Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Planetary Well-Being

Elo, Me ja (Ed.) e al.
Book
In e disciplina y Pe spec i es on Plane a y Well-Being
Rou ledge S udies in Sus ainable De elopmen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Taylo & F ancis G oup
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Elo, Me ja (Ed.) e al. (2024) : In e disciplina y Pe spec i es on Plane a y Well-
Being, Rou ledge S udies in Sus ainable De elopmen , ISBN 9781003334002, Rou ledge, London,
h ps://doi.o g/10.4324/9781003334002
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INTERDISCIPLINARY
PERSPECTIVES ON
PLANETARYWELL-BEING
This book p oposes a pa adigm shi in how human and nonhuman well-being a e
pe cei ed and app oached. In esponse o yea s o accele a ed decline in he heal h
o ecosys ems and hei inhabi an s, his edi ed collec ion p esen s plane a y well-
being as a new c oss-disciplina y concep o os e global ans o ma ion owa ds a
mo e equal and inclusi e aming o well-being.
Th oughou his edi ed olume, esea che s ac oss he humani ies, social
sciences,andna u alsciencesapplyand e lec on heconcep o plane a ywell-
being, showcasing i s alue as an in e disciplina y, c oss-sec o al changemake .
Thebookexplo es hesigni icanceo plane a ywell-beingasa heo e icaland
empi ical concep  in sus ainabili y science and applies i  o discipline-speci ic
cases, including business, educa ion, psychology, cul u e, and de elopmen . In e -
disciplina y pe spec i es on opical global ques ions and p ocesses unde pin each
chap e , om soil p ocesses and ecosys em heal h o global inequali ies and cul-
u al ans o ma ion, in he amewo k o plane a y well-being.
The book will appeal o academics, esea che s, and s uden s in a b oad ange
o disciplines including sus ainabili y science, sus ainable de elopmen , na u al
esou ces, and en i onmen al humani ies. Calling eade s o assess, challenge, and
e hink he dominan pe cep ions o well-being and socie al ac i i ies, his ich
esou ce ha explo es he in e connec ion be ween human and nonhuman well-
being se es as a ool o os e ans o ma i e ac ion owa ds a mo e sus ainable
socie y.
Me ja Elo is a pos doc o al esea che o communi y ecology a Uni e si y o
Jy äskylä, Finland, co e ing opics om mac oecology o conse a ion biology
and es o a ion ecology.
Jonne Hy önen is a esea ch coo dina o a Uni e si y o Jy äskylä and a
pos doc o al esea che a Aal o Uni e si y Depa men o Buil En i onmen . He
conduc s esea ch on sus ainabili y ansi ion in spa ial planning.
Sanna Ka kuleh o is a p o esso o li e a u e a Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland,
whose mos ecen publica ions include he ESCL Collabo a i e Resea ch Awa d
Finalis Recon igu ing Human, Nonhuman and Pos human in Li e a u e and Cul-
u e (2020, Rou ledge, ed. wi h A-K. Kois inen and E. Va is).
Teea Ko e mäki is a senio esea che in social sciences and philosophy a
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland. She conduc s esea ch on en i onmen al e hics,
clima e policy, and sus ainabili y ansi ions.
Janne S. Ko iaho is a p o esso o ecology and di ec o o he School o Resou ce
Wisdom a Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland. He is he chai o he Finnish Na u e
Panelandascien i icad iso  o hego e nmen o Finlandinissues ela ed obio-
di e si y and ecosys em es o a ion.
Mikael Puu inen is a esea ch coo dina o a he School o Resou ce Wisdom a
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland. He conduc s e olu iona y ecology esea ch and
coo dina es in e disciplina y sus ainabili y educa ion a his home uni e si y.
Miikka Salo is a senio lec u e a Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland. He conduc s
esea ch on ene gy poli ics and en i onmen al go e nance and ci izenship.
“The wo k o IPBES has shown ha many sus ainable de elopmen goals will
no be me by 2030 wi h cu en nega i e ends in biodi e si y and may only be
achie ed h ough ans o ma i e changes ac oss economic, social, poli ical and
echnological ac o s. T ans o ma i e change calls o deep sys emic ans o -
ma ions in ou p oduc ion and consump ion habi s, and in he way people alue
na u e and concei e a good quali y o li e. This no el wo k on plane a y well-being
add esses he c i ical need o mo e wo k on ans o ma i e change, in pa icula
by concep ualising well-being o all li e on Ea h, o humans and non-humans.”
Anne La igaude ie, Execu i e Sec e a y, In e go e nmen al
Pla o m on Biodi e si y and Ecosys em Se ices (IPBES)
“This wide- anging, mul i ace ed olume ad ances a bold heo e ical p oposal:
Ea h as a whole, as an in eg a ed complex sys em, can a e be e o wo se – in
speci iable,measu able, heo e icallyde ensible e ms.Then he olumead ances
ano he , equally bold sugges ion: hinking in e ms o plane a y wellbeing can
in o m policies in no el ways a a ious scales – o include and balance he needs,
in e es s, leanings, and powe s o all hose humans and nonhumans ha ac oss ime
concu o p opel Ea h’s ans o ma ions. This olume opens and mos compe en ly
o ien s a whole new esea ch p og am, which is as ambi ious and u gen as he
heo e ical and p ac ical asks i se s o i sel .”
Ma cello Di Paola, Assis an P o esso in he His o y
o Philosophy, Uni e si y o Pale mo, I aly

Rou ledge S udies in Sus ainable De elopmen
This se ies uniquely b ings oge he o iginal and cu ing-edge esea ch on
sus ainable de elopmen .Thebooksin hisse ies ackledi icul andimpo an 
issues in sus ainable de elopmen including: alues and e hics; sus ainabili y in
highe educa ion; clima e compa ible de elopmen ; esilience; capi alism and de-
g ow h; sus ainable u ban de elopmen ; gende and pa icipa ion; and well-being.
D awing on a wide ange o disciplines, he se ies p omo es in e disciplina y
esea ch o an in e na ional eade ship. The se ies was ecommended in he
Gua dian’s sugges ed eads on de elopmen and he en i onmen .
In e disciplina y Pe spec i es on Socio-Ecological Challenges
Sus ainable T ans o ma ions Globally and in he EU
Edi ed by Ande s Siig Ande sen, Hen ik Hauggaa d-Nielsen, Thomas Budde
Ch is ensen and La s Hulgaa d
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 16 and he Global Go e nance o Violence
C i icalRe lec ionson heUnce ainFu u eo Peace
Edi ed by Timo hy Donais, Alis ai D. Edga , and Ki s en Van Hou en
In e disciplina y Pe spec i es on Plane a y Well-Being
Edi ed by Me ja Elo, Jonne Hy önen, Sanna Ka kuleh o, Teea Ko e mäki,
Janne S. Ko iaho, Mikael Puu inen, and Miikka Salo
Fo mo e in o ma ion abou his se ies, please isi : www. ou ledge.com/
Rou ledge-S udies-in-Sus ainable-De elopmen /book-se ies/RSSD
London and New Yo k
INTERDISCIPLINARY
PERSPECTIVES ON
PLANETARY WELL-BEING
Edi ed by Me ja Elo, Jonne Hy önen, Sanna
Ka kuleh o, Teea Ko e mäki, Janne S. Ko iaho,
Mikael Puu inen, and Miikka Salo
This olume is a join p ojec and edi ed in collabo a ion. The edi o s a e lis ed
alphabe ically o indica e ha hey ha e con ibu ed equally o he p ojec and wan
o a ibu e an equal sha e o c edi o each edi o . Funding by Academy o Finland
(p ojec numbe 333366) has enabled Jonne Hy önen o ake pa in edi ing his book.
Designed co e image: © E a Kaján
Fi s published 2024
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© 2024 selec ion and edi o ial ma e , Me ja Elo, Jonne Hy önen, Sanna Ka kuleh o,
Teea Ko e mäki, Janne S. Ko iaho, Mikael Puu inen, and Miikka Salo; indi idual
chap e s, he con ibu o s
The igh o Me ja Elo, Jonne Hy önen, Sanna Ka kuleh o, Teea Ko e mäki, Janne
S. Ko iaho, Mikael Puu inen, and Miikka Salo o be iden i ied as he au ho s o he
edi o ial ma e ial, and o he au ho s o hei indi idual chap e s, has been asse ed in
acco dance wi h sec ions 77 and 78 o he Copy igh , Designs and Pa en s Ac 1988.
The Open Access e sion o his book, a ailable a www. aylo ancis.com, has
been made a ailable unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-Non Comme cial-No
De i a i es 4.0 license.
T adema k no ice: P oduc o co po a e names may be adema ks o egis e ed
adema ks, and a e used only o iden i ica ion and explana ion wi hou in en o
in inge.
B i ish Lib a y Ca aloguing-in-Publica ion Da a
A ca alogue eco d o his book is a ailable om he B i ish Lib a y
Lib a y o Cong ess Ca aloging-in-Publica ion Da a
Names: Elo, Me ja, edi o ; Hy önen, Jonne, edi o ; Ka kuleh o, Sanna, edi o ;
Ko e mäki, Teea, edi o ; Ko iaho, Janne S., edi o ; Puu inen, Mikael, edi o ; Salo,
Miikka, edi o .
Ti le: In e disciplina y pe spec i es on plane a y well-being / edi ed by
Me ja Elo, Jonne Hy önen, Sanna Ka kuleh o, Teea Ko e mäki, Janne S.
Ko iaho, Mikael Puu inen and Miikka Salo.
Desc ip ion: Abingdon, Oxon ; New Yo k, NY : Rou ledge, 2024. |
Se ies: Rou ledge s udies in sus ainable de elopmen | Includes bibliog aphical
e e ences and index.
Iden i ie s: LCCN 2023009437 (p in ) | LCCN 2023009438 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032368283 (ha dback) | ISBN 9781032368269 (pape back) |
ISBN 9781003334002 (ebook)
Subjec s: LCSH: Sus ainable de elopmen . | En i onmen alism. | Well-being.
Classi ica ion: LCC HC79.E5 I52879 2024 (p in ) | LCC HC79.E5 (ebook) |
DDC 338.9/27—dc23/eng/20230323
LC eco d a ailable a h ps://lccn.loc.go /2023009437
LC ebook eco d a ailable a h ps://lccn.loc.go /2023009438
ISBN: 978-1-032-36828-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-36826-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-33400-2 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003334002
Typese in Times New Roman
by codeMan a
Lis o igu es xi
Lis o con ibu o s xiii
Acknowledgemen s xix
In oduc ion o in e disciplina y pe spec i es
on plane a y well-being 1
Me ja Elo, Jonne Hy önen, Sanna Ka kuleh o,
Teea Ko e mäki, Janne S. Ko iaho, Mikael Puu inen and
Miikka Salo
PART I
G ounding he concep 7
1 Plane a y well-being 9
Teea Ko e mäki, Mikael Puu inen, Miikka Salo, Riikka
A o, S e an Baumeis e , Rémi Du lo , Me ja Elo, Panu
Halme, Hanna-Ma i Husu, Su i Hu unen, Ka iina
Hy önen, Sanna Ka kuleh o, Saana Ka aja-aho, Ki si E.
Keskinen, Ina i Kulmunki, Tuuli Mäkinen, Annukka Näyhä,
Ma i-Anne Okkolin, Tommi Pe älä, Jenna Pu honen, Kaisa
J. Raa ikainen, Liia-Ma ia Raippalinna, Ki si Salonen,
Ka i Sa olainen and Janne S. Ko iaho
CONTENTS
xi Con ibu o s
Me ja Elo; Pos doc o al Resea che in Communi y Ecology, Uni e si y o
Jy äskylä, Finland
Teppo Eskelinen; Senio Lec u e in Social Sciences, Uni e si y o Eas e n
Finland, Finland
Kyle Ey indson; Associa e P o esso in Fo es Planning, No wegian Uni e si y o
Li e Sciences, No way
Miia G énman; Pos doc o al Resea che in Business and Economics, Uni e si y
o Jy äskylä, Finland
Ja i Haimi; Senio Lec u e in Bio- and En i onmen al Science, Uni e si y o
Jy äskylä, Finland
Panu Halme; Senio Lec u e in Conse a ion Biology, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä,
Finland
Anni M. Hämäläinen; Pos doc o al Resea che in E olu iona y Ecology,
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Pil i Hämeenaho; Uni e si y Lec u e in E hnology and An h opology, Uni e si y
o Jy äskylä, Finland
Hannu L.T. Heikkinen; P o esso o Educa ion, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä,
Finland
Ka i Heimonen; P o esso in Economics, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Mikko Hiljanen; Uni e si y Teache in Pedagogy o Sus ainabili y, Uni e si y o
Jy äskylä, Finland
Hanna-Ma i Husu; Associa e P o esso in Social Sciences, LUT School o Engi-
nee ing Science, Finland
Su i Hu unen; Leading Resea che in En i onmen al Policy, Finnish En i on-
men Ins i u e, Finland
Jonne Hy önen; Resea ch Coo dina o , Uni e si y o Jy äskylä; Pos doc o al
Resea che in Spa ial Planning, Aal o Uni e si y, Finland
Ka iina Hy önen; Senio Resea che , Ins i u e o Rehabili a ion, Jamk Uni e si y
o Applied Sciences, Finland

Con ibu o s x
Toni Je n o s; Pos doc o al Resea che in En i onmen al Mic obiology,
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Vee a Jo o; Doc o al S uden in De elopmen S udies, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä,
Finland
Juha Jun ila; P o esso in Economics, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
E a R. Kallio; Senio Lec u e in Cell and molecula biology, Uni e si y o
Jy äskylä, Finland
Sanna Ka kuleh o; P o esso in Li e a u e, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Saana Ka aja-aho; Uni e si y Teache in Bio- and En i onmen al Science,
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Minna Käy ä; Uni e si y Teache in Co po a e En i onmen al Managemen ,
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Jenni Kesäniemi; Pos doc o al Resea che in E olu iona y Biology, Uni e si y o
Jy äskylä, Finland
Ki si E. Keskinen; Pos doc o al Resea che in Spo and Heal h Sciences and Ge -
on ology, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Aino-Kaisa Kois inen; Senio Resea che in Con empo a y Cul u e S udies,
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Kaisa Ko ekallio; Pos doc o al Resea che in Li e a u e, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä,
Finland
Teea Ko e mäki; Senio Resea ch Fellow in Philosophy, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä,
Finland
Esa Koskela; Senio Lec u e in E olu iona y Ecology, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä,
Finland
Janne S. Ko iaho; P o esso in Ecology, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
I ene Kuhmonen; P ojec Resea che in Co po a e En i onmen al Managemen ,
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Ina i Kulmunki, PhD in A His o y, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
x i Con ibu o s
An on La inienko; Pos doc o al Resea che in Mic obial Ecology, Uni e si y o
Jy äskylä, Finland
Heidi Layne; Senio Lec u e in Global and Sus ainable Educa ion, Uni e si y o
Jy äskylä, Finland
Heikki Lehkonen; PhD. Uni e si y Resea che , Uni e si y o Jy äskylä,
Finland
Anna Leh onen; Pos doc o al Resea che in Sus ainabili y Educa ion, Uni e si y
o Jy äskylä, Finland
Me i Löy yniemi; Doc o al Resea che in Co po a e En i onmen al Manage-
men , Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Ma ileena Mäkelä; Senio Lec u e in Co po a e En i onmen al Managemen ,
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Tuuli Mäkinen; Assis an Teache in Co po a e En i onmen al Managemen ,
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Ris o-Ma i Ma e o; PhD Candida e in Gene al His o y, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä,
Finland
Aila-Leena Ma hies; P o esso in Social Wo k, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Kokkola
Uni e si y Conso ium Chydenius, Finland
Niina Myk ä; Pos doc o al Resea che in Sus ainabili y Educa ion, Uni e si y o
Jy äskylä, Finland
Ka i Nä hi; P o esso in Social Wo k, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Annukka Näyhä; Academy Resea ch Fellow in Co po a e En i onmen al Man-
agemen , Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
God ed Obeng; Doc o al S uden in De elopmen S udies, Uni e si y o
Jy äskylä, Finland
Ma i-Anne Okkolin; Associa e P o esso and Lead Expe in Peace Educa ion
Ins i u e, Finland
Tiina Onkila; Associa e P o esso in Co po a e En i onmen al Managemen ,
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Con ibu o s x ii
Jane-Vee a Paakkolan aa a; P ojec Resea che , Ins i u e o Rehabili a ion,
Jamk Uni e si y o Applied Sciences, Finland
Tommi Pe älä; Senio Resea che in Compu a ional Ecosys em Sciences, Uni e -
si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Jenna Pu honen; Resea che in Communi y Ecology, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä,
Finland
Mikael Puu inen; Coo dina o in Sus ainabili y Educa ion, Uni e si y o
Jy äskylä, Finland
Kaisa J. Raa ikainen; Pos doc o al Resea che in Sus ainabili y Science, Uni e -
si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Juulia Räikkönen; Pos doc o al Resea che in Biodi e si y Uni , Uni e si y o
Tu ku, Finland
Liia-Ma ia Raippalinna; Doc o al Resea che in E hnology and An h opology,
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Sa u Ran a-Ty kkö, Senio Lec u e in Social Wo k, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä
Eleano Ra cli e; Lec u e in En i onmen al Psychology, Uni e si y o Su ey, UK
Mi a Salimi; Doc o al Resea che in Sus ainable Business, Uni e si y o
Jy äskylä, Finland
Jelena Salmi; Pos doc o al Resea che in An h opology, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä,
Finland
Miikka Salo; Senio Lec u e in Sociology, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Ki si Salonen; Pos doc o al Resea ch Fellow in Wel a e Sciences, Tampe e
Uni e si y, Finland
Minna San aoja; P ojec Resea che , Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland, Finland
Milla Sa ja; P ojec Resea che in Co po a e En i onmen al Managemen ,
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Bha esh Sa na; Uni e si y Teache in Co po a e En i onmen al Managemen ,
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
x iii Con ibu o s
Ka i Sa olainen; Senio Lec u e in Psychology, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Ti any Scholie ; Doc o al Resea che in E olu iona y Genomics, Uni e si y o
Jy äskylä, Finland
Ingo S amm; Pos doc o al Resea che in Social Wo k, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä,
Kokkola Uni e si y Conso ium Chydenius, Finland
Johanna Suikkanen; Resea che in P oduc ’s En i onmen al Pe o mance,
Finnish En i onmen Ins i u e, Finland
Ou i Uusi alo; P o esso and Head o Ma ke ing, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Anu S. Vi anen; Doc o al Resea che in Philosophy, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä,
Finland
Yingying Wang; Pos doc o al Resea che in Disease Ecology, Uni e si y o
Jy äskylä, Finland
Phillip C. Wa s; P o esso in E olu iona y Gene ics, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Te hi-Anna Wilska; P o esso in Sociology, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like o wa mly hank all li ing sys ems who con ibu ed o and helped
in comple ing his p ojec . We a e especially g a e ul o he mul idisciplina y g oup
o chap e au ho s o hei en husiasm and insigh ul e o as well as pa ience du -
ing hep ocess.Wewouldalsolike oexp essou g a i ude oMā isG unskis o 
p epa ing he igu esandou  esea chassis an O oSnellman o hisskill ul,com-
pe en ,andin aluableassis ancein inalizing hebook.Wea eespecially hank ul
o he Rou ledge S udies in Sus ainabili y se ies and he anonymous pee - e iewe s
o belie ingin heneedandsigni icanceo anewconcep o plane a ywell-being
in he ieldo sus ainabili yscience.Wewouldalsolike o hankHuman and social
sciences communica ions jou nal o he possibili y o use ou o iginal esea ch
a icle“Plane a ywell-being”asa ep in in hisbook.The inal hanksgo o he
whole JYU.Wisdom esea ch communi y a he Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland,
whe e his book has been planned and p epa ed and whe e we ha e enjoyed nume -
ous discussions ha ha e suppo ed he c ea ion o his book.

