he ISM code: a s udy o in es iga ed casual ies and inciden s. WMU Jou nal o Ma i ime A ai s, 13, 3–25. Baumann, J., & DeS eno, D. (2012). Con ex explains di e gen e ec s o ange on isk aking. Emo ion, 12(6), 1196–1199. h ps://doi.o g/10.1037/a0029788 Beisswinge , B. M., Zhang, K., Goe z, T., Fang, P., & Fischbache , U. (2015). The e ec s o subjec i e loss o con ol on isk- aking beha io : he media ing ole o ange . F on ie s in Psychology, 6. h ps://doi.o g/10.3389/ psyg.2015.00774 Be g, B. L. (2007). Quali a i e esea ch me hods o he social sciences. London: Pea son. Be kowi z, L. (1989). F us a ion-agg ession hypo hesis: Examina ion and e o mula ion. Psychological Bulle in, 106, 59–73. Be kowi z, L. (1993). Agg ession: I s Causes, Consequences, And Con ol. New Yo k: McG aw-Hill. Be gs ¨ om, J., Dahls ¨ om, N., Van-Winsen, R., Lü zh¨ o , M., Nyce, J., & Dekke , S. (2009). Rule and ole e ea : An empi ical s udy o p ocedu es and esilience. Jou nal o Ma i ime Resea ch, 6(3), 41–58. Be aux, D. (1981). F om he li e-his o y app oach o he ans o ma ion o sociological p ac ice. In D. Be aux (Ed.), In Biog aphy and socie y: The li e his o y app oach in he social sciences (pp. 29–45). London: Sage. Bo o nik, M. (2007). Labo Ci cula ion and Changes among Sea a e s’ Families and Communi ies in Ki iba i. Asian and Paci ic Mig a ion Jou nal, 16(2), 225–249. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/011719680701600205 B ai hwai e, J., Wea s, R. L., & Hollnagel, E. (2017). Me hods and Solu ions: Reconciling Wo k-As-Imagined and Wo k-As-Done. Resilien Heal h Ca e. Boca Ra on: CRC P ess. B andenbu g, S., Oehl, M., & Seigies, K. (2017). Ge man axi d i e s’ expe iences and exp essions o d i ing ange : A e he d i ing ange scale and he d i ing ange exp ession in en o y alid measu es? T a ic Inju y P e en ion, 18(8), 807–812. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/15389588.2017.1316493 B aun, V., & Cla ke, V. (2006). Using hema ic analysis in psychology. Quali a i e Resea ch in Psychology, 3, 77–101. A. Rajapakse and G.R. Emad