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In e na ional di e ences in employee silence mo i es: Scale alida ion,
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RESEARCH ARTICLE
In e na ional di e ences in employee silence mo i es: Scale
alida ion, p e alence, and ela ionships wi h cul u e
cha ac e is ics ac oss 33 coun ies
Michael Knoll
1
| Ma in Gö z
2
| Elisa Ad iasola
3
| Ame Ali Al-A wi
4
|
Alicia A enas
5
| Kokou A. A i sogbe
6
| S ephen Ba e
7
|
Anindo Bha acha jee
8
| No man D. Blanco
9
| Sabina Bogilo i
c
10
|
G égoi e Bollmann
2
| Janine Bosak
11
| Cag i Bulu
12
| Madeline Ca e
13
|
Ma ej Če ne
10
| Susanna L. M. Chui
14
| Dona ella Di Ma co
5,15
|
Gesa S. Duden
1
| Vicki Elsey
13
| Mako o Fujimu a
16
| Paola Ga i
17
|
Chia a Ghislie i
17
| S e en R. Giessne
18
| Ken a Hino
19
|
Joe i Ho mans
20
| Thomas S. Jønsson
21
| Pazambadi Kazimna
22
|
Ke in B. Lowe
23
| Juliana Malagón
24
| Hassan Mohebbi
25
|
An hony Mon gome y
26
| Lucas Monzani
27
| Anne Nede een Pie e se
18
|
Muhammed Ngoma
28
| Emi Oze en
29,30
| Dei d e O'Shea
31
|
Ch is ina Lundsgaa d O sen
21,32
| Jenni e Picke
20
| Anna A. Rangku i
33
|
Sylwiusz Re owski
34
| Fa zad Sa a i A dabili
35
| Razia Shauka
36
|
Sil ia A. Sil a
15
| Ana Šimuni
c
37
| Niklas K. S e ens
38
| Faniya Sul ano a
39
|
Da ia Szücs
40
| Susana M. Ta a es
15
| A un Tipandjan
41
| Rol an Dick
42
|
Dimi i Vasilje ic
43
| Su I. Wong
44
| Hannes Zache
1
1
Ins i u e o Psychology - Wilhelm Wund , Leipzig Uni e si y, Leipzig, Ge many
2
Depa men o Psychology, Uni e si y o Zu ich, Zü ich, Swi ze land
3
Business School, Uni e sidad Adol o Ibañez, San iago, Chile
4
Depa men o Business Adminis a ion, Al Mu hanna Uni e si y, Samawah, I aq
5
Depa men o Social Psychology, Uni e si y o Se ille, Se ille, Spain
6
Ins i u e o Psychology, Uni e si y o Lausanne, Lausanne, Swi ze land
7
Depa men o In o ma ics, Technical Uni e si y Dublin, Dublin, I eland
8
ASMSOC, Na see Monjee Ins i u e o Managemen S udies, Mumbai, India
9
U ban S udies Ins i u e, Uni e sidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogo á, Colombia
10
School o Economics and Business and Facul y o Public Adminis a ion, Uni e si y o Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slo enia
11
Business School, Dublin Ci y Uni e si y, Dublin, I eland
12
S a egy and Excellence O ice, Yasa Uni e si y, Izmi , Tu key
F om he hi d au ho on, au ho s a e lis ed alphabe ically because hey con ibu ed equally o his p ojec .
Recei ed: 30 May 2019 Re ised: 16 Feb ua y 2021 Accep ed: 18 Feb ua y 2021
DOI: 10.1002/job.2512
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i s License, which pe mi s use and dis ibu ion in any
medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, he use is non-comme cial and no modi ica ions o adap a ions a e made.
© 2021 The Au ho s. Jou nal o O ganiza ional Beha io published by John Wiley & Sons L d.
J O gan Beha . 2021;42:619–648. wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/job 619
13
Depa men o Psychology, No humb ia Uni e si y Newcas le, Newcas le upon Tyne, U.K.
14
Depa men o Managemen , Hang Seng Uni e si y o Hong Kong, Hong Kong
15
Depa men o Human Resou ces and O ganiza ional Beha io , ISCTE-Ins i u o Uni e si á io de Lisboa, Lisbon, Po ugal
16
Facul y o Human Rela ions, Fukuoka Jo Gakuin Uni e si y, Fukuoka, Japan
17
Depa men o Psychology, Uni e si à degli S udi di To ino, Tu in, I aly
18
Ro e dam School o Managemen , E asmus Uni e si y, Ro e dam, The Ne he lands
19
Facul y o Business Adminis a ion, Komazawa Uni e si y, Tokyo, Japan
20
Depa men o Psychology, V ije Uni e si ei B ussel, B ussels, Belgium
21
Depa men o Psychology and Beha io al Sciences, Aa hus Uni e si e , Aa hus, Denma k
22
Depa men o Applied Psychology, Uni e si y o Lomé, Lomé, Togo
23
Business School, The Uni e si y o Sydney, Sydney, Aus alia
24
Uni e sidad de los Andes, School o Managemen , Bogo á, Colombia
25
Eu opean Knowledge De elopmen Ins i u e, Anka a, Tu key
26
Uni e si y o Macedonia, Thessaloniki, G eece
27
I ey Business School, Wes e n Uni e si y, London, Canada
28
G adua e s udies and esea ch, Make e e Uni e si y Business School, Kampala, Uganda
29
Facul y o Tou ism, Dokuz Eylül Uni e si y, Izmi , Tu key
30
CISEI, Uni e si y o Sou hamp on, Sou hamp on, U.K.
31
Kemmy Business School, Uni e si y o Lime ick, I eland
32
CoHe a, Rissko , Denma k
33
Facul y o Psychology, Uni e si as Nege i Jaka a, Jaka a, Indonesia
34
Facul y o Psychology, SWPS Uni e si y o Social Sciences and Humani ies, Sopo , Poland
35
Managemen Depa men , Islamic Azad Uni e si y, A dabil, I an
36
Depa men o Managemen Sciences, COMSATS Uni e si y Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakis an
37
Depa men o Psychology, Uni e si y o Zada , Zada , C oa ia
38
School o Psychology, The Uni e si y o Queensland, B isbane, Aus alia
39
Facul y o Psychology, Lomonoso Moscow S a e Uni e si y, Moscow, Russia
40
Depa men o Psychology, Technische Uni e si ä Chemni z, Chemni z, Ge many
41
In e na ional Cen e o Psychological Counseling and Social Resea ch, Pondiche y, India
42
Depa men o Psychology, Goe he Uni e si ä F ank u , F ank u , Ge many
43
Neoma Business School, Reims, F ance
44
Depa men o Communica ion and Cul u e, BI No wegian Business School, Oslo, No way
Co espondence
Michael Knoll, Depa men o Wo k and
O ganiza ional Psychology, Ins i u ü
Psychologie –Wilhelm Wund , Uni e si ä
Leipzig, Neuma k 9-19, 04109, Leipzig,
Ge many.
Email: [email protected]
Summa y
Employee silence, he wi hholding o wo k- ela ed ideas, ques ions, o conce ns om
someone who could e ec change, has been p oposed o hampe indi idual and col-
lec i e lea ning as well as he de ec ion o e o s and une hical beha io s in many
a eas o he wo ld. To acili a e c oss-cul u al esea ch, we alida ed an ins umen
measu ing ou employee silence mo i es (i.e., silence based on ea , esigna ion,
p osocial, and sel ish mo i es) in 21 languages. Ac oss 33 coun ies (N= 8,222) ep-
esen ing di e se cul u al clus e s, he ins umen shows good psychome ic p ope -
ies (i.e., in e nal eliabili ies, ac o s uc u e, and measu emen in a iance). Resul s
u he e ealed simila i ies and di e ences in he p e alence o silence mo i es
be ween coun ies, bu did no necessa ily suppo cul u al s e eo ypes. To explo e
he ole o cul u e o silence, we examined ela ionships o silence mo i es wi h he
socie al p ac ices cul u al dimensions om he GLOBE P og am. We ound ela ion-
ships be ween silence mo i es and powe dis ance, ins i u ional collec i ism, and
620 KNOLL ET AL.
unce ain y a oidance. O e all, he indings sugges ha ela ionships be ween
silence and cul u al dimensions a e mo e complex han commonly assumed. We dis-
cuss he explana o y powe o na ions as (cul u al) uni s o analysis, ou social scien-
i ic app oach, he p edic i e alue o cul u al dimensions, and oppo uni ies o
ex end silence esea ch geog aphically, me hodologically, and concep ually.
KEYWORDS
con ex , c oss-cul u al esea ch, cul u e, employee silence, oice
1|INTRODUCTION
In many coun ies, media epo s and esea ch emphasize ha ine i-
cacies, une hical p ac ices, e o s, and sa e y issues endu e because
employees wi hhold hei iews, ques ions, ideas, and conce ns
(e.g., Alla d-Poesi & Holle -Haudebe , 2017; Ba y, 2007; Gibson &
Singh, 2003; Joshi, 2016; Ma ee, 2016; She i , 2000). Highly isible
cases include aud in he au omo i e indus y, ha assmen in he
en e ainmen indus y, he mili a y, and spo s eams, misconduc in
law en o cemen , abuse o child en and olde people in educa ional,
ca ing, and eligious ins i u ions, and bullying in heal h se ices
(e.g., De e al., 2017; Ewing & Bowley, 2015; NHS, 2017;
P asad, 2018; Uni ed Na ions, 2014; WHO, 2002). Besides hese
cases co e ed by he media, he e is e idence ha on a mon hly,
weekly, o e en daily basis, many employees encoun e si ua ions in
which hey hink ha some hing should be add essed, bu a ely
speak up, hampe ing indi idual and collec i e e ec i eness, de elop-
men , and well-being (e.g., Knoll e al., 2019; Max ield, 2016;
Mo ison & Milliken, 2000; Pinde & Ha los, 2001).
