Jespe son, Sasha; Ve ie , Ma in
A icle
Capi alising on c iminali y: A new lusophone ou e
h ough Mozambique
Jou nal o Illici Economies and De elopmen (JIED)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
LSE P ess, London School o Economics and Poli ical Science (LSE)
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Jespe son, Sasha; Ve ie , Ma in (2024) : Capi alising on c iminali y: A new
lusophone ou e h ough Mozambique, Jou nal o Illici Economies and De elopmen (JIED), ISSN
2516-7227, LSE P ess, London, Vol. 5, Iss. 3, pp. 37-46,
h ps://doi.o g/10.31389/jied.160
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
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RESEARCH
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
Sasha Jespe son
Independen , UK
[email p o ec ed]
KEYWORDS:
Mozambique; B azil; cocaine;
Lusophone; eli es; s a e
cap u e; PCC
TO CITE THIS ARTICLE:
Jespe son, S and Ve ie ,
M. 2024. Capi alising On
C iminali y: A New Lusophone
Rou e h ough Mozambique.
Jou nal o Illici Economies and
De elopmen , 5(3), pp. 37–46.
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.31389/
jied.160
Capi alising On C iminali y:
A New Lusophone Rou e
h ough Mozambique
SASHA JESPERSON
MARTIN VERRIER
ABSTRACT
Mozambique is becoming ecognised as an eme ging hub o cocaine a icking,
wi h links s e ching back o B azil. The a es o a well-known associa e o B azil’s
P imei o Comando da Capi al (PCC) sugges s he eme gence o a new ‘lusophone
ou e’ d i en by he g oup. Mozambique’s connec ion o o he illici lows – he oin and
me hamphe amines om he Mak an Coas , and na u al esou ces mo ing ou wa d
– p o ides he in as uc u e o begin mo ing a new commodi y h ough he coun y,
howe e he PCC should no expec a silen pa ne in Mozambique. Poli ical eli es ha e
played a key ole in o he illici lows, and he e is no eason o sugges cocaine would
be any di e en .
*Au ho a ilia ions can be ound in he back ma e o his a icle
38Jespe son and Ve ie
Jou nal o Illici
Economies and
De elopmen
DOI: 10.31389/jied.160
B azil has been playing a i al ole in cocaine a icking o A ica. UNODC’s Wo ld D ug Repo
2022 epo s ha 70 pe cen o all seizu es made on he con inen be ween 2015 and 2021
a i ed om B azil (UNODC 2022). Wi hin A ica i sel , Mozambique has gained signi icance
as a hub o he ansi o cocaine. The exis ence o a Lusophone ou e, linking B azil wi h
Lusophone coun ies in A ica is no new – cocaine has been mo ing om B azil o Cape Ve de
and Guinea Bissau o decades; howe e , he eme gence o Mozambique as a hub o cocaine
a icked om B azil is ela i ely ecen . I in e sec s wi h an al eady well- ounded ou e o
he mo emen o he oin and now me hamphe amines, a i ing on he Mozambican coas , and
being edi ec ed no h and sou h o e land.
The ise o Mozambique as a ansi hub o cocaine is pa o well-es ablished displacemen
e ec s, whe e inc eased law en o cemen a en ion on one pa o a ou e esul s in he shi
o a icking elsewhe e. In A ica, his has mos ly been analysed in ela ion o he opening o
Wes A ica as a ansi hub o cocaine in he la e 1990s ollowing signi ican seizu es o essels
shipping cocaine di ec ly om Sou h Ame ica o Eu ope. Wi hin A ica, analys s ha e ocused on
shi s in cocaine a icking om Wes A ica o No h A ica (He be 2018), o he oin a icking
om he Mak an Coas o Pakis an and I an o Kenya mo ing u he sou h, i s o Tanzania,
and hen o Mozambique (Haysom 2018).
Mozambique p o ides a e y conduci e en i onmen o cocaine a icking because o he o he
illici commodi ies mo ing in and ou o he coun y, as well as he in ol emen o poli ical
eli es, and mo e ecen ly he co e o insu gency in no he n Mozambique. Fo he B azilian
P imei o Comando da Capi al (PCC), which con ols he mo emen o cocaine h ough B azil,
Mozambique p esen s an oppo uni y o expansion. Howe e , he in e es s o poli ical eli es in
Mozambique should no be unde es ima ed.
