Huang, Danyu; Zhou, Hao
A icle
Sel -sac i icial leade ship, h i ing a wo k, wo kplace well-being, and
wo k- amily con lic du ing he COVID-19 c isis: The mode a ing ole o
sel -leade ship
BRQ Business Resea ch Qua e ly
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Asociación Cien í ica de Economía y Di ección de Emp esas (ACEDE), Mad id
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Huang, Danyu; Zhou, Hao (2024) : Sel -sac i icial leade ship, h i ing a wo k,
wo kplace well-being, and wo k- amily con lic du ing he COVID-19 c isis: The mode a ing ole o
sel -leade ship, BRQ Business Resea ch Qua e ly, ISSN 2340-9444, Sage Publishing, London, Vol.
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In oduc ion
Resea che s ha e been in e es ed in how o p omo e ol-
lowe s’ wo kplace well-being (WWB), in ol ing “no
only job sa is ac ion bu also he posi i e emo ions ha an
indi idual expe iences ega ding wo k” (Zheng e al.,
2015), as well as amelio a e hei wo k– amily con lic
(WFC), ha is, when “wo k demands es ain indi iduals
om ul illing esponsibili ies and oles ela ed o amily”
(G eenhaus & Beu ell, 1985) du ing c ises (Eby e al.,
2016; Hogan, 2020; Linds öm & Gio dano, 2016). The
ecen COVID-19 pandemic unde sco ed his issue’s
impo ance, especially o nu ses who p o ided he mos
di ec and close ca e o in ec ed pa ien s (K. R. Choi e al.,
2020). They aced wo kloads much highe han usual on a
daily basis and se e al challenges such as shi wo k,
longe wo king hou s, high wo kloads and demands, s a
sho ages, and ha sh wo king en i onmen s (K ame &
K ame , 2020; Yildiz e al., 2021). All o hese undoub -
edly educed nu ses’ WWB and exace ba ed hei WFCs
(Liu e al., 2022; Sahin e al., 2021). Resea che s ha e ec-
ognized WFC as a sou ce o s ess in nu sing, which may
impai hei physical and men al heal h (Gonnelli &
Ra agnino, 2017), diminish hei quali y o wo k (Zandian
e al., 2020), and e en inc ease bu nou and u no e
(Amoo e al., 2018). Poo WWB likewise exace ba es
nu ses’ in en ion o lea e he o ganiza ion (Holland e al.,
2019). The e o e, i is c ucial o iden i y ac o s ha can
Sel -sac i icial leade ship, h i ing a wo k,
wo kplace well-being, and wo k– amily
con lic du ing he COVID-19 c isis:
The mode a ing ole o sel -leade ship
Danyu Huang and Hao Zhou
Abs ac
The COVID-19 c isis has c ea ed ins abili y in nu ses’ wo kplace well-being (WWB) and wo k– amily ela ionships.
Explo ing e ec i e leade ship ailo ed o he needs in a special con ex is signi ican o add ess hese issues. The e o e,
we examined how he in e ac ion o sel -sac i icial leade ship (SSL) and sel -leade ship (SL)—explaining in he in eg a ion
o conse a ion o esou ces and sel -de e mina ion heo ies— ela ed o h i ing a wo k (TAW), WWB, and wo k–
amily con lic (WFC). A mul i-wa e ques ionnai e was dis ibu ed o 405 nu ses wo king a a la ge hospi al in China.
The esul s indica e ha (1) SSL b ough mo e WWB and less WFC, (2) TAW media ed he co ela ions be ween
hem, and (3) SL s imula ed mo e TAW han did SSL and weakened he in luence o SSL on TAW. Alongside imp o ing
he unde s anding o he ole o SSL and SL du ing he COVID-19 pandemic, we acili a e managemen in e en ions o
p ac i ione s.
JEL CLASSIFICATION: L200
Keywo ds
Sel -sac i icial leade ship, wo kplace well-being, wo k– amily con lic , h i ing a wo k, sel -leade ship
Business School, Sichuan Uni e si y, Chengdu, China
Co esponding au ho :
Hao Zhou, Business School, Sichuan Uni e si y, No. 29 Wangjiang
Road, Chengdu 610064, China.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
1203744BRQ0010.1177/23409444231203744Business Resea ch Qua e lyHuang and Zhou
esea ch-a icle2023
Regula Pape
Huang and Zhou 11
imp o e nu ses’ WWB and amelio a e hei WFC du ing
such a mac o-c isis.
The unde lying assump ion o pas li e a u e may be
ha nega i e wo k en i onmen ac o s such as con lic ,
job s esso s, wo k schedule a iabili y, weekend hou s,
long wo k hou s, and abusi e supe ision a e among he
p ima y d i e s o WWB (nega i e ela ionship) and WFC
(posi i e ela ionship) (Michel e al., 2011; Ra enaud
e al., 2020; Schul e & Vainio, 2010; Shih e al., 2022;
Sonnen ag e al., 2023; Y. C. Zhang & Liao, 2015).