Despi e an inc eased in e es in hese issues in many egions o
he wo ld, no sys ema ic a emp s exis o in eg a e in e na ional
esea ch on employee silence, and app oaches o silence di e in hei
s age o concep ual and me hodological de elopmen (e.g., Knoll
e al., 2016; Mo ison, 2014; She e al., 2021). While di e si y in
app oaches is aluable a ea ly s ages o heo e ical de elopmen ,
when a concep ma u es and is o be applied in p ac ice, esea ch
ad ances by compa abili y o assessmen and indings (Edmondson &
McManus, 2007). In addi ion, while cul u e and communica ion a e
in e wo en (Lehman e al., 2004; Me kin e al., 2014), li le sys ema ic
knowledge is a ailable o explain how he speci ics o cul u e may
a ec employees' mo i es o wi hholding hei iews. Concep ual
a icles p oposed ha cul u al di e ences may exis ega ding
employees' endency and mo i a ion o exp ess o wi hhold hei
iews (Kwon & Fa ndale, 2020; Mo ison, 2014), bu e y ew s udies
ha e examined employee silence in mo e han one coun y. To
ad ance unde s anding o employee silence as an in e na ional o gani-
za ional challenge (Geo ge e al., 2016), o in eg a e concep ual de el-
opmen s in di e se disciplines, and o add ess a lack o empi ical
esea ch, we conduc ed a la ge-scale s udy examining employee
silence in di e se cul u al egions.
Ou s udy con ibu es o he li e a u e in h ee impo an ways.
Fi s , we adap an es ablished ins umen o assessing di e en ially
mo i a ed silence ypes (i.e., silence based on ea , esigna ion,
p osocial, and oppo unis ic mo i es; Knoll & an Dick, 2013) o
21 languages and examine he scales' psychome ic p ope ies
(i.e., in e nal consis ency, ac o s uc u e, and measu emen in a i-
ance) in samples om 33 coun ies. Second, o ad ance unde s anding
o he link be ween cul u e and employee silence, we examine
whe he app oaches de eloped o di e en ia e be ween na ional cul-
u es can be applied o explain in e na ional di e ences and simila i-
ies in he p e alence o silence mo i es. Speci ically, we p opose and
es links be ween silence mo i es and socie al p ac ices dimensions
om he Global Leade ship and O ganiza ional Beha io E ec i eness
(GLOBE) esea ch p og am amewo k (House e al., 2004)—an
es ablished app oach o cha ac e ize cul u al in luences on o ganiza-
ional beha io (Do man e al., 2012; U bach e al., 2020). Ou s udy
o e s a a e oppo uni y o examine he ela ionship be ween cul u e
and silence, because i p o ides su icien a iance in cul u al a iables
o in e es , minimizes con ex e ec s, and allows o examining cul-
u al di e ences a he le el a which hey occu (Spec o e al., 2015;
Tsui e al., 2007). Thi d, based on ou indings, we discuss he limi a-
ions o na ions as (cul u al) uni s o analysis and ou social scien i ic
app oach, and we p opose oppo uni ies o ex end silence esea ch
geog aphically, me hodologically, and concep ually.
We hope ha ou esea ch acili a es in e na ional a emp s o
o e come he de imen al e ec s o silence. Besides, i shall help
schola s and p ac i ione s o add ess communica ion challenges ha
o ganiza ions ace when employing an in e na ional wo k o ce, collab-
o a ing wi h pa ne s in di e en coun ies, s a ing cul u ally di e se
eams, assigning expa ia es, and a emp ing o ans e pa icipa ion
schemes o acqui ed in e na ional b anches (Lewin, 2015; Tung &
S ahl, 2018).
2|THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
2.1 |Employee silence and i s unde lying mo i es
Add essing issues and exp essing ideas and conce ns (i.e., oice) is a
way o exp ess onesel and can lead o imp o ed (e.g., mo e e i-
cien and less ha m ul) ci cums ances a wo k and may e en
inc ease one's s a us wi hin he g oup (e.g., Chambe lin e al., 2018;
Je en & Ho nsey, 2014; Weiss & Mo ison, 2019). Howe e , oice
KNOLL ET AL.621
also exposes hose who speak ou , challenges he au ho i y and
judgmen o o he s, and dis up s ou ines and he smoo h ope a ion
o g oups, which, in u n, po en ially h ea ens ela ionships, g oup
ha mony, and s a us hie a chies (B ins ield e al., 2009; an Dyne
e al., 1995). Due o hese po en ial cos s o speaking ou and
speaking up, he e a e se e al easons ha mo i a e employees o
emain silen ( o ecen e iews, see Knoll e al., 2016;
Mo ison, 2014; She e al., 2021).
Fou o he mos p ominen silence mo i es a e subjec o ou
s udy. Fi s , s udies ha e shown ha employees emain silen a wo k
due o a ea ha speaking up may ha e nega i e e ec s on hei
ca ee , damage ela ionships, o lead o being labeled as a “ ouble-
make ”by supe io s o colleagues (Kish-Gepha e al., 2009; Milliken
e al., 2003). This phenomenon has been called quiescen silence
(Pinde & Ha los, 2001). While esea ch on whis leblowing and e alia-
ion shows ha hese ea s a e no un easonable (Co ina &
Magley, 2003; Miceli e al., 2008), emaining silen due o a ea o
speaking up comes wi h a p ice as well, namely, high-a ousal nega i e
a ec and inc eased exhaus ion and depe sonaliza ion (Ki ane
e al., 2017; Knoll e al., 2019). Second, Pinde and Ha los (2001)
sugges ed ha besides silence ha is based on ea employees wi h-
hold hei iews because hey hink ha speaking up will no make a
di e ence and ha po en ial ecipien s a e no esponsi e o in e -
es ed in he pa icula issue. This ype o silence labeled acquiescen
silence by Pinde and Ha los is also accompanied by nega i e a ec
bu wi h a lowe a ousal le el compa ed wi h quiescen silence, bea -
ing simila i ies o he s a e o lea ned helplessness (Ki ane
e al., 2017; Seligman, 1975).
Subsequen esea ch emphasized he ele ance o p osocial and
sel ish mo i es o he occu ence o silence in o ganiza ions ( o
mo e ex ensi e ypologies, see Bies, 2009; B ins ield, 2013;
Ku zon, 2007). A hi d ype o silence, p osocial silence, sugges s ha
employees wi hhold hei iews o p o ec o no o emba ass hei
supe io s, colleagues, o a speci ic g oup (e.g., o ganiza ion, p o es-
sion; an Dyne e al., 2003). P osocial silence di e s om quiescen
and acquiescen silence in ha i is accompanied by posi i e emo-
ions and he in en ion o bene i o he s. Howe e , i does no
exclude nega i e emo ions such as shame, sadness, and ea
(Ki ane e al., 2017). Thus, p osocial silence is mo e complex han
o he silence ypes (Pe low & Repenning, 2009). This migh be one
eason o he di e gen and in pa ambi alen ela ionships wi h
o he cons uc s such as heal h, job sa is ac ion, and oice oppo u-
ni ies (Knoll & an Dick, 2013), as well as i s associa ion wi h bo h
posi i e and nega i e ou comes (Umph ess e al., 2010). Finally, a
ou h ype o silence, oppo unis ic silence, has been in oduced o
conside he ac ha silence is, a imes, based on a he sel ish
mo i es, such as he in en ion o p o ec ing a knowledge ad an age
o a oiding addi ional wo kload (Knoll & an Dick, 2013). Oppo u-
nis ic silence has i s oo s in he li e a u es on knowledge hiding,
knowledge hoa ding, and coun e p oduc i e wo k beha io s
(Connelly e al., 2019; E ans e al., 2015) and is a he nega i ely
conno ed.
2.2 |Na ional cul u e and in e na ional di e ences
in employee silence
Cul u e can be de ined as a se o sha ed belie s, alues, no ms, mean-
ings, and p ac ices ha ha e been lea ned while socie ies sol ed p ob-
lems o ex e nal adap a ion (e.g., dealing wi h ex e nal h ea s and
secu ing esou ces) and in e nal egula ion (e.g., how powe and s a us
a e dis ibu ed and how con lic s a e esol ed; Schein, 2017). Sha ed
pa e ns o social beha io and hinking a e ansmi ed h ough social
ins i u ions and a i ac s such as schools, hie a chies, laws, and ewa d
sys ems, which, in u n, shape and jus i y indi idual and g oup belie s
and ac ions (K oebe & Kluckhohn, 1952). In ou s udy, we use coun-
ies as cul u al uni s, because hey a e ela i ely s able socie ies, ha e
clea geog aphical bounda ies and ins i u ionalized ules o wha con-
s i u es membe ship, hey gene ally ha e a common law sys em, poli -
ical ins i u ions, and a his o y o collec i e p oblem sol ing ( o
espec i e discussions, see Chen e al., 2009; Pe e son e al., 2018;
Ta as e al., 2016).
Na ional cul u e a ec s o ganiza ional beha io in se e al ways
(Tsui e al., 2007). A key way is by p o iding i s membe s (which con-
s i u e he majo i y o he wo k o ce in a coun y) a amewo k o
cons i u ing he sel and in e p e ing eali y (including pe cep ions
and e alua ions) and by p o iding no ms ega ding communica ion
and (in e )ac ion (Gel and e al., 2017; T iandis, 1996). Na ional cul-
u es also a ec he shape o o ganiza ions and hus he immedia e
con ex in which employees ope a e (e.g., leade ship s yles and o mal
oice mechanisms; Dickson e al., 2004; Kwon & Fa ndale, 2020).