This a icle e iews he addi ion o Mozambique o he Lusophone ou e o cocaine a icking
and he ole o he PCC in a icking cocaine in o Mozambique. I begins by cha ing he ise o
he PCC as he p ima y ac o in ol ed in cocaine a icking in B azil, ollowed by he ise o a
Lusophone ou e o Eu ope, including h ough Wes A ican coun ies. The a icle hen explo es
he shi in o Mozambique, discussing he exis ing c iminal en i onmen in Mozambique,
he con e gence o mul iple commodi ies, conside ing how cocaine a icking i s wi hin
he c iminal ma ke place and highligh ing he po en ial o con lic be ween he PCC and
Mozambican eli es.
The esea ch o his a icle a ose om esea ch commissioned by he Eu opean Commission
in o he con e gence o di e en c ime ypes along wha has p e iously been unde s ood as
he ‘Cocaine Rou e’ o Eu ope. The esea ch engaged wi h EU unded p ojec s h ough he
Global Illici Flows P og amme, in ol ed a desk e iew o unde s and he p esence o di e en
c ime ypes along he ‘Cocaine Rou e’, and in ol ed key in o man in e iews wi h indi iduals
in ol ed in p ojec deli e y in he coun ies o ocus, including Mozambique, as well as expe s
ocused on o ganised c ime ends.
THE LUSOPHONE COCAINE TRADE
B azil ep esen s an a ac i e hub o cocaine a icking o ganisa ions in Sou h Ame ica. The
coun y has a sizeable domes ic ma ke – he 2015 Na ional D ug Use Su ey ound ha 4.68
million people be ween 12 and 65 had consumed powde cocaine in hei li e ime, 1.34 million
in he 12 mon hs p eceding he su ey (Bas os, e al. 2017). B azil’s geog aphical posi ion,
bo de ing he co e cocaine p oduce s – Boli ia, Pe u and Colombia – p o ides an oppo uni y o
consolida e cocaine lows and manage expo s o he Eu opean ma ke .
B azil’s s ong domes ic ma ke has s eng hened local c iminal g oups, o he de imen
o o eign ac o s p esen elsewhe e in Sou h Ame ica. Local c iminal g oups, such as he
Commando Ve melho and he PCC s a ed as local o ganisa ions con olling cocaine lows in o
speci ic neighbou hoods on he ou ski s o he main B azilian ci ies. These neighbou hoods
p o ided a s onghold o local c iminal o ganisa ions o esis a emp s by he s a e o
unde mine hei ope a ions. P isons played a simila ole, as local kingpins used hei inancial
esou ces o co up peni en ia y o icials, u ning p isons in o uno icial headqua e s o
hei o ganisa ions. The PCC was po en ially he mos e ec i e a exploi ing his ulne abili y,
esul ing in signi ican expansion.
39Jespe son and Ve ie
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Economies and
De elopmen
DOI: 10.31389/jied.160
The PCC was o med in 1993, when se e al inma es o he Tauba e p ison in Sau Paulo
es ablished an alliance and killed o he leade s in he p ison. The i s s age o he PCC’s
expansion was cha ac e ised by dis up i e ac ion inside B azilian jails, which imp o ed hei
nego ia ing capabili ies wi h he go e nmen on de en ion condi ions. The second s age was
de ined by domes ic consolida ion and di e si ica ion o c iminal ac i i ies. In 2001, he PCC
a ac ed go e nmen a en ion o aking con ol o 29 p isons in 19 ci ies, o cing au ho i ies
o nego ia e (Kaminsky and Sque , 2001). F om 2006, a hi d s age o expansion began wi h
he PCC di ec ly challenging he go e nmen ’s legi ima e monopoly o o ce in he coun y.
The PCC conduc ed 293 coo dina ed a acks on police s a ions, anspo acili ies and s a e
buildings (Cou inho 2019). A ou h phase is e iden in he g oups in e na ional expansion – i s
egionally, and hen ac oss he A lan ic (Cou inho 2019). The PCC ex ended i s ne wo ks and
ope a ional ou es o Pa aguay, Boli ia, Pe u and Colombia (Cla el 2017).
Regionally, he PCC ook con ol o he en i e cocaine supply chain. I es ablished alliances
wi h o he c iminal o ganisa ions such as he ‘Nd anghe a, whe e i ac ed as a supplie o
shipmen s heading o Eu ope. Mo e ecen ly, he PCC s a ed o explo e new ou es, e ading
compe i ion om o he c iminal o ganisa ions. Due o an inc ease in comme ce, cul u al a ini y
and ins i u ional weakness, he Lusophone coun ies appea ed o be an a ac i e en y poin .