Al hough add essing hese ac o s may ha e posi i e
esul s, i is di icul o impossible o o ganiza ions o
implemen ele an ini ia i es in eali y. Fo ins ance, du -
ing he COVID-19 pandemic, hospi als could no change
he s ess ul en i onmen , long hou s, and di icul sched-
ules. Ne e heless, hese issues can be add essed by
s eng hening he ex e nal and in e nal esou ces o nu ses
(Ko zé, 2021). Resea ch shows ha , amid a c isis, leade -
ship is c i ical in suppo ing employees o o e come di i-
cul si ua ions (Williams e al., 2017) and an e ec i e
leade ship s yle can con ibu e o he o ganiza ion’s suc-
cess (Elbaz & Haddoud, 2017; Ga baa e al., 2018). Among
he a ious leade ship s yles, sel -sac i icial leade ship
(SSL) has no been s udied comp ehensi ely ye . Yang
e al. (2023) called o u u e esea ch ha p ecisely exam-
ines he impac o SSL in di e en ypes o o ganiza ional
c ises, especially ex e nal c ises. Fu he mo e, sel -leade -
ship (SL), as a non- adi ional leade ship s yle, can p o ide
indi iduals wi h powe ul in e nal esou ces, pa icula ly
du ing he COVID-19 pandemic (Ha una amwe e al.,
2020; Inam e al., 2023). Acco dingly, in his s udy, we
conside ed SSL as an ex e nal esou ce and SL as an in e -
nal esou ce, examining how hei in e ac ion enhanced
nu ses’ WWB and mi iga ed hei WFCs. In addi ion, we
u ilize he conse a ion o esou ces (COR) heo y and
sel -de e mina ion heo y (SDT) o be e unde s and he
mechanisms unde lying hese ela ionships.
The pu pose o his s udy was o examine how SSL and
SL imp o ed he low WWB and high WFC among nu ses
du ing he COVID-19 pandemic. To achie e his, we d ew
on COR heo y and SDT as he heo e ical ounda ions and
used a mul i-wa e da a collec ion app oach o alida ion.
The s udy makes se e al impo an con ibu ions o exis -
ing esea ch. Pe haps mos p ominen ly, by conside ing a
combina ion o ex e nal esou ces (SSL) and in e nal
esou ces (SL) as an e ec i e c isis-coping s a egy, his
s udy deepened ou unde s anding o he ela ionship
be ween he wo esou ces and con ibu es o he li e a u e
on WWB and WFC. Second, by examining manage s’
sel -sac i icial beha io s aimed a alle ia ing he s ess
caused by he COVID-19 pandemic, his s udy alida es
he iew ha SSL o en occu s du ing o ganiza ional c ises
(De C eme & an Knippenbe g, 2004; Ma eson & I ing,
2006) and answe s Yang e al.’s (2023) call o ocus on he
ole o SSL in ex e nal c ises. Thi d, we in eg a e COR and
SDT as an in eg a i e heo e ical amewo k o explo e he
in e ac i e e ec s o wo di e en esou ces, making
“wo k esou ces” mo e conc e e and u he de ining how
SSL a ec s a ious ou comes. Las bu no he leas , his
s udy’s sample and con ex p o ided a unique oppo uni y
o explo e he ela ionship be ween wo di e en ypes o
leade ship and nu ses’ WWB and WFC du ing his unce -
ain ime.
Theo e ical backg ound and
hypo heses
Sel -sac i icial leade ship
SSL e e s o a managemen s yle in which “leade s olun-
a ily, empo a ily o pe manen ly, gi e up hei pe sonal
in e es s, p i ileges, and well-being o he wel a e o hei
o ganiza ions and eam membe s” (Y. Choi & Mai-Dal on,
1999, p. 479; R. Li e al., 2016, p. 760). This leade ship
s yle is o en used du ing o ganiza ional c ises and can
e ec i ely add ess he o ganiza ion’s unce ain y and
complex challenges (De C eme e al., 2004; Ma eson &
I ing, 2006). Du ing he COVID-19 pandemic, many
examples o SSL eme ged. Fo example, Ma io ’s CEO
ga e up his sala y, p o ided ho el ooms o ee o on -
line employees o help igh he pandemic, and called on
o he execu i es o ake pay cu s o help he business
wea he he s o m. This se ies o ini ia i es educed cos s
by a o al o $140 million, p o iding sho - e m elie o
Ma io ’s inancial and ope a ional p essu es. Meanwhile,
ins ances o on -line heal hca e manage s making huge
sac i ices in e ms o ime, money, and heal h o help
elie e he emendous wo k p essu e o hei subo dina es
we e coun less. Thei sel -sac i icial beha io s se an
example o s eng h o hei subo dina es and p o ide
hem wi h a be e physical and men al s a e in helping he
COVID-19 pa ien s. These examples demons a e SSL’s
p e alence and e ec i e impac s du ing COVID-19.
