López Villamil, S ephanie
Wo king Pape
Social cohesion in he con ex o he Venezuelan
displacemen o Colombia
IDOS Discussion Pape , No. 14/2025
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS), Bonn
Sugges ed Ci a ion: López Villamil, S ephanie (2025) : Social cohesion in he con ex o
he Venezuelan displacemen o Colombia, IDOS Discussion Pape , No. 14/2025, ISBN
978-3-96021-259-1, Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS), Bonn,
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Social Cohesion in he Con ex o he
Venezuelan Displacemen o Colombia
S ephanie López Villamil
IDOS DISCUSSION PAPER
14/2025
Social cohesion in he con ex o he
Venezuelan displacemen o
Colombia
S ephanie López Villamil
Bonn 2025
D S ephanie López Villamil is an independen consul an .
Published wi h inancial suppo om he Fede al Minis y o Economic Coope a ion and De elopmen (BMZ),
based on a esolu ion o he Ge man Bundes ag. The ins i u es o he Johannes-Rau-Fo schungsgemeinscha
a e ins i u ionally unded by he s a e o NRW.
Sugges ed ci a ion:
López Villamil, S. (2025). Social cohesion in he con ex o he Venezuelan displacemen o Colombia (IDOS
Discussion Pape 14/2025). Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS).
h ps://doi.o g/10.23661/idp14.2025
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The analyses exp essed in his pape a e hose o he au ho (s) and do no necessa ily e lec he iews o
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P in ed on eco- iendly, ce i ied pape .
IDOS Discussion Pape 14/2025
III
Con en s
Abb e ia ions
Execu i e summa y 1
1 In oduc ion 3
2 The con ex o Venezuelan o ced displacemen and social cohesion in hos
communi ies 5
2.1 Venezuelan o ced displacemen o Colombia 6
2.2 Colombian go e nmen ’s app oach o welcoming Venezuelans 7
3 Me hodology 8
3.1 Resea ch ques ions 8
3.2 Case selec ion and esea ch si es 9
3.3 Da a collec ion 10
4 Findings and analysis 11
4.1 Ho izon al dimension (indi idual): “We a e equal, and we ha e he same igh s and
he same du ies” 11
4.1.1 Sha ed iden i ies 11
4.1.2 Cul u al ies: “ eeling a home” 12
4.1.3 Resilience and leade ship o displaced communi ies 13
4.2 Ho izon al dimension (social): ela ions be ween social g oups 14
4.2.1 Inequali y and class di isions in hos communi ies 15
4.2.2 Po en ial sou ces o con lic : iolence and esou ce sca ci y 16
4.2.3 Xenophobia and disc imina ion 18
4.2.4 The ole o media and social media in he na a i es 18
4.3 Ve ical dimension: “We a e no in Venezuela; he sys em is comple ely di e en ” 20
4.3.1 Ins i u ional mis us 20
4.3.2 Poli icisa ion o mig a ion 21
5 Conclusion 22
6 Recommenda ions 23
Re e ences 25
Figu es
Figu e 1: Cons i u i e elemen s o social cohesion 4
Tables
Table 1: Numbe o Venezuelans pe ci y and pe cen age o he o al popula ion 7
Table 2: A ibu es o ocus g oup discussion pa icipan s 10
Table 3: A ibu es o in e iewees 10
IDOS Discussion Pape 14/2025
IV
Abb e ia ions
DANE Depa amen o Adminis a i o Nacional de Es adís ica
ETPV Tempo a y p o ec ion s a us o Venezuelan mig an s / Es a u o Tempo al de
P o ección pa a Mig an es Venezolanos
FGD ocus g oup discussion
GBV gende -based iolence
IADB In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank
IDOS Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y
IDP in e nally displaced pe son
JAC Jun as de Acción Comunal
LGBTQ+ Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, T ansgende , Quee +
NGO non-go e nmen al o ganisa ion
PEP Pe miso Especial de Pe manencia
PPT Pe miso po P o ección Tempo al
TPS empo a y p o ec ion s a us
IDOS Discussion Pape 14/2025
1
Execu i e summa y
The Colombian go e nmen ’s esponse o he Venezuelan displacemen c isis has la gely been
lauded o i s e o s o suppo displaced pe sons by g an ing legal esidency. This comes wi h
challenges, as esou ces a he local le el a e s ained. These challenges can be unde s ood
h ough he lens o social cohesion, which encompasses aspec s such as a sense o belonging,
us , he common good, sha ed alues, iden i y and, a i s co e, inequali y. When cohesion is
lacking, exclusion and ma ginalisa ion ise. In con ex s o displacemen , social cohesion shapes
he socioeconomic condi ions o hos communi ies and can in luence he s a e’s esponse o he
in lux o o cibly displaced pe sons. This Discussion Pape is pa o he b oade p ojec “Social
Cohesion in Displacemen Con ex s” (IDOS, s.a.), which examines how social cohesion is
a ec ed in di e en con ex s o displacemen whe e he e is b oad demog aphic, eligious and
poli ical di e si y. G ounded in an unde s anding o his o y and na ional con ex s, he p ojec
examines he con empo a y mechanisms ha in luence social cohesion in communi ies hos ing
displaced pe sons.
By examining he case o Colombia, his esea ch p o ides con ex -speci ic indings ha
po en ially deepen ou unde s anding o social cohesion in displacemen con ex s. In a e y
sho pe iod, Colombia has ecei ed mo e han 3 million displaced Venezuelans. The
go e nmen o Colombia esponded o his displacemen wi h open-doo policies ha included
la ge egula isa ion p og ammes. The Colombian con ex is no s ange o displacemen ; he
coun y has had a long-s anding a med con lic ha has esul ed in millions o in e nally
displaced pe sons (IDPs) and hund eds o e ugees in he neighbou ing coun ies o Venezuela
and Ecuado . Addi ionally, despi e being conside ed an uppe -middle-income coun y by he
O ganisa ion o Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen , po e y and job in o mali y a e
among he un esol ed socioeconomic s uc u al issues hinde ing social cohesion in Colombia.
Mo eo e , in he Sou h Ame ican con ex , ising xenophobia, he poli icisa ion o mig an s and
mo e es ic i e mig a ion policies ha e nega i ely a ec ed social cohesion. Beyond he my hs
and xenophobic na a i es, wha a e he ac o s ha in luence social cohesion be ween
displaced Venezuelans and hos communi ies in Colombia?
