Dinda, Soumyananda
A icle
P oduc ion echnology and ca bon emission: Long- un
ela ion wi h sho - un dynamics
Jou nal o Applied Economics
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P oduc ion echnology and ca bon emission: long- un
ela ion wi h sho - un dynamics
Soumyananda Dinda
To ci e his a icle: Soumyananda Dinda (2018) P oduc ion echnology and ca bon emission:
long- un ela ion wi h sho - un dynamics, Jou nal o Applied Economics, 21:1, 106-121, DOI:
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P oduc ion echnology and ca bon emission: long- un
ela ion wi h sho - un dynamics
Soumyananda Dinda
Depa men o Economics, Uni e si y o Bu dwan, Bu dwan, India
ABSTRACT
Using a ec o e o co ec ion model, his pape in es iga es he
long- un ela ion wi h sho - un dynamics among CO
2
emission,
echnological p og ess and economic g ow h. I obse es a speci-
fic kind o causali y unning om echnological p og ess o educ-
ion o CO
2
emission in he Uni ed S a es du ing 1963–2010, while
pas income gene a ion is he cause o ising ca bon emission.
Policy make s should emphasise R&D o upda ed p oduc ion
echnology, while aising income helps o educe CO
2
emission.
Technological p og ess is he cen al o ce ha causes income
g ow h as well as emissions’ educ ion. Con inuous change and
adap ion o new and upda ed echnology is he main d i ing o ce
owa ds sus ainable de elopmen .
ARTICLE HISTORY
Recei ed 29 Augus 2016
Accep ed 1 Sep embe 2017
KEYWORDS
CO
2
emission; economic
g ow h; pa en ;
echnological p og ess
1. In oduc ion
The linkage be ween clima e change and economic g ow h is an impo an issue in ecen
esea ch; howe e , he e is no much ocus on he ela ionship be ween echnological
p og ess and clima e change o ca bon emission. Ca bon dioxide (CO
2
)emissionis he
main culp i o global clima e change (Coondoo & Dinda, 2002). Ca bon emission ises
o e he yea s while he numbe o pa en egis a ion also inc eases in a de eloped coun y
like he Uni ed S a es. Now, ques ions a ise abou he ela ionship be ween pa en egis a-
ion and ca bon emission, o he ela ionship be ween clima e change and echnological
p og ess.
1
Se e al s udies (Coondoo & Dinda, 2002; Dinda & Coondoo, 2006;S e n,2000;
Yang, 2000) obse e he causal linkage be ween economic g ow h and ca bon emission (o
ene gy consump ion). Applying econome ic ools, his s udy in es iga es he ela ion
among echnological p og ess, economic g ow h and CO
2
emission.
Le us conside a specific le el o income, up o which one may easonably expec
high g eenhouse gas-in ensi e income g ow h o affec ad e sely he clima e; bu
beyond a ce ain c i ical le el, clima ic deg ada ion may each a s age whe e u he
income g ow h becomes impossible. Thus, clima e change is a global public good ha
may ac as a cons ain o income g ow h a his la e s age i g eenhouse gas-in ensi e
income g ow h p ocess is con inued (Dinda, 2009a; Hol z-Eakin & Selden, 1995;
CONTACT Soumyananda Dinda [email p o ec ed] Depa men o Economics, Uni e si y o Bu dwan,
Golapbag Campus, Bu dwan, Wes Bengal 713104, India
I am also g a e ul o he Edi o o he JAE o aluable sugges ions.
1
Pa en egis a ion is conside ed as he p oxy o echnology and i s change o e ime is he echnological p og ess.
JOURNAL OF APPLIED ECONOMICS
2018, VOL. 21, NO. 1, 106–121
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/15140326.2018.1526871
© 2018 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/
by/4.0/), which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
Schmalensee, S oke , & Judson, 1998; Wo ld Bank, 1992). The global economy aces
se ious challenges om he global clima e change. To o e come i , he e is in e na ional
p essu e o educe ca bon emission o all na ions.
This s udy in es iga es echnological p og ess and i s linkage wi h CO
2
emission,
which is a c ucial ac o o global clima e change. I ocuses on p oduc ion echnology
and i s p og ess which is obse ed in numbe o g an ed u ili y pa en s o e ime.