Al hough some esea che s ha e poin ed ou he con-
cep ual o e lap among SSL, se an leade ship, and ans-
o ma ional leade ship in ha hey all include o ad oca e
o a ce ain le el and o m o leade s’ sac i ice, hey di e
undamen ally in hei ocus and he mo i a ion behind he
sac i ice (Yang e al., 2023). Sel -sac i icial leade s a e
mo e likely o emphasize achie ing e hical sel - anscend-
ence and may be mo i a ed o achie e he g ea e good o
he o ganiza ion (Hal e son e al., 2004; Ma eson &
I ing, 2006). Se an leade s ocus on hei ollowe s and
mee ing hei de elopmen goals and in e es s. Finally,
ans o ma ional leade s p io i ize achie ing o ganiza-
ional goals, and hei beha io is o en mo i a ed by he
desi e o suppo he achie emen o o ganiza ional ision
and goals by se ing he in e es s o he o ganiza ion
(A nold & Loughlin, 2010; Ma eson & I ing, 2006;
Smi h e al., 2004; an Die endonck e al., 2014).
12 Business Resea ch Qua e ly 27(1)
P e ious s udies ha e o e whelmingly concen a ed on
explo ing he ou comes o sel -sac i icial leade s in ou
main ca ego ies: (1) ollowe wo k a i udes (e.g., o ganiza-
ional commi men and o ganiza ion-based sel -es eem;
Hal e son e al., 2004; He e al., 2018), (2) employee wo k
beha io s (e.g., c ea i i y, o ganiza ional ci izenship beha -
io , oice, and wo k engagemen ; X. Chen e al., 2020; He
e al., 2018; Liang & Fan, 2020; J. Zhang e al., 2020), (3)
leade - ela ed ou comes (e.g., leade s’ e ec i eness,
employee e alua ions o leade s, and leade s’ p osocial
impac s a wo k and con lic s a home; De C eme & an
Knippenbe g, 2004; Janson e al., 2008; Lanaj e al., 2021),
and (4) pe o mance ou comes (e.g., inno a i e pe o mance
and o ganiza ional social capi al; Jiang e al., 2019; Mos a a
& Bo omley, 2020).
Al hough p io esea ch has del ed mo e in o he ou -
comes o SSL, ew s udies ha e in es iga ed he impac o
SSL on employee p oblems igge ed by ex e nal c ises.
The e o e, he cu en s udy b idges his gap by explo ing
how SSL imp o es employee WWB and alle ia es hei
WFC esul ing om he COVID-19 pandemic. Figu e 1
p esen s he heo e ical model o his s udy.
Sel -sac i icial leade ship and wo kplace well-
being/wo k– amily con lic
COVID-19 is one o he mos de as a ing s esso s in
heal h ca e and has had a powe ul con ex ual impac on
people (Y. F. Chen e al., 2021). Du ing he pandemic, hos-
pi als wo ked ex ended hou s o sa e li es, esul ing in
shi wo k and long wo king hou s. In addi ion, nu ses
coped wi h high wo kloads and demands, s a sho ages,
and nega i e wo kplace en i onmen s. These a e some o
he many s esso s ha placed emendous wo k p essu es
on nu ses (Al awashdeh e al., 2021; McKnigh e al.,
2020; Yildiz e al., 2021) and led o a signi ican dec ease
in hei WWB (Mo e al., 2020; Roge s e al., 2022).
Mo eo e , he demanding asks and wo k en i onmen s as
well as he hea y wo kload led o WFCs when he nu ses
could no balance hei amily esponsibili ies (Ka aku
e al., 2022; Yildiz e al., 2021). Fu he mo e, nu ses we e
deep in he mi e o los esou ces du ing his pe iod. The
acquisi ion pa adox p inciple o he COR heo y s a es ha
he loss o esou ces magni ies he alue o acquisi ions.
The e o e, esou ce acquisi ion is signi ican when he loss
is high (Hob oll, 1989). Thus, we a gue ha sel -sac i icial
leade s can p o ide nu ses wi h imely and adequa e wo k-
ela ed suppo and esou ces in a esou ce-d aining en i-
onmen in ol ing educed WWB and inc eased WFC,
like du ing he COVID-19 pandemic.
Speci ically, sel -sac i icial manage s c ea e g ea e
wo k- ela ed mo i a ional esou ces in he ace o c ises by
demons a ing hei beha io al cha ac e is ics. Fo exam-
ple, in di icul imes, he leade s o ego hei in e es s and
bea pe sonal cos s o hei subo dina es’ well-being (e.g.,
pay mo e bene i s, inc ease bonuses, o subsidize house-
hold goods). They also ca e abou he needs o hei
employees and add essing g oup conce ns (e.g., hey ocus
on hei employees’ physical and psychological s esses
and occasionally console employees’ amilies o imp o e
amily ela ionships) (Lanaj e al., 2021). In addi ion, hey
olun ee o ake on a mo e signi ican di ision o labo (Y.
Choi & Mai-Dal on, 1998). Aligned wi h he COR heo y,
egaining esou ces allows indi iduals o eco e om
losses and gain mo e esou ces (Hob oll, 1989). Du ing he
pandemic, when nu ses pe cei e he suppo i e esou ces
o wo k and amily p o ided by hei manage s, hey will
subsequen ly demons a e an inc eased sense o WWB and
expe ienced lesse WFC (Leung e al., 2020; Ma hews
e al., 2014). The e o e, we hypo hesized as ollows:
Hypo hesis 1a. Du ing he COVID-19 pandemic, man-
age s’ SSL has a posi i e ela ionship wi h nu ses’
WWB.