THE EMERGENCE OF A LUSOPHONE ROUTE TO WEST AFRICA
While Wes A ica has ecei ed he mos no o ie y o cocaine a icking, connec ions be ween
Lusophone coun ies ha e expanded he sphe e o in luence o B azilian o ganised c ime
g oups in pa icula . The Lusophone ou e – om B azil o Po ugal – has g own in p ominence,
beginning wi h a spike in cocaine seizu es be ween 2003 and 2007 in Po ugal (EMCDDA 2009).
The 2013 UNODC Wo ld D ug Repo iden i ied ha ‘B azil occu s mo e equen ly among
indi idual cocaine consignmen s seized by Po ugal han hose epo ed by Spain’, a end
ha inc eased signi ican ly be ween 2008 and 2009 (UNODC 2013c). F om he seizu es made
in Po ugal and Spain be ween 2007 and 2011, B azil, oge he wi h Lusophone coun ies in
A ica, consis en ly accoun ed o mo e han hal (59–83%) o he cases (UNODC 2021). While
he Lusophone ou e is no he p ima y en y poin o Eu ope, pa icula ly as he Ne he lands
and Belgium ha e o e aken he Ibe ian Peninsula as key Eu opean po s o cocaine, i can
easonably be expec ed ha s ong links emain be ween Lusophone coun ies (UNODC 2021).
Legal expo s om B azil o A ica g ew om 64 million USD in 2000 o 800 million USD in
2021 (T ading Economics 2022). This explosi e expansion in legal comme ce be ween B azil
and he A ican con inen has been exploi ed by o ganised c ime o ship cocaine o A ican
sho es, wi h he mos ecu en me hod being Rip-on/Rip-o , whe e illici goods a e placed
in a con aine jus p io o depa u e and emo ed immedia ely on a i al, be o e inspec ion.
The B azilian po o San os plays a i al ole in his ou e. Cocaine seizu es ose om 1,672
kg in 2013 o 27,000 kg in 2019 (P oinde 2021). La ge cocaine seizu es we e egis e ed om
2005–2011, mainly in h ee anshipmen hubs: he no he n hub, comp ising o Guinea-
Bissau, Guinea, Gambia and Senegal, he sou he n hub, comp ising o Nige ia, Benin, Togo and
Ghana and he eas e n hub comp ising o Mali and Mau i ania, wi h B azil iden i ied as he
main depa u e poin (UNODC 2013a). Ma i ime a icking coexis s wi h a icking by ai , bo h
h ough comme cial and gene al a ia ion. The mos common depa u e poin s o cocaine
a icking h ough comme cial ligh s a e he Sao Paulo-Gua ulhos In e na ional Ai po and
Rio de Janei o’s Galeão In e na ional Ai po . In 2021, B azil’s Fede al Police made se e al d ug
seizu es ela ed o cocaine a icking o des ina ions in A ica (Linsell 2021).
Cape Ve de and Guinea Bissau a e equen ly associa ed wi h he Lusophone ou e, pa icula ly
du ing he ime pe iods no ed abo e, when cocaine low h ough Wes A ica peaked (UNODC
2013b), howe e Lusophone coun ies in sou he n A ica ha e also g own in impo ance. In
2010, nine Angolans we e a es ed in Po ugal linked o cocaine a icking, and in 2011 e e y
passenge was sc eened on wo ligh s o Luanda om Sao Paolo, esul ing in he iden i ica ion
o o e 20 cocaine cou ie s on each ligh (UNODC 2013b). In 2019, he e was a seizu e o
238 kg o cocaine onboa d he ‘G ande A ica’ in Luanda (Benjamin 2019). The cocaine was
hidden inside Renaul ca s manu ac u ed in B azil and expo ed o Angola. While Angola has
become less o a ecognised hub o d ug a icking, wi h a low anking o d ug a icking
acco ding o he O ganised C ime Index – cocaine is s ill he mos p e alen d ug mo ing
40Jespe son and Ve ie
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Economies and
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DOI: 10.31389/jied.160
h ough he coun y (GITOC 2021a). In 2020, wo indi iduals we e de ained a Luanda ai po
coming om B azil wi h 12 kilos o cocaine (Macau Business 2020). In Ma ch 2021, an Angolan
was de ained in Sao Paolo-Gua ulhos ai po (Ve Angola 2021). In June 2021, an Angolan
indi idual was a es ed a Reci e ai po o a emp ing o a ic 4.6 kgs o cocaine o Angola
(Globo 2021).