Li e ma e s. Li e on Ea h eme ged abou 3.7 billion yea s ago and wha we call
di e si y o li e is he esul o gene ic in o ma ion passing om one gene a ion o
he nex and di e si ying in he p ocess. The me apho o he ee o li e cap u es
how all li e is in e wined: Imagine lea es g owing om he wigs o a ee. Each
lea is a species connec ed o o he s h ough he b anches and he unk o he ee.
One o he lea es among millions is ou species. We a e all he same ye di e en —
we a e all di e en o ms and shapes o he li e ha once eme ged.
Thousandso scien i icpape sand epo sha edocumen ed hehuman-induced
de as a ion o he di e si y o li e and des uc ion o whole ecosys ems, es i ying
o ou inadequa e ca e o he plane . The c ea ion o he unp eceden ed cu en
ma e ial weal h o he high-consump ion socie ies has con e ed na u al ecosys-
ems oag icul u al ields,ci ies,ando he in as uc u es;exploi ed enewable
na u al esou ces mo e quickly han hey can egene a e; changed he a mosphe ic
composi ion oo apidly o many li e o ms o adap ; pollu ed and poisoned; and
has mo ed non-na i e species o a eas whe e hey o e un ulne able na i e spe-
cies. We humans shake he ee o li e hea y-handedly: Twigs a e b eaking and
lea es a e alling.
All li e has in insic alue, and ou mo al obliga ion is o espec and che ish,
no des oy, i s di e si y. E en hough he con ibu ion o di e en peoples and
na ions o he p esen c isis is highly une en on a global scale, we humans oge he
hold he knowledge and capaci ies, and he equal bu di e en ia ed esponsibili y,
o epai he damage done o human and nonhuman well-being.
This olume s i es o secu e he p ese a ion o he di e si y o li e and he
p ospec s o well-being o all on Ea h. I is a mani es a ion o an ambi ious goal
o es ablish he new, non-an h opocen ic, and holis ic concep o plane a y well-
being. A i s co e, plane a y well-being insis s ha he plane ’s li e-sus aining
INTRODUCTION TO
INTERDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES
ONPLANETARY WELL-BEING
Me ja Elo, Jonne Hy önen, Sanna Ka kuleh o,
TeeaKo e mäki, Janne S. Ko iaho, Mikael Puu inen
and Miikka Salo
DOI: 10.4324/9781003334002-1
2 Me ja Elo e al.
sys ems emain su icien ly undamaged by human ac i i ies so as o allow all
species and popula ions o su i e and h i e. Plane a y well-being is a no el
c oss-disciplina y concep coined o os e global ans o ma ion o a mo e inclu-
si e and equal exp ession o well-being o all. As such, i pushes o a pa adigm
shi in how human and nonhuman well-being a e pe cei ed and app oached. The
concep has g own om an unde s anding ha p ese a ion o he di e si y o li e
demands an u gen e e sal o he de e io a ion o Ea h and ecosys em p ocesses
h ea ening he exis ence and well-being o so many o Ea h’s inhabi an s. The
concep s ems om heo e ically and e hically c i ical s ances ha call in o ques-
ion hean h opocen icbiaseso Wes e nscien i icandpoli ical hough aswell
as he dualis ic idea o human–nonhuman ela ions. I b ings new pe spec i es o
he e hical discussions on sus ainabili y, jus ice and esponsibili y, and well-being.
Despi e decades o wo k on sus ainabili y and sus ainable de elopmen , he
plane ’s li e-suppo ing sys ems a e ailing. While explana ions o his can be
o e ed a mul iple le els, wha ma e s now is whe he he ha m ul ajec o ies can
be changed. As mo al agen s, we humans a e esponsible o changing hese ajec-
o ies. We belie e ha he ac o s who delibe a e, plan, and enac he change need
new concep ualiza ions o make hei decisions and ac ions e ec i ely ans o ma-
i e. By adop ing p ocess-o ien ed and sys ems- ocused hinking and by uni ying
human and nonhuman well-being, plane a y well-being o e s a new concep ual
amewo k o  heo e ical,me hodological,andempi ical esea chin he ieldo 
sus ainabili y science, and o s imula ing ac ions o p ese e well-being on Ea h.
In his edi ed olume, esea che s ac oss human, social, and na u al sciences
applyand e lec on heconcep o plane a ywell-being,showcasingi s alueas
an in e disciplina y, c oss-sec o al changemake . The objec i e o his olume
is o sc u inize he meaning,posi ion, andsigni icance o plane a y well-being
as a heo e ical and empi ical concep in sus ainabili y science. We apply i o
discipline-speci ic domains including an h opology, a  and cul u e, business,
inancingandco po a een i onmen almanagemen ,consump ion,de elopmen ,
ecology, educa ion, his o y, philosophy, planning, psychology, and social wo k.
Thesediscipline-speci icandin e disciplina yexplo a ions,while a  ombeing
exhaus i e, co e a a ie y o heo e ical and me hodological app oaches. In addi-
ion o add essing he consequences o he deg ada ion o ecosys em p ocesses, such
as clima e change and biodi e si y loss, he olume ackles o he global h ea s and
challenges acing humani y, such as economic inequali y, une en powe s uc u es,
and social injus ice. This way, plane a y well-being se es as a ool o sha pen and
b oaden he analy ical ou look beyond he con en ional amewo ks o sus ainabil-
i y ans o ma ion, jus ansi ion, and sus ainable de elopmen .
Many con ibu ions in his olume also add ess me hodological ques ions
ela ed o he use o plane a y well-being in esea ch: How can i be ope a ional-
ized o di e en pu poses, and wha aspec s o human and nonhuman well-being
a e highligh ed, omi ed, o some imes pu pose ully obscu ed in a ious me hodo-
logicalaswellassocie alcon ex s?Theul ima eobjec i eis o e lec onhow
In oduc ion 3
plane a y well-being as a non-an h opocen ic and holis ic amewo k can be used
o p omo e ans o ma i e ac ion owa ds a wo ld whe e all o ms o li e, humans
and beyond, would ha e he oppo uni y o achie e well-being.
The o ganiza ion o he olume
Thisbookisdi idedin o i epa s ha eachapp oachplane a ywell-beingdi -
e en ly.The i s pa  ocusesonin oducingandde ining heconcep byp e-
sen ing i s heo e ical, con ex ual, and e hical backg ounds. The opening chap e ,
“Plane a y well-being”, is a e ba im ep oduc ion o a esea ch a icle o iginally
published in Humani ies and Social Sciences Communica ions, whe e plane a y
well-beingwasconcep ualized o  he i s  ime.Thechap e c i icallydiscusses
he p oblems o he exis ing concep ual amewo ks wi hin sus ainabili y science
and well-being and in oduces plane a y well-being as a needed addi ion o add ess
he oo causes o ecological c ises. Chap e 2, demons a es how plane a y well-
being is posi ioned in he b oade on ological and e hical- heo e ical landscape,
owing o i s p ocess-o ien ed pe spec i e and non-an h opocen ic no ma i e
g ounds. Chap e 3, encou ages mo e a en ion o on ological ques ions as well as
openness o di e ences and ansdisciplina y and mul i-on ological co- esea ching
in he pu sui o plane a y well-being.
A e he in oduc o y pa , he book con inues examining heo e ical, me h-
odological, empi ical, con ex ual, and poli ical ques ions on plane a y well-being,
wi h a di ision o ou pa s. Each pa app oaches he concep and pu s i in o
use and p ac ice in ce ain sphe es o u gency ha a e key when aiming a col-
lec i e sus ainabili y ans o ma ion: The second pa deals wi h he u gency o
assess ecological p ocesses as cons i uen s o plane a y well-being and o change
he di ec ion o humani y’s impac on hem; he hi d pa co e s he u gency o
challenge and e ise economic s uc u es and p ac ices; he ou h pa unde lines
heu gency o e hinkandcon es an h opocen icideaso well-being;and he i h
pa  ocuseson heu gency o indsolu ions o os e cul u alandsocie al ans o -
ma ion owa ds plane a y well-being.
Pa 2, lays he g oundwo k o plane a y well-being by explo ing many o
hose p ocesses whose in eg i y con ibu es o plane a y well-being bu a e cu -
en ly h ea ened o unde mined by he ha m ul impac o human ac i i ies, d i en
especially by high-consump ion socie ies. Chap e 4, a gues ha human ac i i ies
such as o e exploi a ion o na u al esou ces, ecosys em deg ada ion, and global
ade ha e had se e e consequences o he p e alence and sp ead o pa hogens in
human and wildli e communi ies. The chap e ou lines how human ac i i ies can
p o ide a ou able condi ions o pandemics and igge cascading consequences
o ecosys ems wo ldwide. Chap e 5, a gues ha landscape app oaches hold
ans o ma i e po en ial o he managing o socio-ecological sys ems and o e
an oppo uni y o pu plane a y well-being in o p ac ice. Chap e 6, main ains ha
soils a e closely in e linked wi h plane a y well-being as hey a e ela ed di ec ly
10 Teea Ko e mäki e al.
Ho nbo g, 2014). Acco ding o he his o ical g aphs, hese de elopmen s ha e
“been almos en i ely d i en by a small ac ion o he human popula ion, hose in
de eloped coun ies” (S e en e al., 2015b).
Global inequali ies among humani y a e s a k ega ding who ecei es he
bene i so en i onmen allydamagingac ionsandwhohas obea  hei de imen-
al impac s. A ound he wo ld, na ions’ op 10% o ea ne s cap u e 37–61% o
na ional income; globally, he sha e o he op 10% o global income is be ween
53% and 60% depending on he me hod o measu emen (Al a edo e al., 2018).
The cos s o ecosys em deg ada ion and clima e change, on he o he hand, hu he
well-beingo a leas 3.2billionlessa luen people(IPBES,2018;UNEn i on-
men , 2019). Re aining he p esen s anda d o li ing in he weal hies coun ies
necessi a es s uc u es ha main ain globally unequal, exploi a i e labou di ision,
and ecological exchange (Ho nbo g, 1998; Newsome e al., 2015). T ans o ma i e
changes o social, economic, and echnological sys ems a e inc easingly called o
o change he cou se owa ds a mo e sus ainable u u e in bo h en i onmen al and
social e ms (e.g., Díaz e al., 2019; Kohle e al., 2019; Willemen e al., 2020).
The abo e desc ibed en i onmen al and social p oblems ha e gene a ed a b oad
spec um o discou ses and ac ion, om he sus ainable de elopmen amewo k
and goals (Uni ed Na ions (UN), 2015; Wo ld Commission on En i onmen and
De elopmen (WCED), 1987) o he ounda ions o social jus ice (Nussbaum and
Sen, 1993) ( o key amewo ks, see he Supplemen a y Ma e ial in Ko e mäki
e al., 2021). F om he ecological iewpoin especially, a se ious challenge is ha a
majo i y o he amewo ks ocus on he human pe spec i e and conside nonhuman
well-being impo an only o he ex en i con ibu es o human well-being (e.g.,
D yzek, 2005, p. 157). Solely human- ocused e hos o many concep ualiza ions
o sus ainabili y is ypical o Wes e n science, con a y o some o he knowledge
sys ems ( o example, some o ms o Indigenous and non-Wes e n knowledge) ha
emphasize balance and collabo a ion wi h na u e (Díaz e al., 2015).
Ano he challenge wi h he exis ing amewo ks is ha hey seldom ocus on he
sys ems and p ocesses ha suppo li e, well-being, and biodi e si y a di e en spa-
ial scales. Al hough sus ainabili y s udies ha e ecognized he in e connec edness
o he social, economic, and ecological aspec s o li e, and he impo ance o s udy-
ing p ocesses as aking place in complex socio-ecological sys ems (Os om, 2009),
he mains eaming o such hinking o well-being s udies has been slowe . Lack o
a sys ems-o ien ed and mul iscala ou look can esul in a agmen a y iew o he
p oblems and hei solu ions. Many amewo ks aim o o e come ei he an h opo-
cen ism o he lack o sys emic and mul iscala ou look, bu ew a emp bo h and
do ha wi h he iewpoin o well-being. Fo example, he widely used no ion o
ecosys em se ices is ocused on he ins umen al alues o nonhuman na u e o
humani y, which educes nonhuman na u e in o capi al and has e en been sugges ed
o be he “T ojan Ho se” o an h opocen ism wi hin he communi y o conse a-
ion (Washing on, 2020). In Supplemen a y Ma e ial in Ko e mäki e al. (2021), we
lis he widely acknowledged concep s ha add ess he ecological c isis, sus ainable

Plane a y well-being 11
well-being o he en i onmen al impac s o human ac ions, and we sho ly desc ibe
how hese no ions di e om he concep ha we p opose in his pape .
The need o concep ualize well-being in a way ha is non-an h opocen ic and
encou ages a sys ems-o ien ed, mul i-scala ou look, aises a undamen al ques-
ion: Wha is well-being? In human psychology, he ocus is adi ionally on sub-
jec i e, expe ienced well-being: Pe sons wi h subjec i ely high well-being a e
sa is iedwi hli e,expe ienceposi i e eelings,a eable o ul ilpe sonalaspi-
a ions, ha e a ou able ela ions, and a e in good men al heal h (Keyes, 2005;
Kokko e al., 2013). The subjec i e accoun s o well-being ha e also been c i i-
cized om he en i onmen al sus ainabili y iew-poin : I expe ienced well-being
dependson he ul ilmen o seeminglylimi lesshumandesi esandwan s(ins ead
o limi ed needs) wi h mani old di ec and indi ec ma e ial impac s, his poses
unsus ainably high ma e ial c i e ia o well-being (Gough, 2015). To add ess his
p oblem, ecopsychology (as well as he ecosocial app oach o well-being, see he
Supplemen a y Ma e ial in Ko e mäki e al., 2021) a gues ha human beings a e
simply a pa o na u e (Win e and Koge , 2004). F om his pe spec i e, na u e
and humani y a e ine adicably linked and high le els o well-being can only be
achie ed h ough he expe ien ial ealiza ion o na u e connec edness and exposu e
o nonhuman na u e (Roszak, Gomes and Kanne , 1995; Maye and F an z, 2004;
B yme , Cuddihy and Sha ma-B yme , 2010). Especially om he iewpoin o
social jus ice as an equal oppo uni y o achie e well-being, nea by na u e which
anybody can access is impo an . In spi e o ha , ocus on subjec i e well-being
is p oblema ic om he iewpoin o social jus ice and equali y e en when he
ecological in e -connec edness is inco po a ed. Unde p i ileged people can adap
o hei ci cums ances (demons a ing “malleable p e e ences”) and may be unable
o a icula e hei expe iences o lowe well-being and sa is ac ion o li e, whe eas
mino losses o he p i ileged g oups can ge o e emphasized (Nussbaum and Sen,
1993; Nussbaum, 2011).
In social sciences, consequen ly, well-being is o en app oached nonsubjec-
i ely and unde s ood o depend on he sa is ac ion o basic human needs, such as
he need o ma e ial subsis ence, p o ec ion, a ec ion, unde s anding, and au on-
omy, which con ibu e o physical and men al heal h, and o he abili ies o social
pa icipa ion (e.g., Doyal and Gough, 1984; Rice, 2013; Gough, 2017; see also
Nussbaum and Sen, 1993). The a gumen is ha hese uni e sal human needs pe -
sis h ough cul u es and ime, e en while he s a egies and means o sa is ying he
needs, and h esholds o adequa e needs sa is ac ion, can change (Gough, 2017).
Needs-based app oaches he eby concep ualize well-being in a way ha is mo e
sui able ( han subjec i e expe iences o well-being) o public policy planning and
implemen a ion.
Needs-based, objec i e accoun s o well-being a e also used in he con ex o
nonhumans, since s udying hei expe ienced well-being is challenging (Wemels-
elde , 1997). This newe s and o li e a u e alle ia es he an h opocen ic o ien a-
ion o he well-being discou se by acknowledging ha i is no only humans who
12 Teea Ko e mäki e al.
can gain o lose well-being. Mos o he li e a u e on nonhuman well-being ocuses
on nonhuman animals and main ains ha hey ha e species- ypical physical and
beha iou al needs, he sa is ac ion o which is c ucial o hei well-being (e.g.,
B oom, 1991; Ba ussek, 1999; Singe , 2002; Nussbaum, 2006). Ne e heless, he
concep o well-being(also e e ed oas h i ingo  lou ishing)hasbeenapplied
o o he o ganisms, oo: Popula ions, species o lineages, and e en ecosys ems.
Ecosys emwell-being, o example,hasbeende inedas he unc ionalin eg i yo 
an ecosys em and i s capaci y o e ain i s ypical unc ionings and cha ac e is ics
(Schlosbe g, 2007; Ko e mäki, 2017; see also P esco -Allen, 2001), including
succession and adap a ion. The well-being o species o lineages is add essed ia
egene a i e capaci ies ha a e ela ed o unc ional in eg i y: To be well, species
mus be able o main ain sel -sus aining capaci ies and o adap o en i onmen al
changes (Ko e mäki, 2018).
In sum, he heo e ical and concep ual esea ch li e a u e on well-being has
expanded much. I has ad anced om disconnec ed and subjec i e accoun s o
in e connec ed ecopsychological and ecosocial iews, o objec i e and needs-based
concep ualiza ions ha help o add ess well-being om he social equali y and
public policy- ela ed aspec s, and inally also o he well-being beyond humans.
Ne e heless, he con ibu ions ypically ocus on one le el o aspec a a ime, be i
he human–nonhuman connec ions, sen ien animals, o collec i e nonhuman en i ies.
Thechallengeo connec ingdi e en le elsanddomainshas emainedinsu icien ly
add essed.Al hough hecon lic sbe ween hewell-beingo di e en o ganismsha e
beenacknowledgedand e lec ed upon(e.g., Nussbaum, 2006; Schlosbe g, 2007
o  hep eda o –p ey ela ions), hese e lec ionsha ealso ecei edc i icism(e.g.,
C ipps, 2010; Hailwood, 2012), and in e ac ions be ween well-being a di e en le -
els a e a icula ed mainly in pa en heses,3 lacking he mul iscala app oach. Con i-
bu ions canno be easily in eg a ed, as he c i icism has poin ed ou .