While we do no explici ly examine how na ional cul u e a ec s he
o ganiza ional con ex in which ou s udy pa icipan s wo k, we need
o conside ha he immedia e wo k con ex is embedded in a
na ional mac o con ex (Johns, 2006; Pe e son & Ba e o, 2014). A
hi d way o in luence ha is beyond he scope o he cu en s udy is
ha cul u e mode a es he e ec s o indi idual di e ences and ac-
o s o he immedia e wo k con ex on o ganiza ional beha io (Tsui
e al., 2007). We elabo a e on his in luence in he discussion.
So a , employee silence has been examined in a a he limi ed
scope o coun ies wi h Sou h Asian and A ab coun ies ecen ly com-
plemen ing he adi ional ocus on Con ucian Asian and Wes e n
coun ies (Hawass, 2016; Jain, 2015; Wilkinson e al., 2020). S udies
compa ing employee silence o oice ac oss coun ies a e almos
absen (Mo ison, 2014). Examining how na ional cul u e a ec s
employee silence does no only lay a ounda ion o esea ch on cul-
u e and wo kplace silence, i also con ibu es o he ongoing deba e
on whe he na ional cul u e has conside able in luence on employee
beha io (Chen e al., 2009; Tung & S ahl, 2018). Indeed, despi e
ambigui y, a lo o —in pa s e eo ypical—assump ions exis ega ding
na ional di e ences and hei in luence on employee beha io , and
hese assump ions po en ially misguide esea ch and p ac i ione
aining and ac ions (Chen e al., 2009; McC ae e al., 2013). Fo
silence in pa icula , p io esea ch— o example, among samples om
Japan, Ko ea, Aus alia, Sou h A ica, and he Uni ed S a es
(Gudykuns e al., 1996; Ma ee, 2016)—did no suppo assump ions
622 KNOLL ET AL.

ega ding na ional di e ences in he use and alence o silence. To
acili a e unde s anding o how silence mani es s i sel ac oss na ions,
we alida e an ins umen o conduc c oss-cul u al esea ch and use
i o examine di e ences (o hei absence) in silence mo i es ac oss
33 coun ies om di e se egions.
•Resea ch Ques ion 1: Do he scales ha assess di e en ially-
mo i a ed silence ypes demons a e adequa e psychome ic p op-
e ies in each coun y?
•Resea ch Ques ion 2: A e he e di e ences in he p e alence o
di e en ially-mo i a ed silence ypes ac oss coun ies?
2.3 |Rela ionships be ween cul u al dimensions
and employee silence mo i es
A emp s o explain cul u e's e ec s on silence can be di ided in o
wo app oaches (Ting-Toomey, 2010). E hnog aphic app oaches aim
a iden i ying dis inc i e communica ion codes o a cul u al commu-
ni y ha , in u n, e eal his pa icula communi y's no ma i e expec-
a ions ega ding he adequa e use o , o example, speech and
silence. Examples o e hnog aphic s udies on silence include
Co a ubias's (2007) esea ch on gene a i e silence (i.e., silence as a
powe ul means o achie e p oduc i e pe sonal, social, and cul u al
ou comes) in he communica ion o Na i e Ame icans and She i 's
(2000) esea ch on cus oma y silence (i.e., a o m o silence e lec i e
o cul u al censo ship and p ac iced in he absence o explici coe cion
o en o cemen s) su ounding he subjec o acism in B azil. The sec-
ond app oach, called he social scien i ic app oach by Ting-Toomey
(2010), d aws upon p eexis ing amewo ks o cul u al cha ac e is ics
(e.g., indi idualism–collec i ism) and uses hem as independen a i-
ables o explain he di e ences and simila i ies o communica ion
phenomena ac oss coun ies. We decided o apply a social scien i ic
app oach based on he ollowing a gumen s (Ting-Toomey, 2010).
Fi s , u ilizing concep ual cul u al amewo ks helps o c ea e an
explo a o y sys em o why employees in se e al cul u al communi ies
communica e di e en ly o simila ly in acco dance wi h a consis en ,
ancho ing ounda ion. Second, d awing upon a cul u al amewo k
p o ides design pa ame e s ega ding o concep s ha po en ially
explain he phenomenon o in e es and hus should be included in
s udies (and hose ha migh be omi ed). Thi d, he cul u al cha ac-
e is ics included in concep ual cul u al amewo ks (e.g., cul u al
alue dimensions, such as powe dis ance and collec i ism) p o ide
s a ing poin s o p ac i ione s and aine s who aim o imp o e com-
munica ion in in e na ional business. Fou h, cul u al amewo ks such
as Ho s ede's ypology (Ho s ede, 1980) and he GLOBE amewo k
(House e al., 2004) ha e been used o examine he ele ance o cul-
u e o a ange o o ganiza ional phenomena. Thus, by d awing on
such amewo ks, ou esea ch is embedded in o he b oade ield o
c oss-cul u al o ganiza ional beha io esea ch.
S udies ha applied he social scien i ic app oach o examine he
ole o e hnic cul u al ac o s ega ding silence (o oice;
e.g., Bo e o & Van Dyne, 2009; Lam & Xu, 2019; Rhee e al., 2014)
ocused on one o wo ou o po en ially mani old cha ac e is ics
supposed o di e en ia e cul u es (see Ly le e al., 1995; Ta as
e al., 2009). Applying a mo e comp ehensi e app oach, we d aw upon
a sys ema ic and widely examined ypology o cul u e, namely, he
GLOBE amewo k (House e al., 2004). This amewo k p o ides a
di e en ia ed app oach o cul u e including nine dimensions o socie-
al p ac ices (see Table 1 o an o e iew), uses mo e ecen da a han
compa able ypologies (e.g., Ho s ede, 1980), and is well alida ed, as
i is widely used in he ield o leade ship and managemen (Do man
e al., 2012).
In ou s udy, we ocus on h ee GLOBE dimensions based on he-
o e ical g ounds (i.e., he na u e o he si ua ion in which silence
occu s) as well as empi ical g ounds (i.e., he numbe o cases o
be ween-coun y le el analyses is limi ed o 33 coun ies; Maas &
Hox, 2005). We de elop hypo heses ha speci y ha silence is likely
o a y as a unc ion o powe dis ance (because silence means no
challenging au ho i ies), asse i eness (because silence means applying
a a he indi ec communica ion s yle), and in-g oup collec i ism
(because silence means no ac ing independen ly bu being loyal o
g oup no ms). No e ha we also explo e ela ionships be ween silence
mo i es and he o he GLOBE-dimensions and discuss indings as
addi ional, explo a o y analyses.
2.3.1 |How socie ies deal wi h hie a chy and
powe di e ences: Powe dis ance
Employees who add ess c i ical issues, ideas, and conce ns a e chal-
lenging he s a us quo, and hey ques ion he judgmen o hose who
ins alled he cu en p ocedu es, ules, and p ac ices ( an Dyne
e al., 1995). The idea ha cul u es can be dis inguished wi h ega d
o whe he hei membe s a e expec ed o accep o challenge he
cu en dis ibu ion o powe is p ominen in se e al cul u al ame-
wo ks (e.g., Ho s ede, 1980; Schwa z, 2006; Smi h e al., 2002) and
cen al o he dimension o powe dis ance in he GLOBE ypology.
Re iews (Daniels & G egu as, 2014; Kha i, 2009) sugges ed ha in
high powe dis ance con ex s, indi iduals wi h a lo o powe a e pe -
cei ed as supe io and eli e, while hose wi h li le powe accep hei
places in he hie a chy, de e judgmen s o hei leade s, and a e gen-
e ally loyal and obedien o hem (Bochne & Heske h, 1994; Ki kman
e al., 2009). Such loyal y and de e ence would sugges ha membe s
emain silen o p osocial easons o p o ec o no emba ass hei
leade s.
Powe dis ance is also associa ed wi h con o mi y as sugges ed
by esul s o B ockne e al.'s (2001) me a-analysis: compa ed wi h
samples om low powe -dis ance coun ies (i.e., he Uni ed S a es
and Ge many), samples om high-powe dis ance coun ies
(e.g., China and Mexico) esponded mo e a o ably o lowe le els o
oice oppo uni ies. A endency o de e o au ho i ies is also isible
in he sou ces o guidance employees end o ely upon when han-
dling wo k e en s. In a 47-na ion s udy, Smi h e al. (2002) showed
ha samples om high powe dis ance cul u es elied upon e ical
sou ces such as supe io s, as well as o mal ules and hie a chies,
KNOLL ET AL.623
while con ibu ions om lowe -le el employees we e no seen as
e ec i e o app ecia ed. These and simila indings (see Lam &
Xu, 2019; Ta as e al., 2010) sugges a posi i e ela ionship be ween
powe dis ance and acquiescen silence, which is associa ed wi h
con o mi y and accep ance o he s a us quo. As membe s o high-
powe dis ance coun ies p e e di ec i e leade ship (Ta as
e al., 2010) and accep ha he s a us quo canno and should no
be changed, hey a e likely o belie e ha i is mo e e icien no o
ock he boa a all. Engaging in oppo unis ic silence would hus
sa e hem om addi ional wo kload and helps o a oid in e pe sonal
con lic (Mo ison & Ro hman, 2009). Such a de achmen -based ea-
soning is also suppo ed by Me kin e al.'s (2014) me a-analy ic ind-
ing ha powe dis ance is nega i ely ela ed o p opensi y o
in e up .
Powe is linked o emo ional expe ience, wi h ea o en being
expe ienced by low-powe indi iduals (Mondillon e al., 2005). In line
wi h his easoning, in Ho s ede's (1980) concep ualiza ion o powe
dis ance, membe s o high-powe dis ance cul u es a e ea ul o
exp essing conce ns o mo e powe ul people. Howe e , his empha-
sis on ea is no e iden in he powe dis ance cons uc and i s
ope a ionaliza ion as pe he GLOBE s udy (see Ho s ede, 2006).