This pape app oaches he discussion o social cohesion in displacemen con ex s o he case
o Colombia, ocusing on o cibly displaced Venezuelans and Colombian e u nees. The s udy
indica es ha he nega i e na a i es a ound Venezuelans ha e dec eased o e he pas 10
yea s. Colombians ha e lea n o li e wi h hem in ela i e ha mony, despi e he s uc u al
economic and social issues a ec ing he communi ies. Th ough a quali a i e me hodology, he
s udy ocused on hos communi ies in h ee selec ed ci ies: Bogo á, Ba anquilla and Riohacha.
The analysis o he ho izon al dimension o social cohesion a he indi idual le el e eals
Venezuelans and Colombians sha e iden i ies. Indeed, a common language, simila wea he
and cul u e a e cohesi e ac o s in hos communi ies. The cul u al ies allow Venezuelans o
eel a home in Riohacha and Ba anquilla, and hey ha e ei he adop ed o in eg a ed he
Colombian cul u e in o hei daily li es. Mo eo e , Venezuelans and Colombian e u nees ha e
aken on leade ship oles o suppo hei communi ies. This is especially appa en in
coope a i e e o s by Colombian and Venezuelan women o add ess hei common s uggles.
Looking o he u u e o de eloping g ea e social cohesion in he con ex o Venezuelan
displacemen in Colombia, ou main issues we e iden i ied:
IDOS Discussion Pape 14/2025
2
1) Inequali y and class di isions in Colombia a e di e en om hose in Venezuela. This was
highligh ed by many Venezuelan esea ch pa icipan s, who s uggled o unde s and whe e hey
belonged in his socie al s uc u e. In es men s in ci ic educa ion and suppo wi h in eg a ion
a he local le el can help Venezuelans and hos communi ies be e unde s and one ano he ’s
social and economic eali ies in he p esen and u u e.
2) Venezuelans also s uggle o unde s and he long-s anding Colombian con lic and how he
iolence pe mea es he socie y and hei communi ies. This iolence is uelled no only by
inequali y bu also by sca ce esou ces. Engaging wi h local peacebuilding ac o s can help
de elop a sha ed unde s anding abou iolence in Colombia o Venezuelans and hos
communi ies.
3) Pa icipan s ecalled issues o xenophobia and disc imina ion, pa icula ly owa ds women
and LGBTQ+ pe sons, bu no ed ha his has diminished o e ime. Policy-make s should build
on he local e o s ha ha e helped amp down xenophobia.
4) I was emphasised in in e iews how he media has an impo an ole in sp eading xenophobic
na a i es abou mig an s ha ming social cohesion in he communi ies. These na a i es can
ha e a oxic e ec on building social cohesion in hos communi ies, and leade s need o push
back agains hese messages.
IDOS Discussion Pape 14/2025
3
1 In oduc ion
Sou h-sou h mig a ion ep esen s mo e han one- hi d o all in e na ional mig a ion (Schewel &
Deb ay, 2023). La in Ame ica, once a egion o emig a ion, has become a egion o ansi and
immig a ion as well. Howe e , he e a e di e ences be ween sub egions. In Sou h Ame ica,
in a- egional mig a ion inc eased signi ican ly in he i s wo decades o he 20 h cen u y and
has seen an inc ease in ex a-con inen al mig a ion om A ica (Schewel & Deb ay, 2023).
The Venezuelan displacemen c isis ma ked a u ning poin in his con ex . Food sca ci y, lack
o medicines, inc eased in la ion and g owing human igh s iola ions, among o he issues, has
led o a massi e exodus o he Venezuelan popula ion since 2015 be o e expanding in 2018
(Cas o F anco, 2019). By June 2024, he moun ing humani a ian and economic c isis unde he
au ho i a ian egime o Nicolás Madu o, in powe since 2013, had led o a leas 7.7 million
Venezuelans leeing he coun y; 6.5 million emain in La in Ame ica and he Ca ibbean, and
almos 3 million a e hos ed by Colombia. In July 2024, Madu o was e-elec ed o he hi d ime,
despi e alleged claims o aud, which led o poli ical un es and massi e numbe s o a bi a y
de en ions epo ed by human igh s o ganisa ions and he In e -Ame ican Commission on
Human Righ s (2024). Repo s by local non-go e nmen al o ganisa ions (NGOs) asse his may
esul in ano he massi e displacemen in he sho e m (Vi o, 2024).
This si ua ion has p esen ed a signi ican challenge o he Colombian go e nmen in he pas
10 yea s: On he one hand, Colombian ins i u ions we e no equipped o handle la ge numbe s
o e ugees. On he o he hand, he hos communi ies ha e had o deal wi h s uc u al
socioeconomic issues such as po e y and job in o mali y. Fu he mo e, Colombia has been
a ec ed by a long-s anding a med con lic and iolence, which has led i o becoming one o he
coun ies wi h he mos in e nally displaced pe sons (IDPs) in he wo ld, wi h 5.1 million
egis e ed as o 2023 (In e nal Displacemen Moni o ing Cen e, 2024). Addi ionally, he human
igh s si ua ion in Colombia is s ill di e. Human Righ s Wa ch epo s abuses by a med g oups,
limi ed access o jus ice by ic ims, iola ions by public secu i y o ces, iolence agains human
igh s de ende s and o he people a isk, and widesp ead gende -based iolence (Human
Righ s Wa ch, 2023). The in lux o e ugees and mig an s om neighbou ing Venezuela has led
o unp eceden ed economic s ains, pa icula ly in bo de egions, whe e esou ces a e sca ce.
In esponse o he ongoing c isis in Venezuela, in 2021, he Colombian go e nmen decided o
g an Venezuelans empo a y p o ec ion s a us (TPS) (in Spanish: Es a u o Tempo al de
P o ección pa a Mig an es Venezolanos – ETPV) a e implemen ing, successi ely, o he
empo a y egula isa ion p og ammes since 2017. This pe mi allows hem access o se ices
and he labou ma ke , and hey can e en ually en e he isa egime o ecei e a pe manen
esidency pe mi . Howe e , many ba ie s emain o hei socioeconomic inclusion.
The a i al o displaced Venezuelans o Colombia has also had impo an impac s on Colombian
socie y ha ha e ye o be s udied. Colombia had been a coun y o emig a ion and, wi hin a
ew yea s, became a coun y o ansi and immig a ion. Howe e , esea ch on social cohesion
is sca ce and has ocused on xenophobia and disc imina ion a he han on he mechanisms
ha a ec social cohesion om a his o ical, s uc u al, localised and con ex ual app oach. This
pape p o ides a quali a i e app oach o hos communi ies ecei ing displaced Venezuelans
and owa ds an unde s anding o he mechanisms ha igge o hinde social cohesion in h ee
selec ed ci ies: Riohacha, Ba anquilla and Bogo á.