We p opose a new concep , plane a y well-being, o add ess he abo e discussed
need o a non-an h opocen ic, sys emic concep ualiza ion o well-being ha akes
in o accoun he mul iple scales o in e ac ion. Plane a y well-being acknowledges
he alue o bo h human and nonhuman well-being o hei own sake (in insic
alue): The mo al igh o bo h humans and nonhumans o exis , o ha e hei
needs sa is ied, and o ealize hei  ypical cha ac e is ics and capaci ies. The
needs o o ganisms—bo h human and nonhuman—a e in e connec ed so ha he
sa is ac iono  heneedso  a iousen i iesc ea esbo hsyne giesandcon lic s.
Hence, he concep anscends he le el o indi idual o ganisms and ocuses on he
in eg i y o Ea h sys em and ecosys em p ocesses unde lying he well-being o all
o ms o li e. I also se es as a amewo k ha ies oge he ecological and social
equali yconside a ions.Asaconcep ,plane a ywell-being acili a esscien i icand
poli ical discussions by using he same ocabula y o add ess he impac s o human
ac i i ies on he well-being o human and nonhuman na u e.
To de i e and p opose a non-an h opocen ic concep means ha we openly
commi o ce ain no ma i e iews on mo al conside abili y. Mo ally conside able
Plane a y well-being 13
beings and collec i es ha e mo al alue o hei own sake (inhe en o in insic
alue), ega dless o whe he hey ha e ins umen al alue o humans. Conse-
quen ly, he well-being o mo ally conside able en i ies ma e s o hei own sake.
We adop a plu alis o mul ic i e ial app oach o mo al alua ion; i g ounds he
mo al conside abili y o en i ies on se e al c i e ia (Wa en, 1997). The plu al-
is aluing g an s mo al conside abili y o human and nonhuman indi iduals bu
ex ends he sphe e o mo al conside abili y beyond hem: Species o lineages and
ecosys ems ha canbewello  lou ishandha esel - egula i ecapaci ies(e.g.,
Rols on, 1985, 2002; Schlosbe g, 2007) a e also mo ally conside able (he ea e ,
he e m “li ing en i ies” deno es his di e se ensemble o mo ally conside able
indi iduals and non-indi idual en i ies). While ou no ma i e iewpoin may no
be sha ed by all, we belie e ha esponding o ecological c isis adequa ely equi es
adop ing a non-an h opocen ic no ma i e app oach whe e nonhuman na u e is
alued also o i s own sake, no only due o i s impo ance o human p ospe i y.
Concep ualiza ion o plane a y well-being
We g ound he concep o plane a y well-being in accoun s ha link well-being
wi h he sa is ac ion o basic needs as hey a e pe cei ed om a neu al, nonsubjec-
i e iewpoin . As desc ibed abo e, he needs-based accoun s o well-being ha e
been p e iously applied o human well-being (Doyal and Gough, 1984; Max-Nee ,
1991; Rice, 2013; Gough, 2015, 2017), animal well-being (e.g., B oom, 1991;
Ba ussek, 1999; Singe , 2002; Nussbaum, 2006) and he well-being o popula-
ions and ecosys ems (e.g., Schlosbe g, 2007; Ko e mäki, 2017). Ye , he o e all
di e si y and numbe o di e en needs o a ious li e o ms p e en s he in eg a-
ion o hose iews easily in o a singula calculus o well-being—o a leas ende s
he possible esul s ha dly applicable in p ac ice. The e o e, ins ead o ocusing on
needs hemsel es, we p opose a ocus on he sys ems and p ocesses ha a e neces-
sa y o he sa is ac ion o he needs o di e se li e o ms on Ea h. The ocus on
li e-suppo ing sys ems and p ocesses enables he in eg a ion o human and nonhu-
man well-being in o a single amewo k.
A sys ems-o ien ed app oach (Bunge, 2003, 2004) allows concep ualizing
well-beinga agene alle el(seeTable1.1).Weu ilize hisapp oach ode ine
plane a y well-being in a way ha links well-being ac oss le els o biological
hie a chies, om o ganisms (including humans) and popula ions and lineages o
ecosys ems— hese all can be conside ed as sys ems—and o Ea h sys em and eco-
sys em p ocesses. In gene al, li e on Ea h can be unde s ood as a se o in e linked,
in e dependen sys ems, and well-being a any le el as he in eg i y o ha pa icu-
la sys em (be i an indi idual o ganism, popula ion, o ecosys em). C ucially, he
unc ional in eg i y o any sys em (i.e., i s well-being) is dependen on he sa is ac-
iono i sneeds.Needsa is ie sa eusuallyp oduc so ,o comp ise,in e ac ions
be ween o he sys ems. In o he wo ds, he well-being o any pa icula sys em
depends on inpu s p o ided by o he sys ems.
14 Teea Ko e mäki e al.
The concep ualiza ion o well-being as he unc ional in eg i y o a sys em
could, in p inciple, be applied also o human a e ac s (like mo o s), o o socially
cons uc ed sys ems (like economic sys ems). Howe e , as we do no conside such
en i ies o sys ems o ha e mo al conside abili y ( alue o hei own ha does no
depend on hei alue o humans), he well-being o a e ac s and socially con-
s uc ed sys ems alls ou side he scope o his manusc ip .
The conside a ion o li e on Ea h as comp ised o in e linked and in e ac ing
sys ems di ec s a en ion o how he needs and well-being o di e en species and
ecosys ems a e connec ed. Fo example, he needs o o ganisms ha e e ol ed
o e hei e olu iona y his o y in he con ex o he ecosys ems hey inhabi . All
o ganisms pa icipa e in many in e ac ions. Some o he in e ac ions a e c i ical
o hei well-being (such as eeding), while o he s may be de imen al and e en
le hal o hem (like being ed upon), ye c i ical o he well-being o some o he
o ganism(s). In e ac ions ake place in ecosys ems ha in u n a e dependen on he
unc ioning o o he , la ge -scale p ocesses (such as clima ic p ocesses ha a ec
empe a u es and ain all). Ecosys ems u he in e ac wi h o he ecosys ems; he
examples o eleconnec ions be ween ecosys ems include p ecipi a ion in e es-
ial a eas, which in la ge pa depends on e apo anspi a ion in dis an o es ed
a eas ( an de En e al., 2010) and anspo o ene gy and nu ien s om ma ine
o e es ialecosys emsbymig a o y ish(Cede holme al., 1999).
Wede ineplane a ywell-beingasas a einwhich hein eg i yo Ea hsys em
and ecosys em p ocesses emains unimpai ed o a deg ee ha lineages can pe sis
o he u u e as pa s o ecosys ems, and o ganisms (including humans) can ealize
hei ypical cha ac e is ics and capaci ies (see Table 1.2). Plane a y well-being
pu s he emphasis on he in eg i y o Ea h sys em p ocesses (such as he global
clima e and biogeochemical cycles o elemen s) and ecosys em-le el p ocesses
TABLE 1.1 The gene ic sys ems-o ien ed concep ual amewo k o well-being
Sys em A sys em is an en i y ha is comp ised o i s componen s, ha can
be impac ed by he en i onmen , has cha ac e is ic ela ions and
in e ac ionsbe weeni scomponen s,andhassys em-speci ic
cha ac e is ics and capaci ies ha s em om he sys em p ocesses.
C i ical sys em Sys em p ocesses a e ecu ing in e ac ions be ween sys em
p ocesses componen s. In e ac ions equi e inpu s o unc ion. C i ical sys em
p ocesses a e hose wi hou which he sys em canno con inue
i sexis enceand ealizei ssys em-speci iccha ac e is icsand
capaci ies.
Needs and need Needsa econdi ionso dependenceoninpu s(needsa is ie s).Needs
sa is ie s mus besa is ied o  hec i icalsys emp ocesses o unc ion.
Well-being Well-being is he unc ional in eg i y o he sys em, o in o he wo ds,
he in eg i y o he c i ical sys em p ocesses, ha allows he sys em
ocon inuei sexis enceand ealizei ssys em-speci iccha ac e is ics
and capaci ies.
Plane a y well-being 15
(such as succession and pollina ion) ins ead o o ganismal well-being, because a
heo ganismalle elli eis i ewi hcon lic ssuchasp eda o –p ey ela ions,and
consequen ly no all o ganisms can “be well” all he ime. Dea h and senescence
a e also no mal li e p ocesses al hough hey may demons a e he lack o o ganis-
mal well-being. Howe e , he in eg i y o Ea h sys em and ecosys em p ocesses is
undamen al o he su i al and e olu iona y po en ial o species and lineages—
and o he exis ence and well-being o o ganisms and ecosys ems hey inhabi . We
in end plane a y well-being as a concep o p omo e espec ul ways o cohabi ing
Ea h wi h all o ms o li e so ha bo h humans and nonhumans can achie e well-
being in all pa s o he wo ld.
By he in eg i y o Ea h sys em and ecosys em p ocesses, we e e o he
in eg i yo  hose lowso ene gyandma e onEa handbio icin e ac ionsin
ecosys ems ha a e c i ical o he sa is ac ion o he needs o a ious o ganisms,
popula ions, and communi ies.4 These p ocesses a e mani old, and while he e is a
easonable unde s anding abou se e al impo an p ocesses, such as nu ien cycles
o pollina ion, i would be oolha dy o assume ha all impo an p ocesses a e
known inside ou . Fo example, he ozone laye deple ion ollowing he emission
o chlo o luo oca bonscameasasu p ise o hescien i iccommuni y(Rowland,
2006).Thus,allac ions ha signi ican lyimpac  he lowso ene gyandma e a e
a se ious conce n o plane a y well-being, be i by esou ce use such as he human
app op ia ion o 38% o he ne p ima y p oduc ion on Ea h (Running, 2012), o
by he elease o nu ien s, g eenhouse gases, o o he chemicals wi h possibly
TABLE 1.2 Key concep s o plane a y well-being
O ganismal (human and O ganismal well-being is a s a e whe e an o ganism can
nonhuman) well-being ealize i s ypical cha ac e is ics and capaci ies.
O ganismal needs and need O ganismal needs a e condi ions o dependence on inpu s
sa is ie s (needsa is ie s).Needsmus besa is ied o ano ganism
o ealize i s ypical cha ac e is ics and capaci ies. Needs
depend on he e olu iona y his o y o he lineage an
o ganism belongs o.
Lineages, species, A g oup o o ganisms wi h a sha ed gene ic ances y ha is
popula ions dis inc om o he such g oups cons i u es a lineage. Fo
sexually ep oducing o ganisms, species and popula ions
cons i u e lineages a global and local scales, espec i ely.
Ecosys ems Ecosys ems a e communi ies o o ganisms ha in e ac wi h
each o he and he abio ic en i onmen .
Ea h sys em and ecosys em P ocesses ela ing o he lowso ene gyandma e on
p ocesses Ea h and o bio ic in e ac ions in ecosys ems.
Plane a y well-being Plane a y well-being is a s a e in which he in eg i y o Ea h
sys em and ecosys em p ocesses emains unimpai ed o
a deg ee ha lineages can pe sis o he u u e as pa s o
ecosys ems, and o ganisms (human and nonhuman) can
ealize hei ypical cha ac e is ics and capaci ies.

16 Teea Ko e mäki e al.
unknown e ec s. Simila ly, excessi e in e e ence wi h na u al ecosys ems (by, o
example, he des uc ion o na u al habi a s o o e ha es ing o na u al popula-
ions) is likely o ha m plane a y well-being by impac ing he in eg i y o c ucial
p ocesses.
While we (as he esea ch communi y) ha e an incomple e unde s anding o
speci icp ocesses,wealsoha elimi edknowledgeabou in e ac ionsbe weenand
among he Ea h’s geophysical sys ems, ecosys ems, and human-c ea ed sys ems
(e.g., Reid e al., 2010; Liu e al., 2015, 2018). Many o hese in e ac ions a e likely
o magni y each o he : The isks o causing i e e sible changes o he Ea h sys-
em a e highe in s udies ha conside in e ac ions be ween sys ems o p ocesses
(e.g., Lade e al., 2019). Gi en ha he e a e p o ound unce ain ies ega ding he
consequences o human in e e ence wi h he Ea h sys em and ecosys em p o-
cesses, abs inence om po en ial ha m e en in he absence o he p oo o ha m—
he p ecau iona y p inciple (e.g., Came on and Aboucha , 1991)—is o en a sa e
s a egy o a oid wo sening global en i onmen al p oblems.
Thede ini iono plane a ywell-beingunde sco es hepe sis enceo lineages
(e.g., species and popula ions) as pa s o ecosys ems o bo h ins umen al and
no ma i e easons. As discussed abo e, he p ocesses con ibu ing o he sa is ac-
ion o he needs o a ious li ing sys ems a e no ully unde s ood. Howe e ,
i is possible o moni o he s a us o popula ions and species, and his gi es a
good indica ion o whe he he needs o lineages and o ganisms wi hin hem can
beadequa elysa is ied.Fo example,i popula ionsizesshowunusualpe sis en 
declines, his usually indica es a ailu e o some c i ical p ocess(es) ela ing o need
sa is ac ion (o also indi idual o ganisms). The iabili y o species and popula ions
hus indica es he in eg i y o he c i ical, bu some imes in ac able, p ocesses ha
unde pin well-being a all le els.
As a non-an h opocen ic and sys emic concep , plane a y well-being aligns wi h
iews ha conside he su i al o lineages o be an end in i sel (Rols on, 1985). The
p esen human exploi a ion o and in e e ence wi h ecosys ems ha m as numbe s
o o he species and popula ions, wi h he es ima ed numbe o species conside ed o
be a isk o ex inc ion being up o 1 million (IPBES, 2019). Howe e , humans also
ha eneeds ha ha e obesa is ied o humanwell-being.Thesa is ac iono someo 
hese needs—like he need o adequa e nu i ion—is p ac ically impossible wi hou
some in e e ence wi h ecosys ems and, consequen ly, lineages. F om he plane a y
well-being poin o iew, he le el o human in e e ence wi h ecosys ems mus no
comp omise he abili y o o he species and lineages o pe sis in hese ecosys ems
o he u u e (i.e., i mus no pu hem a he isk o ex inc ion). The impo ance o
lineageshassigni ican impac son heconside a iono , o example, heimpac so 
human-managed ood sys em ac i i ies. Achie ing plane a y well-being necessi a es
ha humanbasicneedsa esa is iedinaway ha doesno comp omise hecapaci y
o nonhuman en i ies o achie e well-being. An impo an s ep in his di ec ion is o
p io i ize he sa is ac ion o basic human needs o e he sa is ac ion o desi es and
wan s ha ha e a nega i e impac on nonhuman na u e.
Plane a y well-being 17
Pu ing he concep o use
Plane a y well-being is no pu po ed o simply eplace he exis ing concep s, many
o which a e aluable in hei pa icula domains o applica ion. Howe e , by in e-
g a ing he sys emic, p ocess-o ien ed iew and he concep o well-being wi h he
needed e hical ans o ma ion away om an h opocen ism, plane a y well-being
p o ides a ui ul analy ical and discu si e lens o many domains o add essing—
hinking abou , esea ching, and ac ing upon— he ecological c isis. In academia,
i has he po en ial o ad ance esea ch on ans o ma ional changes (sus ainabili y
ansi ion) and ad ance sus ainabili y sciences by encou aging he non-an h opo-
cen ic aming o u u e esea ch ques ions (c ., Ka es e al., 2001). Ou side aca-
demia, he no ion o plane a y well-being con ibu es o discussing and ac ing upon
he ecological c isis a se e al le els: In add essing he ade-o s be ween di e -
en needs and desi es, in se ing a ge s and measu es o decision-making, and in
b idgingdi e gen wo ld iews.We e lec upon hesenex inmo ede ail.
Reconciling human needs wi h plane a y well-being
Theideao needsandneedsa is ie sisin eg al o heconcep o plane a ywell-
being. While he sa is ac ion o needs is necessa y o he well-being o any sys-
em, he ela ionshipbe ween heneedsandneedsa is ie siscon ingen :Needs
cano enbesa is iedin a iousways.Wheni comes osecu ing hesa is ac ion
o he needs o nonhuman na u e, he human ac ion mainly conce ns sa egua d-
ing o no ha ming he Ea h sys em and ecosys em p ocesses as a as possible.
Ac i e measu es a e o en unnecessa y; he well-being o “wild” nonhuman na u e
is o en bes se ed by “decons uc ing he impedimen s o na u e’s own capabili-
ies [o capaci ies] o ully and con inually unc ion” (Schlosbe g, 2007, p. 150).
Domes ica ed animals and ecosys ems (ga dens, o example) on he o he hand
depend on human p o ision o hei con inued exis ence. While we do no discuss
he s a us o domes ica ed na u e ( ha aises dis inc no ma i e ques ions) he e,
we no e ha many domes ica ed animals a e no able o ealize hei cha ac e is ics
andcapaci ies,andecosys emmodi ica ion(e.g., building a ga den) may in e e e
wi h ecosys em p ocesses ha a e c i ical o he sa is ac ion o he needs o wild
nonhuman na u e.
Wheni comes o hesa is ac iono humanneeds,i isnecessa y o e lec upon
wha he quali y o li e—as associa ed wi h well-being—en ails, especially ega d-
ing he consump ion o ma e ial goods (IPBES, 2019). Humans a e complex social
beingsanddi e en scien i ic ieldsp o ide di e en accoun so human well-
being wi h a ying emphasis. Howe e , when he ques ion is how socie ies can
o ganize and ope a e in ways ha bes suppo human well-being, i is necessa y o
app oach well-being in a way ha is ins i u ionally applicable and meaning ul o
go e nance and policymaking. This di ec s a en ion o he needs-based, nonsub-
jec i e concep ions o human well-being. They a e g ounded on he assump ion
ha all humans, like all o ganisms, ha e ce ain uni e sal basic needs ha ha e
18 Teea Ko e mäki e al.
obesa is iedino de  oa oidha mandha eagoodli eincluding heabili y o
ac ully in li e: The sa is ac ion o needs is a necessa y ( hough no necessa ily
su icien )condi ion o well-being.Al hough hea icula iono  heneeds a ies
be ween di e en au ho s (e.g., Doyal and Gough, 1984; Max-Nee , 1991; Rice,
2013; Gough, 2017) and some accoun s emphasize he capabili ies o achie e a i-
ous unc ionings ha con ibu e o needs sa is ac ion o e he ac ual ou come o
needs sa is ac ion (Nussbaum and Sen, 1993; Nussbaum, 2011), hey all ha e as
key elemen s he need o physical and men al heal h, o ela ionships, and o
au onomy in ac ion and hough . Sa is ac ion o hese key elemen s may equi e,
o example, adequa e nu i ion, sa e y, and a leas some kind o heal h ca e and
educa ion. When app oached om a human pe spec i e, plane a y well-being is a
s a e in which he o ganiza ion o human sys ems simul aneously allows human
needs o be me , and he impac on Ea h and ecosys em p ocesses is limi ed so ha
lineages can pe sis o he u u e as pa s o ecosys ems and o ganisms can ealize
hei ypical cha ac e is ics and capaci ies.