Alongside Angola, Mozambique has become a g owing conce n. The coun y is al eady well
es ablished o he oin a icking om he Mak an coas , and he e ha e been inc eased le els
o cocaine a i ing in he coun y o onwa d ansi o Sou h A ica and Eu ope.
THE RISE OF MOZAMBIQUE AS A CRIMINAL HUB
Mozambique became a hub o illici lows as he oin ansi ing he Indian Ocean began o
mo e u he sou h a e success ul in e dic ions in Kenya and Tanzania. He oin is cu en ly he
p ima y illici commodi y mo ing h ough Mozambique. The same ou e – dhows depa ing
om he Mak an Coas in Pakis an and I an – is now also being used o he anspo o
me hamphe amine om A ghanis an o Sou h A ica (GITOC 2021c). Mozambique is also a
hub o illegal logging, a icking o i o y and hino ho n and he illici ade in ubies, as well as
mig a ion c imes and a ms a icking (GITOC 2021b).
The g ow h o Mozambique as a hub o illici ac i i y is also linked o allega ions ha key pa y
o icials a e p o i ing om o ganised c ime. Despi e ci il wa be ween 1977 and 1992, F en e
de Libe ação de Moçambique (FRELIMO) has been in powe since independence. The p ima y
opposi ion pa y and he main bellige en in he ci il wa , Resis ência Nacional Moçambicana
(RENAMO), has claimed ha FRELIMO has engaged in elec o al aud, howe e . The e is also
limi ed public us in go e nmen ins i u ions, pa icula ly he c iminal jus ice sys em and
an i-co up ion in as uc u e. This c ea es a conduci e en i onmen o he mo emen o
illici goods. The eme gence o an Islamis insu gency in no he n Mozambique in 2017 has
expanded he enabling en i onmen o illici ac i i y, as well as he numbe o ac o s seeking
o p o i om i .
Cabo Delgado p o ince in no he n Mozambique has been he p ima y hub o illici ac i i y, as
dhows anspo ing he oin om he Mak an coas o Eas A ica ha e mo ed down he coas
om Kenya and Tanzania ollowing signi ican seizu es. Ini ially dhows we e landing nea
Mocimboa de P aia, and ans e ing he oin o ishing boa s (Haysom 2018). Mocimboa de P aia
has been a hub o he a icking o he oin, a ms and people, bu since he own was aken o e
by he insu gen g oup Ahlu Sunna wa Jammu (ASWJ) in Augus 2020, dhows ha e been mo ing
u he sou h o Pemba and e en Nacala o a oid isks posed by he insu gency.1 Inc easingly,
dhows ha e been combining he mo emen o he oin wi h me hamphe amine, also p oduced
in A ghanis an (GITOC 2021c). Dhows ha e also been used o anspo people om he Ho n
o A ica o he Mozambican coas . Once landed, d ug shipmen s mo e in di e en di ec ions.
Me hamphe amines a e p ima ily des ined o he Sou h A ican ma ke , whe eas he oin mo es
bo h no h and sou h o e land (Eligh 2021). Al hough insu gen s don’ appea o be engaged in
illici ac i i y di ec ly, as discussed in mo e de ail below, d ug shipmen s a e also being used o
b ing weapons o ASWJ igh e s (No b ook 2021).
As well as being he en y poin o he oin and me hamphe amines, po s in Cabo Delgado
– pa icula ly Pemba and Nacala – a e also being used o expo commodi ies, pa icula ly
wildli e, Illegal imbe , ubies, i o y and pangolin scale ha e all been iden i ied (USAID 2020).
Weak go e nance in Cabo Delgado has p o ided an opening o illici ac i i y, and his is u he
exploi ed by OCGs o expand hei ac i i ies. F om hese po s o en y, illici commodi ies also
ely on po ous bo de s and/o co up ion in o Tanzania and Sou h A ica. Insigh C ime a gues
ha he ou es es ablished by he he oin ade ha e a ac ed B azilian o ganised c ime o
begin shipping cocaine (Fo d 2021).