The li e a u e e iew gi es us a i s glance a social cohesion in Colombia ega ding iden i y,
us and, mo e gene ally, opics o disc imina ion and xenophobia among di e en locali ies and
se ings as well as di e en popula ion g oups. Howe e , he gaps in social cohesion s udies
a y, and he e is sca ce da a a ailable. Mo eo e , my hs abou mig a ion ha e p opaga ed
wi hin hos communi ies om he beginning o he c isis. Ph ases such as “They’ e s ealing ou
jobs”, “Women come o ake ou husbands” and “They a e c iminals” a e commonly hea d wi hin
IDOS Discussion Pape 14/2025
10
a ious p ojec s and p og ammes, in eg a ing hem in o exis ing policies while c ea ing local
mig a ion policy.
Riohacha is si ua ed in he no he n pa o he coun y, jus one hou om Maicao, which is an
en y poin a he bo de wi h Venezuela. I is a ci y whe e Indigenous communi ies – he Wayuu,
who a e na ionals o bo h Colombia and Venezuela – Venezuelans and Colombian e u nees
come oge he . Riohacha is home o 46,817 Venezuelans. We pa ne ed wi h Asociación Sal o
Angel, which is unded by Venezuelan women and wo king on economic and social inclusion by
p o iding access o women communi y leade s, and wi h Fundación B isas del No e, which is
unded by a Colombian e u nee who empowe s local communi ies li ing in se lemen s o help
hem c ea e go e nance s uc u es.
3.3 Da a collec ion
I used a communi y and gende -based app oach o selec pa icipan s. The pa icipan s we e
in i ed in pa ne ship wi h he ou e ugee and mig an -led o ganisa ions. The discussions ook
place in hei o ganisa ions o in he communi ies whe e hey wo k and/o li e. The da a om
ieldwo k was collec ed be ween 10 June and 26 July 2024. I o ganised i e (5) ocus g oup
discussions (FGDs) wi h communi y leade s o a o al o wen y- ou (24) people, and se en (7)
semi-s uc u ed in e iews wi h key in o man s in bo h hos and displaced communi ies. One o
he FGDs in Riohacha was held in a se lemen wi h ele en (11) women – membe s o ecen ly
c ea ed commi ees o he go e nance o hei communi y.
Fo he sample, gende was a c i ical cha ac e is ic, since mos o he in e iewees and
pa icipan s we e emale, and many o hem being communi y leade s. The na ionali ies o he
pa icipan s we e conside ed o he sample. I was inally composed o Venezuelans and bi-
na ionals: people who a e bo h Venezuelan and Colombian na ionals, which is qui e common,
pa icula ly in he bo de lands. Six pa icipan s we e Colombian.
Table 2: A ibu es o ocus g oup discussion pa icipan s
FGD # Ci y Numbe o pa icipan s Male Female Colombian Venezuelan
1 Bogo á 4 1 3 0 4
2 Riohacha 3 1 2 1 2
3 Riohacha 11 0 11 1 10
4 Ba anquilla 4 2 2 1 3
5 Ba anquilla 2 0 2 0 2
TOTAL 24 4 20 3 21
Table 3: A ibu es o in e iewees
Ci y Numbe o in e iewees Male Female Colombian Venezuelan
Bogo á 2 0 2 1 1
Riohacha 4 0 4 2 2
Ba anquilla 1 1 0 0 1
TOTAL 7 1 6 3 4
Sou ce: Au ho
IDOS Discussion Pape 14/2025
11
The esul s we e compa ed wi h ou (4) key in o man in e iews wi h expe s and media
wo ke s wo king wi h displaced Venezuelans.
4 Findings and analysis
4.1 Ho izon al dimension (indi idual): “We a e equal, and we
ha e he same igh s and he same du ies”
4.1.1 Sha ed iden i ies
In gene al, Venezuelans ha e a good ela ionship wi h Colombians in hei communi ies due o
sha ed alues such as solida i y and empa hy. Mos o he Venezuelan pa icipan s in he
esea ch had Colombian iends and colleagues, and some e en highligh ed he help hey
ecei ed om o he Colombians when hey a i ed, despi e a hos ile en i onmen owa ds
Venezuelans:
A Colombian lady, she was like a b idge o make me know o he people. She has a
beau y salon, and she o e ed me wo k in he house, and h ough he , I me a lo o
o he good people and o he s who we e no good. (In e iewee 1)
Family ies also play an impo an ole in social cohesion. One in e iewee old me he s o y o
he ma iage in Colombia o he husband. He husband had Colombian pa en s and hey bo h
li ed in Venezuela, bu due o he ci cums ances, hey decided o mo e o Colombia and ge
ma ied. She said she did no o ganise a single hing o he ma iage. She had he solida i y o
his amily and iends, so she had always el welcome in Colombia.
Indeed, Venezuelans sha e amily membe s who a e also Colombian na ionals. On he one
hand, many Colombians ha e child en who we e bo n in Venezuela, ha e been na u alised and
a e na ionals o bo h coun ies. On he o he hand, Venezuelans li ing in Colombia ha e child en
who a e eligible o Colombian ci izenship.2 Ano he ep esen a i e g oup a e Colombian
e u nees, who once we e also e ugees in Venezuela. To emphasise he impo ance o amily
bonds, a e u nee sha ed how his amily ound e uge in Venezuela a e being o cibly displaced
in Colombia:
Venezuela was a coun y ha ecei ed my amily in he wo s momen s o ha o ced
displacemen . My mo he wen o Venezuela looking o be e oppo uni ies, and I
belie e ha he e she go wha Colombia could no gi e he a ha ime, such as
p o ec ion, allowing he o li e peace ully and sa ely. (Pa icipan 14)
Ano he Colombian e u nee a i med, “I had he oppo uni y o be accep ed in Venezuela and I
also accep Venezuelans, I ea hem wi h espec because hey a e human beings who also
dese e oppo uni ies” (In e iewee 3). She li ed o se e al yea s in Venezuela. A Venezuelan
pa icipan in an FGD old us he had assis ed Colombians in Venezuela o mo e han 16 yea s,
and he is now a communi y leade assis ing his ellow na ionals in Bogo á. Indeed, bo h
communi ies sha e solida i y and empa hy. The displacemen o Venezuela in he 1980s and
1990s uels some o hese sha ed alues: Ha ing a li ed expe ience o displacemen esul s in
empa hy.
2 Na ionali y by bi h is gi en only o hose who eside law ully in he coun y. Howe e , in he con ex
o he Venezuelan displacemen , he Colombian go e nmen adop ed Law 1997 in 2019, which
p o ides an excep ion o Venezuelan pa en s o egis e hei child en as Colombians i hey a e bo n
in Colombia (Global Compac on Re ugees, s.a.-a).