2
These pa en s imp o e p oduc ion p ocesses. Gene ally, echnological p og ess
3
esul s
in a g ea e efficiency in he use o ene gy and ma e ials. T uly, upg aded echnology
imp o es wi h economic g ow h and helps o p oduce ce ain amoun o goods using
less ene gy and ma e ials, which defini ely educe p essu e o bu den on na u al
esou ces and en i onmen successi ely.
The e is a g owing end among indus ies o econside hei p oduc ion p ocesses
and he eby ake en i onmen al consequences o p oduc ion in o accoun . Lindma k
(2002) obse es ha he echnological change associa ed wi h he p oduc ion p ocess
may also esul in changes o he inpu mix o ma e ials and uels. Ul ima ely ene gy
equi emen pe uni o ou pu will be less o new p oduc ion echnology. Any
imp o emen in p oduc ion sys em h ough ce ain change in echnology, edesign
p oduc o /and p oduc ion p ocess helps o sa e ene gy and educe emission.
4
In ui i ely, echnological p og ess is one o he main causes o educ ion o ca bon
emission (Dinda, 2009b). Does echnological p og ess mo e in he igh di ec ion
owa ds he low ca bon emission associa ed wi h economic g ow h? A ca e ul s udy is
necessa y o unde s and he causal linkage be ween echnological p og ess, income and
ca bon emissions. I ce ainly helps o o mula e p ope policy o mi iga ing clima e
change o a coun y and he wo ld.
In his con ex , his s udy ocuses on he Uni ed S a es, a de eloped economy, whe e
numbe o pa en egis a ion (bo h design and u ili y pa en ) is e y high o e se e al
decades. So, logically he Uni ed S a es should be he leas pollu e in he wo ld, bu in
con as , he Uni ed S a es is on he op o ca bon emi e s lis .
5
Why is he Uni ed
S a es on he op pollu e s lis while i holds he majo pa en s o inno a ions o
upg aded echnology? Does he ising inno a ion educe ossil- uel consump ion and
he eby ca bon emission? This pape a emp s o answe hese ques ions wi h a possible
heo e ical explana ion and empi ical e idence.
2
Numbe o u ili y pa en s g an ed in he US Pa en and T adema k Office (USPTO) is aken, he e, as a p oxy o
echnology o gi en yea . O e ime, i ep esen s echnological p og ess. Se e al s udies also used USPTO da a; see
Cao (2014), Hall e al. (2001), and G iliches (1998).
3
Technological p og ess may also play a majo ole in his p ocess o ans o ma ion o a cleane en i onmen by
accele a ing economic g ow h and a he same ime by helping in he subs i u ion o di y and obsole e echnologies
by cleane ones. This is he so-called echnique effec o economic g ow h (see Dinda, 2004; S e n, 2004). The goal o
cleane and upg aded echnology is o educe emissions o pollu an s. Applica ions o hese echnologies defini ely
gene a e less emission and decline he emission le el, “clean coal echnologies”like PFBC, which ini ial goal was o
educe emission o pa icula es and acidifica ion. Ano he example is ha ca aly ic con e e s o ca s dec ease
emissions ha affec he local en i onmen and u n i in o o he emissions such as CO
2
emission. This s udy ocuses
on CO
2
emission only.
4
Ene gy sa ing echnology educes ossil- uel consump ion and he eby less ca bon emissions. Some imes, an ex e nal
shock may also o ce he s uc u e o he economy o change. Fo example, oil shocks o he 1970s ha e caused an
eno mous s uc u al economic ansi ion wo ld o e owa ds en i onmen - iendly echnology ha helped o educe
emission (Moomaw & Un uh, 1997; Un uh & Moomaw, 1998).
5
China and he Uni ed S a es a e in he op lis o o al ca bon emission. China and he Uni ed S a es hold fi s and
second posi ion in CO
2
emission in he wo ld, espec i ely. Fo de ails, see he Ca bon Dioxide In o ma ion Analysis
Cen e (CDIAC) o Oak Ridge Na ional Labo a o y (ORNL), he Uni ed S a es.