Figu e 1. Theo e ical model.
Huang and Zhou 13
Hypo hesis 1b. Du ing he COVID-19 pandemic, man-
age s’ SSL has a nega i e ela ionship wi h nu ses’
WFC.
The media ing ole o h i ing a wo k
Th i ing a wo k (TAW) ep esen s a posi i e psychologi-
cal s a e in which he indi idual expe iences bo h i ali y
and lea ning (Sp ei ze e al., 2005). Fo nu ses, chaos and
unce ain y c ea e s ess and challenges o TAW. In such
cases, sel -sac i icial leade s ocus on he in e es s and
needs o hei subo dina es, soo hing hem emo ionally
and p o iding hem wi h he esou ces needed o accom-
plish hei asks (Hob oll, 1989). When leade s mee hei
subo dina es’ needs, hey imp o e hei moods and es o e
hei i ali y a wo k. In addi ion, ollowing he p osocial
mo i a ion o sel -sac i icial beha io s a es ha sel -sac-
i icial leade s a e willing o help employees achie e hei
wo k goals and isions (Rosa i, 2009). This willingness
means ha such leade s p o ide app op ia e esou ces o
p omo e hei employees’ de elopmen du ing di icul
imes (Rosa i, 2009). In his con ex , one o he mos c i i-
cal mani es a ions o employee de elopmen is he expe i-
ence o a s a e o “lea ning” (Bi di e al., 1997).
Consequen ly, in luen ial sel -sac i icial leade s ypically
p o ide subo dina es wi h he oppo uni ies and esou ces
hey need o lea n and g ow, encou aging hem o ake he
ini ia i e and p omo ing a lea ning a mosphe e. Thus,
when nu ses aced hea y wo kloads and scan nu sing
expe ise du ing he COVID-19 c isis, he leade s p o-
ided as many suppo i e esou ces as possible o enhance
he nu ses’ i ali y and acili a e hei lea ning and g ow h,
allowing hem o h i e mo e a wo k.
Then, TAW also mo i a ed nu ses o s o e mo e
esou ces o hei wo k by lea ning o con inuously abso b
and u ilize new knowledge, skills, and abili ies and be
mo e compe en in hei job o ca ing o he COVID-19
pa ien s (Basinska & Rozkwi alska, 2020). Fu he mo e,
indi iduals expe iencing highe i ali y ha e been ound
o be e cope wi h us a ing e en s and s ess ul si ua-
ions (Zhu e al., 2023). The e o e, nu ses wi h highe
i ali y we e less likely o be dep essed o dis essed by he
dilemmas caused by COVID-19. Consequen ly, hose
h i ing a wo k ended o be mo e compe en , esilien ,
and p oac i e and we e he e o e mo e likely o expe ience
highe le els o WWB (Yousa e al., 2019).
Fu he mo e, indi iduals wi h a highe TAW a e able o
expe ience mo e posi i e emo ions and pe cei e ha hey
a e capable o sol ing p oblems h ough he knowledge
and skills hey ha e lea ned, which also p o ides mo e
pe sonal esou ces o sol ing wo k and amily p oblems
(O’Neill & Ro hba d, 2017). Speci ically, a high le el o
i ali y was ound o egula e nu ses’ emo ions when
wo king du ing he pandemic and educe he impac o
ad e se emo ions on he wo k en i onmen , whe eas a
high lea ning abili y p omo ed hei e iciency and success
in ea ing pa ien s (Z. D. Zhang e al., 2022). Fu he mo e,
a high le el o h i ing has also helped nu ses cope wi h
he lack o amily esponsibili ies and amily li e, b ough
abou by high wo kloads du ing he pandemic, wi h posi-
i e emo ions and sol e any amily p oblems, hus leading
o he ul illmen o hei amily oles (Z. D. Zhang e al.,
2022). Thus, when wo k and amily domains o e lap,
TAW p o ides nu ses wi h posi i e coping s a egies ha
educe WFC (Xu e al., 2020).
In summa y, consis en wi h he COR heo y, SSL as a
suppo i e esou ce can be help ul in acqui ing and main-
aining o he esou ces (TAW, a psychological esou ce)
and hus cu b he loss o he o iginal esou ces (high WWB
and low WFC) (Hob oll, 1989; Hob oll e al., 2018).
Acco dingly, we hypo hesized as ollows:
Hypo hesis 2a. Du ing he COVID-19 pandemic,
nu ses’ TAW media es he ela ionship be ween manag-
e s’ SSL and nu ses’ WWB.
Hypo hesis 2b. Du ing he COVID-19 pandemic,
nu ses’ TAW media es he ela ionship be ween manag-
e s’ SSL and nu ses’ WFC.