IDOS Discussion Pape 14/2025
12
Fo hose Venezuelans who a i ed in 2017 and 2018, Colombia el like home. E en i he
si ua ion in Venezuela imp o ed, hey old me ha hey we e no planning o go anywhe e. One
pa icipan old me: “The child en a e al eady s udying and e e yone has a job; we do no lack
any hing, bu o e u n o Venezuela now is o s a om sc a ch and go backwa d, igh ?”
(Pa icipan 21). Ano he Venezuelan unde lined:
I ha e al eady c ea ed some kind o oo s whe e I ha e a i ed, and I ha e always
belie ed ha whe e one is plan ed, he impo an hing is o lou ish wi h ha lea ning. I
eel ha I ha e pu down some oo s in Colombia, some oo s in Ba anquilla and ha
my oca ion o pe manence is s ong. (In e iewee 5)
This sense o eeling a home is, o some Venezuelans, key o hei inclusion. Sha ed alues,
cul u al ies and e en simila wea he in Ba anquilla and Riohacha p o ide a posi i e scena io
o imp o ing social cohesion wi h hos communi ies. The Venezuelan iden i y p e ails o e
egional, poli ical, eligious o gende iden i ies.
4.1.2 Cul u al ies: “ eeling a home”
One main di e ence be ween he Venezuelan displacemen o Colombia compa ed o o he
majo displacemen s in he wo ld is he sha ed Spanish language, sha ed Ca holic eligious
belie s, and his o ical and cul u al ies. One common opic aised when Colombians and
Venezuelans a e asked abou hei cul u e is whe he he “a epa” is Colombian o Venezuelan
– his is desc ibed by a Venezuelan woman as “ he e e nal con lic ”. A epa is a ypical co n-
based ood o e ed in mo e han 100 di e en a ie ies in bo h coun ies; bo h na ionali ies claim
i is hei s. E en i his migh be anecdo al, communi ies ga he a ound a sha ed language and
some common ood cul u e. A pa icipan old me:
My bes iend is Colombian and, o example, yes e day I wen o he house […] she
old me, I ha e some hing om you coun y ha you like, I made you cachapa [a ype
o a epa]. I mean, o me, ha is some hing e y nice because people accep you
cul u e, people e en le you cul u e in. (Pa icipan 19)
Locally, simila i ies a e s onge once we ge close o he bo de wi h Venezuela. Riohacha,
which is loca ed one hou om he bo de wi h Venezuela, is pa o La Guaji a, whe e he
Indigenous Wayuu ha e hei ances al land. Being close o he bo de means sha ing amilies,
so he e a e ewe di e ences wi h Colombians. T adi ionally, his egion has had a ci cula
mig a ion and buoyan in o mal comme ce. Venezuelans and Colombians used o c oss he
bo de mainly o ade pu poses. Howe e , e e since he si ua ion in Venezuela de e io a ed,
Venezuelans and Colombians who once li ed in o we e displaced in Venezuela c ossed he
bo de o se le in ci ies such as Riohacha. A e u nee old me:
I also ind many simila i ies in he ci y as a cul u al Ma acaibo and he clima e and cul u e
as we a e a he bo de . So, we ha e sha ed a lo he e in Ma acaibo, we me many
Colombians, and many a e now he e in La Guaji a. (Pa icipan 12)
A he bo de be ween Venezuela and Colombia, he iden i ies o hose li ing in he bo de egion
a e no de ined by he o icial bo de se up by Colombia and Venezuela. F om his e hnog aphic
esea ch, P ice discusses he complexi ies o iden i ies in La Guaji a, a egion in he no h o
Colombia whe e he e a e no s ong na ional iden i ies bu mul iple iden i ies ha in e sec (P ice,
2023).
In Ba anquilla, he e is also a sense ha o cibly displaced Venezuelans eel mo e a home
because o he wea he and simila i ies o some o he ci ies in Venezuela, such as Ma acaibo.
Bo h ci ies ha e high empe a u es, a e close o he Ca ibbean Sea and sha e cul u al ies.
Du ing he FGDs and in e iews, many ecalled ha i was easie o li e in Ba anquilla because
IDOS Discussion Pape 14/2025
13
o i s wea he and he cul u e o he “cos eño” – which is he name o hose in Colombia who
ha e been bo n and se led on he Ca ibbean coas . An in e iewee who a i ed in Ba anquilla
in 2018 old me,
I always say ha I look o simila i ies in Ba anquilla, he ci y, and he en i onmen . I
is e y simila ; we sha e many hings wi h a leas whe e I li e, which is also on he
coas , so I eel ha he clima e was no such a big change in ela ing wi h people, I eel
ha in Ba anquilla. I ha e ound people who ha e become like amily o me.
(In e iewee 5)
A Venezuelan woman pa icipa ing in an FGD also old us: “The ‘ma acucho’ [pe son om
Ma acaibo] is e y loud and speaks e y loudly and some imes e y as , he is no unde s ood,
ha is he same way as he ‘cos eño’. So, I eel ha he e is no much di e ence”
(Pa icipan 15). Fo he , people om hese wo ci ies ha e many hings in common, including
hei pe sonali ies.
Ba anquilla is well-known o i s Ca ni al, which akes place e e y yea in Feb ua y and whe e
hund eds o people ga he o celeb a e he cul u al a ie y and olklo e o he Colombian
Ca ibbean egion. In he Ca ni al, he e a e usually ep esen a ions o ypical cha ac e s o he
ci y and he coun y. Pa icipan s in an FGD ecalled ha , a ew yea s ago, Venezuelan women
we e po ayed as being co ee selle s in he s ee s. Despi e being in i ed o pa icipa e in he
Ca ni al, he pa icipan wi hd ew om he g oup, saying, “Tha pe son doesn’ ep esen me”,
unde lining ha i was no a cul u al exp ession bu a he a “mocke y” o his na ionali y. He said
he si ua ion has imp o ed in ecen yea s, no ably when, one o wo yea s ago, he Queen o
he Ca ni al, in he cho eog aphy, paid ibu e o Yolanda Mo eno, a e y amous balle dance
om Venezuela. He now pa icipa es in he Ca ni al. Ano he pa icipan s a ed ha he akes
pa in he Ca ni al because i is he way he eels pa o he ci y:
I am a an o he Ca ni al o Ba anquilla, I lo e o d ess up, I lo e o app op ia e, so o
speak, o use ha e m, o he Ba anquilla cul u e because i is a way o me o eel ha
I am pa o some hing, and I hink ha is he mos di icul hing o a pe son when he
is no om a coun y o eel pa o some hing […] I am pa o his ci y, ha I am pa o
his socie y, and o me, i has been like ha e uge, o be able o eel pa o his ci y o
speed up a li le mo e he p ocesses o in eg a ion. (In e iewee 5)
The cul u al app op ia ion o his adi ion shows how deep cul u al alues can be sha ed
be ween he wo coun ies and ha e a posi i e e ec on social cohesion, c ea ing a g oup
iden i y. In Bogo á, he e a e di e ences conce ning he wea he and he cul u e. Bogo á does
no ha e high empe a u es, and being he capi al ci y, i is home o people om all a ound he
coun y. E en i iden i y does no play a di e en ole in hese h ee ci ies, in Riohacha and
Ba anquilla i is salien ha , because o he p oximi y, he wea he and he accen , Venezuelans
eel mo e a home.