Wi h Insigh C ime i s aising he ala m ega ding cocaine a icking in o Mozambique in
2014, seizu es ha e s eadily inc eased. Cocaine has adi ionally a i ed by ai in Mapu o,
ca ied by mules om Sou h A ica, Mozambique, Nige ia and Tanzania (Mimi 2014). Howe e ,
1 As o Augus 2021, Rwandan o ces had pushed insu gen s ou o Mocimboa de P aia.
41Jespe son and Ve ie
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De elopmen
DOI: 10.31389/jied.160
he e a e also ins ances whe e cocaine has been seized in Pemba, a i ing in con aine s
om B azil (All A ica 2021). Once in Mozambique, cocaine uses he same ou es as he oin
and me hamphe amine o each ma ke s in Sou h A ica and Eu ope. Insigh C ime poin s
ou how he ‘p e-exis ing he oin and me hamphe amine ou es a e also doubling as cocaine
ampolines o Sou h A ica and hen Eu opean po s’ (Fo d 2021).
The link o B azil has been well es ablished h ough he seizu e o con aine s men ioned abo e.
Cocaine des ined o Mozambique is also being seized in B azil. On 7 June 2021, wo people
we e a es ed a Rio de Janei o ai po en ou e o Mapu o wi h 18 kg o cocaine. This ollowed
a Ma ch 2021 a es a Sao Paolo ai po wi h 5kg, and a Janua y 2021 a es a Fo aleza
ai po wi h 32kg, he la e a elling o Mozambique ia Po ugal (Fo d 2021). As men ioned
abo e, p io o Co id-19, many mo e inciden s we e eco ded wi h smalle amoun s o cocaine,
including he i e inciden s in 2019 a Sao Paolo ai po (Fo d 2021). T a el es ic ions in 2020
o ced a icke s o ely on pos and comme cial eigh , as in he case o cocaine disguised in
soap bound o Mozambique (B azilian Minis y o Economy 2020). A ade ag eemen signed
be ween B azil and Mozambique in 2015 ha acili a ed he impo o con aine ised goods om
B azil eased con aine mo emen s, e en hough i is no he sho es ou e (Johnson 2021). In
Oc obe 2021, 5 ons o cocaine disguised in washing powde was seized in he po o Rio de
Janei o po , abou o depa o Mozambique (El Pais 2021). Howe e , seizu es only ep esen
a ac ion o he cu en low o cocaine o Mozambique, pa icula ly gi en he allega ions on
he in ol emen o s a e o icials.
THE ENTRY OF THE PCC
As discussed abo e, cocaine shipmen s a e no new in Mozambique. A mo e ecen end has
been a emp s by he PCC o consolida e con ol o e Mozambique as a cocaine hub o eas e n
A ica and he a eas .
In 2020, one o he PCC leade s, Gilbe o Apa ecido Dos San os, aka Fuminho, was caugh in
Mozambique nego ia ing inc eased cocaine shipmen s (Radwin 2020). Fuminho, a well-known
PCC associa e, is epo ed o ha e been ope a ing in Boli ia and Pa aguay and his de en ion in
Mozambique suppo ed heo ies ha Mozambique was g owing as a cocaine a icking hub
(GITOC 2020).
Acco ding o he local newspape Ca a MZ (Ca a de Mozambique 2020) Fuminho, a he
momen o his de en ion, was al eady in con ol o he main cocaine supply lines in Mozambique
and coo dina ed shipmen s o Sou h A ica, om whe e cocaine could easily each o he pa s
o A ica and Eu ope. Senio sou ces a he B azilian Fede al Police ha e con i med ha he PCC
is explo ing new ou es o A ica and ha Fuminho had been ope a ing in A ica o a leas 10
yea s. Mon hs a e he a es o Fuminho, a B azilian judge issued an o de o he de en ion
o Ma cos Robe o de Almeida, also known as “Tu a”, a o me o icial a he Mozambican
consula e in Belo Ho izon e (Po al de Angola 2020). A Mozambican ci izen, Tu a had become a
leade wi hin he PCC in B azil, and a s a egic link be ween B azil and Mozambique.
Acco ding o he B azilian p ess, he main mission o Fuminho was o secu e he A ican ou e
in a mo e ha would ha e ep esen ed he second in e na ional expansion o he PCC a e
consolida ing i s con ol o Pa aguayan cocaine ou es. In ecen yea s, Fuminho a icked bo h
cocaine and a ms o se e al A ican coun ies and buil an associa ion wi h Nige ian pa ne s
(Diniz 2020). Nige ian o ganisa ions equen ly ely on he PCC o expo cocaine o Nige ia
h ough he po o San os (Adeleye 2023). These Nige ian pa ne s p o ided he necessa y
nexus wi h local eli es, and he es ablishmen o an impo /expo company ha wo ked as
a on o cocaine smuggling ope a ions. The ole o Tu a may ha e been o p o ide a simila
connec ion o Mozambique.