The ole o sel -leade ship
The COR heo y asse s ha indi iduals seek o p o ec
and accumula e sca ce esou ces (e.g., pe sonal iden i y
esou ces, condi ioned esou ce) o cope wi h he dilem-
mas c ea ed by s esso s (Hob oll, 1989; Ka a epe &
Ka a epe, 2010). In his s udy, we iewed SSL as a condi-
ional esou ce o nu ses, de ined as an ex e nal suppo -
i e esou ce ha posi i ely a ec s nu ses’ TAW. Mo eo e ,
ex e nal suppo as well as in e nal pe sonal esou ces can
imp o e employees’ abili ies o manage and bu e wo k
s ess (Ko zé, 2021). The e o e, we in oduced SL as an
in e nal pe sonal esou ce (a pe sonal cha ac e is ic
esou ce) o examine he combined e ec o in e nal and
ex e nal esou ces.
SL is a non- adi ional iew o leade ship, ye i is simi-
la o he adi ional iew o leade ship in ha hey bo h
emphasize he use o speci ic s a egies o change beha -
io s, a i udes, o ou comes (Kno s e al., 2022). Howe e ,
i is unique in ha he en i e p ocess o ac ion in ol es
only he indi idual and no one else, and he indi idual is
he ini ia o o he in luence and uses app op ia e beha io-
al, cogni i e, and in insic mo i a ional s a egies o lead
hemsel es e ec i ely (Neck & Hough on, 2006; S ewa
e al., 2011). Neck and Hough on (2006) emphasized h ee
s a egies in SL: (1) beha io - ocused s a egies ha
unde sco e imp o ing employees’ sel -awa eness and
managing beha io s ha a e associa ed wi h challenging
and necessa y bu unpleasan asks; (2) na u al ewa d
s a egies ha allow o hei g ea e in insic pleasu e in
14 Business Resea ch Qua e ly 27(1)
comple ing asks; and (3) cons uc i e hinking s a egies
including he use o men al image y and he de elopmen
o e icien sel - alk, wi h a en ion o posi i e belie s and
assump ions.
Pas esea ch has shown ha employees who use hese
s a egies cope be e wi h s ess and e lec s onge wo k
mo i a ion (e.g., sel -e icacy), mo e posi i e wo k a i-
udes (e.g., job sa is ac ion and job engagemen ), and be -
e wo k ou comes (e.g., ask pe o mance and c ea i i y)
(DiLiello e al., 2006; Inam e al., 2023; Ko zé, 2021;
Ma ques-Quin ei o e al., 2019; P ussia e al., 1998).
Compa ed wi h ex e nal in luence, SL ocuses on he in e -
nal in luence p ocess (Kno s e al., 2022). In summa y, we
he e o e iew SL as a pe sonal in e nal esou ce o
nu ses. We u he in oduce he SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985)
o unde s and he in e ac ion e ec s o he wo esou ces.
Speci ically, we a gue ha SL as an in e nal pe sonal
esou ce can di ec ly con ibu e o nu ses’ TAW and ha
SL as a psychological esou ce can diminish he posi i e
impac o SSL as an ex e nal suppo esou ce on TAW.
Sel -leade ship and h i ing a wo k. D awing on SDT, we
a gue ha , as a pe sonal in e nal esou ce, nu ses’ SL can
p omo e TAW by sa is ying he h ee basic psychological
needs du ing si ua ions such as he COVID-19 pandemic
(Deci & Ryan, 2000). Fi s , nu ses wi h high SL end o be
au onomous as hey a e usually ee o sel -di ec and sel -
mo i a e in hei wo k (Manz, 1986), inspi ing hem o
s i e o achie emen (S ewa e al., 2011) and sa is ying
hei need o au onomy. Second, nu ses wi h s ong SL a e
mo e likely o achie e long- e m ca ee success; hey a e
o en lexible in implemen ing he abo emen ioned h ee
s a egies o guide hei wo k (Mu phy & Enshe , 2001;
Raabe e al., 2007), sa is ying hei need o compe ence.
Thi d, esea ch shows ha indi iduals wi h high au onomy
de elop mo e posi i e ela ionships wi h o he s (Deci
e al., 2017; Hodgins e al., 1996), hus sa is ying hei
need o ela edness. The e o e, nu ses wi h high le els o
SL can sa is y all he h ee needs simul aneously. Du ing
he COVID-19 pandemic, when nu ses expe ience ull
au onomy, compe ence, and ela edness, hey will ell
ene gized, acqui e knowledge ela ed o ea ing COVID-
19 pa ien s, and lea n new nu sing skills o sel -de elop-
men (Wang e al., 2021). Consequen ly, nu ses wi h s ong
SL can expe ience g ea e TAW.
Hypo hesis 3. Du ing he COVID-19 pandemic, nu ses’
SL has a posi i e associa ion wi h TAW.