Needs-based app oaches o human well-being ha e se e al ea u es ha a e el-
e an o discussions abou sus ainabili y (Gough, 2017). Fi s , many human needs
a eobjec i e:Rega dlesso subjec i eexpe iences,i isempi ically e i iable ha ,
o example, malnou ishmen o he lack o ca ing ela ionships causes se ious
ha m o indi iduals ( his is no o deny ha needs a e s ill subjec i ely in e p e ed
a he indi idual le el). Second, human needs a e plu al: They include ma e ial,
social, and psychological aspec s. Thi d, human needs a e non-subs i u able: I is
no possible o sa is y, o example, a need o heal hy nu i ion wi h mo e edu-
ca ion. Fou h, human needs a e in p inciple sa iable: I is possible o iden i y a
le elo needssa is ac ion ha wouldsu ice o adequa ewell-being.Howe e ,
in consume is socie ies, being able o “li e wi hou shame” equi es a le el o
consump ion ha ma ches—o exceeds— he consump ion o o he s, which d i es
e e -inc easing consump ion. Ye , a he socie al le el, his does no lead o inc eas-
ing social well-being bu o agmen a ion and anomie (Jackson, 2017, p. 124).
Fi h, needs a e subs an ially uni e sal and apply o people in di e en places and
a di e en imes al hough he ways o sa is ying hem a y in di e en imes and
cul u es: E en he objec i e and uni e sal needs a e no “absolu e” bu in ol e
ela i e,con ex -speci icaspec s.Thep ecisele elwhe eaneedissa is iedmay
a y ac oss indi iduals and con ex s (conside he di e en ia ed needs o nu i-
ion o , o example, belongingness); and some space o choice o needs sa is ac-
ion and ac ual doings in one’s indi idual li e a e equi ed o eedom (Nussbaum
and Sen, 1993). The concep ion o uni e sal needs and a e age equi emen s o
hei sa is ac ion a indi idual le el, ne e heless, p o ides a use ul ool o guid-
ing and e alua ing socie al ac i i ies in di ec ions ha suppo human well-being.
This gi es a ounda ion o conside ing he well-being o bo h p esen and u u e
gene a ions in such a enas.
Theideao sa iablehumanneedsmeans ha good, ul illing,anddigni iedli e
canbeachie edwi hlimi edconsump ionsu icien  omee  hema e ialneeds,
Plane a y well-being 19
oge he  wi h he sa is ac ion o  non-ma e ial needs like signi ican  p ima y
ela ionships, leisu e, and social pa icipa ion (Max-Nee , 1991; Gough, 2017).
Acknowledged, he le els o subjec i ely expe ienced well-being in such scena ios
o educed ma e ial consump ion a e no well known al hough simila changes
ha e his o ically occu ed in socie ies, especially du ing he pos -wa pe iods. Sug-
ges ions o achie ingwell-beingwi hsigni ican lylesse ma e ialconsump ion,
howe e ,a edi icul .Theya eins a kcon as wi hconsume is andma e ialis ic
socie ies, whe e e e -inc easing p oduc ion and consump ion uel he dynamics o
he economy, whe e well-being is unde s ood as he ealiza ion o insa iable human
p e e ences, and whe e he good li e is unde s ood as he ising ma e ial s anda d
o li ing. Plane a y well-being does no equi e he educ ion o well-being bu
calls o educing he consump ion o ma e ial goods ha a e no ele an o human
needs o ha di ec ly ha m well-being. Global and egional equali y conside a ions
necessi a e a ocus on he sa is ac ion o bo h ma e ial and non-ma e ial needs o
all, ins ead o inc eased (assumed) well-being o he al eady p i ileged. The e a e
success ul examples o pa icipa o y well-being wo kshops ha u ilize he needs-
based app oach o human well-being and help communi ies c i ically discuss wha
is needed o well-being, wha is no , and wha a e he obs acles o achie ing well-
being in ecologically less ha m ul ways in he socie ies (e.g., Guillen-Royo, Gua -
diola and Ga cia-Que o, 2017). We sugges ha plane a y well-being could be pu
in o use in ci izen delibe a ion and policy-making a enas in simila ways, which
would p oduce he bene i  o  expanding he well-being conside a ions beyond
humans.
I isalsoimpo an  ono e ha humanma e ialneedscanbesa is iedinmany
ways(bydi e en needsa is ie s),wi hsigni ican lydi e ingimpac sonplan-
e a y well-being. This di ec s a en ion o he p ocesses o p oduc ion. One ele an
example ha has ecei ed much esea ch a en ion is he human need o p o ein,
whichcanbesa is iedin a iousways ha di e in hei impac sonplane a y
well-being.When he ea emul iplewayso  ul illinghumanneeds, hosewi h
heleas ha m ulimpac sonplane a ywell-beingand hemos bene icialimpac s
on needs sa is ac ion globally, be ween and wi hin human communi ies, should
be p io i ized o mo e owa ds plane a y well-being. Simul aneously, i should be
kep inmind ha  hebes needsa is ie smaybedi e en indi e en loca ionsand
socie iesandshouldhence emainopen ocommuni y-le el e lec ionsandsome
le el o indi idual eedom o choice (c ., Nussbaum and Sen, 1993) because o
he impo ance o au onomy o human well-being. Unde s anding and p opping
up he ac o s ha p omo e p o-en i onmen al beha iou (including lowe ma e-
ial consump ion) a indi idual le els is also c ucial. Rela ed beha iou pa e ns
a ein luencedby, o example,ins i u ional,economic,social,emo ional,mo i a-
ional, alue, a i ude, and awa eness ac o s (Kollmuss and Agyeman, 2002). The
mul iscala iew o p ocesses calls o a ending o he dynamics be ween di e en
le els, such as he impac o global p ocesses on he needs sa is ac ion, and p e e -
ences wi hin di e en communi ies, om he iewpoin o plane a y well-being.
In oduc ion
Plane a ywell-beingisde inedas“as a einwhich hein eg i yo Ea hsys em
and ecosys em p ocesses emains unimpai ed o a deg ee ha lineages can pe -
sis o he u u e as pa s o ecosys ems, and o ganisms (including humans) can
ealize hei ypical cha ac e is ics and capaci ies” (Ko e mäki e al., 2021, p. 4).
This “s a e” is a dynamic a he han a s a ic condi ion: Plane a y well-being may
inc easeanddecline,andhumanac i i iesin luencei g ea ly.Unde s anding hese
dynamics necessi a es g ounding he on ology and e hics o plane a y well-being.
In his chap e , we examine how he concep ualiza ion o plane a y well-being is
g ounded and posi ioned in he b oade heo e ical landscape, bo h in on ological
ande hical e ms.Wealso e lec upon heo e allconcep ualunde pinningso 
plane a y well-being and i s implica ions o he di e en well-being ames ha
a e used o guiding socie al de elopmen and policy-making, hoping o encou -
age u he esea ch. I should be no ed ha we limi ou no ma i e easoning o
human ac i i ies: Al hough la ge-scale na u al e en s migh also a ec plane a y
well-being by dis up ing la ge-scale p ocesses, only humans a e mo ally esponsi-
ble o hei ac i i ies’ impac s on plane a y well-being.
On ology behind plane a y well-being: Sys ems and p ocesses
On ologically, plane a y well-being akes a sys ems- and p ocess-o ien ed
app oach. Plane a y well-being commi s o he Bungean ype o sys emism (see
e.g., Bunge, 2000) whe e e e y “ hing” is a sys em o a componen o one (Ko e -
mäki e al., 2021). On ologically speaking, a sys em is an en i y ha consis s o
in e ac ing componen s and has s uc u es and p ocesses ha a e cha ac e is ic o
2
PLANETARY WELL-BEING
On ology and e hics
Teea Ko e mäki, Mikael Puu inen, Miikka Salo,
Gonzalo Co és-Capano, Sanna Ka kuleh o and
JanneS. Ko iaho
DOI: 10.4324/9781003334002-4

Plane a y well-being: On ology and e hics 27
he gi en kind o sys em. All sys ems a e si ua ed in a con ex (en i onmen ) whe e
hey in e ac wi h o he sys ems.
Mos sys ems a e ma e ial and independen o human and nonhuman minds.1
Communica ion sys ems as well as human-made complex sys ems, such as
schools, inancialsys ems,andp ese ablesemio icandsymbolicsys ems( ex s
and images), may be pa ially imma e ial bu hei imma e ial pa s ha e causal
e ec s only h ough cogni ion and ac ion, i.e., h ough he ma e ial neu al sys em
(Elde -Vass, 2010a). Fo example, money does no hing unless humans belie e i
does and ag ee wi h (and ac upon) he ules de e mining wha money can do.
Sys ems ha e bo h agg ega i e and eme gen p ope ies. Agg ega i e p ope ies
esul om he simple addi ion o he p ope ies o he pa s. A classic example
o an agg ega i e p ope y is mass (ibid.). Eme gen p ope ies a e hose no el
p ope ies ha eme ge pa icula ly due o he o de ing and in e ac ion o he com-
ponen s in a sys em (Bunge, 2000). Eme gen p ope ies a e hose ha make he
sys em “g ea e han he sum o i s pa s”: I s componen s do no ha e such p op-
e ies in hemsel es, no in agg ega e. Ce ain eme gen p ope ies, such as he
abili y o sys ems o ep oduce and p ese e hemsel es, and sen ience, also add o
he p ope ies o a sys em in a way ha is ele an o mo al conside a ions (see he
sec ion on e hical unde pinnings).
Eme gen p ope iescons i u e hebasis o a iewo  hes a i iedna u eo 
eali y. Va ious phenomena ha e physical, chemical, biological, psychological, and
socialle els.Va iousscien i icdisciplinesha ealsospecializedin he esea ch
o aspeci icle elo  eali y.Whilescien i icac i i iesmayo enbemos  ui ul
when a le el is s udied wi h he concep s, heo ies, and me hods de eloped o
ha pa icula le el, i is also possible and some imes aluable o combine ools
o apply hem a di e en le els. Fo example, psychological le el phenomena can
be iewed h ough psychology bu also app oached wi h he ools o neu obiology
(a lowe le el), o wi h social psychology and sociology (a highe le el). Phenom-
ena in complex sys ems, such as socie ies, can only be explained comp ehensi ely
by s udying hem wi h mul i- and in e disciplina y app oaches.
In he plane a y well-being amewo k, he well-being o a sys em is unde -
s ood in a nonsubjec i e way, as he unc ional in eg i y o ha sys em. Well-being
means mee ing he needs con eyed h ough c i ical p ocesses a he biological,
men al, and social le els. This unde s anding is in line wi h he abo e-desc ibed
sys ems- and p ocess-o ien ed app oach whe e also non-conscious en i ies can gain
o lose well-being. In he case o conscious en i ies such as sen ien animals ( hose
who can eel pain and su e ), consciousness does no always cap u e all c i ical
p ocesses. Also, some subjec s wi h ich imagina ion and endencies o compa ison
(many human beings) may conside some non-c i ical p ocesses has ily as c i i-
cal o hei well-being. Hence, he subjec i e expe ience o well-being—al hough
gene ally a good indica o o , o example, expe ienced human well-being—is no
necessa ily accu a e o a comp ehensi e desc ip ion o he s a e o well-being o an
indi idualin hesenseo  hede ini ion ele an  oplane a ywell-being.
28 Teea Ko e mäki e al.
P ocesses and ela ions
Plane a y well-being is oo ed in he idea ha all li ing sys ems come in o exis ence
(eme ge), de elop, and beha e in ways ha esul om complex se s o causal
ela ions and pa e ns o species associa ion (assemblages/communi ies o species)
(Bani z e al., 2022; DeLanda, 2016). Rela ions and eedbacks be ween in e ac ing
en i ies gene a e eme gen p ope ies: Many ecological p ocesses a e p oduced by
he in e ac ions be ween species (Folke e al., 2016). Fo example, pollina ion as an
ecological p ocess o en eme ges om he ela ions be ween animal pollina o s and
he plan s hey pollina e (see also Chap e 6 o soil p ocesses). These p ocesses a e
mos ly con ingen : I he in e ac ions end, animal pollina ion as an eme gen p o-
cess would cease o exis (DeLanda, 2016). The in eg i y o ecological p ocesses in
u n is i al o he con inui y and well-being o he membe s o he communi ies,
ha is species and o ganisms (Le in e al., 2013).
I is impo an o no e ha in many ela ions be ween he en i ies (e.g., spe-
cies) and he eme gen sys ems hey belong o (e.g., ecosys ems), en i ies main-
ain hei ela i e au onomy and a e no used oge he in o a homogeneous whole
(DeLanda, 2016). Fo example, indi iduals can be connec ed o each o he in many
ways ye also emain as indi iduals in hei communi y. Acknowledging he ela-
i e au onomy o en i ies as pa s-o -wholes implies in some cases eplaceabili y
o unc ional edundancy wi hin p ocesses: A pollina ion p ocess can (a leas in
many cases) con inue e en i he cu en pollina o species is eplaced wi h o he
species, local o exo ic, o obo b ushes, as long as he eplaced en i ies ealize
he same unc ions in he sys em. Howe e , e y a ely does a species ha e only
one ole in an ecosys em. Pollina o s, o example, also in e ac in nume ous o he
assemblages beyond pollina ion such as comp ising a ood sou ce o o he species
in ha sys em. This o e all complexi y o ela ionships means ha p ecau iona y
measu es and p e en i e ac ion should be adop ed o a oid po en ial ha m o he
in eg i y o la ge ecological sys ems, and hence, o plane a y well-being.
Knowledge abou he in e ac ions be ween and among Ea h’s geophysical sys-
ems, ecosys ems, and human-c ea ed sys ems is s ill e y limi ed (e.g., Mas án-
gelo e al., 2019). The on ological basis o plane a y well-being implies he need
o in e disciplina y wo k o make sense o he connec ions be ween di e en p o-
cesses ha comp ise plane a y well-being. This also necessi a es acknowledging
epis emic humili y: We humans will likely ne e be able o know, and hus ake
in o accoun , all ele an ela ions and in e ac ions be ween di e en species. To
a oid oo simplis ic on ological o epis emic assump ions, i is impo an o ec-
ognize he social dimensions o such knowledge, while asse ing he eali y o he
ma e ial dimension o he p oblems (Bhaska e al., 2010).
The on ological posi ion aken in plane a y well-being challenges adi ional
dualisms be ween humans and na u e and he assump ion ha humans’ in e ac-
ions wi h ( he use o ) nonhuman en i ies o ma e ials could be conside ed in isola-
ion om hei ecosys ems and p ocesses. Plane a y well-being emphasizes ha
Plane a y well-being: On ology and e hics 29
humans a e pa o co-e ol ing sys ems and pa icipan s in mul ispecies p ocesses
in na u e, no ex e nal o he es o he na u al wo ld (c ., Be kes and Folke, 1998).
The p ocessual iewpoin in plane a y well-being also highligh s he p esence o
agency h oughou na u e, as li e is in e wined in hese p ocesses in my iad ways:
Humans a e no he ac i e agen using and managing passi e na u e, bu a pa ici-
pan in he webs o ac an s. Howe e , mo al agency— he capaci y o hink o (and
shape) one’s ac ions wi h an e hical pe spec i e—and, hus, also he esponsibili y
oac e hically,isspeci iconly ohumans.As he echnologicalcapaci yo humans
o use nonhuman wo ld and in e e e wi h i s p ocesses has g own, he concep o
mo al agency has also become mo e impo an since human ac ions can ha e such
huge and a - eaching e ec s on plane a y well-being.
No ably, he on ological basis o plane a y well-being desc ibed he e lea es
oom o di e en , mo e de ailed on ological pe cep ions. Fo example, i is pos-
sible o emphasize he di e en le els o complexi y in he exis ence o en i ies.
Mo eo e , ques ions abou how in e -en i y ela ions a e cons i u i e o he en i-
ies engaged in such ela ions, emain open o di e en cha ac e iza ions. This, we
belie e, allows he engagemen wi h plane a y well-being om di e en pe spec-
i es and wo ld iews (see also Chap e s 3 and 8).
The e hical unde pinnings o plane a y well-being
Plane a y well-being is based on ce ain no ma i e p emises, some o which a e
in luencedby heabo e-desc ibedon ology, ha cons i u es hee hicalunde pin-
nings o plane a y well-being. By “unde pinnings”, we emphasize ha such con-
side a ions s ill lea e oom o he di e si y o u he e hical elabo a ions. In ou
ea men ,weadhe e oscien i ic ealismabou  alues.Scien i ic ealism
commi s one o ea ing alues as socially p oduced and his o ically con in-
gen . This does no , howe e , p e en us om easoning abou alues, no om
de eloping c i iques by combining e hical easoning wi h a heo e ical unde -
s anding o he social wo ld and i s possibili ies.
(Elde -Vass, 2010b, p. 33)
Mos impo an ly, plane a y well-being anscends human-p io i izing alue
hie a chies (mo al an h opocen ism) o mo e inclusi e and equal alua ion. The
mo e inclusi e s ance is known as mo al non-an h opocen ism o mo e- han-
human e hics (e.g., Puig de la Bellacasa, 2017; see also Kohle e al., 2019) and
b oadens he sphe e o mo al conside abili y. Mo ally conside able en i ies ha e a
pa icula mo al s a us and mo al (in insic o non-ins umen al) alue ega dless o
hei u ili y o humans. The alue o nonhuman well-being is no de i ed om i s
impo ance o humans (wi hou denying such impo ance): In he plane a y well-
being amewo k, bo h human and nonhuman well-beings a e mo ally wo hy o
hei own sake.
30 Teea Ko e mäki e al.
The basic sphe e o mo al conside abili y in plane a y well-being g ounds
mo al alue in he sel - egula i e and sel - egene a i e capaci y o li ing en i-
ies, ex ending mo al conside abili y beyond humans (Ko e mäki e al., 2021,
p. 3). This is closely connec ed o he unc ional in eg i y, he well-being, o such
en i ies. Unde s ood his way, well-being as a mo ally ele an idea also ex ends
beyond indi iduals. Howe e , since indi iduals’ s i ing o well-being una oid-
ablygene a escon inuouscon lic sbe weeno ganisms,andbecause heo ganisms
a eso as in hei numbe ,i wouldbeex emelydi icul o e enimpossible o
adequa ely cap u e e hical conce n o all well-being by paying a en ion o each
indi idual. Thus, plane a y well-being seeks o ocus on ano he le el o cap u e
he mo al conce n o all well-being in a way ha is meaning ul and applicable
o guiding socie al de elopmen and policy e alua ion. To succeed in his, plan-
e a y well-being akes a dual s andpoin o mo al alua ion: Fi s , i akes lineages
(a g oup o o ganisms wi h a sha ed gene ic ances y) as he key en i ies o mo al
conce n, and second, i emb aces a mul ic i e ial alua ion ha is ele an o
add essing he di e si y in how well-being is mani es ed in di e en li e o ms.
Focusing on lineages (e.g., species and popula ions) is a heo e ically and p ag-
ma ically sa is ac o y way o cap u e he mo al conce n o all nonhuman well-
being. This is o wo easons. Fi s and o emos , lineages as species possess
pa icula ly weigh y alue. Each species mani es s a unique his o ical con inuum
and s o y o e ol ing li e; many lineages ha e exis ed o housands, e en millions
o yea s, and many o hem will con inue o exis a beyond he du a ion o human
communi ies. Howe e , i a species is d i en in o ex inc ion by human ac i i ies,
i is likely los o e e ; he i e e sibili y o he ha m and he piece o his o y los
due o i makes he ha m pa icula ly se e e (Rols on, 1985). Second, p agma ic
easons also a ou he ocus on lineages. The s a us o lineages indica es well he
o e all s a e o a ai s ega ding he possibili y o nonhuman en i ies o sa is y hei
needs and s i e o well-being. Popula ion declines o he inc eased numbe o
endange ed species a e signs ha some c i ical p ocesses a e ailing and comp o-
mising plane a y well-being (see Chap e 14).