While he PCC appea s o be expanding ab oad, he e is li le indica ion o appe i e o clash
wi h o he in e na ional d ug a icking c iminal g oups, such as he ‘Nd anghe a o he
Albanians. On he con a y, o da e he PCC has collabo a ed wi h o he o ganisa ions. Fo
example, links wi h ‘Nd anghe a ha e been well documen ed, especially when he Pelle clan
was in ol ed (Anesi 2018). In his case, he PCC ac ed as he main wholesale supplie o he
I alian o ganisa ion.
42Jespe son and Ve ie
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Economies and
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DOI: 10.31389/jied.160
Howe e , when i comes o domes ic g oups, he PCC has been mo e o ce ul. Cocaine ou es
h ough Pa aguay used o be con olled by local c iminal o ganisa ions, he mos p ominen o
which was he Ro ela Clan. This clan was elimina ed when he PCC sough o con ol cocaine
a icking chokepoin s in o B azil, mo e speci ically in Ped o Juan Caballe o. As he PCC mo ed
in o Pa aguay, i became one o he dominan ac o s, con olling jails, opening new ou es and
elimina ing local o ganisa ions by o ce.
While pushing ou local c iminal o ganisa ions, local co up eli es ook ad an age o new
oppo uni ies b ough by he PCC, and quickly es ablished alliances wi h he g oup. The PCC
didn’ ha e, and s ill hasn’ shown any poli ical in e es in Pa aguay, so i s ag eemen wi h local
eli es was, and is s ill ounded amids a symbio ic ela ionship whe e he PCC p o ides unding,
and local eli es p o ide p o ec ion and acili a e cocaine expo ope a ions.
The Pa aguayan case may p o ide a solid base o make p ognosis on PCC in e es s in
Mozambique. The i s hin is ha Fuminho, he PCC associa e, had been ope a ing in Sou he n
A ica o 10 yea s wi hou clashing wi h any o he local o ganisa ions, o aising any signi ican
ala ms among local ins i u ions. In addi ion, i is likely ha Pa aguay was seen by he PCC as an
open ma ke , eady o be cap u ed and ans o med in o a d ug a icking hub ha was ied
in o B azil.
In o he a eas, he PCC has e ealed an in e es in colluding whe e necessa y, a he han
clashing, as e idenced in he pa ne ship wi h Nige ian o ganisa ions. The PCC has po en ially
also apped in o hei ne wo ks wi h o he in e na ional o ganisa ions o access senio
o icials and eli es o p o ide p o ec ion, in as uc u e and inancial se ices. The PCC has
also demons a ed ha i p e e s ope a ing in s a es ha a e al eady c iminalised, o a e in an
ad anced s a e o c iminalisa ion. This allows hem o ope a e wi h a lowe p o ile, exploi ing
exis ing ou es, acili a o s and co up local eli es. In sum, in es men needed o consolida e
new ou es is signi ican ly lowe han in places whe e hey mus eplica e hose condi ions
h ough he use o o ce.
The challenge wi h Mozambique will be he ex en o which he PCC can suppo he in e es s
o he poli ical eli e cashing in on o ganised c iminali y a he han compe e. C iminal ma ke s
in he coun y a e no domina ed by domes ic c iminal g oups, a he hey a e o e seen by
powe ul indi iduals. Viewed om his pe spec i e, he a es o Fuminho may ha e been an
indica ion ha he PCC ha e been oo dis up i e o he local powe balance, p o iding ano he
example o wha Shaw has desc ibed in he Guinea Bissau case as ‘c acks in sys ems o poli ical
p o ec ion’ (Shaw 2021).
AN ELITE DRIVEN CRIMINAL ENVIRONMENT
O ganised c ime in Mozambique is domina ed by poli ical eli es, wi h commodi ies spli be ween
di e en ac o s. Fo example, he illegal wildli e ade is con olled by police on he condi ion
ha hey don’ dis up he d ug ade, which is mo e luc a i e and con olled by poli icians. To
main ain his di ision, law en o cemen ha e also been ecipien s o signi ican b ibes ela ed o
d ug a icking, such as he Chie o Cus oms Domingos Ti ane (Wikileaks 2010).