4.1.3 Resilience and leade ship o displaced communi ies
Iden i y comes om being Venezuelan in he i s place. When I asked pa icipan s wha i means
o hem o be Venezuelan, p ide and na ionalism we e he i s answe s. The e is also he sense
o being s ong, pe se e ing and esilien . One pa icipan de ined himsel as ollows:
Fo me, being Venezuelan is o be e y pe se e ing, o be e y esilien , and I am e y
cons an o adap o he di e en changes, because i you ask me and you see my s o y,
I come om being a jou nalis , bu I ha e also washed ca s, bu I ha e also wo ked as
a wai e , bu I ha e also sold in he s ee s, bu I ha e also de ended he igh s o o he
mig an s, and oday I also lead an o ganisa ion o de end hose mig an s so ha hey
do no go h ough he same si ua ions ha I wen h ough. (In e iewee 5)
IDOS Discussion Pape 14/2025
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“Resilience” is a wo d ha comes up cons an ly among Venezuelan pa icipan s. Fo one o
hem, “Resilience is pe se e ance, i is ne e o gi e up because I know many people who, like
me, ha e ound i e y di icul o come o do hings ha we ne e hough o doing in ou li es”
(In e iewee 5). Some in e iewees said hey had a diploma bu came o wo k in o he a eas,
selling co ee and washing ca s, and hei esilience comes om lea ning. The in e iewee ci ed
said i ne e mean a “disg ace” o him o wo k on his ype o job, despi e holding a bachelo ’s
deg ee in communica ions. Resilience is abou “ he powe o adap o unimaginable scena ios
wi h he sole pu pose o subsis ence and also o subsis and li e oge he ” (In e iewee 5). I is
hen esilience ha allows hem o coexis peace ully, despi e many ha ing had o “s a om
ze o” when hey a i ed in Colombia.
Addi ionally, s ong leade ship skills de elop om assis ing o he s and he newly a i ed as well
as helping hem o unde s and he Colombian sys em and socie y. Women ha e p o ed o be
leade s and a cohesi e ac o in se e al communi ies. Fo mos o he emale pa icipan s,
na ionali y was no aised when speaking abou gende -based iolence (GBV) in hei
communi ies and how hey ace his issue oge he : “Wha we also ha e is an app oach wi hin
he communi y o wha emale empowe men is o aise many oices. The communi y su e ed
a lo om ma i al iolence and demons a ed ha women can be e y s ong, ha we a e b a e”
(In e iewee 2). Communi y leade ship is app ecia ed whe he i comes om he hos
communi y o he displaced pe sons. An in e iewee a icula ed he ela ionship wi h he
communi y, emphasising ha Venezuelans and Colombians a e e y simila , saying “We a e
one.” She s essed ha
mos o he people who app oach me a e Colombian, and hey say ha o hem i is
inc edible ha a pe son who comes om ano he coun y he e is he one who is a he
o e on o he communi y igh ing o he igh s o o he s. (In e iewee 2)
Du ing an FGD in a se lemen in Riohacha, his was emphasised by all he women who
pa icipa ed. They ha e pu in place in o mal mechanisms in hei communi y o add ess issues
such as wa e sca ci y and lack o aqueduc s. Wi h he help o Fundación B isas del No e, hey
ha e se up subcommi ees o each one o hei issues, and hey a e all led by women. They
said hey ha e lea n o coexis peace ully. One woman said o ano he du ing he FGD,
“Neighbou , I am you amily.” Union and lo e came up in ou con e sa ion a couple o imes.
The e is s ill a long way o go in analysing he e ec s o gende no ms in displacemen con ex s
(B ück, Hanme , Klugman, & A ango, 2024) and i s implica ions o social cohesion.
Despi e hei s ong esilience, he e a e also displaced pe sons who a i e wi h se e al aumas
and damages ha need o be ea ed. Whe he hese a e due o he humani a ian c isis back in
Venezuela o hei expe iences c ossing he bo de on oo , he oll on hei emo ional well-being
has been high. Malnu i ion, GBV and o he ex eme si ua ions ha Venezuelans ha e been
h ough a e ca ied wi h hem on hei jou neys be o e being b ough o communi ies a ec ed
by inequali y and po e y. E en i hey had di e en li es and p ojec s in Venezuela, he e is an
inclusi e iden i y ha eme ges om hei esilience and expands o he hos communi ies in he
o m o leade ship ha add esses, in some cases, he same issues o bo h popula ions.
4.2 Ho izon al dimension (social): ela ions be ween social
g oups
The li e a u e e iew sugges s he e a e wo ypes o esea ch and in o ma ion a ailable abou
social cohesion in communi ies hos ing o cibly displaced Venezuelans in Colombia. These a e
quan i a i e and quali a i e s udies based on a ange o me hodologies, including e hnog aphies
(P ice, 2023). These s udies a ge di e en popula ions, including s uden s, adolescen s,
women and Indigenous peoples (Aliaga, Ba acaldo, Pin o, & Gissi, 2018; Bellino & O iz-
IDOS Discussion Pape 14/2025
15
Gue e o, 2023; Lebow, Mo eno Medina, Co al, & Mousa, 2024; Woldemikael e al., 2022; Zhou,
Rojas, & Pe e s, 2024). These g oups a e also some imes analysed om he pe spec i e o he
u al/u ban di ide as well as po e y le els (Lebow, Mo eno Medina, & Co al, 2020), which is
mo e in e es ing. I ocus on he policy p e e ences o Colombians and he e ec s o inclusion
policies in shaping he di e ences be ween people who li e in bo de egions and hose who
li e in he inne ci ies, as well as he ole o social media in he na a i es abou mig an s and
mig a ion. I include all o his in o ma ion in he analysis o he indings.