The mode a ing ole o sel -leade ship. Acco ding o ano he
impo an co olla y o SDT, in e nal esou ces a e highly
ela ed o indi idual in e nal mo i a ion, while ex e nal
esou ces s imula e ex e nal mo i a ion mo e di ec ly
(Deci e al., 2017; Deci & Ryan, 1985). Du ing he
COVID-19 pe iod, nu ses’ high SL implied ha hei
in e nal esou ces we e adequa e. When aced wi h
demanding wo k asks, hey we e less sensi i e o ex e nal
ac o s; ins ead, mo e pe sonal in e nal esou ces p e e en-
ially s imula ed hei in e nal mo i a ion and hus d o e
hei beha io (Ko zé, 2021). In con as , SSL ep esen s
an en i onmen al ac o , an ex e nal esou ce mo e closely
associa ed wi h employees’ ex e nal mo i a ion (Iqbal
e al., 2022). In addi ion, wo dimensions o TAW—lea n-
ing and i ali y—a e empo a y in e nal a ibu es ha
mani es a posi i e emo ional s a e wi hin he indi idual
(Sp ei ze e al., 2005; Sp ei ze & Po a h, 2014;
Walumbwa e al., 2018), making hem mo e sensi i e o
in insic mo i a ion. Howe e , when nu ses ha e weak
SL, hey may be mo e inclined o ely on supe io s and
o ganiza ions. In c isis se ings, such nu ses p e e o
ecei e di ec suppo and help om he o ganiza ion
a he han leading hemsel es o b eak h ough di icul
si ua ions (Gündemi e al., 2019; Se gen & S ajko ic,
2020). Lowe le els o SL can cause hem o lack in insic
mo i a ion and u n o ex e nal mo i a ion, which elies
mo e on ex e nal esou ces. In such a case, he p esence o
a sel -sac i icial leade may be an e ec i e s imulus o
nu ses’ TAW (Walumbwa e al., 2018). Such leade s ha e
sac i iced hei ime, ene gy, and money o a emp o
main ain a com o able wo k en i onmen o he i s -line
nu ses unde he p essu e o he pandemic, hus enabling
hem o engage mo e ene ge ically in hei nu sing wo k.
Meanwhile, he abundance o esou ces allows o mo e
lea ning oppo uni ies.
Hypo hesis 4. Du ing he COVID-19 pandemic, nu ses’
SL will mode a e he ela ionship be ween manage s’
SSL and nu ses’ TAW, such a posi i e e ec will be
weaken when SL is high ( s. low).
The mode a ed media ion model
Combining he media ing pa h o TAW (connec ing SSL
wi h WWB/WFC) and he mode a ing app oach o SL ( he
e ec o SSL on TAW), we cons uc ed a mode a ed media-
ion model (see Figu e 1). Speci ically, based on he COR
heo y and SDT, du ing he COVID-19 pandemic, nu ses
wi h high SL will show s ong in insic mo i a ion due o he
sa is ac ion o in e nal esou ces. Mo eo e , his inhe en
mo i a ion will dec ease SSL’s posi i e e ec as an ex e nal
suppo i e esou ce on TAW, u he diminishing he posi-
i e and nega i e indi ec connec ions o SSL o WWB and
WFC, espec i ely. Acco dingly, we hypo hesize as ollows:
Hypo hesis 5a. Du ing he COVID-19 pandemic,
nu ses’ SL will mode a e he indi ec e ec o manag-
e s’ SSL on nu ses’ WWB, such ha his indi ec ela-
ionship is weake o nu ses wi h high SL and s onge
o nu ses wi h low SL.
Huang and Zhou 15
Hypo hesis 5b. Du ing he COVID-19 pandemic,
nu ses’ SL will mode a e he indi ec e ec o manag-
e s’ SSL on nu ses’ WFC, such ha his indi ec ela-
ionship is weake o nu ses wi h high SL and s onge
o nu ses wi h low SL.
Me hod
Pa icipan s and p ocedu e
We collec ed da a o his s udy using a ques ionnai e. The
pa icipan s we e ull- ime nu ses om di e en depa -
men s in a la ge gene al hospi al in no hwes China du ing
he COVID-19 pandemic. Pa icipan s we e assu ed o
hei anonymi y in he su ey and ha he da a would be
used o esea ch pu poses only. We collec ed da a in a
way ha p o ec ed con iden iali y and anonymi y, using
codes o iden i y pa icipan s. O he han he in es iga o s,
no indi iduals o o ganiza ions accessed he da a.
To educe common me hod bias, we used a h ee-wa e
s udy design, wi h a 2-week in e al be ween each wa e.
We dis ibu ed he ques ionnai e be ween Decembe 2020
and Janua y 2021 h ough an online su ey pla o m
(www.wjx.com). The pa icipan s comple ed he ques ion-
nai e on hei compu e o cell phone by clicking on he
link. The ques ionnai e asked all pa icipa ing nu ses o
epo on hei expe iences a wo k since he pandemic had
begun. The measu ed a iables included SSL, SL, TAW,
WWB, WFC, and p oac i e pe sonali y (PP). A ime 1,
he pa icipan s epo ed hei basic demog aphic in o ma-
ion and assessed hei leade s’ SSL, sel - epo ed SL, and
PP. A ime 2, we collec ed pa icipan s’ sel -assessed
TAW. Finally, a ime 3, pa icipan s sel -e alua ed hei
WWB and WFC.
We ini ially dis ibu ed he ques ionnai e o 561 nu ses.