Indeed, powe may no always be associa ed wi h ea . While he
abuse o powe (e.g., by leade s) ce ainly induces ea in ollowe s
(Beug e, 1998), us in hie a chy, posi ions, and ins i u ions can be
com o ing o indi iduals. Doney e al. (1998) p oposed ha cal-
cula i e p edic ion and capabili y o ms o us would be mo e p e a-
len in high powe dis ance cul u es. Such o ms o us a e based on
he abili y o p edic and calcula e he po en ial cos s and ewa ds o
making onesel ulne able o ano he , as well as an assessmen ha
he indi idual o en i y ha is us ed will mee hei obliga ions and
expec a ions (Doney e al., 1998). Thus, we do no expec a posi i e
ela ionship wi h quiescen silence, because employees om high
powe dis ance cul u es accep he s a us quo and hus do no ea
hei supe io s (Daniels & G egu as, 2014). Indeed, nei he Rhee
TABLE 1 GLOBE s udy cul u e dimensions (House e al., 2004) examined in he cu en s udy and hei ela ion o di e en ially-mo i a ed
silence ypes
Cul u al dimension
a
B ie de ini ion
Rela ionships wi h employee silence
mo i es as ound in ou s udy
b
Powe dis ance The deg ee o which membe s o a socie y
expec powe o be dis ibu ed equally o
concen a ed a highe le els.
As hypo hesized, powe dis ance was
ela ed o acquiescen and p osocial
silence.
Asse i eness The deg ee o which indi iduals a e
asse i e, con on a ional and agg essi e
in hei ela ionships wi h o he s.
-
In-g oup collec i ism The deg ee o which membe s o a socie y
exp ess p ide, loyal y, and cohesi eness
in hei o ganiza ions o amilies.
-
Ins i u ional collec i ism The deg ee o which o ganiza ional and
socie al ins i u ional p ac ices encou age
and ewa d collec i e dis ibu ion o
esou ces and collec i e ac ion.
Explo a o y analyses showed a nega i e
ela ionship wi h acquiescen silence.
Unce ain y a oidance The ex en o which membe s o a socie y
ely on social no ms, ules, and
p ocedu es o alle ia e unp edic abili y o
u u e e en s.
Explo a o y analyses showed a nega i e
ela ionship wi h oppo unis ic silence
Pe o mance o ien a ion The deg ee o which a collec i e
encou ages and ewa ds g oup membe s
o pe o mance imp o emen and
excellence.
-
Gende egali a ianism The deg ee o which a collec i e minimizes
gende inequali y.
-
Humane o ien a ion The deg ee o which a socie y encou ages
and ewa ds indi iduals o being ai ,
al uis ic, gene ous, ca ing and kind o
o he s.
-
Fu u e o ien a ion The deg ee o which membe s o a socie y
engage in u u e-o ien ed beha io s such
as planning, in es ing in he u u e, and
delaying indi idual o collec i e
g a i ica ion.
-
a
In his s udy, we used he socie al p ac ices sco es o ep esen he cul u al dimensions.
b
Only s a is ically signi ican esul s a p< .05 a e epo ed.
624 KNOLL ET AL.
e al. (2014) no Lam and Xu (2019) ound subs an ial ela ionships
be ween powe dis ance and ea -based silence using indi idual-le el
da a. In sum, we expec
Hypo hesis 1. Powe dis ance is posi i ely ela ed o (a) acquiescen ,
(b) p osocial, and (c) oppo unis ic silence.
2.3.2 |Whe he socie ies deal wi h issues in a
con on a ional e sus ha monious s yle:
Asse i eness
Whe he membe s o a cul u e exp ess o wi hhold hei iews could
also be a ec ed by he cul u ally endo sed communica ion s yle
(Me kin e al., 2014). Hall (1976) sugges ed ha coun ies di e in
hei p e e ence o di ec (i.e., open and con on a ional, which he
labeled “low-con ex ”) o indi ec (i.e., mo e ha monious and conside -
a e) communica ion s yles (which he labeled “high-con ex ”). Se e al
esea che s (e.g., B e , 2007; Ting-Toomey e al., 2001; Wa d
e al., 2016) d ew upon his idea and showed ha membe s o high
con ex cul u es p e e indi ec (i.e., mo e ha monious) communica ion
s yles, a e mo e likely o a oid con lic , and use mo e nonco-
n on a ional s a egies in con lic esolu ion and nego ia ion. The idea
o di ec e sus indi ec communica ion s yle is pa o GLOBE's
asse i eness dimension (see Table 1).
Elabo a ing on he ela ionship be ween asse i eness and oice,
Kwon and Fa ndale (2020) sugges ha in high asse i eness cul-
u es, no ms may signal ha asse i e beha io is app op ia e, use ul
o achie e ins umen al aims, and, hus, mo e impo an han con-
ce ns abou ha ming ela ionships. This assump ion sugges s a nega-
i e ela ionship be ween asse i eness and p osocial silence and a
lowe endency o membe s om asse i e cul u es o be a aid o
nega i e consequences ha migh ollow om speaking up
(i.e., quiescen silence). Fu he , as asse i eness has been associa ed
wi h in e nal locus o con ol (see den Ha og, 2004), membe s o
asse i e cul u es should end o belie e ha speaking up will make
a di e ence and hus acquiescen silence should be low. P ospec s
seem di e en o oppo unis ic silence. Asse i e cul u es alue
compe i i eness and assign s a us based on achie emen . As a con-
sequence, asse i eness is consis en wi h a endency owa d oppo -
unism (den Ha og, 2004; Doney e al., 1998), which, in u n, makes
i mo e likely ha membe s o asse i e cul u es wi hhold hei
iews o gain a pe sonal ad an age han membe s o less asse i e
cul u es.
Asse i eness has “ a ely been s udied as a dimension o cul u e
in i s own igh ”(den Ha og, 2004, p. 396), bu esea ch on
Ho s ede's (1980) dimension masculini y e sus eminini y p o ides
indi ec suppo o ou easoning. Indeed, he GLOBE dimension
asse i eness has been de i ed om Ho s ede's masculini y dimen-
sion, which deno es he deg ee o which a socie y alues compe i ion,
achie emen , he oism, and asse i eness a he han coope a i eness,
modes y, and ca ing o he weak. In suppo o ou easoning ega d-
ing nega i e ela ionships be ween asse i eness and silence,
masculini y was nega i ely ela ed o indi ec ness, con lic a oidance,
and con o mi y and posi i ely ela ed o con on a ion in me a-
analyses (Me kin e al., 2014; Ta as e al., 2010). Doney e al. (1998)
p o ide indi ec suppo o he p oposed posi i e ela ionship
be ween asse i eness and oppo unis ic silence. Re iewing esea ch
om di e se disciplines, hese au ho s conclude ha calcula i e p o-
cesses a e mo e expec ed and hus ole a ed in asse i e/masculine
socie ies, whe eas hono ing mo al obliga ions is mo e alued in a he
ha monious socie ies. In sum, we expec :
Hypo hesis 2. Asse i eness is nega i ely ela ed o quiescen (H2a),
acquiescen (H2b), and p osocial silence (H2c), and posi i ely
ela ed o oppo unis ic silence (H2d).
2.3.3 |How socie ies pe cei e he ela ionship
be ween indi idual and g oup: In-g oup collec i ism
Whe he membe s o a socie y challenge he s a us quo by exp essing
hei iews and whe he hey expose hemsel es as indi iduals should
be in luenced by he way hey pe cei e hemsel es and hei posi ion
in ela ion o hei social en i onmen . Se e al cul u al amewo ks
sugges ha cul u es di e ega ding o he ex en o which hey
socialize hei membe s in o s i ing o independen /indi idual
and/o in e dependen /collec i e iden i ies—wi h widesp ead e ec s
on hei membe s' cogni ion, emo ion, mo i a ion, and beha io
(e.g., Ho s ede, 1980; Ma kus & Ki ayama, 1991; Minko e al., 2017;
Schwa z, 2006; T iandis, 2000). In he GLOBE amewo k, collec i -
ism is add essed by wo dimensions (see Table 1). In ou s udy, we
d aw upon in-g oup collec i ism as his dimension is oo ed in he
ex ensi e li e a u e on socie al collec i ism (Ho s ede, 1980;
T iandis, 1996), has been used o ep esen collec i ism in c oss-
alida ion s udies (Vignoles e al., 2016), and has been concep ually
ela ed o silence and (nega i ely o) oice in he pas (Kwon &
Fa ndale, 2020).
Collec i is ic socie ies d aw upon g oup no ms, pe cei ed du ies,
and obliga ions and membe s o collec i e cul u es g ound hei sel -
es eem, a leas in pa , in hei abili y o adjus and es ain he sel .
One consequence o being socialized in collec i is ic socie ies is a en-
dency o communica e in a way ha p o ec s o he s and main ains
ha monious ela ionships—a pa e n ha has been associa ed wi h he
concep o ace (Me kin, 2018; T iandis, 1996). In ace cul u es, indi-
iduals de i e hei sel -wo h p ima ily ex insically by ul illing social
ole obliga ions, including ha , besides p ese ing hei own ace, hey
also know o he impo ance o ace o he sel -wo h o o he s
(e.g., Leung & Cohen, 2011; Oe zel & Ting-Toomey, 2003). Exp essing
di e ging iewpoin s o ques ioning a supe iso 's o colleague's iew-
poin , isks disc edi ing one's own and he o he pe son's ace, causing
emba assmen and eelings o shame in ac o , a ge , and obse e s
which, in u n, dis up in e ac ion and collabo a ion. Membe s o ace
cul u es and collec i is s in gene al y o a oid such dis up ion and
know ha o he s a e in e es ed in p ese ing each o he 's ace in
social in e ac ions as well. Consequen ly, employees om
KNOLL ET AL.625
collec i is ic cul u es should be mo e likely o wi hhold hei iews o
p o ec o he s and social ha mony. They should also expec o he s o
p o ec hem, bu a he same ime, o be in e es ed in main aining
ha mony and declining challenges o he s a us quo. This easoning
links collec i ism o p osocial and acquiescen silence. Collec i is s
should u he ha e a lowe endency o engage in sel ish beha io o
achie e a pe sonal ad an age which is he case in oppo unis ic
silence. We do no , in con as , expec ela ionships wi h quiescen
silence. Collec i is s should no ea hei g oup membe s, because
hey know ha g oup membe s do no disc edi o he g oup membe s
and p o ec each o he 's ace. This is pa icula ly he case o highe -
s a us membe s, such as manage s, as hese ha e a pa icula obliga-
ion o p o ec he collec i e.