4.2.1 Inequali y and class di isions in hos communi ies
Po e y, inequali y and a lack o oppo uni ies can p e en social cohesion. One pa icipan
highligh ed when speaking abou Colombia: “The coun y has i s own p oblems. Well, he e is a
e y big inequali y, and i is e y ma ked, and he oppo uni ies a e no so many. I didn’
unde s and i ” (In e iewee 6). Acco ding o he , in Venezuela, she had mo e oppo uni ies, o
ins ance, o access highe educa ion, and she hough i was e y expensi e in Colombia.
Displacemen can be expe ienced di e en ly depending on he pe son’s socioeconomic s a us
in Venezuela. Pa icipan s ag eed ha class plays a mo e impo an ole in Colombia –
ma ginalisa ion and social class di isions a e di e en .
In Venezuela, al hough he e a e ich and no so ich and poo , he social class is no
el as i is el he e. Mo eo e , Colombia is he only coun y ha has ha so ma ked and
has he es a os [Colombian social s a i ica ion sys em]. I is he only coun y in he
wo ld, isn’ i ? (Pa icipan 22)
Ano he pa icipan explained o me ha in Venezuela, hey did no pay o he wa e and en ;
hey we e owne s, bu he displacemen expe ience has been use ul o each hei kids ha no
e e y hing is ee. The e had been high incomes in Venezuela due o he oil boom, and du ing
he Cha ez go e nmen he e we e ins alled social policies, he “Misiones”, which we e aimed
a educing exclusion. These policies we e highly dependen on he p ices o oil and did no
impac he basic needs o Venezuelans. Ins ead, hey we e sho - e m solu ions which helped
hem a o d houses, ca s and o he bene i s (Cas o He e a, 2016). One common ph ase hea d
when Venezuelans a i ed in Colombia was ha hey wan ed e e y hing o ee. This has i s
oo s in he social policies adop ed by Venezuela and, a he same ime, con adic s he ac ha
hey led he egime. Some o he in e iewees had nos algia ha once he e was a be e
Venezuela.
An examina ion o he policy p e e ences o Colombians in esponse o he o ced displacemen
om Venezuela e eals ha hey p e e mo e open policy op ions ega ding access o he labou
ma ke and public heal h ca e. A he same ime, hey suppo es ic ions on he numbe o
Venezuelans (Allen e al., 2024). The s udy also analyses he esponses o Colombians wi h
highe le els o humani a ianism, concluding hey p e e less es ic i e policies. Using h ea -
bene i heo y o analyse he a i udes o Colombian in o mal wo ke s owa ds Venezuelans
shows ha hey a e ambi alen abou hem (Alizadeh A ouzi, 2024). Nega i e pe cep ions a e
p edominan and a e associa ed wi h ealis ic economic and physical h ea s, including o he
labou ma ke , public se ices, housing, secu i y and conjugal ela ionships. The e a e also
symbolic h ea s o socie al cohesion and mode ni y, and he e a e symbolic bene i s ela ed o
humani a ian and cul u al di e si y, con ibu ions o li es yles, and an a i ude o empa hy and
unde s anding. All o hese pe cep ions con inue o e ol e in bo h posi i e and nega i e
di ec ions o e he long e m.
In e ms o a compa ison wi h IDPs, Venezuelans and hos communi ies in Colombia, a s udy
abou social p o ec ion esponses o o ced displacemen concludes ha social cohesion is
in luenced by he p o ision o assis ance (Ham e al., 2022). The au ho s a i m, “While
assis ance o displaced popula ions s eng hens hei ela ions wi h he s a e, go e nmen
IDOS Discussion Pape 14/2025
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suppo o Venezuelans can damage communi y ela ions, whe e i appea s o di e public
esou ces away om ulne able ci izens” (Ham e al., 2022). Acco ding o he s udy, he
ho izon al dimension o social cohesion shows ha , in low-income a eas, he e was ension
ela ed o Venezuelans ega ding he p o ision o esou ces om he go e nmen .
Ano he a gumen exp essed by Colombians when Venezuelans a i ed in 2018 was ha hey
we e s ealing hei jobs. On he side o Venezuelans, many people in he esea ch s udy
men ioned ha hey we e abused and paid less han hey dese ed, mos o he ime less han
he minimum wage. One in e iewee, o example, decla ed she was paid only a ound USD 6
pe day o wo king in a bake y.3 Addi ionally, one in e iewee explained ha in he communi y,
mos had a ained di e en le els o educa ion, bu hei quali ica ions we e no alued. She said
ha mos mus do he wo k o a lowe wage ou o necessi y (In e iewee 3). Indeed, alida ing
diplomas is a long and expensi e p ocess in Colombia, which p e en s Venezuelans om
accessing decen jobs (G aham e al., 2020). Mo e gene ally, in Riohacha, he e is a lack o
s a e se ices, capaci ies a he local le el a e weak and he e is a high po e y index, which
makes economic inclusion di icul o Venezuelans who a e s uggling o ind job oppo uni ies
(Gue e o-Blé & López Villamil, 2022).
The e a e se e al s udies on he e ec s o Venezuelans on he labou ma ke . I emphasise h ee
s udies ha show he e ec s o Venezuelan displacemen on he labou ma ke and he impac
o p o iding wo k pe mi s. Lebow shows he e is li le o no e ec on he wages o Colombians
due o he a i al o Venezuelans, bu no es ha his a ies in la ge ci ies wi h highe a es o
job in o mali y (Lebow, 2022). When add essing he gende issue, Ped azzi and Peñaloza-
Pacheco ound ha he labou o ce pa icipa ion a e o high-skilled women wi h child en was
a ec ed posi i ely, whe eas o lowe -skilled women, i was nega i ely a ec ed because o he
disp opo iona e amoun o compe i ion (Ped azzi & Peñaloza-Pacheco, 2023). Rega ding he
impac o wo k pe mi s, hey ha e expanded employmen p ospec s o hose who we e
p e iously unemployed, bu he au ho s sugges ha he e is a need o implemen p og ammes
o younge wo ke s o ma ch mig an s o app op ia e jobs in he labou ma ke (Ga cía-Suaza,
Mond agón-Mayo, & Sa ango-I u alde, 2024).
Mo eo e , a s udy analysing u al and u ban a eas inds ha he e is a la ge and posi i e le el
o us owa ds immig an s in la ge u ban, educa ed and p oduc i e egions (Lebow e al.,
2020). Rega ding his di ide, ano he s udy inds ha he e ec s o mig an a i als a e mo e
posi i e in mo e u al loca ions. This di ide is educed o e ime as he amoun o meaning ul
con ac inc eases (Lebow e al., 2024).