Ano he e hically ocal acknowledgemen in plane a y well-being, al eady high-
ligh ed, is ha bo h human and nonhuman well-being a e aluable o hei own
sake.Thewell-beingo  a ioushumansandnonhumans equi essu icien in eg-
i y o Ea h sys em and ecosys em p ocesses (sha ed p econdi ions o all well-
being)bu also hesa is ac iono species-speci icneeds.Thisimplies ha plane a y
well-being is inclusi e o mul ic i e ial app oaches o mo al conside abili y whe e
he mo al s a us can be g ounded in se e al c i e ia. The mul ic i e ial app oach
also has he ad an age o being much be e equipped o explain some o he ca e-
ully conside ed e hical in ui ions ha a e illus a ed by he ange o p oblem cases
used o es a ious mo al app oaches. Fo example, single-c i e ion app oaches
ha a ibu e mo al alue only o an en i y’s cha ac e is ic o ha ing a li e would
no explain why we migh ha e special (addi ional) du ies o he indi iduals o
endange ed species (Wa en, 2000, pp. 172–173). The use o mul iple c i e ia also
Plane a y well-being: On ology and e hics 31
helps dis inguish and cla i y why we ha e such di e en du ies o di e en mo ally
conside able en i ies: Ou du ies o ellow human beings a e di e en om ou
du ies o nonhuman indi iduals, le alone he du ies o non-indi idual en i ies such
as species o popula ions.
In mul ic i e ial mo al alua ion, di e en c i e ia cons i u e oge he he o e -
all sphe e o mo al conside abili y, which is comp ised o di e en (o e lapping)
sphe es o mo ally conside able en i ies. Di e en sphe es se di e en demands and
limi a ions o accep able human beha iou , depending on he ea u es o he sys ems.
Sen ience, o example,cons i u esone ea u e-speci icsphe eo mo alconside -
abili y. The well-being o sen ien c ea u es se s some addi ional well-being ela ed
equi emen sbecause sen iencein luences he beha iou alandphysical needso 
hese beings. Many o hose ac i i ies ha a e w ong owa ds sen ien beings (such
as indus ialized mea p oduc ion) would no , o ou cu en knowledge, ha m non-
sen ien beings and would he e o e be w ong only when p ac ised owa ds sen ien
beings. This way, mul ic i e ial alua ion is also compa ible wi h he iew ha we
humanbeingsowesomespecies-speci icdu ies o ellowhumanbeings.
The b oades sphe e o mo al conside abili y includes all en i ies ha can ha e
well-being and ha e sel - egene a i e capaci ies. This b oades sphe e is ele an
o he aming o well-being in con ex s ha aim o guide o e all socie al de elop-
men . Plane a y well-being, hus, means a pa adigma ic change in how well-being
should be amed in such con ex s. The inclusi e no ion o well-being b oadens
he scope o conside a ion when he well-being impac s o socie al de elopmen
a e o be assessed (o when policy planning and implemen a ion aim o imp o e
he o e all well-being o mo e equal well-being). As a non-an h opocen ic no ion,
plane a y well-being equi es ha a socie y-guiding concep ion o well-being is
amed in a way ha conside s nonhuman well-being o i s own sake, no only as a
ac o  ha in luenceshumanwell-being.Thisimplies ha  hepossibili ieso non-
humans o sa is y hei needs, now and in he u u e, mus no be unde mined when
socie ies s i e o inc ease well-being o p omo e de elopmen ha is assumed o
inc ease well-being indi ec ly.
The needs-based unde s anding o well-being also highligh s he uni e sali y o
humanneeds,whichhas ami ica ionson heapp op ia e amingo humanwell-
beinginsocie alcon ex s.Rami ica ionsconce nuni e sali yandinclusi eness.
Rega ding uni e sali y, an objec i e app oach o well-being—a concep ion whe e
well-beingisnei he de inedno usuallymeasu edbysubjec i eexpe iencesbu 
by ex e nal c i e ia—is necessa y o conside ing social con ex s and inequali ies
adequa ely (e.g., Nussbaum, 2011).2 Objec i e app oaches ha e a s ong oo hold
in jus ice and social policy s udies (e.g., Doyal and Gough, 1984; Nussbaum,
2011). P o ec ing he oppo uni y o all humans o sa is y hei needs and s i e
o a good li e is a condi ion o minimum social jus ice (e.g., Nussbaum, 2011).
This condi ion o conside ing all humansisqui edemanding:Theneeds ul ilmen 
o cu en gene a ions should ake he global pe spec i e and mus no comp o-
mise hepossibili yo  u u egene a ions o ul il hei needs(Max-Nee ,1991; he

32 Teea Ko e mäki e al.
Wo ld Commission on En i onmen and De elopmen (WCED), 1987). The needs-
based unde s anding o well-being is he eby also mo e a en i e ( han subjec i e
accoun s) o he si ua ion o disad an aged human communi ies and g oups. I u ges
he p io i iza ion o he sa is ac ion o uni e sal human needs be o e in es ing in
he ul ilmen o desi es ha s em om heinc easeds anda do li inginhigh-
income communi ies and consume is ma ke ing p ocesses (see also Chap e s 9
and 10), e en hough such desi es migh be pe cei ed locally as impo an o sub-
jec i e well-being. O e all, an objec i e app oach o well-being p o ides a angible
se o c i e ia o concep ualizing well-being o socie al de elopmen pu poses in
a mo e sui able and mo ally accep able way han subjec i e app oaches do (e.g.,
Doyal and Gough, 1984; Ko e mäki e al., 2021; Nussbaum, 2011; Rice, 2013).
The objec i e app oaches o well-being also allow he mo al inclusi eness ha
plane a y well-being seeks o p omo e. Some app oaches al eady ex end inclusi e-
ness beyond human well-being and hus p o ide a compa ible pla o m o u -
he heo izing abou he poli ics o plane a y well-being. They ha e add essed
he well-being o nonhuman animals (e.g., B oom, 1991; Nussbaum, 2011), o he
o ganisms, and e en species and ecosys ems (Ko e mäki, 2017; Schlosbe g, 2007;
see also P esco -Allen, 2001). Adop ing he non-an h opocen ic, inclusi e am-
ing o well-being o guide socie al de elopmen makes a big di e ence o he
conside a ion o legi ima e and illegi ima e socie al ac ions, policies, and de elop-
men ajec o ies. I ende s he nonhuman wo ld om a backg ound esou ce and
se icep o ide in oanensembleo ac i e ecipien s,bene icia ies,andsu e e s,
o socie al de elopmen . The ele an communi y a ec ed by socie al de elopmen
and policies always includes he bio ic communi y (D yzek and Picke ing, 2018).
Plane a y well-being and mo al du ies
Assigning a leas some mo al alue o well-being o i s own sake means ha
mo al du ies ela ed o well-being a ise in ela ion o any en i ies ha may gain o
lose well-being. Such du ies, howe e , a e no iden ical owa ds all mo ally consid-
e able en i ies. Nega i e du ies, o du ies o a oid causing ha m, comp ise he co -
ne s one o en i onmen al e hical du ies o nonhuman na u e. Because plane a y
well-being comp ises p ocesses whose unc ioning is he gene al p econdi ion o
he well-being o mo ally conside able en i ies, he p ima y du y o plane a y well-
being would be he nega i e du y o a oid impai ing hose p ocesses. Howe e , he
impai men s al eady caused—and he consequen ha m o nonhuman and human
well-being a all le els—sugges ha posi i e du ies o es o e he p ospec s o
nonhumans os i e o well-beingcanbejus i iablydemanded.Wesee hiskind
o posi i e du y, o a du y o ac i ely p omo e good, as c ucial. The mo al obliga-
ion o aim a es o ing he impai ed Ea h and ecosys em p ocesses is an impo an
e hical implica ion o he idea o plane a y well-being.
May posi i e du ies also imply du ies o ad ance plane a y well-being e en
in si ua ions whe e he impai men is no human-o igina ed? The quick answe
Plane a y well-being: On ology and e hics 33
in ui i ely appea s o be “no”: Humans a e unlikely o ha e du ies o compensa e
he impac s o olcanic e up ions o nonhuman species. Howe e , he ac ual
ques ion is mo e complex since i is inc easingly ha d o ell whe he he nega-
i e impac s om “nonhuman ac i i ies” a e exace ba ed by human ac i i ies.
Fo example, olcanic e up ions migh oday induce g ea e ha m o nonhuman
well-being because he human-induced habi a deg ada ion p e en s nonhumans
om mig a ing o new places om a eas damaged by he e up ion. Add essing he
ques ion o posi i e du ies beyond es o a ion goes, in i s complexi y, beyond his
chap e ’s scope. He e i can be no ed ha e en o now, he posi i e du y o es o e
p ocesses ha comp ise plane a y well-being bu ha e been deg aded by human
ac i i iesissosigni ican  ha  akingi se iouslyimplies ans o ma i echanges o
human ac i i ies.
When i comes o du ies o indi iduals, he plane a y well-being amewo k
goes beyond indi idualis ic app oaches in i s aming o mo al conside abili y.
This does no need o ende he well-being o indi iduals unmeaning ul o alue-
less. Bo h indi iduals and en i ies beyond indi iduals, such as species o ecosys-
ems, a e acknowledged o be mo ally conside able. Ye , he du ies o plane a y
well-being mus be imposed on le els highe han he indi idual o make he obli-
ga ions easible. The e hical amewo k ha unde pins plane a y well-being allows
he in eg a ion o a ious app oaches wi h he a ibu ion o mo al conside abili y
(also inhe en alue) in en i onmen al e hics. Ye , he equi emen s se by plane a y
well-being limi he ange o he app oaches ha plane a y well-being emb acing
plu alism can accommoda e. Mo al obliga ions o indi iduals, wha e e hey com-
p ise (depending on he chosen e hical app oach), mus no equi e ac ions ha
would cause socie ies o unde mine plane a y well-being.
Mapping plane a y well-being in en i onmen al e hics
How is he no ma i e co e commi men o plane a y well-being posi ioned wi hin
en i onmen al e hics? Inclusi e app oaches ha g an mo al conside abili y o non-
humans comp ise h ee s ances whe e mo al conside abili y is g ounded in di e -
en a ibu es (e.g., Goodpas e , 1978; Schwei ze , 1969; Taylo , 1981; o a good
summa y, see Wa en, 2000): sen ien ism, biocen ism, and ecocen ism. Sen ien -
ism (e.g., Nussbaum, 2011; Singe , 2002) only conside s sen ien animals. Biocen-
ism g an s mo al conside abili y o indi idual o ganisms ha ac as eleological
sys ems so ha some hing can be good o bad o hem.3 I has also been p oposed
ha biocen ic mo al conside abili y is g ounded in he s a e o being ali e as he
ul ima e goal o good, o which all o he goals a e ins umen al. Ecocen ism, in
u n, emphasizes he s abili y and in eg i y o ecosys ems and/o ecological en i-
ies (such as lineages) mo e b oadly bu essen ially beyond indi iduals who a e
no o p ima y conce n in ecocen ic app oaches (Callico , 1986; Leopold, 1949;
Naess, 2008). The mos -ci ed a icula ion o an ecocen ic iewpoin is Leopold’s
(1949,pp.224‒225)lande hic hesis:“A hingis igh wheni  ends op ese e
34 Teea Ko e mäki e al.
he in eg i y, s abili y, and beau y o he bio ic communi y. I is w ong when i ends
o he wise.”
Ecological dynamics en ail ha indi iduals’ s i ing o well-being c ea es con-
s an con lic s.Thus,e eni anindi idual’swell-beingis aluable o i sownsake,
we align plane a y well-being in he camp o app oaches which posi ha indi idu-
alis non-an h opocen ism canno meaning ully g ound no ma i e guidance o
socie alde elopmen .Despi ewo ks ha a emp  o esol e hesecon lic sindi -
e en ways by, o example, de e mining ce ain simple ules (such as choosing he
ac ion wi h he leas numbe o ha med indi iduals) o p inciples o making p i-
o i iza ions o ce ain goods o be p o ec ed o ha ms o be a oided (e.g., Taylo ,
1981;Wienhues,2017), he eisano e whelmingnumbe o con lic ingdemands.
A emp s o include and na iga e all he claims be ween di e en kinds o indi idu-
als, le alone he claims be ween ecosys em-, species-, and o ganism-le els, ha e
been hea ily c i icized as p one o ail (e.g., C ipps, 2010). We ag ee wi h he c i i-
cism ha c ea ingacon lic -gene a ingapp oachisunlikely osuccess ullyguide
socie alac ion:I isimpo an  o indaway oconside allwell-beingwi hou 
conside ing all possible claims a all le els. Mo e- han-indi idualis ic en i onmen-
al e hics, such as ecocen ism, usually g ound mo al conside abili y in he sel -
egula i e and sel - egene a i e capaci ies o li ing en i ies (e.g. Ko e mäki, 2017;
Rols on, 2002; Schlosbe g, 2007) and plane a y well-being aligns well wi h hem.
The e is also ano he eason why plane a y well-being mus each beyond indi-
idualis ic e hics: The mo al conside abili y o non-indi idual en i ies is no educ-
ible o indi iduals. We ag ee wi h Callico (1986) and Rols on (1985) ha he
loss o a species due o human ac ion is mo ally ep ehensible o i s own sake
and no jus due o he su e ing i causes o indi idual beings. The ex inc ion o
lineages a e excep ionally g a e and mo ally ep ehensible losses because o he
ime ame o e olu iona y his o y ha eaches up o millions o yea s o he pas
and could ha e eached equal pe iods in he u u e wi hou human in e up ion.
Thus, plane a y well-being aligns wi h hose no ma i e iews whe e he su i al o
lineages is an end in i sel (Naess, 1989, 2008; Rols on, 1985). This is a huge issue
since he cu en ly es ima ed numbe o species unde isk o ex inc ion due o
human-o igina ing in e e ence is a ound 1 million (based on a ough bu in o med
ex apola ion, IPBES, 2019).
Amongs he es ablished en i onmen al e hics app oaches, deep ecology is
he mos esemblan o plane a y well-being. Deep ecology is g ounded in a ela-
ionalandholis icapp oachandconside shumanandnonhuman lou ishingas
mo ally aluable o hei own sake. This implies ha “[h]umans ha e no igh
o educe his [nonhuman] ichness and di e si y excep o sa is y i al needs”
(Naess, 1989, p. 29; “ i al needs” emains a ague no ion bu is no es ic ed o
biological su i al needs). Plane a y well-being di e s om deep ecology by pay-
ing mo e a en ion o socio-ecological sys ems, ela ions, and p ocesses. This is
in line wi h socio-ecological sus ainabili y and ans o ma ions esea ch, he eby
p o iding a mo e elabo a e basis o he examina ion o socie al de elopmen and
Plane a y well-being: On ology and e hics 35
o c ea ing non-an h opocen ic amings o sus ainable de elopmen (see Uni ed
Na ions (UN), 2015; WCED, 1987 o he ecen and o iginal amings). Second,
plane a ywell-beinggi esamo ep ocess-o ien edde ini ion o  helimi so pe -
missible ha m by ocusing on p ocess in eg i y. This migh also imply di e ences
be ween deep ecology and plane a y well-being app oaches in he pe missibili y o
someac ionsdeepecologyandplane a ywell-being indmo allype missible,bu 
an examina ion o hem is beyond he scope o his chap e . I mus be, howe e ,
emphasized ha plane a y well-being is mean o complemen , no o eplace social
e hics ha u he guides he p omo ion o equal well-being among humans and he
o ganiza ion o human socie ies.
Since plane a y well-being add esses la ge-scale p ocesses (see sec ion In o-
duc ion in his chap e ), i may become con used wi h he plane a y bounda ies
amewo k ha is also sys emic and p ocess-o ien ed. The plane a y bounda ies
amewo k was in oduced (Rocks öm e al., 2009) as a amewo k o help main-
ain he Holocene, he s able en i onmen al condi ions on Ea h. The essen ial di -
e ence be ween plane a y bounda ies and plane a y well-being is bo h epis emic
and no ma i e. Plane a y bounda ies a e measu able h esholds, he c ossing o
which could lead o i e e sible changes and uns able en i onmen al condi ions,
h ea ening sa e human exis ence. I highligh s he impo ance o a oiding he
c ossing o “ ipping poin s” (and hus s aying wi hin s ic e bounda ies o sa e
ac ion) ha could lead o he ab up changes o collapse o c ucial p ocesses. In
con as , plane a y well-being ocuses on unc ional in eg i y. These h esholds di -
e g ea ly: Conside , analogously, he di e ence be ween a oiding he c ossing o
a human indi idual’s ipping poin (physical o psychological collapse) s. secu -
ing hei unc ional in eg i y (well-being). P o ec ing one’s unc ional in eg i y
equi es mo e han simply a oiding he c ossing o a sa e y bounda y; admi edly,
howe e , he s a e o in eg i y is also uzzy. Mo eo e , plane a y bounda ies a e
de inedwi h e e ence ohumansa e y:The amewo kis husexplici lyan h o-
pocen ic in no ma i e e ms. This also shows in he s a us o biodi e si y loss
a e as jus one o he sa e y bounda ies. In he plane a y bounda ies amewo k,
ex inc ions a e no a conce n pe se bu due o hei impac s on he sa e exis ence
o humans and s abili y o he Holocene. Plane a y well-being se s mo e demand-
ing limi s o pe missible ac i i ies: Inc easing he isk o ex inc ions is a conce n
assuch,andsomedis up ions ha a einsigni ican  o plane a ybounda iescanbe
e ysigni ican  o plane a ywell-being.
Finally, one cen al e hical aspec o plane a y well-being is he shi o a en-
ion om ac ual well-being ou comes o he oppo uni ies o achie e well-being, o
a oidpa alysisin on o una oidablecon lic sbe weenindi idualsin hei  eali-
za ion o well-being. Plane a y well-being ocuses on ac o s ha a e cons i u i e
o he oppo uni y o almos any li ing en i y o achie e well-being. In i s ocus on
he oppo uni ies o achie e well-being, he e hical g ounding o plane a y well-
being esembles hein luen ialcapabili iesapp oach ojus iceandde elopmen 
(Nussbaum, 2011; Nussbaum and Sen, 1993). The capabili ies app oach ocuses on
In oduc ion
Scien i icconcep sandme hodsno onlycha ac e izeandanalyzewo ldsbu also
shape hem. Global sys emic concep s bo n and aised in Wes e n uni e si ies may
appea  obeneu alandunbiasedabs ac ions loa ingabo e hecomplexi yo 
hewo ld,bu  hey e lec  hewo ld iewso  hei make s.Indeed,humanpe cep-
ion,includingscien i icknowledge,issociallyandcul u allyp oduced(La ou 
and Woolga , 1986; Said, 1978) and akes pa in he shaping o eali ies (Law and
U y, 2004).