JOURNAL OF APPLIED ECONOMICS 107
The pape is o ganised as ollows: Sec ion 2 highligh s he ela ed li e a u e and
discusses on echnological p og ess ocusing on u ili y pa en . Sec ion 3 p o ides a
simple heo e ical backg ound ollowing Dinda (2009b), which shows how p oduc ion
echnologies help o educe pollu ion in a g owing economy. Sec ion 4 desc ibes he
da a and he empi ical me hodology. Sec ion 5 analyses he esul s, and Sec ion 6
concludes.
2. Li e a u e e iew
2.1. Rela ed li e a u e
Se e al socio-economic ac o s (including consume s’choices) a e esponsible o
imp o ing en i onmen al quali y (Gawande, Boha a, Be ens, & Wang, 2000,2001;
Lopez & Mi a, 2000; Lieb, 2002; McConnel, 1997; Ro hman, 1998); howe e , en i on-
men al quali y imp o es also wi h echnological p og ess (And eoni & Le inson, 2001;
B ock & Taylo , 2010; Dinda, 2004; G ossman & K uege , 1995; Komen, Ge king, &
Folme , 1997). Loschel (2002) p o ides an o e iew o he ea men o echnological
change in economic models o en i onmen al policy. The assessmen o clima e change
mi iga ion policies h ough economic modelling depends c ucially on assump ions
unde which echnological change has been inco po a ed in he model (Loschel &
Schymu a, 2013).
Ea lie economics modelling a e hea ily elied on he assump ion o exogenous
echnological change, which is also a unc ion o ime. Al hough many p oblems
associa ed wi h modelling o exogenous echnological change ha e been esol ed,
nume ous ques ions s ill emain unanswe ed. Few ene gy–economy–en i onmen
models conside echnological change as endogenous, esponding o socio-economic
a iables. Loschel (2002) poin s ou o h ee main elemen s in models o echnological
inno a ion: (1) in es men in R&D, (2) spillo e s om R&D and (3) echnology
lea ning, o lea ning-by-doing. Technological change is an unce ain phenomenon.
These unce ain ies ha e o be inco po a ed in la ge-scale models mo e ca e ully.
Ano he impo an dimension o echnical change is he po en ial o pa h-dependency,
ine ias and lock-in si ua ions. Ene gy–economy models can accoun o such effec s by
a ca e ul inclusion o lea ning-by-doing, ime lags, assump ions abou he diffusion
a es o inno a ions and di ec ed (o biased) echnological change (Cao, 2014; G iliches
1998; Ha ne , 2005; Hall, Jaffe, & T aj enbe g, 2001; Loschel & Schymu a, 2013).
The e a e wo majo ends in he li e a u e –one ocuses on shi ing he use o
p oduc ion echnologies which is diffe en om hei p oduc ion in ensi y (S okey,
1998) and o he analyses he cha ac e is ics o he aba emen echnology (John &
Pecchenino, 1994; Selden & Song, 1995). B ock and Taylo (2010) p o ide a G een
Solow model ha includes emission, aba emen and s ock o pollu ion. Ande sson and
Ka pes am (2013) demons a e ha he economic g ow h p omo es a educ ion o
ene gy and ca bon emissions. They analyse he sho - e m and long- e m de e minan s
o ene gy in ensi y, ca bon in ensi y and scale effec s o eigh de eloped and wo
eme ging economies om 1973 o 2007.
A de ailed li e a u e su ey on ene gy–g ow h nexus can be ound in he s udy o
Oz u k (2010). B unne meie and Cohen (2003) iden i y he de e minan s o
108 S. DINDA

en i onmen al inno a ion in he US manu ac u ing indus ies. Using a panel o 127
manu ac u ing indus ies o e he pe iod 1989–2004, Ca ion-Flo es and Innes (2010)
s udy he po en ial bidi ec ional causal links be ween en i onmen al inno a ion and
oxic ai pollu ion and find ha en i onmen al inno a ion is an impo an d i e o
educ ions in US oxic emissions. Le inson (2009) obse es ha he US manu ac u ing
sec o ai pollu an s (such as SO
2
,NO
2
, CO and VOC) declined wi h echnological
ad ancemen du ing 1987–2001. Se e al s udies (Ape gis & Payne, 2009; Bu ns, G oss,
& S e n, 2013; Cheng, 1996,1999; Cheng & Lai, 1997; Coondoo & Dinda, 2002; Daghe
& Yacoubian, 2012; Kalime is, Richa dson, & Bi as, 2014; S e n, 2000; Yang, 2000)
examine he causal ela ionship be ween income and ene gy consump ion (emission),
bu ew (Ausubel, 1995) in es iga e he causali y be ween echnological p og ess and
ca bon emission. This pape mainly ocuses on he long- un equilib ium ela ionship
among CO
2
emission, income and echnological p og ess wi h hei sho - un
dynamics in a de eloped economy like he Uni ed S a es.