Mohamed Bashi Suleman, iden i ied in 2010 as one o he la ges d ug a icke s in
Mozambique, was linked o hen P esiden Guebeza (p esiden om 2010–2015) and o me
P esiden Chissano (p esiden om 1986–2005), and p o ided subs an ial campaign inance
o bo h (Wikileaks 2010). Nicknamed ‘M Gue-Business’, P esiden Guebeza is epo ed o ha e
ins iga ed poli ical in ol emen in illici ac i i y, ini ia ing ‘an up ick in eli e sel -en ichmen ’
(No b ook 2021).
A majo scandal in ol ing Guebeza was he ake-o e o he No he n De elopmen Co ido
in July 2009 by Insi ec L d, a company o which Guebeza was a majo sha eholde (Wkileaks
2010). The con ac in ol ed managemen o Nacala po and he no he n ail ne wo k – bo h
key condui s in he mo emen o illici commodi ies. Celso Co ei a was ins alled as he head o
Insi ec L d, la e becoming he campaign manage o cu en p esiden Filipe Nyusi, and la e
Minis e o Land and Ru al De elopmen (No b ook 2021).
The cu en p esiden , Filipe Nyusi (incumben since Janua y 2015) has aken a s onge s ance
agains some o ms o illici ac i i y, pa icula ly he illegal wildli e ade. Howe e , Nyusi
43Jespe son and Ve ie
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Economies and
De elopmen
DOI: 10.31389/jied.160
allegedly ecei ed signi ican b ibes in connec ion wi h he ‘hidden loans’ scandal in 2014 while
he was Minis e o De ence (Thomas & Jenkins 2019).
C iminal ma ke s ha e in ol ed o eign c iminal ac o s un il es ablished, a which poin
domes ic ac o s ake o e . This is likely because he p o i ma gin in Mozambique, as a ansi
hub, is no high and poli ical eli es a e eage o capi alise on he p o i s ha a e a ailable. The
mos long-s anding illici ades a e lo a and auna. The ade in imbe is con olled by Chinese
syndica es, bu hey wo k in pa ne ship wi h Mozambican police as no ed abo e. Rhino ho n
and i o y a e p oduced by local poaching gangs, which has included FRELIMO o icials shoo ing
elephan s om helicop e s (USAID 2020). Chinese syndica es ope a e ishing essels along he
coas ha a e used o anspo wildli e p oduc s (USAID 2020).
Ini ially, he he oin ade was domina ed by Pakis ani o ganised c ime g oups bu has since
shi ed o Mozambican ac o s. As s a ed, he a es o Fuminho in 2020 indica es in e es
om he PCC in con olling he cocaine ade in o Mozambique, wi h Fuminho wo king o
build pa ne ships in Mozambique. As wi h he o he illici lows, he e is an expec a ion ha
Mozambican eli es will be keen o p o i om he g ow h o a cocaine ou e h ough he coun y.
A CONTESTED MARKET
In ecen yea s, Mozambique has become a cen al hub o mul iple illici commodi ies. The
po s in Cabo Delgado p o ince ha e become poin s o con e gence wi h di e en commodi ies
being impo ed and expo ed. While weak ule o law ini ially encou aged Pakis ani OCGs o
use Mozambique as a ansi hub, poli ical eli es ha e been known o ake ad an age o he oin
lows in pa icula , using o he illici commodi ies o appease law en o cemen . While he e is
some appe i e among law en o cemen o espond, he ope a ing en i onmen is di icul . The
impac o Co id-19 and he insu gency in no he n Mozambique bo h c ea ed a dis ac ion,
jus i ying he lack o go e nmen esponse.
The g ow h o o ganised c ime in Mozambique is acili a ed by he in ol emen o poli ical
eli es, who ha e an in e es in inc easing p o i s. Poli ical in ol emen also ensu es ha he
c iminal jus ice sys em emains weak. Mos seizu es ha ha e occu ed in Mozambique a e as
esul o in es iga ions conduc ed alongside in e na ional ac o s. Police ha a e no co up
a e eluc an o pu sue c iminal ac o s because o he linkages o poli icians (Wikileaks 2010).
In addi ion, go e nmen agencies do no coo dina e, which limi s hose in es iga ions ha do
go ahead (USAID 2020).
Democ a isa ion is epo ed o be in e ea in Mozambique, and he esponse o co up ion is
also in decline (USAID 2020). The judicia y is suscep ible o p essu e om he execu i e, and
while he e is a Cen al O ice o Comba ing Co up ion (COCC), i lacks independence and a
manda e o ins iga e o p osecu e cases (USAID 2020). Jou nalis s epo ing on co up ion o
o he sensi i e issues a e a isk o iolen a acks (F eedom House 2021). The mos p ominen
case o co up ion was he ‘hidden loans’ scandal, whe e senio o icials p o ided go e nmen
gua an ees o loans o he alue o 2 billion USD, a scandal ha was only made public ollowing
a conce ed campaign by CSOs.