While esea ch on speci ic ela ionships be ween collec i ism
and silence mo i es is sca ce, a la ge body o esea ch suppo s he
mo e gene al assump ion ha membe s om collec i is ic cul u es
a e socialized in o accep ing g oup no ms e en i hei ideas and
opinions di e ge om he ideas and conce ns sha ed by hei g oup.
Me a-analyses (e.g., Bond & Smi h, 1996; Me kin e al., 2014; Ta as
e al., 2010) and e iews (Gel and e al., 2007) showed ha con o -
mi y is mo e p e alen in collec i is ic cul u es while indi idualism, in
u n, is posi i ely ela ed o openness in communica ion, p opensi y
o in e up , and con on a ion, and nega i ely ela ed o passi e
eac ions o injus ice, con lic a oidance, indi ec ness, and ace-
sa ing conce ns. The only s udy ha examined speci ic ela ionships
o collec i ism wi h silence—a he indi idual le el—suppo ed ou
assump ion ega ding he ela ionship be ween collec i ism and
acquiescen silence and he ze o- ela ionship be ween collec i ism
and silence ha is based on ea (Rhee e al., 2014). No ably, con-
a y o ou easoning, Rhee and colleagues also did no ind suppo
o he expec ed ela ionship be ween collec i ism and p osocial
silence. We expec :
Hypo hesis 3. In-g oup collec i ism is posi i ely ela ed o acquies-
cen (H3a) and p osocial silence (H3b) and nega i ely ela ed o
oppo unis ic silence (H3c).
2.3.4 |Addi ional dimensions included in he
GLOBE amewo k
The GLOBE amewo k includes u he cul u al dimensions (see
Table 1). While he e is no s ong heo e ical a ionale and consis en
p io esea ch o p opose hypo heses ega ding hei ela ionship wi h
silence mo i es, we explo ed how hese addi ional dimensions ela e
o he ou employee silence mo i es. Ou aim was o iden i y pa -
e ns o ela ionships ha ha e been neglec ed so a bu may inspi e
u u e heo izing and esea ch.
•Resea ch ques ion 3: How a e he GLOBE cul u al dimensions
unce ain y a oidance, pe o mance o ien a ion, u u e o ien a ion,
gende egali a ianism, human o ien a ion, and ins i u ional collec-
i ism ela ed o employee silence mo i es?
3|METHOD
3.1 |Samples and da a p epa a ion
The C oss-Cul u al Silence P ojec is an in e na ional collabo a ion o
schola s om social and o ganiza ional psychology as well as manage-
men science. Da a collec ion was cen ally o ganized by he i s
au ho bu ca ied ou by each o he co-au ho s in hei espec i e
coun y. Table 2 show he samples' cha ac e is ics, and mo e de ailed
desc ip ion o da a collec ion s a egies wi hin he pa icipa ing coun-
ies is p esen ed in Appendix S1. Thi y- i e samples we e collec ed
om 33 coun ies. Canada and Swi ze land a e ep esen ed by wo
samples due o he wo main language g oups in hese coun ies
(i.e., English/F ench and Ge man/F ench, espec i ely). The o e all
sample comp ised 8222 employees. Sample sizes in each coun y
anged om 145 o 463 wi h a median o 225 pa icipan s. To a oid
biases caused by o ganiza ional membe ship o p o ession, we aimed
o ec ui he e ogeneous employee samples. This aim was accom-
plished in ha all o he samples comp ised pa icipan s om di e se
age g oups, many di e en p o essions and indus ies, and wi h a y-
ing deg ees o wo k expe ience. No e ha we excluded all pa ici-
pan s ha we e sel -employed, because we we e in e es ed in silence
as i appea s wi hin o ganiza ions (Mo ison & Milliken, 2000).
3.2 |Measu es
Con ibu o s ansla ed all scales using he s anda d p ocedu e o
ansla ion-back- ansla ion, and esol ing inconsis encies h ough
discussion (B islin, 1970). The ansla ed i ems o he employee
silence scales a e p esen ed in Table A1.
Employee silence was measu ed wi h he employee silence scale
de eloped by Knoll and an Dick (2013). Pa icipan s i s ead a sho
pa ag aph ou lining he si ua ions we we e in e es ed in (i.e., hey
hough ha colleagues o supe iso s ac ed in a w ong, ine icien ,
immo al, o o he wise p oblema ic way) and hen asked hem whe he
hey spoke up o someone who could change he si ua ion o ended
o emain silen . We hen asked hem o a e hei unde lying mo i es
o emaining silen . The i em s em (“I emained silen a wo k …”) was
p esen ed, ollowed by h ee andomly o de ed i ems o each o he
ou silence ypes, namely, acquiescen ,quiescen ,p osocial, and oppo -
unis ic silence (see Table A1 o he comple e lis ). The silence ype
i ems we e answe ed using a equency scale wi h he ollowing se en
esponse ca ego ies: 1 (ne e ), 2 ( e y a ely), 3 ( a ely), 4 ( om ime
o ime), 5 (occasionally), 6 ( equen ly), and 7 ( e y equen ly).
Cul u al dimensions we e ep esen ed by he espec i e socie y-
le el sco es as p o ided a he GLOBE webpage (GLOBE, 2020). The
GLOBE p ojec p o ides coun y-le el socie al p ac ices and socie al
alues sco es. We used socie al p ac ices sco es, because socie al cul-
u al p ac ices (as a cul u e “is”) mi o indi iduals' eali y o “how
hings a e”in a socie y and how a socie al cul u e is p ac iced in
e e yday li e (F ese, 2015; U bach e al., 2020). This is why p ac ices
a e mo e likely o d i e beha io han socie al alues (i.e., how a
626 KNOLL ET AL.
Hypo hesis 2 had o be ejec ed as asse i eness was no signi -
ican ly ela ed o any o he ou silence mo i es. Hypo hesis 3 p o-
posed posi i e ela ionships be ween in-g oup collec i ism and
acquiescen (H3a) and p osocial silence mo i es (H3b), and a nega-
i e ela ionship wi h oppo unis ic silence (H3c). As he ela ion-
ships wi h acquiescen , p osocial silence, and oppo unis ic silence
we e no signi ican a p< .05 le el, Hypo heses 3a–c had o be
ejec ed.
4.3.2 |Addi ional analyses ega ding u he
cul u al dimensions om he GLOBE s udy
To answe Resea ch Ques ion 3, we explo ed whe he any o he
o he six cul u e dimensions ha a e pa o he GLOBE ypology (see
Table 1) a e ela ed o any o he silence mo i es using MLM wi h
each cul u al dimension sepa a ely. As can be seen in Table 7a, esul s
e ealed s a is ically signi ican nega i e ela ionships be ween ins i-
u ional collec i ism and acquiescen silence, and be ween unce ain y
a oidance and oppo unis ic silence. No s a is ically signi ican ela-
ionships we e ound be ween u u e o ien a ion, pe o mance o ien-
a ion, gende egali a ianism, and humane o ien a ion and any o he
silence mo i es.
5|DISCUSSION
Al hough he wide- anging de imen al e ec s o employee silence
a e appa en and ha e been documen ed in many egions ac oss he
globe, li le sys ema ic knowledge is a ailable on in e na ional simila i-
ies and di e ences as well as cul u al speci ics ha may a ec
employees' mo i es o wi hholding hei iews. We ad anced in e -
na ional esea ch on employee silence by in oducing a eliable mea-
su e o assess ou ypes o silence (i.e., acquiescen , quiescen ,
p osocial, and oppo unis ic silence) in 21 languages and demons a -
ing i s psychome ic quali ies. We u he add o his aim by p o iding
sco es o di e en ially-mo i a ed silence o 33 coun ies and e eal-
ing ela ionships o cul u al dimensions om he GLOBE amewo k
wi h he ou silence mo i es. In he ollowing, we discuss why ou
esul s ega ding he hypo hesized and explo a o y links be ween cul-
u al dimensions and silence mo i es speci y and, in pa , challenge
adi ional assump ions o he cul u e and o ganiza ional beha io li -
e a u e on silence.
Essen ial o he powe dis ance dimension is ha people in high
powe dis ance socie ies do no challenge hie a chies by exp essing
hei conce ns o mo e powe ul people. One po en ial explana ion
unde lying his easoning is ha his may be due o ea as e iden
om he concep ualiza ion o his dimension in he Ho s ede (bu no
he GLOBE) s udy. Based on ou nuanced app oach o examining
mo i es o silence, he ela ionships be ween powe dis ance and
acquiescen and p osocial silence show ha high powe dis ance acili-
a es con o mi y, passi e accep ance, and a endency o a oid causing
con lic s. Fu he , ou indings sugges ha powe dis ance is no
associa ed wi h emaining silen due o ea o saying some hing ha
could o end powe ul people (i.e., quiescen silence). As such, a con i-
bu ion o ou s udy is ha i demons a es di e ences be ween he
powe dis ance dimensions as concep ualized by Ho s ede and
GLOBE (see also Ho s ede, 2006). The ea o aising issues wi h pow-
e ul people as a lone indi idual is cen al o Ho s ede's powe dis-
ance measu e; in con as , he GLOBE powe dis ance measu e does
no di ec ly ask abou ea . The GLOBE measu e hus e lec s ha he
abuse o powe (e.g., by leade s) may induce ea in ollowe s; a he
same ime, us in hie a chy, posi ions, and ins i u ions can be com-
o ing o indi iduals. The inding ha none o he cul u al dimen-
sions om he GLOBE ypology explained conside able a iance in
quiescen silence could also indica e ha p oximal ac o s such as lead-
e ship and eam psychological sa e y (Edmondson, 2018) ha e a
s onge in luence on employees' ea s han mo e dis al ac o s such
as socie al cul u e.