2.2. Technological p og ess
Technological p og ess is possible h ough inno a ions, which a e p o ec ed by pa en
igh s. Pa en s a e impo an legal documen s, issued by an au ho ised go e nmen
agen , g an ing he igh o exclude anyone else om he p oduc ion o use o a specific
new de ice o p ocess o defined numbe o yea s. They a e issued, gene ally, o he
in en o o he de ice o p ocess a e a ho ough examina ion ocusing “on bo h he
no el y o he claimed i em and i s po en ial u ili y”(G iliches, 1990). As s a ed in
G iliches (1990): “The igh embedded in he pa en can be assigned by he in en o o
somebody else, usually o his employe , a co po a ion, and/o sold o o licensed o use
by somebody else”. The main pu pose o he pa en sys em is “ o encou age in en ion
and echnical p og ess bo h by p o iding a empo a y monopoly o he in en o and
by o cing he ea ly disclosu e o he in o ma ion necessa y o he p oduc ion o his
i em o he ope a ion o he new p ocess”(G iliches, 1990). Thus, pa en egis a ion is
conside ed as a p oxy o inno a ion and i p o ides coun y’s echnological capabili ies
(A chibugi & Coco, 2004,2005; G iliches, 1990, 1998; Lall, 1992). So, he pa en
egis a ion o a coun y shows he end in he imp o emen o echnological s eng h
(Tong and F ame 1994).
This s udy mainly concen a es on echnological s eng h o a na ion. This pape
conside s he u ili y pa en (UTPAT) as a p oxy o p oduc ion echnology,
6
which is he
main conce n o ca bon emission in he p oduc ion p ocess. Ma ke ambi ions a e he
p ime mo e o new inno a ions in a ma u ed capi alis ic economy (Lall, 1992).
Technological p og ess is cap u ed in e ms o u ili y pa en s which mus be eflec ed
wi h less pollu ion in he efficien p oduc ion p ocess. As numbe o pa en on
p oduc ion inno a ion inc eases, he ene gy consump ion o ca bon emission may
educe. Thus, his pape ies o a gue ha g owing u ili y pa en migh be he cause
6
Pa en egis a ion is conside ed as a p oxy o echnological inno a ion and i also eflec s he coun y’s echnological
capabili ies (A chibugi & Coco, 2004; G iliches, 1990; Lall, 1992). Bo h u ili y and design pa en a e egis e ed.
Howe e , u ili y pa en is conside ed a gene al indica o o echnological p og ess ela ed o ca bon- educing
echnologies. In his con ex , u ili y pa en is mo e app op ia e compa e o design pa en .
JOURNAL OF APPLIED ECONOMICS 109
o educ ion o ca bon emission. This is impo an o ackle he global clima e change
wi h app op ia e policy and o mula e s a egy o economic de elopmen wi h R&D.
3. Theo e ical backg ound
3.1. P oduc ion unc ion, pollu ion and clean echnology
Following Solow (1956)and Dinda (2009b), conside ing one-good economy, ou pu is
p oduced by only composi e capi al, k, o gi en echnology. P oduc ion unc ion o
his economy (in ensi e o m) is
y¼ ðkÞ; k>0and kk <0 (1)
The p oduc ion o he economy, y, depends only on composi e capi al k, which also
gene a es pollu ion as a by-p oduc and is he echnology in his sys em.
Pollu ion is una oidable and i has an inhe en ela ion wi h he p oduc ion p ocess.