4.2.2 Po en ial sou ces o con lic : iolence and esou ce sca ci y
Venezuelans a i ed in hos communi ies ha we e al eady expe iencing con lic due o po e y,
d ug a icking, d ug abuse, iolence (pa icula ly GBV) and a lack o s a e se ices. The my h
abou “becoming Venezuela” has been p esen in public opinion. I is ela ed o he “ ea o losing
he p i ileges o he middle class i we each a si ua ion simila o ha o Venezuela, which is a
my h, bu i is a my h ha is cons an ”, acco ding o one expe . The ole ha he middle class
o Colombia plays in ep oducing his ype o discou se is key o unde s anding he possible lack
o social cohesion among hos communi ies ha ha e ecei ed Venezuelans. The e is he
middle class, and hen he e a e he ulne able popula ions ha ac i a e mechanisms o
esis ance due o he lack o s a e se ices.
Di icul ies conce ning social cohesion also a ise om he ac ha Colombia has had a long-
s anding a med con lic and p oblems ela ed o d ug a icking. This is pa icula ly isible in he
con ex o Riohacha, whe e non-s a e agen s ha e buil pa allel powe s based on he use o
3 The minimum wage in Colombia was a ound USD 300 pe mon h o 2024.
IDOS Discussion Pape 14/2025
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o ce and iolence (T ejos Rose o & Luque a Cediel, 2014). Colombia has high le els o
iolence, and ha can be di icul o Venezuelans o unde s and, acco ding o a pa icipan . She
ema ked ha Venezuelans a e o en a ge ed as being he causes o iolence and s esses:
I ha e no ye obbed anyone o any hing like ha , bu i is di icul o people o
unde s and i , o unde s and ha we did no come o his coun y o inc ease he
iolence, ha he iolence was al eady he e, only ha he e a e people who joined ha
because i was pa o he possibili ies hey saw o su i e, bu ha in he end, we all
come o su i e, jus as many Colombians ha e done. […] And you say a lo o hings
ha e happened and we we e nex doo and we didn’ ind ou . I mean, I, o example,
unde s ood abou wo yea s ago because i was almos all abou ma ia and d ug no els.
I saw hem, bu I didn’ unde s and. I mean […] i was e y s ange un il I came, and I
hea d om he people oo, who ha e been displaced, who we e iolen o social leade s
and social de ende s. (In e iewee 6)
In Colombia, bo h human igh s iola ions and no malised iolence a e exace ba ed by con lic s
a ising om esou ce sca ci y. Ri al ies o en eme ge due o unequal access o s a e esou ces.
This si ua ion is p e alen e en among Venezuelan-led o ganisa ions compe ing o public
unds, d i en by he ea ha he p esence o o he s may jeopa dise he achie emen s ha
Colombian o ganisa ions ha e made. An in e iewee ecalled ha he e ha e also been con lic s
ela ed o humani a ian aid:
They said ha e e y hing was o Venezuelans many imes. A leas he e we had he
example o a neighbou hood o a colleague whe e a ounda ion came o open a socce
eam in he communi y, and hey said ha hey only wan ed mig an child en. And hen
he o he people om he communi y el o ended because he [Colombian] child en
also wan ed o play, hey a e child en, and hey don’ know. So, I hink ha I ha e also
el like a li le bi o an e o ha some o ganisa ions ha e made. (In e iewee 2)
She said ha his has changed o e ime because he communi y leade s ha e insis ed on
b inging aid o all he ulne able people in hei communi ies and no only ocusing on
Venezuelans. Ano he in e iewee said Colombians sha e many o he needs o he
Venezuelans, and he e o e aid mus include hem bo h. This example is qui e common among
ulne able communi ies, and i was pa icula ly ue du ing he COVID-19 pandemic, when he e
was a compe i ion o humani a ian aid wi hin he hos communi ies (López Villamil, 2022).
A hype concen a ion o Venezuelans in some a eas can gene a e mo e con lic s han in a eas
whe e he e is a lowe concen a ion. Fo ins ance, he e a e con lic s because o o e c owding
in some neighbou hoods. In Bogo á, pa icipan s in he FGD decla ed ha some imes mo e han
20 people we e li ing in one la . One o hem sha ed:
I he e is domes ic iolence o he e is consump ion o psycho opic subs ances, he e’s
a p oblem. Then, o cou se, I al eady made all he neighbou s upse , hey call he police
saying ha he e is a kni e, ha he e is blood, ha he e is b oken glass. (Pa icipan 21)
Mic o- a icking, GBV, ma ginalisa ion and esou ce sca ci y can signi ican ly unde mine social
cohesion in hos communi ies. These issues, which o en p ecede he a i al o displaced
popula ions, nega i ely impac bo h he displaced Venezuelans and he hos communi ies. The
lack o s a e se ices in some hos communi ies is o en illed by non-s a e ac o s, leading o
inc eased iolence and heigh ened compe i ion o e limi ed esou ces, which u he
exace ba es con lic .
IDOS Discussion Pape 14/2025
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4.2.3 Xenophobia and disc imina ion
Wi h ega d o a iolen en i onmen , he pa icipan s men ioned ha he e is disc imina ion and
xenophobia, and many sha ed hei own s o ies ela ed o he opic. They s a ed ha i comes
om bo h women and men. Howe e , hey ecognised ha he si ua ion has imp o ed om
when hey mo ed o Colombia in 2015 o 2018. One issue discussed in FGDs and in e iews
was he disc imina ion agains Venezuelan women who a e labelled wi h s e eo ypes.
Many Venezuelan women in Riohacha said hey we e called “Placas Blancas”, which ansla es
o “whi e pla es”. This e m is a e e ence o ca pla es om Venezuela, which a e whi e and
we e smuggled in o Colombia in he 2000s, whe eas Colombian pla es a e mainly yellow. The
e m is a disc imina o y way o labelling Venezuelan women who come o Colombia, sugges ing
ha hey a e he e o “s eal husbands and wo k as p os i u es”. One Colombian woman who
li ed o mo e han eigh yea s in Venezuela ecalled hea ing om a man, “He e comes he
whi e pla e”. Ano he man explained o him ha she was Colombian bu li ed in Venezuela, so
he should no call he ha . She hen old him no o mess wi h he . Ano he Venezuelan woman
emembe ed no knowing he meaning o ha exp ession and was hu when she ound ou hey
we e called ha .