A e 3 su ey ounds, we ecei ed 465 esponden s wi h a
esponse a e o 83%. We hen so ed he da ase , emo ing
en ies con aining s aigh lining/non-di e en ia ion and
missing alues in a abula ashion o p e en sys ema ic
measu emen e o s. Finally, we ob ained 405 ma ched
alid ques ionnai es. Table 1 shows he de ailed demo-
g aphic in o ma ion.
Measu es
We used a s uc u ed ques ionnai e o da a collec ion.
Excep o he con ol a iables, we adop ed a 7-poin
Like - ype scale (1 = s ongly disag ee; 7 = s ongly ag ee)
o measu e he o he main a iables. In addi ion, we adop ed
B islin’s (1980) ansla ion-back ansla ion p ocedu e and
ansla ed he o iginal scales in o Chinese.
Sel -sac i icial leade ship. We adop ed he i e-i em scale
de eloped by De C eme and an Knippenbe g (2004) o
measu e SSL. A sample i em is, “My supe iso is willing
o make pe sonal sac i ices in he eam’s in e es .” C on-
bach’s α was .956.
Th i ing a wo k. To e alua e TAW, we e e ed o he en-
i em scale adap ed om Po a h e al. (2012), which
includes he lea ning ( i e i ems) and i ali y ( i e i ems)
dimensions. A ypical i em o lea ning is, “I ind mysel
lea ning o en.” An example i em o i ali y is “I ha e
ene gy and spi i .” C onbach’s α was .961.
Wo kplace well-being. We used Zheng e al.’s (2015) six-
i em scale o assess WWB. An example i em includes, “In
gene al, I eel ai ly sa is ied wi h my p esen job.” C on-
bach’s α was .944.
Wo k– amily con lic . We assessed WFC e e ing o he
i e-i em scale de eloped and alida ed by Ne emeye
e al. (1996). An example i em includes, “My job p oduces
s ain ha makes i di icul o ul ill amily du ies.” C on-
bach’s α was .947.
Sel -leade ship. We measu ed SL by adap ing Hough on
e al.’s (2012) nine-i em scale. Sample i ems include “I
wo k owa d speci ic goals I se o mysel ,” “Some imes I
pic u e in my mind a success ul pe o mance be o e I ac u-
ally do a ask,” and “I y o men ally e alua e he accu acy
o my belie s abou si ua ions I am ha ing p oblems wi h.”
C onbach’s α was .922.
Table 1. Demog aphic in o ma ion o pa icipan s.
Demog aphic cha ac e is ics (%, n)
Gende
Male 4% (16)
Female 96% (389)
Age (yea s), mean ± SD 32.1 ± 5.6
Educa ion
Seconda y school 37.3% (151)
Junio college 56.5% (229)
Bachelo deg ee and abo e 6.2% (25)
Ma iage
No 16.5% (67)
Yes 83.5% (338)
Tenu e (yea s), mean ± SD 9.4 ± 6.1
P o essional i le
Junio 92.1% (373)
In e media e 5.4% (22)
Senio 2.5% (10)
Depa men
Su ge y 40.5% (164)
In e nal medicine 38% (154)
Suppo ing 21.5% (87)
SD: s anda d de ia ion.
16 Business Resea ch Qua e ly 27(1)
Con ol a iables. We discussed pa icipan s’ demog aphic
in o ma ion as he con ol a iable, including gende , age,
educa ion, ma iage, o ganiza ional enu e, p o essional
i le, and depa men . We also con olled PP as an impo -
an pe sonali y ai a iable because ex ensi e li e a u e
has concluded a posi i e associa ion be ween PP and TAW
(Abid e al., 2021; Y. F. Chen e al., 2021). We e alua ed
PP based on Seibe e al.’s (1999) 10-i em scale. A sample
i em is, “No ma e he odds, i I belie e in some hing, I
will make i happen.” C onbach’s α was .950.
Analysis
Fi s , we pe o med con i ma o y ac o analyses (CFAs)
applying AMOS 24.0 o examine he disc iminan alidi y
among he co e a iables. Then, we used PROCESS Mac o
(Hayes, 2013) o examine all hypo heses. In addi ion, we
examined he media ing and mode a ed media ing e ec s
based on he boo s apping esul s. We pe o med and-
omized i e a ions 5,000 imes and calcula ed he 95% con-
idence in e als (P eache e al., 2010).
Con i ma o y ac o analysis
The CFAs we e conduc ed o e alua e he disc iminan
alidi y o he six co e cons uc s: SSL, SL, TAW, WWB,
WFC, and PP. The esul s showed ha all he six- ac o
model i ed indices passed he h eshold (χ2/d = 2.862,
compa a i e i index [CFI] = .908, Tucke –Lewis index
[TLI] = .902, oo mean squa e e o o app oxima ion
[RMSEA] = .068, s anda dized oo mean squa e esidual
[SRMR] = .045) and ou pe o med he o he i e compe i-
i e models. This indica es ha he i e a iables ha e
good disc iminan alidi y. See Table 2 o de ails.