Dis inc ela ionships o silence wi h in-g oup and ins i u ional
collec i ism suppo claims ha collec i ism is mul idimensional
(Vignoles e al., 2016), and indica e ha wide-sp ead assump ions
ega ding collec i ism and silence migh need o be econside ed. In-
g oup collec i ism which adi ionally has been associa ed wi h con-
o mi y and hus a eluc ance o exp ess di e ging iewpoin s, was
no ela ed o any o he silence mo i es in ou s udy. Ins ead, ins i u-
ional collec i ism— he second collec i ism dimension ha was in o-
duced by he GLOBE s udy (Gel and e al., 2004)—explained
conside able a iance in acquiescen silence. Mo eo e , while a posi-
i e associa ion was expec ed be ween in-g oup collec i ism and
silence, ins i u ional collec i ism was nega i ely ela ed o silence. In
he GLOBE p og am's alida ion s udies, ins i u ional collec i ism was
linked o in ol emen , eam-o ien ed leade ship, and eamwo k
p omp ing Gel and e al. (2004, p. 472) o sugges ha socie ies ha
a e cha ac e ized by ins i u ional collec i ism seek o accomplish hei
aims “ h ough collec i e e o s, h ough p ac ices which a e con-
ce ned wi h o he s, and h ough p ac ices which a e no being asse -
i e o powe domina ing”. Ou indings suppo his easoning. In
cul u es cha ac e ized by high ins i u ional collec i ism, exp essing
one's iews migh no be pe cei ed as dissen , bu as a means o help
he eam de elop and lea n.
P omo ing asse i eness, in con as , seems no o be a way o
o e come silence a wo k. We expec ed a nega i e ela ionship
be ween asse i eness and silence based on he assump ion ha
membe s o high asse i eness cul u es a e willing o engage in con-
lic , speak up, de end, and ac in hei own in e es (Ames &
Flynn, 2007; Kwon & Fa ndale, 2020). These ea u es a e p oposed o
acili a e oice a he indi idual le el, bu in cul u es ha alue asse -
i eness, no only a e indi iduals mo e asse i e, hey also ha e o
wo k among asse i e pee s who may c ea e a h ea ening con ex
(Schneide , 1987). Gi en ha a sa e con ex is a p econdi ion o
employee oice (Chambe lin e al., 2018; Edmondson & Lei, 2014),
employees in high asse i eness cul u es may hink wice whe he
challenging he s a us quo is wo h he hassle. This hesi a ion migh
be ein o ced by he oppo unism ha is associa ed wi h asse i e-
ness as a cul u al dimension (den Ha og, 2004; Doney e al., 1998).
KNOLL ET AL.633

Ta as e al.' (2010) me a-analysis p o ided some suppo o his ea-
soning: masculini y, a cul u e dimension om he Ho s ede (1980)
amewo k ha is associa ed wi h asse i eness, was nega i ely
ela ed o con lic a oidance, bu i was also posi i ely ela ed o
accommoda ing and comp omising con lic managemen s yles. Thus,
ou easoning ega ding a nega i e associa ion be ween asse i eness
and silence migh ha e been misguided by an a omis ic allacy
(B ewe & Venaik, 2014; Diez-Roux, 1998): cul u al cha ac e is ics
such as asse i eness migh yield di e ing o e en con adic ing
e ec s a he indi idual and collec i e le el.
Oppo unis ic silence was also no signi ican ly ela ed o he
h ee cul u al dimensions o which exis ing heo y and e idence ec-
ommended he de elopmen o speci ic hypo heses. Ins ead, oppo -
unis ic silence was nega i ely ela ed o unce ain y a oidance, a
cul u al dimension ha we included o explo e po en ial ela ion-
ships. This is an in e es ing inding gi en ha oice is o en associ-
a ed wi h unce ain ou comes o he indi idual who speaks up, and
challenging he s a us quo is supposed o induce unce ain y in sys-
ems. Howe e , a he cul u al le el, change is essen ial o su i al
and should no be opp essed by ea o unce ain y (Schein, 2017).
To secu e de elopmen , cul u es ha iew unce ain y as a p oblem
ha should be a oided, migh p o ide employees wi h oppo uni ies
o o e come unce ain y (Kwon & Fa ndale, 2020). This could include
p ocedu es ha guide change-o ien ed beha io s such as o mal
oice channels which, in u n, should educe silence in such
coun ies.
5.1 |Theo e ical and p ac ical implica ions
5.1.1 |Scale applica ion and scale alidi y
We ound e idence (i.e., in e nal eliabili ies, ac o s uc u e, su i-
cien deg ee o homogenei y wi hin coun ies, measu emen in a i-
ance) ha he Knoll and an Dick (2013) scale is a eliable and alid
measu e ha can be used o in e na ional esea ch p ojec s and
su eys ha a e conce ned wi h employee pa icipa ion, o ganiza-
ional lea ning, sa e y issues, o p e en ing w ongdoings. Ha ing
such measu es is a p econdi ion o iden i ying links be ween spe-
ci ic ypes o silence and speci ic coun y cha ac e is ics ha e en u-
ally migh help o disen angle he ela ions be ween coun y cul u e
and silence.
5.1.2 |Rela ionships be ween cul u e (dimensions)
and silence migh be mo e complex han p e iously
assumed
Cul u al dimensions ha e been sugges ed as a s a ing poin o exam-
ining he ela ionship be ween cul u e and employee silence. S udies
sugges ing ha dimensions such as powe dis ance and collec i ism
a e esponsible o di e ences in silence (e.g., Bo e o & an
Dyne, 2009; Rhee e al., 2014), howe e , d ew upon a limi ed numbe
o (mos ly p o o ypical) coun ies and used indi idual-le el sco es o
ep esen cul u e cha ac e is ics. Resul s o ou s udy challenge and
speci y es ablished iews o he po en ial o indi idual cul u al dimen-
sions as p edic o s o silence.
Resul s showed ha only h ee ou o he nine cul u al dimen-
sions included in he s udy signi ican ly explained a iance in
employee silence. The pa e n ha hey showed indica es ha
silence is mo e likely o occu in cul u es which accep s a us di e -
ences and ely on es ablished s uc u es, and less likely in cul u es
in which collec i e e o s a e ing ained in hei socie al p ac ices.
S ong in-g oup bonds did no make silence mo e likely o occu no
did socie al p ac ices cha ac e ized by asse i eness make silence
less likely. Mo eo e , ou s udy speci ies he mo i es ha a e
esponsible o he eluc ance o challenge au ho i ies in high powe
dis ance cul u es. The dis inc ela ionships ha we ound be ween
silence and in-g oup and ins i u ional collec i ism poin a he
necessi y o challenge adi ional iews o collec i ism and pa es
he way o mo e di e en ia ed iews (see B ewe & Venaik, 2011;
Vignoles e al., 2016) and combina ions wi h o he dimensions as
p oposed in he concep s o ho izon al and e ical collec i ism
(Singelis e al., 1995).
5.1.3 |Associa ions o silence wi h speci ic
coun ies need o be econside ed
Ou esul s show ha a ious coun ies anked high (e.g., C oa ia,
Slo enia, Canada, and I an) as well as low (Denma k, China, and
Chile) on silence mo i es, and some coun ies anked a he di e -
en ly ac oss he ou silence ypes (e.g., G eece and Togo). Fu he -
mo e, he coun y clus e s sugges ed by he GLOBE s udy showed
no consis en pa e n ega ding he coun ies' silence sco es (see
Table 2 and Figu es S1 and S2). These indings suppo p io
esea ch (e.g., Gudykuns e al., 1996; Hasegawa &
Gudykuns , 1998) in challenging he alidi y o widesp ead assump-
ions ega ding he use and alue o silence in di e en cul u es.
They indica e ha he e a e no ypical coun ies in which silence is
high o low, and silence mo i es a e no necessa ily all high o all low
in any gi en coun y.
The amoun o a iance ha cul u al dimensions could explain in
ou s udy ecommends cau ion when using cul u al dimensions o p e-
dic silence and assign coun ies as high- o low-silence coun ies—a
leas o wo easons. Fi s , di e en cul u e cha ac e is ics migh be
esponsible o he same silence sco es. While o some coun ies in
ou s udy silence migh be d i en by low ins i u ional collec i ism, he
d i e o o he s migh be high powe dis ance. Expec ing a silen
wo k o ce due o hei sco e on one pa icula cul u al dimension
would hus be misleading. Second, he e ec o cul u al dimensions
could be subs i u ed o neu alized by he wo k con ex and/o by
coun y-speci ic ea u es ha a e no necessa ily ep esen ed in a cul-
u al dimension. These ea u es may esul , o example, om speci ic
adi ions o p o iding pa icipa o y igh s (see Szabo e al., 2002) and
collec i e expe iences ele an o silence (so-called “ emo e his o ic
634 KNOLL ET AL.
d i e s”; Beugelsdijk & Welzel, 2018). The la e may include a sociali-
za ion in au ho i a ian cul u es (as i is he case in o me Communis
coun ies in Eas e n Eu ope o coun ies wi h a his o y in coloniza ion;
den Ha og & Dickson, 2012) and g owing up o li ing in di icul
socio-economic condi ions (Eh en eich, 2001; Leana e al., 2012).