Plane a y well-being d aws a en ion o he in eg i y o ecosys em and Ea h
sys em p ocesses ha a e i al o he well-being o all o ganisms, species, popula-
ions, lineages, and ecosys ems. The concep add esses he need o an e hically
inclusi e and sys emic concep ualiza ion o well-being ha akes in o accoun he
mul iple dimensions o in e ac ion be ween di e gen en i ies (see Chap e 2). I
also wo ks as a ool o b idging di e en wo ld iews o make he concep glob-
ally applicable (see Ko e mäki e al., 2021). This chap e app oaches he no ion o
plane a y well-being as a dynamic, poli ical p ocess ha de elops h ough ansdis-
ciplina y collabo a ion, which b ings oge he iewpoin s, concep s, and me hods
om bo h na u al and human sciences. We con ibu e o he de elopmen o plan-
e a y well-being by discussing i s c oss-cul u al applicabili y and sugges ing how
o make he concep mo e open o di e ence and, hence, be e able o esona e
wi hpe cep ions ha di e  ommains eamWes e n(scien i ic) hinking.Ou 
sugges ions aim o suppo he goal o p omo ing plane a y well-being h ough
ansdisciplina y and decolonizing esea ch.
One possible way o enhancing he c oss-cul u al each o plane a y well-being
is o open i o di e gen on ologies. By on ologies we mean a ious unde s andings
3
ONTOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES AND THE
PURSUIT OF PLANETARY WELL-BEING
Liia-Ma ia Raippalinna, Pil i Hämeenaho
and Jelena Salmi
DOI: 10.4324/9781003334002-5

On ological di e ences and he pu sui o plane a y well-being 43
o wha exis s, and he cons i u i e ela ions o di e se kinds o beings. On ologies
a e enac ed and pe o med h ough an a ay o p ac ices, including discou ses, sci-
en i icme hods,ande e ydaymundane asks(Gad,JensenandWin he eik,2015);
hus, we s a om he p emise ha p ac ices shape eali ies. Plane a y well-being
is a pa icula kind o p ac ical on ology ha bo h pe cei es and enac s he wo ld as
a ange o ecological p ocesses and ca ego izes all beings as biological species and
mu ually exclusi e biological o ganisms ha a e pa o ecosys ems. While his is
anappealingwayo app ehendingexis encewi hin hescien i icdomain,biological
speciesandecosys emsmayno bemeaning ulo su icien o ganizingca ego ies
in all on ologies. Fu he mo e, no all on ologies a e based on a human–nonhuman
dicho omy o o he Ca esian dicho omies such as cul u e (social)/na u e, ma e-
ial/imma e ial, mind/ma e , and anima e/inanima e. While plane a y well-being,
ai h ul oscien i ic ealismandma e ialism,pe cei esecosys emsasma e ialand
independen o he human mind (Chap e 2), ecosys ems can also be app oached as
dynamic ma e ial-discu si e wholes, which change and de elop h ough p ac ices
such as ecosys em conse a ion p og ams. F om his pe spec i e, he human mind-
body is embedded wi hin he ecosys em and “na u e” mo e gene ally.
Wes e n, Eu ocen ic science ends o iew he wo ld om an “ex e io obse a-
ional poin ” (Ba ad, 2003, p. 828), he eby enac ing a ca ego y o pu e Na u e exis -
ing independen ly o human cogni ion. He e, howe e , we do no seek o ep oduce
he dicho omy o “ he Wes ” and “ he es ”, bu ecognize ha “ he Wes ”, oo, is
on ologically mul iple (Jensen, 2021, p. 100) and ha on ologies in e ac and en an-
gle. In ac , he coming oge he o di e gen on ologies as equals is necessa y o a
common wo ld ha enables plane a y well-being o be ealized. This does no equi e
hei becoming he same; a he , i in ol es espec ing di e ence (Ve an, 2002).
On ologicaldialogues a swi h he ecogni ion ha  hedominan scien i icon ology
is no an objec i e iew coming om a de ached, ex e nal nowhe e.
Theg ea di ideo na u eandcul u eisdeeplyembeddedinscien i ic heo ies
and Wes e n hough da ing back o he age o Enligh enmen and René Desca es,
o all he way o he eme gence o mains eam mono heis ic adi ions in he Middle
Eas (Gin ich,2014).Whilena u eand hema e ialwo ldha ebeen oasigni i-
can ex en excluded om social heo y, he social and he human ha e been co -
espondingly excluded om na u al sciences (Tsing, 2014). We ha e ended up wi h
a sepa a ion o he human and na u al wo lds, as i human cul u e was no pa o
na u e. While some imes ep esen ed as o e lapping and in e ela ed, hey a e s ill
concep ualized as wo dis inc eali ies. Ano he ou come o hese Ca esian dual-
isms is an h opocen ism, which lies a he oo o he cu en en i onmen al and
clima e c ises, since na u e and o he en i ies ha e been alued me ely as esou ces
o human beings o u ilize. The concep o plane a y well-being de ea s no ma i e
an h opocen ism by p io i izing he in insic alue o nonhuman popula ions, spe-
cies, and lineages o e hei ins umen al alue o human p ospe i y (Ko e mäki
e al., 2021). Thus, i pu s humans back o na u e by ende ing Homo sapiens a
species among o he s.
44 Liia-Ma ia Raippalinna e al.
We a gue ha o p omo e and achie e plane a y well-being, we also need o
ecognize ha cul u e is no a sepa a e en i y bu enmeshed wi hin na u e. Ins ead
o aming human p ac ices me ely as a h ea o biological sys ems, i is impo an
oanalyzehow heymaymain ain,enhance,ande enc ea ebiodi e si y(Ma i,
2007, 268; see also P e y e al., 2009) and plane a y well-being. Fo example, he
concep o biocul u al1 di e si y iews biology, cul u e, and language as dialec i-
callyandinex icablyin e wined(F anco,2022;Ma i,2005,2007;Sku nabb-
Kangas, Ma i and Ha mon, 2003).Acco ding o Luisa Ma i (2007, p. 269),
biocul u al di e si y is based on h ee key elemen s. Fi s ly, i ecognizes ha he
di e si y o li e is made up no only o he di e si y o plan s and animal spe-
cies, habi a s, and ecosys ems ound on he plane , bu also o he di e si y o
human cul u es and languages. Secondly, i acknowledges ha hese di e si ies do
no exis in sepa a e and pa allel ealms bu a ec one ano he in complex ways.
Thi dly, i no es ha he links among hese di e si ies ha e de eloped o e ime
h ough mu ual adap a ion be ween humans and he en i onmen a he local le el.
In sum, biocul u al di e si y ealizes ha biological, cul u al, and linguis ic di e -
si y co-occu and mu ually suppo one ano he . They a e also h ea ened by he
same o ces. To main ain he esilience o social-ecological sys ems on he long
un, i is impe a i e o main ain di e si y in all i s o ms (P e y e al., 2009).
Focusing on biocul u al di e si y highligh s cul u al di e ences in he sa is ac-
ion o basic needs, cen al o he no ion o plane a y well-being (Ko e mäki e al.,
2021). Howe e , ins ead o pe cei ing di e ence only in e ms o cul u ally a y-
ing need sa is ac ion, he concep o biocul u al di e si y encou ages sensi i i y
owa ds on ological di e ence and ela ed pe cep ions o needs and well-being:
De e mining wha well-being means equi es openness o di e en on ologies
(Hiems a, Sub amanian and Ve schuu en, 2014). Bu how, hen, could on ologi-
cal mul iplici y be add essed in he de elopmen and implemen a ion o plane a y
well-being?
John Law and John U y (2004) encou age esea che s o ask wha kinds o
eali ies we make wi h ou concep s and me hodologies, and wha kinds o eal-
i ies we would wish o make wi h hem. Taking hese ques ions as ou s a ing
poin , we p opose ha he pu sui o plane a y well-being be gea ed owa ds cul-
i a ing di e gen biocul u al eali ies. This equi es ha on ological di e ence
is app ecia ed by means o “so ening” he ealisms o biology (Law and Joks,
2019, p. 441). We seek he means o do his by d awing on on ological poli ics,
discussed in he ollowing sec ion. A e ha , we p opose some concep ual and
me hodological ools ha open up a space o in e disciplina y and c oss-cul u al
dialogue on plane a y well-being. An h opologis Anna Tsing’s (2017) concep-
ual pai o mul ispecies esu gence and An h opocene p oli e a ion is help ul in
en isioning plane a y well-being om he poin o iew o biocul u al di e si y
g ounded in and eme ging om pa icula landscapes. He app oach o landscapes
as mo e- han-human assemblages enables in es iga ion o how mul iple wo ld-
making p ac ices— anging om hose o plan s and ungi o indus ial landscape
On ological di e ences and he pu sui o plane a y well-being 45
p ojec s,Indigenouscosmology,andscien i icclassi ica ion—come oge he .In
o he wo ds, landscapes a e open-ended and cons an ly changing ga he ings. Thei
li abili y depends on how well he ga he ings succeed in cul i a ing biocul u al
di e si y and well-being. Tsing’s concep ual ools, we a gue, a e hospi able o di -
e en  eali ies,including hescien i icon ologyo plane a ywell-being.
Enac ing eali ies
Wi hin he social sciences and humani ies, he co e concep s o cul u e and socie y
a e subjec s o cons an deba e. The conce n wi h cul u al and social di e ences
eliesonaconcep iono  hewo ldasone,while“cul u e”impliesonlyaspeci ic
kind o pe spec i e on he one wo ld. In o he wo ds, epis emologies (ways o
making sense o he wo ld) a y, bu he e is only one on ology (wha kinds o
hings exis and hei cons i u i e ela ions) (Heywood, 2017). Con en ionally, he
ask o an h opologis s has been o s udy people’s cul u al pe cep ions— ha is,
epis emologies—o he one wo ld. Howe e , he Wes e n no ion o cul u e akes
i s on ological s a us o g an ed as i elies on he dualism o na u e and cul u e
(Blase , 2013, p. 550). The e o e, we need o mo e beyond “cul u es” in hinking
abou di e ence.
Wes e n science ends o ea Indigenous and o he eali ies as cul u al akes on
a single na u al wo ld, he one eali y. Poli ics, hen, comes o be abou nego ia ing
indi idual and collec i e igh s and du ies wi hin he social ealm, a “poli ics o
who” (Mol, 2002, p. 166). Ma isol de la Cadena (2010, p. 360) calls his “poli ics
as usual”, e e ing o “powe dispu es wi hin a singula wo ld.” Bu wha i we
s a om a posi ion ha he common wo ld is no p egi en, ha semio ic and
ma e ialp ac icesdono jus  e lec knowledgeo  heonewo ldbu enac and
pe o m di e se eali ies o on ologies?
A sensibili y known as on ological poli ics assumes ha he making o eal-
i y is open-ended, con es ed, and shaped wi hin mundane p ac ices (Law, 2002;
Mol, 1999). App oached om his pe spec i e, science’s single Na u e loses i s
pu po ed objec i i y, and “mul icul u alism” u ns in o “mul ina u alism” (La ou ,
2011; Lo ime , 2012). Mul iple na u es, howe e , a e no di e en kinds o human
pe spec i es, bu eme ge om embodied en anglemen s o human and nonhuman
agen s including plan s, animals, ma e ials, and echnologies, which make hese
knowledge communi ies mo e- han-human. Fu he mo e, di e ing na u es a e no
s able and mu ually exclusi e o ali ies; a he , di e en kinds o enac men s clash
and collabo a e (Mol, 1999, p. 88). The e o e, i is mo e ui ul o ocus on wo ld-
making p ac ices han on “o de s” ha loca e ac o s wi hin impe meable wo lds
(Gad, Jensen and Win he eik, 2015). Indigenous peoples, o ins ance, do no li e
in closed and pu e “indigenous wo lds.” Thei knowledge and p ac ices canno
be sepa a ed om he la ge wo ld o media, science, and poli ical and economic
sys ems o igno e he impac o (une en) powe ela ions wi hin hese global sys-
ems o locali ies (see, e.g., Has up, 2015; Ko ak, 1999). Fo ins ance, economic
46 Liia-Ma ia Raippalinna e al.
globaliza ion has esul ed in changes in many indigenous con ex s, including ha
o u ning adi ional p ac ices in o comme cial ac i i y (Kopnina 2012, p. 131).
Abandoning monona u alism in a ou o mul ina u alism opens he possibili y
o a ending o he ways in which on ological di e ence is ecognized and handled.
Fo example, in hei analysis o he enac men o he Dea nu Ri e and i s salmon
by he No wegian s a e and Indigenous Sámi people, John Law and Sol eig Joks
(2019, p. 440) a gue ha he o me ends o be in ole an o di e en eali ies.
Al hough he No wegian s a e ecognizes adi ional ecological knowledge in he-
o y, genuine dialogue be ween di e gen eali ies has no been achie ed in p ac ice,
leading o heg adualdisappea anceo Sámi ishingp ac icesand he eali ies ha 
go wi h hem. The “se le ” way o igno ing on ological di e ences is a o m o
colonial poli ics (ibid.). A mo e success ul case o on ological dialogue has been
p esen ed by Helen Ve an (2002) who has s udied how Yolngu Abo iginal land-
owne sanden i onmen alscien is sinAus alia ela e hei  espec i e i e-con ol
s a egies, wo k and p esc ibed bu ning, in wo kshops in ol ing lec u es, semina -
ypediscussions,andp ac icaldemons a ionso  i econ ol.Ve ana gues ha 
a pos colonial knowledge space esul ing om he wo kshops enables he pa ici-
pan s o see how hei s a egies a e bo h he same and p o oundly di e en . The
common wo ld, hen, is no a p egi en solid g ound, bu “a isky and highly dis-
pu able goal ha emains e y a in he u u e” (La ou , 2011, p. 9). Ye , despi e
beingex emelydi icul  oob ain, hecommonwo ldisanexis en ialande hical
impe a i e, which necessi a es co- esea ching and collec i e expe imen s (La ou ,
2011). As Wim Hiems a, Sunee ha M. Sub amanian, and Bas Ve schuu en (2014,
p.24)posi ,“aplu ali yo wayso knowingisbe e able o indwayso  lou ish-
ing wi hin ecological limi s han one mains eam way o knowing on i s own.”
F om he pe spec i e o on ological poli ics, he me hodological choices o
na u al and human scien is s a e no objec i e o innocen . They a e poli ical and
pe o ma i e, aking pa in he shaping o eali ies (Law and U y, 2004). In global
esea ch, i is impo an o unde s and di e gen on ologies and a oid imposing
concep s and ca ego iza ions ha may no be ele an ou side he Wes o which
may e en ep oduce colonialis a i udes and powe s uc u es. An h opology’s his-
o ical complici y in he colonial p ojec (e.g., Asad, 1973; Hymes, 1969) has led
o a heigh ened awa eness o how esea ch p ac ices may ep oduce sys ems o
opp ession.Decolonizingsciencemeansengaginginc i ical e lec iononques-
ions o powe in knowledge p oduc ion, how we each, and how we ame ou
esea ch ques ions and ela e o he people wi h whom we wo k (McG anahan and
Riz i,2016).All hiss a s om ecognizingand e lec ingonone’sownon ologi-
cal p esupposi ions and posi ion wi hin in e sec ing s uc u es o powe —a p e eq-
uisi e o e hical esea ch.
P omo ing plane a y well-being, howe e , equi es bo h unde s anding di e si y
and suppo ing he s uggles needed o sus ain i (see B igh man and Lewis, 2017,
p.22).The igh agains  hee asu eo di e ences,anins an ia iono colonialpoli-
ics, amoun s o “ esis ance agains e i o ial exp op ia ion, agains ins i u ional
On ological di e ences and he pu sui o plane a y well-being 47
disagg ega ion, and agains on ological e osion” (de Almeida, 2017, p. 283). As
schola s, we need o be cognizan o he ac ha ou concep s shape he wo lds
ha hey desc ibe. Choosing and using ce ain me hods, concep s, and (unde lying)
on ologies a e wo ld-making p ac ices, since hey ou line how he wo ld will be
ca ego ized and ep esen ed, and wha will be le ou o he inqui y. In he ollow-
ing sec ion, we p esen some concep ual ools ha assis in app oaching di e gen
wo ld-making p ac ices and cul i a ing a pos colonial sensibili y in s i ing o
plane a y well-being.
Tools o b inging cul u e back o na u e
Reconciling human in e es s wi h nonhuman well-being poses challenges. Fo
ins ance, mos conse a ion and de elopmen p ojec s seek o p ese e ei he
na u e o cul u es (Kopnina, 2012), some hing isible in s uggles o e who
decides he aims and ways o p ese a ion and he oppo uni ies local people ha e
o be in ol ed in hese nego ia ions (see Chap e 8). Na u e p ese a ion plans ha e
been seen as neo-impe ialis since hey ha e some imes igno ed he igh s and/o
ways o li e o local esiden s and Indigenous communi ies in a ou o endange ed
species (Kohle and B ondizio, 2017; Ko ak, 1999). Co espondingly, p io i izing
he social, cul u al, and economic igh s o human communi ies o e biodi e si y
and he igh s o nonhuman species has been c i icized o enac ing eli e-imposed
concep s such as de elopmen and human igh s ha suppo he an h opocen ic
line o hough (Kopnina, 2012, p. 141).
A ocus on biocul u al di e si y helps o econcile hese challenges (Kopnina,
2012; P e y e al.,2009).AsTo eSku nabb-Kangas,LouisaMa i,andDa id
Ha mon (2003, p. 42) ha e s a ed, “ os e ing he heal h and igou o ecosys ems
is one and he same goal as os e ing he heal h and igou o human socie ies,
hei cul u es, and hei languages.” The s udy o biocul u al di e si y also assis s
in add essing ways o p o ec ing na u al places ha ha e endu ed o e gene a ions
and ha alue ce ain si es as sac ed (P e y e al., 2009); hese a e no based on
scien i icon ologiesbu onspi i ualconnec ion o hemo e- han-humanen i on-
men . While Indigenous and local li eways mus no be oman icized, hey p o ide
di e se solu ions o cu en en i onmen al c ises and help o en ision “ adically
al e na i e u u es” (Chap e 8). Focusing on in e ac ions and ela ions ha occu
in di e gen en i onmen s, he concep o biocul u al di e si y enables cul u e2 o
be in eg a ed in o in e disciplina y esea ch o plane a y well-being. Bu how can
he a ious ela ions ha con ibu e o he making o biocul u al di e si y and pa -
icula biocul u al eali ies be app oached? How can his be done in a wo ld whe e
on ologies and locali ies a e a ec ed by and in ol ed in global p ocesses?