To es he common me hod bias p oblem, we also
es ed he i o he one- ac o model (i.e., all he
indica o s we e loaded on one ac o ). The a ionale
behind he “one- ac o p ocedu e” is ha i me hod a i-
ance accoun s o a signi ican amoun o co a ia ion
among he measu emen s, he CFA esul s should show
ha he one- ac o model i s he da a well (Podsako
e al., 2003; Podsako & O gan, 1986). He e, he one-
ac o model in he CFA (Table 2) demons a ed a poo i
(χ2/d = 11.441, CFI = .478, TLI = .451, RMSEA = .161,
SRMR = .168). The e o e, he common me hod bias was
no a majo p oblem in his s udy.
Resul s
Desc ip i e s a is ics
Table 3 p o ides he desc ip i e in o ma ion and bi a ia e
co ela ions o all he a iables.
Hypo hesis es ing
We examined all hypo heses using PROCESS mac o
(Hayes, 2013), wi h boo s apping 5,000 imes, and p e-
sen he esul s o he mode a ed media ion model in Tables
4 o 6.
Hypo hesis 1 p edic ed a signi ican posi i e ela ion-
ship be ween SSL and WWB (Hypo hesis 1a) and a sig-
ni ican nega i e linkage be ween SSL and WFC
(Hypo hesis 1b). Table 4, Model 1, shows ha he e is a
signi ican ly posi i e co ela ion be ween SSL and WWB
(B = .238, SE = 0.047, p < .001, 95% CI = [0.146, 0.330]),
suppo ing Hypo hesis 1a. Fu he mo e, Table 4, Model 3,
illus a es a nega i e associa ion be ween SSL and WFC
(B = −.198, SE = 0.094, p < .05, 95% = [−0.383, −0.014]),
hus suppo ing Hypo hesis 1b.
Nex , we applied SPSS-PROCESS o examine he
media ing e ec o TAW. Hypo heses 2a and 2b assumed
Table 2. Con i ma o y ac o analysis esul s.
Model χ2d χ2/d χ2CFI TLI RMSEA SRMR
Six- ac o model
(SSL; SL; TAW; WWB; WFC; PP)
2,647.445 925 2.862 – .908 .902 .068 .045
Fi e- ac o model
(SSL; SL + PP; TAW; WWB; WFC)
3,394.290 930 3.650 746.845*** .869 .861 .081 .056
Fou - ac o model
(SSL + SL + PP; TAW; WWB; WFC)
4,915.702 934 5.263 2,268.257*** .788 .776 .103 .073
Th ee- ac o model
(SSL + SL + PP; TAW; WWB + WFC)
7,245.138 937 7.732 4,597.693*** .665 .646 .129 .190
Two- ac o model
(SSL + SL + PP, TAW + WWB + WFC)
8,046.048 939 8.569 5,398.603*** .622 .602 .137 .112
One- ac o model
(SSL + SL + PP + TAW + WWB + WFC)
1,0754.427 940 11.441 8,106.982*** .478 .451 .161 .168
CFI: compa a i e i index; TLI: Tucke –Lewis index; RMSEA: oo mean squa e e o o app oxima ion; SRMR: s anda dized oo mean squa e
esidual; SSL: sel -sac i icial leade ship; SL: sel -leade ship; PP: p oac i e pe sonali y; TAW: h i ing a wo k; WWB: wo kplace well-being; WFC:
wo k– amily con lic .
***p < .001.
N = 405.
Huang and Zhou 17
Table 3. Desc ip i e s a is ics and co ela ions.
Va iable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1. Gende 1.96 0.20
2. Age (yea s) 32.07 5.58 .11*
3. Educa ion 1.69 0.58 −.11* −.15**
4. Ma iage 0.83 0.37 .15** .43** −.08
5. Tenu e (yea s) 9.14 6.07 .13* .92** −.26** .38**
6. P o essional i le 1.10 0.38 .06 .60** .06 .12* .65**
7. Su ge y 0.40 0.49 .17** −.14** −.12* .00 −.13** −.12*
8. In e nal medicine 0.38 0.49 .03 −.17** .11 −.05 −.19** −.15** −.65**
9. P oac i e pe sonali y 5.74 0.89 .05 −.03 −.04 .00 −.05 .02 .13* .03 (.950)
10. Sel -sac i icial leade ship 5.63 1.16 −.01 −.10* .00 −.06 .13** −.14** .05** .05 .60** (.956)
11. Sel -leade ship 5.89 0.81 .06 .01 .00 .02 .01 .04 .10** .01 .70** .48** (.922)
12. Th i ing a wo k 6.03 0.89 .10* .05 −.04 .07 .04 −.02 .03 .07 .33** .30** .35** (.961)
13. Wo kplace well-being 5.88 0.99 .03 .00 −.02 .03 −.02 −.04 .11** .05 .45** .44** .39** .64** (.922)
14. Wo k– amily con lic 4.13 1.73 .05 .07 −.01 .12* .06 .02 .09 −.10* −.03 −.11* −.10 −.16** −.20** (.947)
SD: s anda d de ia ion.
N = 405.
Gende : male = 1, emale = 2; Educa ion: seconda y school, junio college, bachelo deg ee, and abo e; P o essional i le: junio , in e media e, senio ; Depa men : su ge y, in e nal medicine, suppo ing.
The diagonal b acke s a e C onbach’s α alue.
**p < .01; *p < .05.
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