Only echnological imp o emen s elimina e pollu ion. Pollu ion pe uni ou pu (μ)
may be a dec easing (inc easing) unc ion o echnological imp o emen . Fo simpli-
ci y, ini ially his pape assumes a cons an μ. Pollu ion is gene a ed di ec ly wi h
p oduc ion bu in e sely wi h a ailable cleane echnology. The pollu ion flow a each
momen is p opo ional o ou pu p oduc ion and in e se o he echnological a ail-
abili ies, i.e.,
p¼μy
A;0<μ<1 (2)
whe e pis he pollu ion and Ais he numbe o a ailable clean echnologies in he
economy. A highe alue o Asugges s mo e a ailable clean echnology (Dinda, 2009b;
Reis, 2001) in he economy. A lowe alue o Asugges s a limi ed choice se , whe eas
highe alue o Ap o ides g ea e choice se wi h mo e al e na i es and ee o choose
be e and/o cleane echnologies. The choice o echnology depends on i s a ailabili y
and accessibili y o all. The basic assump ion is ha an upg aded p oduc ion echno-
logical inno a ion (in e ms o ei he p oduc i i y o ene gy efficiency) is conside ed a
cleane echnology. I sugges s ha any p oduc ion inno a ion inc eases ou pu o
gi en inpu s. So, pe capi a ou pu equi es less inpu . Wi h p oduc ion echnological
inno a ions, he inpu –ou pu a io dec eases and consequen ly p essu e on en i on-
men educes.
Pollu ion is gene a ed di ec ly wi h p oduc ion o a gi en echnology a a gi en
ime. Howe e , o e ime, a na ion mo es owa ds mo e and mo e clean echnology
h ough con inuous upg ade o /and inno a ion. Clean echnology also changes o e
ime. The inno a ion ou come depends on he R&D expendi u e, physical and human
capi al. Thus, s ock o capi al and echnological p og ess join ly de e mine pollu ion, p,
in long un.
7
Taking log o Equa ion (2), he long- un ela ion is
ln p¼ln μþln yln A(3)
7
Acco ding o And eoni and Le inson (2001), inc easing e u n o scale ope a es in he aba emen echnology and
educes pollu ion.
110 S. DINDA
3.2. S eady s a e
The s eady-s a e ela ionship be ween he g ow h a e o pollu ion, income and ech-
nology is de i ed om Equa ion (3) (diffe en ia ing wi h espec o ime), i.e.,
_
p
p¼
_
y
y
_
A
A(4)
Equa ion (4) sugges s ha echnological p og ess defini ely educes he pollu ion
g ow h a e.
When pollu ion pe uni ou pu (μ) may change o e ime as
μ¼μ0eθ (5)
whe e μ0(>0) is he ini ial alue, and i s g ow h a e, θ(θ0;o ;
hi
0), is a cons an and
is ime a iable, hen
ln μ¼ln μ0þθ (6)
Now plugging Equa ion (6) in o (3), we ge
ln p¼ln μ0þθ þln yln A(7)
and co esponding s eady-s a e ela ionship will be
_
p
p¼θþ
_
y
y
_
A
A(8)
Theo e ically, θshould be nega i e and pollu ion declines o e ime. Equa ion (8)
sugges s ha pollu ion’s g ow h a e (
_
p
p) inc eases wi h economic g ow h a e (
_
y
y),
bu echnological p og ess (
_
A
A) in p oduc ion p ocess educes pollu ion in long un. In
his con ex , we e i y i s empi ical alidi y using a coun y specific da a.
4. Empi ical s a egy
4.1. Da a sou ces
U ili y pa en (UTPAT) is conside ed as a p oxy o a p oduc ion echnology ha is
supposed o educe ca bon emission. In his s udy, i is measu ed as he numbe o
u ili y pa en s g an ed pe yea . Time se ies da a on UTPAT o he pe iod
1963–2013 a e aken om he US pa en and adema k office (USPATO) websi e.
The co esponding annual ime se ies da a on pe capi a CO
2
emission
8
(PCCO
2
)
(exp ess in me ic ons) o he pe iod 1961−2010 a e ob ained om Ca bon Dioxide
In o ma ion Analysis Cen e
9
(CDIAC), he Uni ed S a es; and pe capi a GDP
8
He e, we conside CO
2
emission as p oxy o pollu ion. T uly, pollu ion and CO
2
emission is a om equal, o he e is a
diffe ence be ween emission and pollu ion. Emission is one pa o pollu ion. Emission is a flow and affec s local
en i onmen only, while concen a ion o CO
2
emission is he s ock ha accumula e o e ime and affec he local as
well as he global en i onmen . Measu emen o CO
2
emission is compa a i ely easie han ha o concen a ion o
CO
2
, and widely he CO
2
emission da a a e a ailable, bu less CO
2
concen a ion da a. Mo eo e , CO
2
emission is one
o he g eenhouse gases, bu i is he mos impo an a he global le el.