Se e al ieldso scienceha esough  oo e come hedi isiono na u eand
cul u e. Among o he s, hese include cul u al geog aphy, wi h he elabo a ion o
he concep o landscape (see Wylie, 2007); pos humanis , eminis , and new ma e-
ialis heo ies ha a end o ib an ma e (e.g., Ba ad, 2003; Benne , 2010); and

48 Liia-Ma ia Raippalinna e al.
philosophies ha see he wo ld as composed o assemblages and ac o -ne wo ks
(e.g., Deleuze and Gua a i, 2004; La ou , 2005). An h opologis Anna Tsing
builds on Deleuzian assemblage heo y o in es iga e mo e- han-human his o ies
o places, en i ies, ela ions, and mul ispecies communi ies on mul iple scales. In
he ollowing, we p esen he app oach and sugges i as a sui able ool o in e dis-
ciplina y in es iga ion o he making and unmaking o biocul u al di e si y—and,
he eby, plane a y well-being.3
Mul ispecies esu gence and An h opocene p oli e a ion
Plane a y well-being s a es ha human ac i i ies a e sus ainable i hey “ e ain he
oppo uni y o all ypes o li ing en i ies on Ea h o sa is y hei needs now and
in he u u e” (Chap e 2). Visioning ue and se ious sus ainabili y, Tsing (2017)
p esen s a simila idea on a local le el, g ounding analysis in landscapes: Dynamic
ga he ings o “assemblages” o mo e- han-human encoun e s (Tsing, 2015,
pp. 22–23). She claims ha human ways o li e wi hin pa icula landscapes a e
uly sus ainable only i hey “align hemsel es wi h he dynamics o mul ispecies
esu gence” (Tsing, 2017, p. 51). He e esu gence e e s o he abili y o mul i-
species communi ies o egene a e a e dis u bances h ough he ac ions o many
o ganisms, including humans. In he long un, he con inui y o human cul u es
also depends on mul ispecies esu gence ha o ms li able landscapes. Tsing uses
he e m “ esu gence” ins ead o “ esilience”, because o i s polysemy and lack
o exac de ini ion.Wi h hisconcep ualchoice,sheaims o acili a eopen-ended
discussion among na u al scien is s, humanis s, and social scien is s (ibid., p. 63).
Tsing’s adical, non-an h opocen ic econcep ualiza ion o sus ainabili y encou -
ages us o en ision wha kinds o wo lds we wan o enac wi h plane a y well-
being. I acili a es he pe cep ion o humans as pa o mul ispecies communi ies
and landscape ga he ings, and cul u al p ac ices as pa o hei egene a i e p o-
cesses. Consequen ly, Tsing’s app oach is use ul o esea ching biocul u al di e -
si y and he mo e- han-human p ac ices and p ocesses inc easing and dec easing i .
To desc ibe he making o li able landscapes, Tsing (2017) u ns owa ds he
ecological modali y o he Holocene, he e a s a ing om he glacial e ea in he
no he n hemisphe e a e he Ice Age. Species ecolonized land eme ging om
he ice h ough he dynamics o succession. Holocene a ming encou aged he e-
enac men o pos -IceAgesuccession,suchas ha o  ieldandwoodlandspecies.
Some pa ches o Holocene esu gence whe e a ming p ac ices ep oduce esu -
gence p ocesses and species assemblages ypical o he Holocene s ill exis . Tsing
(ibid., pp. 56–57) gi es an example om he own esea ch on Japan’s Honshu
Island, whe e adi ional cul i a ion p oduced a biodi e se woodland, he sa oy-
ama o es . The peasan s made in ensi e use o hese o es s by cu ing down ees
o  imbe and i ewood,collec inglea esandhumus o  e ilizing ields,and
ga he ing p oduc s o e e yday needs. Fa ming and subsis ence in illages was
dependen on he su ounding o es s. Meanwhile, human engagemen in he o es
On ological di e ences and he pu sui o plane a y well-being 49
epea ed he pionee ing succession whe e pines ha would ha e died ou wi hou
human dis u bance, smo he ed by b oadlea ees, colonized ba e mine al soil wi h
hei companion species, ma su ake mush ooms. Wi hou illage s cu ing down
b oadlea ees, pines would ha e disappea ed om he o es s oge he wi h he
cul u ally app ecia ed ma su ake. Mul ispecies esu gence o he sa oyama o es
bo h depended on and enabled adi ional a ming as a way o li e. Cu en ly, how-
e e , hese o es s ha e mos ly been eplaced by imbe plan a ions o ans o med
a e being abandoned by peasan s. People ha e mo ed o ci ies and adi ional
a ming p ac ices ha e been eplaced by chemical e ilize s and ossil uels. Wi h-
ou human engagemen , deciduous ees ha e aken o e he o es s wi h species
assemblages ha no longe suppo adi ional a ming; ma su ake is now impo ed
om Eu ope and No h Ame ica (see Tsing, 2015).
P e y e al. (2009) s a e ha many o he d i e s o he loss o biocul u al di e -
si y e ol e om capi alis economies ha s ess economic g ow h. G ow h o ien a-
ion has esul ed in a shi in consump ion pa e ns, he globaliza ion o ma ke s,
and he comme cializa ion o esou ces, pa ing he way o he homogeniza ion o
cul u es and landscapes. Fo ins ance, globaliza ion o he ood sys em leads o loss
o ecological knowledge and locally de eloped skills and p ac ices, and monocul-
u al plan a ions lead o loss o adi ional die s and knowledge o amine oods
(ibid., pp. 104–105). Tsing (2017, pp. 51–52) a gues ha in he An h opocene, mul-
ispecies esu gence has become se e ely h ea ened by ecologies o p oli e a ion:
Simpli ied,human-madeecologies ha a edesigned op oduceasse s o  u u e
in es men s and kill o beings no ecognized as asse s. The An h opocene is cha -
ac e ized by plan a ion ecologies, indus ial echnologies, and la ge-scale go e n-
ance p ojec s, as well as capi alis modes o accumula ion ha d i e majo changes
in landscapes and ea h sys em p ocesses (ibid., p. 53). I s ecological modali y p o-
duces monocul u al p oli e a ion o a ew species, sepa a ing o ganisms om hei
li e wo lds and companion species. Monocul u al plan a ions and ela ed global
ade kill o di e si y and enable he unmanageable p oli e a ion o i uses and
pa hogens (see also Chap e 4). Fo ins ance, indus ializa ion o he nu se y ade
o ash ees led o a dieback o ashes a ound Eu ope in he ea ly 1990s as ading
and shipping young plan s ac oss egions and con inen s allowed he sp ead o a
ungal pa hogen. The dieback o ashes poses a h ea o biocul u al di e si y; in
addi ion oha ingcul u alsigni icance, heashisakeys onespecies,suppo ing
many insec s, lichens, ungi, molluscs, and bi ds (Tsing, 2017, p. 59).
O e coming he ecological c ises equi es an unde s anding o he mo e- han-
human his o ies and sociali ies o he An h opocene ( o examples, see Tsing e al.,
2021) ha a e killing o biocul u al di e si y. Howe e , he e a e s ill pa ches
whe e human p ac ices align hemsel es wi h egene a i e p ocesses ha sus ain
mul ispecies communi ies. Spo ing and lea ning om hose a e pa ches may be
c i ical o sus aining a li able wo ld (Tsing, 2017, p. 62) and achie ing plane a y
well-being. In sum, o p omo e plane a y well-being, we need o be awa e o he
his o ies in which a ious mo e- han-human social ela ions come in o being:
50 Liia-Ma ia Raippalinna e al.
Rela ions o p oli e a ion (des uc i e o plane a y well-being) as well as ela ions
o esu gence (suppo i e o plane a y well-being).
Mo e- han-human assemblages
A ocus on mul ispecies ela ions and communi ies makes Tsing’s concep ualiza-
ion o sus ainabili y well sui ed o en isioning plane a y well-being. Fu he mo e,
and no es ic ed o biological and ecological ela ions, he app oach o he mo e-
han-human o ma ion o landscape assemblages and mul ispecies sociali ies has
po en ial o b idging di e en on ologies. In assemblages, he li eways o o gan-
isms and non-li ing ways o being come oge he and eme ge h ough mu ual
ans o ma ions. They consis o e e y hing ha ga he s in a place: “Assemblages
a ejus  hosewe indassembled”,suchasplan sg owinga oundeacho he ina
pa icula landscape, o plan s and hei symbio ic ungi (Tsing, 2014, pp. 31–32).
Bo h landscape assemblages and en i ies ga he ing in hem ake shape wi hin mo e-
han-human social ela ions ha ans o m o e ime.
In es iga ing wha ga he s pa es he way o no icing unde lying ela ions wi h-
ou making a p io i assump ions abou wha kinds o ela ions o en i ies ma e .
Impo an ly, he in es iga ion does no ha e o be es ic ed o li ing o ganisms.
Assemblages can include bio ic and abio ic, na u al and sup ana u al, ma e ial and
imma e ial, as well as discu si e and p ac ical en i ies, among o he s. Fo example,
ocks, i e s, gods, ances o s, and sac ed places can pa icipa e in he making o
landscapes, and so can ools, echnologies, in as uc u es, go e nance discou ses,
global economies, and so on. The e o e, Tsing´s unde s anding o assemblage is
pa icula lybene icial inb idging di e en on ologies andpe cep ionso  well-
being in he pu sui o plane a y well-being. I a ends o wha ma e s in ac ual
mo e- han-human landscapes whe e biocul u al eali ies a e made.
Assemblages a e con inuously aking shape, bu ca e ul, sensi i e, and c i i-
cal desc ip ion enables he co-eme gence o ga he ed en i ies in a landscape o be
aced and explo ed and opens hei mo e- han-human his o ies o in es iga ion.
Va ious scales and sou ces om Indigenous cosmology and unw i en his o ies
oscien i ic epo sandobse a ioncanbecombinedwhenin es iga ingmo e-
han-human landscapes and hei his o ical ajec o ies, keeping in mind ha di -
e en sou ces ha e di e en me hods o knowing and making he wo ld (Tsing,
2017, p. 62; on Indigenous s o y elling as esea ch, see, e.g., Iseke, 2013). Tsing
(2014) ad ises us o s a by ollowing people in o hei landscape. Lis ening o
human in o man s and pe cei ing and pa icipa ing in hei ac ions o e insigh s
in o he cul u al p ac ices in ol ed in he shaping o landscapes, al hough i is no
human p ac ices as such bu he dynamic ela ions among many species ha c e-
a e he mul ispecies web o social ela ions. In addi ion, landscapes a e he p od-
uc s o mul iple his o ies o a ious scales om mic obial o global. Fo example,
sa oyama o es s eme ge om local in e species ela ions as well as om global
imbe and uel ma ke s (ibid., pp. 35–38). Apa om unde s anding he ma e ial
On ological di e ences and he pu sui o plane a y well-being 51
and semio ic na u e o di e gen ecologies, we need o combine obse a ions in
pa icula mul ispeciescommuni ieswi hb oadhis o iesanddi icul - o- acecon-
nec ions (Tsing, 2017, p. 61).
App oaching (landscape) assemblages and en i ies as p oduc s o mo e- han-
human his o ies enables ansdisciplina y wo k and esea ch ha co e s mul iple
aspec s o complex eali ies.4 Tsing’s assemblage app oach can be used as a ool
o in es iga ing An h opocene p oli e a ion as well as mul ispecies esu gence in
li able landscapes. The e o e, i has he po en ial o p o ide a b idge be ween he
biological ela ions and ecological p ocesses cen al o he no ion o plane a y well-
being, and he mul iple mo e- han-human ela ions ha emain ou side he scope
o he ecological/biological pe spec i e. These include ela ions o spi i s, gods,
and ances o s o which plane a y well-being does no assign any mo al conside a-
ion. Unde aking c oss-disciplina y and mul i-on ological “assemblage s udies”
h ough helenso plane a ywell-beingwouldbene i bo hconcep ualelabo a ion
and p ac ical implica ion o he concep . The app oach allows he combining o di -
e en on ologies and concep ualiza ions o well-being wi hou o cing hem in o a
uni ied amewo k.
While we encou age on ological b idging bo h on he heo e ical plane and in
empi ical esea ch and de elopmen p ojec s, we a e no claiming i o be an easy
ask.Indeed,so ening hescien i ic ealismo plane a ywell-beingwi hassem-
blage hinking poses challenges. Fo ins ance, he assemblage pe spec i e on land-
scapesaseme gen and luidga he ingsunde mines hes abili yo biologicaland
ecological sys ems and p ocesses ha a e cen al o he concep o plane a y well-
being. Seeking syn hesis be ween di e en on ologies is p oblema ic, bu some
p omisinga emp sha ebeenmade.In he ieldo sociology,Timo hyRu zouand
Da e Elde -Vass (2019) ha e sough o combine c i ical ealism wi h assemblage
hinking. The way hey in eg a e c i ical ealis ocus on s uc u e, s abili y, and
causali ywi hassemblage heo is s’in e es inhe e ogenei y, luidi y,andp ocesses
could be use ul in u he concep ual and heo e ical de elopmen o plane a y well-
being. B idging on ologies will ce ainly in ol e (ye un o eseen) p oblems. Ne -
e heless, he aim o e hically inclusi e well-being equi es us o go h ough he
ouble o seeking o b oaden he on ological ounda ions o plane a y well-being.
Conclusions
This chap e has ocused on ecognizing he impo ance o on ological sensi i i y
and concep ual choices o he de elopmen o he concep o plane a y well-being.
Enac ing a wo ld o mu ually exclusi e species, lineages, popula ions, and ecosys-
ems,plane a ywell-beingp oposesap ede ined,singula domaino Na u e(see
Lo ime , 2012) emo ed and abs ac ed om social and cul u al li e, o he “human
mind” (Chap e 2). Howe e , hese ca ego ies a e no uni e sally meaning ul.
Hence,weha esugges ed i s acknowledging ha scien i ic p ac ices shape eali-
ies. Second, we encou age shi ing he concep o plane a y well-being owa ds

Ecosys em deg ada ion dec eases plane a y well-being
P ope ly unc ioning ecosys ems suppo di e se p ocesses ha sus ain li e, anging
om clima e egula ion and oxygen p oduc ion o main aining biodi e si y.
Aheal hyecosys emmaybede inedasasus ainableand esilien sys em ha main-
ains i s unc ion despi e ex e nal s ess (Cos anza and Mageau, 1999). A heal hy
ecosys em p o ides key se ices o i s bio a, and dis u bances o he sys em may
impac he heal h and/o abundance o key membe s o i s assemblage, such ha
hey can no longe pe o m hei ecological oles. In his chap e , we discuss he
cascading e ec s ha ecosys em deg ada ion has on he heal h o wildli e, humans,
and en i e ecosys ems and he consequen h ea o plane a y well-being.
O e exploi a ion o na u al esou ces by humans has esul ed in widesp ead
ecosys em deg ada ion: Mo e han hal o all ecosys ems on Ea h ha e de e io-
a ed because o human ac ions (Mye s, 2017; Song e al., 2018). This deg ada-
ion has nega i ely impac ed a ange o ecological unc ions wi h no able ad e se
consequences o he well-being o wildli e (undomes ica ed animals and plan s
inhabi ing na u al en i onmen s) and humans. En i onmen al change has, o
example, di ec ly inc eased in ec ious disease p e alence in humans and o he
o ganisms by acili a ing he sp ead o in asi e species, disease ec o s (o gan-
isms ha ca y and ansmi pa hogens o o he o ganisms), and pa hogens (Pa -
mesan and Yohe, 2003).
The in e play be ween ecosys em, human, and nonhuman heal h is ecog-
nized by se e al well-es ablished heal h- ela ed concep s, such as Conse a-
ion Medicine (Agui e e al., 2002), EcoHeal h (Cha on, 2012), One Heal h
(Gibbs, 2014), and Plane a y Heal h (Le ne and Be g, 2017). These concep s
all sha e he ecogni ion ha humans sha e he Ea h wi h wildli e and he
4
ECOSYSTEM HEALTH AND
PLANETARY WELL-BEING
Ilze B ila, Anni M. Hämäläinen, Toni Je n o s,
E a R. Kallio, Jenni Kesäniemi, Esa Koskela,
An onLa inienko, Ti any Scholie , Yingying Wang
and Phillip C. Wa s
DOI: 10.4324/9781003334002-7
60 Ilze B ila e al.
need o in e disciplina i y o sa egua d heal h. None heless, hey end o be
an h opocen ic and emphasize he p o ec ion o human heal h, whe eas plan-
e a y well-being aims o iden i y humans as only a pa o ecosys ems and ecog-
nize he needs o nonhuman o ganisms. Simila ly, in ec ious disease esea ch is
biased owa ds pa hogens ha cause illness in humans o in economically impo -
an species such as li es ock. Meanwhile, he po en ially de as a ing e ec s o
pa hogens (o ganisms ha can cause disease by in ading ano he o ganism) in
nonhuman o ganisms gene ally ecei e less a en ion. Wildli e disease esea ch
is la gely di ec ed owa ds ese oi hos s (o ganisms in which pa hogens can
ep oduce and ha se e as a sou ce o in ec ion o o he hos s) o zoono ic pa h-
ogens (in ec ions ha can be ansmi ed be ween humans and o he animals).
Because o his knowledge bias, he pa e ns o disease dynamics a e bes known
o  e eb a esand hei pa hogens( e lec edalsoin hischap e ),bu  hegene al
pa e ns can be expec ed o ex end o o he axa.
In his chap e , we p esen he ole o ecosys em heal h in he well-being o all
o ganisms. We demons a e ha (1) he heal h o ecosys ems is declining wo ld-
wide due o human ac ions, (2) ecosys em deg ada ion has complex ad e se
e ec s on he heal h o humans and nonhuman o ganisms by a ec ing disease
dynamics, (3) plane a y well-being and he heal h o ecosys ems a e in e con-
nec ed. While plane a y well-being is una ainable wi hou sus aining heal hy
ecosys ems, heplane a ywell-beingconcep o e sause ulapp oach o  inding
solu ions o global disease bu den, o example h ough imp o ed ecosys em
managemen .
Disease as a pa o a heal hy ecosys em
All o ganisms ha e e ol ed in con ac wi h a ce ain ecological communi y,
includingbene icialsymbio ico ganismsaswellaspa asi es ha exploi he
hos ’s esou ces, causing loss o heal h o mo ali y. These o ganisms, including
pa hogens, a e impo an o p ope ecosys em unc ion, o example as a means
o na u ally con olling hos popula ion size (Fischho e al., 2020). As such, in
heal hy ecosys ems he well-being o pa asi es is equally impo an as he well-
being o hei hos s, howe e , ecosys em unc ioning can su e om a shi ing
balance o hos -pa asi e associa ions. Pa hogens and hei hos s a e engaged in
an e olu iona y “a ms ace” be ween he hos s’ immune de ences and he di e se
solu ions e ol ed by pa hogens o bypass he hos de ences. Many pa hogens
ha e a highe a e o e olu ion han hei hos , which limi s he capaci y o hos s
o a oid o elimina e pa hogens comple ely. Thus, disease is a na u al ea u e o
ecosys em dynamics, bu he in oduc ion o a no el pa hogen in o an ecosys-
em can ha e unp edic able consequences when he pa hogen is ansmi ed o a
new o sensi i e hos . A hos encoun e ing no el pa hogens may be ulne able
o in ec ion due o he lack o e ol ed de ence mechanisms, possibly leading
o a mo e se e e disease. Fo example, when a la ge p opo ion o a popula ion
Ecosys em heal h and plane a y well-being 61
is simul aneously in poo heal h, he e can be a concomi an decline in hei
unc ion wi hin he ecosys em.