5.2 |Limi a ions and di ec ions o u u e esea ch
C oss-cul u al esea ch is challenging and, while esul s in e ms o
psychome ic quali ies jus i ied scale adap a ion, ou s udy does no
mee all he c i e ia emphasized o compa ing esul s ac oss cul-
u es (Spec o e al., 2015; Tsui e al., 2007). We add ess some o
hese limi a ions and sugges how o e coming hem p o ides oppo -
uni ies o u he imp o e in e na ional esea ch on employee
silence.
5.2.1 |Sample cha ac e is ics and geog aphical
co e age
Due o limi ed esou ces, we we e no able o ob ain samples ha a e
ep esen a i e o hei espec i e coun ies and a e comple ely simila
in ea u es ha migh in luence silence endencies (e.g., gende , occu-
pa ional sec o , and manage ial s a us). Besides collec ing ep esen a-
i e samples wi h espec o demog aphics o egions,
ep esen a i eness could also be jus i ied by measu ing cul u al a i-
ables (e.g., indi idualism) and showing ha he sco es o he sample
ma ch he sco es as achie ed in la ge cul u al s udies. Da a collec ion
p ocedu es also di e ed by coun y (see Table S1). Howe e , using
supe icially equi alen da a collec ion p ocedu es such as online su -
eys in each coun y migh no sol e his p oblem as da a collec ion
p ocedu es can ha e di e en implica ions ac oss coun ies (see
Spec o e al., 2015).
Fu he mo e, while all o he GLOBE cul u al clus e s a e ep e-
sen ed in ou samples wi h a leas wo coun ies, Eu opean samples
domina e. One o he pu poses o conduc ing his esea ch was o
make scales a ailable in many languages, which e en ually allows
o ex ending silence esea ch geog aphically. This is necessa y as
e y ew s udies ha e been conduc ed in A ab coun ies, La in
Ame ica, and A ica lea ing he di e se models o sel hood and
silence ha p e ail in hese egions ma ginalized (see Vignoles
e al., 2016).
5.2.2 |Coun y as a uni o analysis o examining
cul u al in luences
While s a is ical measu es (i.e., ICC) jus i ied ea ing coun y as a uni
o analysis in ou s udy, he amoun o explained a iance by coun y
was no la ge. As his is a he common in c oss-cul u al esea ch
(Tsui e al., 2007), some esea che s challenge iewing coun ies as
sha ed meaning sys ems (see Schwa z, 2014; Tung & S ahl, 2018).
Indeed, indi iduals a e subjec o se e al in luences wi hin hei coun-
y o o igin and coun ies hemsel es a e no homogeneous socie ies
(Chao & Moon, 2005; Pe e son e al., 2018). They can comp ise sub-
cul u es and egions wi h dis inc lea ning his o ies due o speci ic his-
o ical de elopmen s o geog aphical speci ics. Fu he , di e ences in
socioeconomic de elopmen can be a sou ce o cul u al a ia ion
wi hin coun ies (Ma cus e al., 2019). Fu u e esea ch could iden i y
whe he sou ces o wi hin-coun y- a ia ion migh also explain a i-
ance in silence.
5.2.3 |Complemen ing social scien i ic wi h
e hnog aphic app oaches
When discussing app oaches o c oss-cul u al s udies, we in oduced
he dis inc ion be ween social scien i ic and e hnog aphic
app oaches (Ting-Toomey, 2010). While he social scien i ic
app oach ha we d ew upon is use ul o he pu poses o his s udy
(which was compa ison o silence endencies ac oss coun ies and
cul u al dimensions), conduc ing e hnog aphic s udies could ad ance
esea ch on cul u e and silence and p o ide insigh s in o some o
ou mo e ambiguous indings. Fo example, he low silence sco es in
China and he high silence sco es in he Anglo clus e migh be
based on he ac ha membe s o di e en cul u es do no jus
beha e di e en ly in a pa icula si ua ion, bu de ine he si ua ion
i sel di e en ly (Leung & Cohen, 2011; Mendoza-Den on &
Mischel, 2007). Si ua ions ela ed o silence and oice migh be o
high o low ele ance o membe s o a cul u e and hus emaining
silen becomes mo e salien and mo e likely o be emembe ed.
Besides, e hnog aphic s udies could e eal cul u e-speci ic mo i es
o silence ha we did no examine in ou s udy (see Fon es', 2007,
e hnog aphic s udy on shame as an impo an mo i e o silence in
La ino cul u es).
5.2.4 |Going beyond GLOBE and cul u al
dimensions
The cu en s udy in es iga ed silence mo i es in ela ion o he cul-
u al amewo k o he GLOBE s udy (House e al., 2004). S a ing
wi h his es ablished ypology had he ad an age ha a ela i ely
b oad ange o cul u al cha ac e is ics could be ela ed o silence, and
sco es o hese cha ac e is ics we e a ailable o a la ge numbe o
coun ies. Howe e , he c oss-cul u al esea ch li e a u e is complex
and o e s a ious app oaches o cha ac e ize and con as cul u es
including high-/low-con ex cul u es (Hall, 1976) and he Wo ld
Values Su ey (Ingleha , 2018; o mo e exhaus i e lis s, see Ly le
e al., 1995; Ta as e al., 2009). Fo some o hese app oaches—
Schwa z' (2006) cul u al alue o ien a ions, Ho s ede's (1980) ypol-
ogy o cul u al dimensions, Minko e al.' (2017) e ision o Ho s ede's
indi idualism–collec i ism dimension, and he concep o cul u al
igh ness (see Gel and e al., 2006)—we p o ide b ie desc ip ions and
analyses in Appendix S1.
KNOLL ET AL.635
5.2.5 |Cul u e as a mode a o
Ou s udy ocused on he di ec e ec s ha cul u e cha ac e is ics
migh ha e on employee silence. Howe e , cul u e may also ha e a
mode a ing e ec on he ela ionships be ween mo e p oximal an e-
ceden s and silence, and cul u al dimensions migh in e ac in a simila
way as indi idual ai s do (Judge & Long, 2012; Spec o e al., 2015;
Tsui e al., 2007). Fo example, as cul u al di e ences exis ega ding
he ole o senio i y and gende in socie ies, in socie ies in which olde
and male employees ha e a highe s a us, he ba ie o o e come
silence is highe o younge and emale employees. Olde and male
employees, in u n, may expe ience g ea e esponsibili y o speak
up. Kwon and Fa ndale (2020) sugges ed ha cul u al igh ness
(i.e., he ex en o which cul u es a e cha ac e ized by s ong no ms
and low ole ance o de iance; Gel and e al., 2006, T iandis, 1996)
could unc ion as mode a o be ween o he cul u al dimensions and
silence. Fo example, he ela ionships be ween silence and powe dis-
ance and ins i u ional collec i ism migh be s onge i examined in
igh cul u es, because cul u al igh ness es ic s he ange o pe mis-
sible beha io .
6|CONCLUSION
Secu ing e ec i e communica ion and dealing wi h challenges o
he s a us quo a e cen al issues o he sus ainable de elopmen
o socie al and o ganiza ional cul u es. Despi e equen epo s o
de imen al silence in o ganiza ional p ac ice ac oss he globe, he e
is li le common g ound, empi ically o om a measu emen s and-
poin , on which o build a cohe en body o knowledge on
employee silence in di e en cul u es. In he i s la ge-scale s udy
examining di e en ially-mo i a ed employee silence, we alida ed
scales in 21 languages ha can acili a e in e na ional silence
esea ch. We u he p o ided sco es o 33 coun ies ha can
unc ion as a benchma k o u u e esea ch in hese coun ies as
well as o ien a ion o p ac i ione s doing business in inc easingly
di e se economic se ings. Making a i s s ep owa d explaining
in e na ional di e ences and simila i ies in silence mo i es, we
linked cul u e dimensions om he GLOBE amewo k o silence.
Resul s sugges ha silence mo i es (wi h he excep ion o quies-
cen silence) a e ela ed o powe dis ance, ins i u ional collec i ism,
and unce ain y a oidance. Resul s also sugges ha ela ionships
be ween cul u al dimensions and silence a e mo e complex han
p e iously belie ed, and ha s e eo ypical assump ions ega ding
cul u al dimensions and he use o silence in speci ic coun ies need
o be econside ed. We ecommend ha —besides eplica ing ou
indings wi h s a i ied andom samples— u u e esea ch could ben-
e i om complemen ing social scien i ic wi h e hnog aphic
app oaches, ex ending silence esea ch geog aphically and concep-
ually, conside ing uni s o cul u e o he han na ions and cul u al
amewo ks beyond GLOBE, and examining cul u e no jus as an
an eceden bu as mode a o be ween mo e p oximal an eceden s
and silence.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like o hank Edi o Ma k F. Pe e son and wo anonymous
e iewe s o hei challenging and suppo i e commen s. We would
also like o hank Ma ia Cha ziago ou, Michelle Donzallaz, and
Lau enz L. Meie o hei insigh ul commen s on ea lie e sions o
his manusc ip . Fu he mo e, we would like o exp ess ou g a i ude
o And ina F ank, Chan al Hamilos, and Liz Ka he ine To es Pajuelo
o hei assis ance in ou da a collec ion e o s, and Dominik Dilba
o his help wi h he isualiza ions in he Online Appendix.
The wo k by Elisa Ad iasola as pa o his esea ch was
suppo ed by he Comisión Nacional de In es igación Cien í ica y
Tecnológica de Chile, CONICYT FONDECYT/INI11160859. Juliana
Malagon acknowledges inancial suppo om Uni e sidad de Los
Andes, Fondo de Apoyo pa a P o eso es Asis en es [g an numbe
P17.100322.004].