9
This ca bon dioxide emission da a gene a e om manu ac u ing indus y, which is app op ia e o his s udy. See Oak
Ridge Na ional Labo a o y (ORNL) o he Uni ed S a es, h p://www.cdiac.o nl.go .
JOURNAL OF APPLIED ECONOMICS 111
(PCGDP) a e aken om he Wo ld Bank (a cons an p ice 2005). CO
2
emission pe
dolla (CO
2
pe dolla ) is calcula ed o he pe iod o 1961–2010. Combining hese
da a se s oge he , we compile ime se ies da a se o he Uni ed S a es du ing
1963–2010.
Fossil- uel ca bon emission gene a ed by he Uni ed S a es has been inc easing
con inuously o e he long pas se e al decades (see Figu e A1), while a he same
ime, he numbe o u ili y pa en s has been inc easing apidly (see Panel a in Figu e 1).
Du ing 1963–2010, pe capi a ca bon emission emi ed by he Uni ed S a es inc eased
yea ly 0.22% and pe dolla ca bon emission declined by 1.85%, while he g an ed u ili y
pa en g ew 3.27%. Figu e 1 shows he ising ends o u ili y pa en and pe capi a CO
2
emission, while pe dolla CO
2
emission is con inuously declining. I shows clea
e idence ha pe capi a CO
2
emission has been inc easing (o a leas non-declining)
o e se e al decades, whe eas CO
2
emission pe dolla is s eadily alling. Du ing he
pe iod, u ili y pa en s con inuously inc ease. The p elimina y obse a ion is ha he e
is an associa ion be ween u ili y pa en and CO
2
emission pe dolla o e ime.
4.2. Me hodology
We ha e o examine wea he da a a e s a iona y o non-s a iona y and apply app o-
p ia e econome ic echniques o da a analysis. Va iables a e non-s a iona y i hey
ha e a uni oo . He e, we apply he augmen ed Dickey–Fulle (ADF) and Phillips–
Pe on (PP) uni oo es . In case o wo o mo e non-s a iona y a iables, he e is a
possibili y o coin eg a ing ela ion among hem. Coin eg a ion es s a e equi ed when
all a iables a e in eg a ed o o de one, i.e., I(1). Hence, i needed, we examine he
coin eg a ion (Johansen, 1988).
Engle and G ange (1987) show ha i wo se ies a e I(1), hen G ange causali y
may exis in a leas one di ec ion in I(0) a iables. Acco ding o Engle and G ange
(1987), coin eg a ion shows he long- un equilib ium ela ionship among a iables and
sho - un dynamics. Fo sho - un ela ion, ec o au o eg essi e model is cons uc ed
in e ms o hei fi s diffe ences. In case, wo se ies a e I(1); VAR wi h e o co ec ion
e m is he ec o e o co ec ion model (VECM), which cap u es sho - un dynamics
wi h he long- un equilib ium ela ion. VECM is a s a is ical echnique ha helps o
de ec he na u e o ela ionship in long- un and sho - un dynamics among a iables
in a ime se ies da a se . Le he s ochas ic (o andom dis u bance) e m (ν) be added
o he coin eg a ing equa ion o o m he model:
CO2pe dolla ¼λ1UTPAT þλ2PCGDP þν (9)
and he ec o e o co ec ion (o VAR wi h e o co ec ion e m) is
ΔX ¼ΩΔX iþηEC 1þε (10)
whe e X is he ec o o diffe ence o a iables and EC is he e o co ec ion
e m de i ed om he long- un coin eg a ing ela ionship
[E
^
C ¼^
ν ¼CO2pe dolla 
^
λ1UTPAT 
^
λ2PCGDP

]. Ωis he coefficien
ma ix and η;ε a e he coefficien s o e o co ec ion e ms and andom e o
e ms, espec i ely.
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Appendix
Figu e A1. The Uni ed S a es-emi ed o al CO
2
emission and decomposi ions du ing 1960–2010.
JOURNAL OF APPLIED ECONOMICS 121