Money launde ing is also ela i ely s aigh o wa d as a esul o a casino law in oduced by
P esiden Guebeza in Janua y 2010 o educe gambling es ic ions, educing he minimum
in es men o a casino om 15 o 8 million USD, legalising online gambling and allowing slo
machines o be posi ioned in o he wise non-gambling en i onmen s (Wikileaks 2010).
As a hub o illici lows, Cabo Delgado p o ince is highly ma ginalised, wi h ew li elihood
op ions and limi ed s a e p esence. As a esul , i has also become a hub o exploi a i e
p ac ices in o he indus ies, wi h human a icking ne wo ks using o ced labou in uby mines
(USAID 2020).
The lack o s a e p esence has been a ac o in he eme gence o ASWJ insu gency since 2017.
ASWJ does no appea o be di ec ly in ol ed in illici ac i i y in Cabo Delgado, al hough he
g oup does epo edly ax lows mo ing h ough owns and a eas unde hei con ol (Haysom
2018). I is likely ha he p esence o insu gen s is making i mo e di icul o poli ical eli es o
bene i om illici lows mo ing h ough po s in no he n Mozambique. As a esul , he e ha e
44Jespe son and Ve ie
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Economies and
De elopmen
DOI: 10.31389/jied.160
been inc eased aids on d ug a icke s. In 2020, a go e nmen ask o ce in e cep ed mul iple
essels esul ing in a es s o se e al o eign d ug a icke s, who all ecei ed a 15-yea p ison
sen ence (USAID 2020). Howe e , some analys s claim he go e nmen doesn’ wan he
in e en ion o o eign o ces in Cabo Delgado because ‘ hen all eyes will all on he scale o
illici a icking ha goes on in he p o ince and a lo o o he hings could come o ligh ’
(No b ook 2021). Mo e ecen analysis poin s o he esilience o a icking ou es in no he n
Mozambique, shi ing away om a eas con olled by insu gen s and aking al e na i es such as
h ough sou h Cabo Delgado and Nampula (S anya d e al. 2022).
CONCLUSION
The g ow h o cocaine a icking in Mozambique can be seen as an expansion o he Lusophone
ou e. Links be ween B azil and Eu ope ha e been s eng hening, e en as An we p and Ro e dam
ha e o e aken Po ugal and Spain as he p ima y en y poin s. While he impo ance o A ican
ansi hubs has waxed and waned depending on in e na ional law en o cemen a en ion, he
expansionis objec i es o he PCC ha e e iden ly esul ed in in es men in o he cul i a ion o
Mozambique as a new on ie o he mo emen o cocaine.
Viewed objec i ely, he coun y p esen s as a s ong candida e. Mozambique has become
a majo hub o he oin and me hamphe amine a i ing om he Mak an coas , wi h well-
es ablished ou es o dis ibu e d ugs o o he pa s o A ica and Eu ope. The insu gency in
Cabo Delgado, and he go e nmen ’s inabili y o con ol igh ing p o ides a s ong co e o
wha has been p o en o be a esilien c iminal ma ke . Acco dingly, Mozambique has he
in as uc u e o suppo he en y o ano he commodi y.
Howe e , unlike o he coun ies whe e he PCC has aken a key ole in cocaine a icking, such
as Pa aguay, he poli ical eli e a e no looking o an ex e nal ac o o suppo hei in e es s. Fo
o he commodi ies, hese eli es ha e aken con ol o c iminal ma ke s once hey ha e p o ed
o be p o i able. As a esul , he a es o Fuminho in 2020 may ha e been colla e al damage
as Mozambican eli es appease dono s keen o s eng hen he igh agains o ganised c ime in
he coun y, o i may be e idence ha he PCC has es ablished a c iminal ma ke hese eli es
a e eage o capi alise on.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Da a collec ion ha in o med his a icle was conduc ed as pa o a paid consul ancy o he
Eu opean Commission’s Global Illici Flows P og amme. The au ho s we e con ac ed by he
Royal Uni ed Se ices Ins i u e.
AUTHOR AFFILIATIONS
Sasha Jespe son o cid.o g/0000-0002-3899-3218
Independen , UK
Ma in Ve ie o cid.o g/0000-0002-5446-704X
Independen , A gen ina
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