Mo eo e , bo h women and LGBTQ+ pe sons ha e su e ed om disc imina ion. One
in e iewee om Riohacha ecalled being hi ed by a woman o sell juices in on o a hospi al
and elling he o come o wo k wi h less clo hing on. She answe ed, “I came he e o sell cheese
a epas; I didn’ come o sell my body” (In e iewee 1). She emphasised ha he e a e ways o
ea n money decen ly. Acco ding o one expe in e iewed, he e is a hype -sexualisa ion o
Venezuelan women ha has some imes led o GBV, including sexual iolence and a icking in
pe sons. These issues a e also encoun e ed by LGBTQ+ pe sons who addi ionally ace
disc imina ion due o hei na ionali y. A communi y leade poin ed ou :
The pa h o mig a ion is no easy, and i is no he same o e e yone. Fo some, i is
mo e bea able, o o he s, i is mo e di icul . Fo LGBTQ+ people, i is wice as di icul
because, in addi ion, hey ace disc imina ion o being om ano he coun y.
Disc imina ion o being a di e se pe son is no he same as being a gay LGBTQ+
mig an , non-bina y o ans pe son. (In e iewee 5)
In he FGDs in Bogo á, pa icipan s men ioned hey would no en apa men s o Venezuelans
o “cos eños”. Some Venezuelans ha e a s a egy o blending in o Colombian socie y; an
in e iewee e ealed o me:
When I a i ed in Ba anquilla, my pa ne who ecei ed me, o my iend who was going
o ecei e me he e, she ga e me some ips and ecommenda ions on how o pass
mysel o as a Colombian in o de o close hose gaps ha could disc imina e agains
me, ha could lead me o a job, ha could e en use me in he sense ha i hey no ice
you accen hey can cha ge you mo e in he icke , and so on. I hank he o ha .
(In e iewee 5)
He hen ecalled ha nowadays, seeing/hea ing a mig an , a Venezuelan, has been no malised.
4.2.4 The ole o media and social media in he na a i es
Rega ding he ole o media, some pa icipan s ag eed ha he amoun o disc imina ion had
diminished, al hough hey we e s ill eading nega i e news abou Venezuelans, pa icula ly in
he local media. As one in e iewee old me: “Some imes i ’s ha d o ead commen s in he p ess
ha say ha i ’s good ha hey should all go away, ha hey a e all mu de e s, and you a e
aced wi h he eali y ha hey sell” (In e iewee 5). Ano he pa icipan added:
IDOS Discussion Pape 14/2025
19
I see a newscas ha is cons an ly alking bad abou Venezuelans. I only shows he
bad hings. Ob iously, his will eed me and a ac me o a Venezuelan, bu i will no
be he bes hing, so I eel ha i has dec eased a li le. Ob iously, he e is s ill a lo o
wo k o do; he e is s ill a long way o go. I s ill eel ha he e is a lo o wo k o do on
social cohesion and in eg a ion. (Pa icipan 19)
Acco ding o a jou nalis I in e iewed, Venezuelans we e a ge ed du ing he COVID-19
pandemic and he xenophobia was exace ba ed. In his con ex , many Venezuelans wan ed o
e u n o hei coun y bu , since he bo de s we e closed, hey we e s anded, and some we e
li ing in he s ee s in di e en ci ies. This p o oked people o a ge Venezuelans as he ones
who we e sp eading he i us. A s udy ound ha poli icians did no link he mig an s o he
sp ead o COVID-19 (Zhou e al., 2024). This could mean ha public opinion di e ed a he ime
om he na a i es o he poli icians.
DANE (2024) epo s ha 28.6 pe cen o Venezuelans el disc imina ed agains . O hese,
61.7 pe cen el i was because o hei mig a o y si ua ion, and 29.2 pe cen because o hei
e hnic o igin, colou o language. The e we e 47.8 pe cen who el disc imina ed agains in he
s ee s o public spaces, 40 pe cen who el his while looking o a job and 27.1 pe cen while
wo king hei job. Only 12.2 pe cen el disc imina ed agains in hei neighbou hoods. Fo
ins ance, a epo om 2024 analyses he egional poli ics and discou ses om local au ho i ies
ha we e ela ed o Venezuelans and insecu i y issues, which a e hen epo ed on by he media
(El Ba óme o, 2024).
Despi e he solida i y discou se om he na ional go e nmen , he media p oduced con adic o y
messages ega ding Venezuelans, po aying hem as a h ea o public heal h and secu i y
(O dóñez & A cos, 2019b). This is mo e in ense in bo de ci ies such as Cúcu a and Riohacha,
whe e local newspape s po ay Venezuelans nega i ely:
A p oblem g oup ha exace ba es con lic s in he egions hey each (No e de
San ande and La Guaji a). They [media] na a e hem om iolence, illness, e i o ial
possession – o bo de c ossings and public places. They a e ep esen ed as a ailu e
o ollow es ablished no ms and alues, in sho , as undesi able subjec s ha igge
e i o ial and social con lic s. (Cas ellanos-Díaz & P ada-Penagos, 2020, p. 924)
This po ayal lacks he con ex ual analysis o displacemen and ha ms he p o ec ion and
inclusion o Venezuelans, acco ding o he au ho . No only he mains eam media bu also
social media ha e in luenced pe cep ions abou Venezuelans: In o ma ion digi isa ion and social
media i ual pla o ms ha e con ibu ed o a widesp ead discou se o disc imina ion and
xenophobia and e en inci ed iolence agains Venezuelans (Cab e a, 2021).
Na a i es a ound mig a ion can be xenophobic bu also in eg a i e. El Ba óme o (s.a.), an
NGO ha moni o s and analyses da a om social media, published a epo on he na a i es
abou mig a ion in he media in Colombia (El Ba óme o, 2024). I s indings a e ha he media
po ay Venezuelans as c iminals and associa e hem wi h insecu i y; hey epea s e eo ypes
associa ed wi h women and he xenophobic discou ses o public igu es; hey legi imise he
iolence agains mig an s; and hey ha e na a i es ha can encou age compe i ion o
esou ces. Howe e , hey also highligh ha he e a e in eg a i e na a i es conce ning
poli ical measu es and he need o gua an ee he human igh s o Venezuelans. This is
associa ed wi h news abou human igh s iola ions, a icking in pe sons and iolence o
h ea s owa ds mig an s.
Colombia has had posi i e, humani a ian na a i es owa ds Venezuelans, and i has
expe ienced e y li le un es compa ed o o he coun ies in La in Ame ica. These na a i es
a e based on he wo coun ies’ sha ed his o y and cul u al ies. Howe e , hese na a i es ha e
limi s. The e a e nega i e a i udes abou inc eased mig a ion, and his is no aligned wi h he
na a i e o “b o he s and sis e s” (Hussein & Nye, 2024).
IDOS Discussion Pape 14/2025
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