ORCID
Michael Knoll h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-1148-0260
Ma in Gö z h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-1415-1240
Elisa Ad iasola h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-1252-0762
Ame Ali Al-A wi h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-1799-0066
Alicia A enas h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-5918-8760
Kokou A. A i sogbe h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-3469-1738
Anindo Bha acha jee h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-3824-365X
No man D. Blanco h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-2690-7060
G égoi e Bollmann h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-4169-219X
Janine Bosak h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5701-6538
Cag i Bulu h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-3291-673X
Madeline Ca e h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-3232-2317
Ma ej Če ne h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5049-588X
Susanna L. M. Chui h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-0574-6787
Dona ella Di Ma co h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-2612-7961
Gesa S. Duden h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-3196-0755
Vicki Elsey h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-9334-4595
Paola Ga i h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-6174-5052
Chia a Ghislie i h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-4002-8756
S e en R. Giessne h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-8035-5092
Ken a Hino h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-3022-9944
Joe i Ho mans h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-6619-0706
Thomas S. Jønsson h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5098-996X
Pazambadi Kazimna h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-9081-9172
Ke in B. Lowe h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-0929-7018
Juliana Malagón h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-9198-6359
Hassan Mohebbi h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-3661-1690
An hony Mon gome y h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-1118-7398
Lucas Monzani h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-3375-068X
Anne Nede een Pie e se h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-0405-1898
Emi Oze en h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-4219-8401
Dei d e O'Shea h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-9107-1434
Ch is ina Lundsgaa d O sen h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-4084-
5246
Jenni e Picke h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-3181-9786
Anna A. Rangku i h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-9853-9968
636 KNOLL ET AL.
Sylwiusz Re owski h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-6133-0658
Fa zad Sa a i A dabili h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-9734-7921
Sil ia A. Sil a h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-1304-2923
Ana Šimuni
ch ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-0476-8415
Niklas K. S e ens h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-3990-2592
Susana M. Ta a es h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-0146-8433
Rol an Dick h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-6308-9466
Su I. Wong h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-0663-4496
Hannes Zache h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-6336-2947
ENDNOTE
1
We also es ed whe he he i o he ou -co ela ed ac o s in each
sample (Table S2). In gene al, he ou -co ela ed ac o s i he espec-
i e sample da a well, bu yielded subop imal i indices o Colombia,
Pakis an, and Togo. Thus, we es ed he compe ing measu emen
models as ou lined abo e again in he ull sample, his ime excluding
Colombia, Pakis an, and Togo— he esul s and conclusions ega ding he
choice o he ou -co ela ed ac o s as he bes i ing measu emen
model emained he same.
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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES
Michael Knoll is esea che and lec u e a Leipzig Uni e si y. His
esea ch ocuses on issues ela ed o employee silence and oice,
leade ship, o ganiza ional de elopmen , and cul u e.
Ma in Gö z is a pos doc o al esea che a he Uni e si y o
Zu ich's Depa men o Psychology. His esea ch in e es s include
(wo kplace) de iance, ques ionable esea ch/ epo ing p ac ices,
and quan i a i e me hods.
Elisa Ad iasola is a esea che and lec u e a Uni e sidad Adol o
Ibanez, Chile. He esea ch ocuses on issues ela ed o leade ship
in eams, mo i a ion, leade de elopmen , di e si y and mul i-
le el phenomena.
Ame Ali Al-A wi is a p o esso o o ganiza ional beha io a Al
Mu hanna Uni e si y. His esea ch ocuses b oadly on leade ship,
o ganiza ional misbeha io , wo k s ess, o ganiza ional iden i ica-
ion, and issues in social ne wo k.
Alicia A enas is associa e p o esso a Uni e sidad de Se illa. He
esea ch is cu en ly ocused on di e si y and occupa ional heal h,
paying a en ion o de elop di e si y policies in o de o c ea e
mo e inclusi e, sus ainable, and heal hy wo kplaces.
Kokou A. A i sogbe is a g adua e o Msc in wo k and o ganiza-
ional psychology and cu en ly a PhD s uden and a Junio FNS
esea che in ca ee counseling a he Uni e si y o Lausanne. His
domains o esea ch include ca ee counseling and occupa ional
in eg a ion, ca ee de elopmen , c oss-cul u al psychology, psy-
chome ics, and pe sonali y psychology.
S ephen Ba e is esea che a Technical Uni e si y Dublin. His
esea ch ocuses on applied machine lea ning and s a is ics.
Anindo Bha acha jee is an assis an p o esso o Gene al Man-
agemen a Na see Monjee Ins i u e o Managemen S udies
(NMIMS), Mumbai, India. His esea ch ocuses on leade ship,
managemen o public/p i a e heal h sys ems in eme ging ma -
ke s, o ganiza ional psychology, and e hics. He also ac i ely
speaks on ancien wisdom o mode n managemen o you h and
business leade s in a ious o ums and has been a TEDx speake
in 2019.
KNOLL ET AL.641
No man Blanco is a poli ical scien is and s uden o he mas e 's
deg ee in u ban go e nmen a he Na ional Uni e si y o Colom-
bia and membe o he secu i y and de ense esea ch g oup a he
same uni e si y. He has esea ch expe ience in secu i y and
de ense, ci il-mili a y ela ions, ci izen secu i y, and o ganiza ional
silence.
Sabina Bogilo i
cis esea che and lec u e a Facul y o Public
Adminis a ion, Uni e si y o Ljubljana. He esea ch ocuses on
issues ela ed o c ea i i y, inno a ion, knowledge exchange, and
di e si y.
G égoi e Bollmann is senio lec u e a he Uni e si y o Zu ich.
His esea ch in e es s include con ex ual in luences o une hical
beha io s a wo k and dynamics o ca ee e en s, esou ces, and
well-being.
Janine Bosak is p o esso o wo k and o ganiza ional psychology
a Dublin Ci y Uni e si y. He esea ch in e es s lie in he a eas o
women and leade ship, employee well-being in o ganiza ions, and
cul u e.
Cag i Bulu is a p o esso and di ec o o he S a egy and
Excellence O ice a Yasa Uni e si y. His esea ch ocuses on
s a egic o ien a ions, inno a ion managemen , and employee
a i udes.
Madeline Ca e is an o ganiza ional psychologis and a senio lec-
u e a No humb ia Uni e si y. He esea ch ocuses on wo k-
place bullying and inci ili y, aining and lea ning, and employee
silence in heal hca e.
Ma ej Ce ne is associa e p o esso a he Uni e si y o Ljubljana.
His esea ch in e es s include he s udy o c ea i i y and inno a-
ion, knowledge hiding, leade ship, digi al wo k, and mul i-le el
issues in managemen .
Susanna L. M. Chui is an assis an p o esso o he Depa men
Managemen a he Hang Seng Uni e si y o Hong Kong. He
esea ch in e es s include leade ship and iden i y, leade ship
de elopmen , social en ep eneu ship, and hyb id o ganizing.
Dona ella Di Ma co is assis an p o esso a Uni e sidad de
Se illa (Spain) and esea che a he Business Resea ch Uni o
Ins i u o Uni e si á io de Lisboa (Po ugal). He esea ch ocuses
on pa icipa ion a wo k, di e si y managemen , and inclusi e
o ganiza ions.
Gesa Sol eig Duden is a esea che a he Uni e si y o
Osnab ueck, he Uni e si y o Leipzig, Ge many, and he
Uni e sidade Fede al de San a Ca a ina, B azil. He esea ch cen-
e s a ound cul u e and psychology, mos ly ela ed o ques ions
o anscul u al psychia y, men al heal h, mig a ion, and in e -
cul u al communica ion.
Vicki Elsey is an associa e p o esso o occupa ional and o ganiza-
ional psychology a No humb ia Uni e si y, Newcas le, UK. He
esea ch ocuses on sus ainable employabili y and ac o s ha
impac on ca ee de elopmen and choice.
Mako o Fujimu a is an associa e p o esso a Fukuoka Jo Gakuin
Uni e si y. He esea ch a eas a e social psychology and o ganiza-
ional psychology.
Paola Ga i is a pos -doc o al esea ch ellow a he Uni e si y o
To ino Depa men o Psychology (I aly). He esea ch in e es s
ocus on leade ship and ollowe ship, well-being and mo i a ion
a wo k, and iden i y dynamics on he job.
Chia a Ghislie i is an associa e p o esso a he Uni e si y o
To ino Depa men o Psychology (I aly). He esea ch add esses
a a ie y o issues associa ed wi h employee well-being a wo k,
leade ship and ollowe ship, wo k- amily balance, and oca ional
guidance.
S e en R. Giessne is p o esso o o ganiza ional beha io and
change a he Ro e dam School o Managemen , E asmus Uni e -
si y. His p ima y esea ch opics a e employee suppo du ing
o ganiza ional me ge , ollowe 's pe cep ions o leade ship, an e-
ceden s o leade beha io , and non- e bal communica ion o
powe .
Ken a Hino is a esea che and p o esso a Komazawa Uni e -
si y. His esea ch conce n is o ganiza ion heo y and o ganiza-
ional beha io , especially leade ship s udies.
Joe i Ho mans is p o esso o wo k and o ganiza ional psychology
a he V ije Uni e si ei B ussel, Belgium. His p ima y esea ch
in e es s ocus on he ole o pe sonali y, leade ship, and mo i a-
ion a wo k, wi h pa icula emphasis on wi hin-pe son luc ua-
ions and empo al dynamics.
Thomas F. Jønsson is an associa e p o esso a Aa hus Uni e si y,
Denma k. His esea ch ocuses on psychological pe spec i es on
employee in ol emen and leade ship.
Pazambadi Kazimna is a esea che and lec u e a he Depa -
men o Applied Psychology, Uni e si y o Lomé, Togo. His
esea ch ocuses on issues ela ed o wo k design and ca ee
de elopmen .
Ke in B. Lowe is he p o esso in leade ship a he Uni e si y o
Sydney Business School. His esea ch ocuses on leade ship, ol-
lowe ship, and c oss-cul u al managemen .
Juliana Malagón is esea che and assis an p o esso a
Uni e sidad de Los Andes School o Managemen . He esea ch
ocuses on issues ela ed o inancial ma ke s, idiosync a ic isk,
and p ice dynamics.
642 KNOLL ET AL.