Disease sp ead and disease bu den inc ease due
oan h opogenic impac s
An h opogenic impac s on disease bu den in ecosys ems
Human impac s on ecosys ems, o example, h ough changes in clima e, land use
(e.g., ag icul u e, and g ow h o u ban a eas), pollu ion, and exploi a ion o na u-
al esou ces, ha e caused p o ound and unp edic able changes in he ecology o
pa hogens, hos s, and hos communi ies (Figu e 4.1). Human ac i i ies can impac
he in ec ious disease bu den o nonhuman o ganisms by a ec ing he dis ibu ion
and in e ac ions o hos s and ec o s, and he suscep ibili y o indi iduals and eco-
sys ems o disease. These p ocesses a e ou lined below.
Changes in he dis ibu ion o ec o and hos species
Human ac i i ies and clima e change al e he geog aphic anges o ec o s,
hos s, and pa hogens on local and global scales (Pa mesan and Yohe, 2003),
FIGURE 4.1 Disease dynamics o animals and humans a e al e ed due o an h opogenic
impac s on changes in he dis ibu ions, communi ies, and suscep ibil-
i y o o ganisms o pa hogens. Inc ease in disease isk o wildli e will, in
u n, h ea en human heal h and well-being h ough human–animal– ec o
in e ac ions.Figu ec ea edbyMā isG unskis/@PHOTOGRUNSKIS.
62 Ilze B ila e al.
po en ially impac ing he dis ibu ion and eme gence o many diseases (Cohen
e al., 2020). Changes in he dis ibu ion and abundance o ec o o ese oi
species we e implica ed in nea ly 10% o he 100 la ges zoono ic disease ou -
b eaks in he las 47 yea s (S ephens e al., 2021). Fo example, some ick spe-
cies ha e ex ended hei dis ibu ion in he no he n hemisphe e and hus al e ed
he p e alence and geog aphic dis ibu ion o ick-bo ne diseases (e.g., anaplas-
mosis, babesiosis, Lyme disease, and ick-bo ne encephali is) (Boucha d e al.,
2019). Simila ly, he e a e conce ns ha ce ain mosqui o species o igina ing
om opical and sub opical a eas, such as Aedes albopic us, a ec o o den-
gue i us and Chikungunya i us, may be able o h i e in empe a e egions in
he nea u u e (Caminade, McIn y e and Jones, 2019). Indeed, clima e change
has been implica ed in inc easing human mala ia in ec ions in Sou he n Eu ope
and al e ing he dis ibu ion o a ian mala ia in wild bi ds (Ga amszegi, 2011).
A local scales, animals may also change hei ypical mo emen beha iou s o
escape a deg aded habi a o new compe i o s o p eda o s, concu en ly sp ead-
ing pa hogens o new communi ies.
Al e ed communi y composi ion and ecological
in e ac ions among species
Changes in he species composi ion o a communi y (e.g., h ough biodi e si y
losso sp eado in asi especies),canin luencekeyecologicalin e ac ionsand
hus impac disease dynamics in wildli e communi ies and humans (Keesing e al.,
2010; Keesing and Os eld, 2021). A high-species di e si y is hough o educe
disease isk in a communi y, whe eas he loss o species can inc ease he pa ho-
gen bu den (i.e., he dilu ion e ec hypo hesis; (Keesing and Os eld, 2021)).
La ge mammals (e.g., op ca ni o es) a e mo e ulne able o human impac s
han smalle mammals (e.g., oden s), which o en h i e in human-dis u bed
ecosys ems (Gibb e al., 2020). Ce ain small-bodied and sho -li ed hos species
also suppo pa hogen eplica ion and ansmission excep ionally well, making
hem pa icula ly compe en ese oi hos s (C onin, Rúa and Mi chell, 2014).
Human-dis u bed ecosys ems a e he e o e expec ed o ha e inc eased disease
isk because hey suppo mo e compe en hos s (e.g., small mammals) ela i e
o undis u bed communi ies.
Human ac ions can likewise play a c i ical ole in he dynamics o pa hogens
ca ied by domes ica ed species, wi h po en ially a - eaching consequences o
hos -pa hogen in e ac ions in ecosys ems. Fo example, he acciden al in oduc ion
o canine pa o i us on Isle Royale, USA, led o a majo decline in wol abundance
and consequen ly eleased moose popula ions om p eda ion p essu e (Wilme s
e al., 2006). The in oduc ion o domes ic (and hus e al) ca s o many ecosys ems
is esponsible o nume ous ex inc ions (Dohe y e al., 2017) and o he sp ead o
new pa hogens, such as he p o ozoan Toxoplasma gondii, which causes disease o
Ecosys em heal h and plane a y well-being 63
e en dea h in humans, li es ock, and di e se wildli e (Dubey, 2008). In con as ,
hee adica iono ca leplaguebyhumansled osuchasigni ican inc easeinwil-
debees popula ions in he Se enge i, Tanzania, ha i s ecosys em impac s include
subs an ially educed i es,highe  eedensi y,andinc easedca bons o agein he
a ea (Holdo e al., 2009). Thus, human-associa ed species can media e and ampli y
he e ec s o human ac i i ies on disease dynamics, wi h di e se and unp edic able
ecosys em-le el e ec s.
Immune sys em unc ioning and suscep ibili y o disease
S esso s linked o human ac i i ies (e.g., u baniza ion, pollu ion, habi a loss, and
agmen a ion) a ec wildli e and human heal h, including immune sys em dys-
egula ion and a educed hos esis ance o pa hogens (Ma in e al., 2010; Lee and
Choi, 2020). Fo example, in Aus alia, de o es a ion has led o he es ablishmen
o popula ions o P e opusba s( lying oxes)inu banga dens.Inaddi ion oa
change in dis ibu ion and mo emen , he high-densi y, isola ed u ban popula ions
o  lying oxesappea  oha eanal e edpa e no he dimmuni y oHend a i us,
cha ac e ized by less equen bu la ge disease ou b eaks (Plow igh e al., 2011);
his is cause o b oade conce n as Hend a i us can be a al o humans and
ho ses.
Inc eased human–wildli e encoun e s and pa hogen exchange
Human ac i i ies p omo e he spillo e o pa hogens om hos animals o humans
h ough inc eased con ac a es a he “animal- ec o -human in e ace” in in e -
ac ion wi h en i onmen al, ecological, and social p ocesses (Jones e al., 2013;
Des oumieux-Ga zón e al., 2022). Human–animal in e ac ions occu h ough
(wild) animal ade and (wild) mea consump ion, o indi ec ly h ough humans
li ing in inc easingly close icini y o wildli e due o he g ow h o u ban a eas,
in ensi e a ming, and unsus ainable exploi a ion o na u al esou ces (Magou as
e al., 2020). Se e al disease ou b eaks in humans ha e been aced back o con-
ac s wi h wildli e, including Ebola (Ma í Saéz e al., 2015) and SARS-CoV-2
(cause o he COVID-19 pandemic (Holmes e al., 2021)).
Disease dynamics a he socio-ecological in e ace
Human social and economic sys ems a e b oadly in e wined wi h he s a e o na u-
al sys ems, including bu no limi ed o a sha ed disease bu den. Fo example,
he COVID-19 pandemic has been p esen ed as a esul o he complex dynamic
sys em inco po a ing human popula ion g ow h, cul u e, and ac ions ha al e ed
ecological p ocesses, including clima e change (Tho adeniya and Jayasinghe,
2021). Socioeconomic inequali y, as well as poli ical and economic dis u bances,

64 Ilze B ila e al.
in luence hep essu eplacedonecosys emsandc ea econ lic sbe ween heneeds
o humans and nonhuman o ganisms. Fo example, h ea s o human ood secu-
i y due o loss o c ops o ade (e.g., dis up ion o global supply chains ollow-
ing COVID-19 es ic ions (E okhin and Gao, 2020)), o socioeconomic ha dship
may inc ease con ac s a he human–animal in e ace, such as inc eased ha es ing
o wildli e (Golden e al.,2016).P o i -d i en,in ensi eanimalhusband yhas
esul ed in he mass ea ing o li es ock in condi ions ha expose animals o su -
e ing and gene a e oppo uni ies o u he disease ou b eaks (Jones e al., 2013).
Addi ionally, he e is an ele a ed isk o zoono ic in ec ious disease eme gence and
sp ead among humans in high-densi y u ban hubs nea wildli e habi a s o ag i-
cul u al a eas, pa icula ly in he absence o e ec i e public heal h in as uc u e
(San iago-Ala con and MacG ego -Fo s, 2020).
Global a el and ade ha e ans o med he sp ead
o pa hogens, ec o s, and hos s
Few human ac i i ies ha e ans o med disease dynamics and dis ibu ion o pa h-
ogens as undamen ally as he inc eased human mobili y and ade on a global
scale. Human mobili y ac oss coun ies and con inen s has a long his o y o acil-
i a ing in ec ious disease sp ead, bu high- olume ai a el has mul iplied ha
po en ial (Findla e and Bogoch, 2018). Fo example, ai a el has been implica ed
in he global dis ibu ion o Aedes aegyp i and A. albopic us mosqui os, impo an
ec o s o many in ec ious diseases (K aeme e al., 2015). Global ade o li e
and dead animals and plan s has d ama ically ans o med he way pa hogens and
ec o s can sp ead o new geog aphical loca ions, causing many in ec ious
and zoono ic diseases o sp ead ac oss con inen s (Jones e al., 2013; Can, D’C uze
and Macdonald, 2019). The globalized scale o disease sp ead has esul ed in p o-
ound consequences, such as inc eased mo bidi y and mo ali y and economic
losses, as well as h ea ening he well-being o many species, popula ions, and
en i e ecosys ems (examples in Table 4.1).
TheCOVID-19pandemichasexempli ied hee ec so humanmobili yon he
sp ead o in ec ious diseases. Ini ially de ec ed in a single loca ion in China, he
SARS-CoV-2 i us apidly sp ead in human popula ions a ound he globe, aided
by in e na ional a el and ade (Sigle e al., 2021). Mo e han 585 million cases
and6.4milliondea hsha ebeencon i medinhumans(aso Augus 2022;Wo ld
Heal h O ganiza ion (WHO), 2022). This pandemic has likewise emphasized he
inequali ies p esen in he globalized wo ld, o example, low accine a ailabili y
in low and lowe -middle-income coun ies and he lack o human p epa edness o
deal wi h la ge disease ou b eaks. Addi ionally, spillback o SARS-CoV-2 om
humans o wildli e (Chandle e al., 2021) and domes ic animals (Shi e al., 2020)
ha e been obse ed, u he highligh ing he global-scale in e connec edness o
human and animal heal h.
Ecosys em heal h and plane a y well-being 65
TABLE 4.1 Examples o he globaliza ion o disease dynamics by human ac i i ies and consequences o ecosys ems
Disease name Pa hogen ype, species Hos o ganism and
a ea a ec ed
Ou come An h opogenic ac o s a ec ing he
disease sp ead o ou come
Re e ences
NA
Bo ine
ube culosis
Chy idio-mycosis
Whi e-nose
synd ome
Ches nu bligh
NA
Bac e ium. Xylella Hund eds o plan
as idiosa species. Global
Bac e ium, zoono ic. Domes ic cow (Bos
Mycobac e ium au us), Eu opean
ube culosis badge (Meles
meles). Uni ed
Kingdom
Fungus. >500 species o
Ba achochy ium amphibians.
dend oba idis, B. Global
salamand i o ans
Fungus. Pseudogym- Ba s (Chi op e a).
noascus des uc ansNo h Ame ica
Fungus. C yphonec ia Ame ican ches nu
pa asi ica (Cas anea
den a a). No h
Ame ica
Nema ode. Eu opean eel
Anguillicoloides c assus (Anguilla anguilla).
Eu ope
Local biodi e si y loss
andlosso c ops→
economic loss
Slaugh e o in ec ed
cows, ex ensi e
culling o wild
badge s
90speciescon i med
o suspec ed ex inc ,
mo e expe ience
se e e popula ion
declines
Decima ion o
popula ions
Nea wipe-ou o
Ame ican ches nu ,
p e iously he
dominan ee species
in Eas e n USA
Popula ion decline
In oduced o Eu ope om No h
Ame ica
Wild animal culling as zoono ic
disease managemen —badge s
we e culled o sligh ly lowe
ube culosis p e alence in ca le
and lowe he economic loss
Pa hogen dis ibu ion acili a ed by
global ade o a ious amphibian
species
Disease sp ead by ca e s, ba
esea che s, and ou is s
Impo ed wi h seedlings om Asia
Impo o he pa asi e’s na i e hos ,
Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica),
exposing he Eu opean eel, a no el
hos species, o he pa hogen
Gode oid
e al.
(2019)
Downs e al.
(2019)
Fishe and
Ga ne
(2020)
Hoy e al.
(2021)
Jacobs
(2007)
Cu ie e al.
(2020)
(Con inued)
66 Ilze B ila e al.
Disease name Pa hogen ype, species Hos o ganism and Ou come An h opogenic ac o s a ec ing he Re e ences
a ea a ec ed disease sp ead o ou come
C ay ishplague Oomyce e ( ungus- Manyna i ec ay ish Decima ion o Legalandillegalc ay ish ade Ma ín-
like pa hogen). species. Eu asia popula ions om No h Ame ica To ijos
Aphanomyces as aciand Aus alia e al.
(2021)
NA Vi us. Va oa des uc o Eu opean honey Colony collapse Asian honey bee Apis ce ana Nazzi e al.
mi e ec o o bee (Apis anspo ed om Asia oge he (2012)
de o med wing i us melli e a). No h wi h V. des uc o . Eu opean honey
Ame ica and bee—a no el hos .
Eu ope
A ican Swine Vi us. A ican swine Domes ic and wild Mass mo ali y o Legal and illegal ade o pigs and Bel an-
e e e e i us pigs. Global domes ic and wild swine p oduc s Alc udo
pigs, economic losses e al.
ia loss o domes ic (2019)
pigs
Myxoma osis Vi us. Myxoma i us Eu opean abbi Se e e popula ion In oduc ion o new species as pes Ke (2012)
(O yc olagus declines con ol. Vi us om Sou h Ame ica
cuniculus). Eu ope was pu pose ully in oduced o
con ol abbi s in Aus alia bu hen
sp ead o abbi s in Eu ope.
TABLE 4.1 (Con inued)
Ecosys em heal h and plane a y well-being 67
Ha nessing p inciples o disease ecology as ecosys em heal h
indica o s o plane a y well-being
Human ac i i ies ha p io i ize human needs o e ecosys em heal h ha e led o a
wo ldwide dis up ion o disease dynamics, wi h se e e consequences o plane a y
well-being. The apid e olu ion o mic obes allows pa hogens o e ec i ely ake
ad an ageo bene icialcondi ionsc ea edbyhumanac ions osp eadandin ec 
suscep ible hos s. The ailu e o disease con ol mechanisms in dis up ed ecosys-
ems can lead o a cascade o al e ed disease dynamics h ough socio-ecological
sys ems a a global scale.
The ecogni iono  hesedynamics aisesadi icul ques ion:Isi possible o 
mode n human socie ies o in eg a e as pa o heal hy ecosys ems? Such assimila-
ion may be achie able when small human socie ies use na u al esou ces sus ain-
ably and locally, bu in he globalized wo ld mos ecosys ems ha a e a ec ed by
humans a e linked o p ac ically all o he ecosys ems on he plane . This acili a es
po en ial uni e sal sha ing o pa hogens among hose ecosys ems, isking bo h
nonhuman and human heal h and well-being all o e he wo ld. This po en ial o
global nega i e impac s begs ques ions such as whe he i is e hical o allow any
human ac i i y wi hin he ela i ely ew hus- a undis u bed ecosys ems, e en
when such ac i i y is bene icial o  human indi iduals and has no immedia e
des uc i e e ec s. Reaching comp ehensi e solu ions equi es shi ing he ocus
away om he sa is ac ion o human needs and owa ds he well-being o whole
ecosys ems, in line wi h he plane a y well-being app oach.
Tools and da a a e needed o e alua e he impac s o di e en policies and p ac-
ices on pa hogen sp ead and changing pa hogen bu den, including pa hogens wi h
noimmedia eeconomicsigni icance.Toolssuchas heRedLis Index,anin eg a-
i e measu e o species ex inc ion isk (Ko e mäki e al., 2021) could se e as a
p oxy measu e o plane a y well-being om he pe spec i e o disease bu den, as
(no el) pa hogens and diseases no only h ea en o ganismal well-being bu also
induce popula ion declines, inc ease species ex inc ion isk, and can ha e cascad-
ing e ec s in communi ies and ecosys ems. Tools a e also being de eloped ha
allow decision make s o es ima e he economic cos h ough public heal h cos s o
al e ing habi a (see examples in Mye s (2017)). These app oaches could be com-
plemen ed wi h indica o s o (1) ecosys em heal h and unc ioning, such as meas-
u es o biodi e si y, esilience, and pa hogen o disease p e alence in he sys em;
(2) socie al cha ac e is ics (u baniza ion, socioeconomic equali y, heal hca e, e c.);
and (3) isk ac o s o he sp ead o in asi e species and pa hogens (e.g., global
a el and ade). De eloping eliable and compa ible indica o s o hese complex
issues is challenging bu inc easingly impo an because he combined in o ma ion
om such indica o s could help in na iga ing ade-o s be ween human and non-
human needs, suppo ing decision-making.
T aining public heal h expe s and decision make s wi h he use o such ools
and applying he plane a y well-being pe spec i e is a po en ially e ec i e way o
74 Rémi Du lo e al.
FIGURE 5.1 Concep ualiza ion o a landscape app oach o plane a y well-being. Land-
scapes a e an ope a ional a ena o plane a y well-being because he bio-
physical elemen s and p ocesses ha mee human and nonhuman needs a e
si ua ed in landscapes, as a e he human and nonhuman beings hemsel es
(he ea e e e ed o as: Ac o s). The h ee basic dimensions o a landscape
(ac o s, p ocesses, and biophysical elemen s) can be seen om he human
and nonhuman pe spec i e (icons). This chap e ocuses on he biophysi-
cal elemen s and p ocesses ha media e need sa is ac ion o humans and
nonhumans.Figu ec ea edbyMā isG unskis/@PHOTOGRUNSKIS.
an impo an ecosys em se ice o humans, as 75% o he wo ld’s ood c ops a e
a leas pa ially dependen on pollina ion (Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o
he Uni ed Na ions (FAO), 2016).
Pollina ion illus a es how landscapes hos socio-ecological p ocesses. The
humansin ol edinandin luencedbyanylandscapep ocessa ecommonly e med
s akeholde s. They a e impo an in land-use planning, i.e., a ge ing he use o land
in a spa ially explici and meaning ul manne (An op, 2000). The bes en i on-
men al p ac ices o en equi e collabo a ion be ween s akeholde s o c ea e unc-
ional landscape ea u es ha ensu e he pe sis ence o nonhuman species and hei
associa ed unc ions and simul aneously mee he objec i es o he s akeholde s
(Viala e e al., 2019). To illus a e he ans o ma i e po en ial o he landscape
app oach o plane a y well-being, we p esen h ee examples o land-use plan-
ning p inciples ha acknowledge he ole o landscape-le el p ocesses and suppo
plane a ywell-being.In he ollowingsec ions,weexamine hebene i so ag o-
ecological a ming, u ban g een in as uc u e, and mul i-objec i e o es manage-
men zoning app oaches o plane a y well-being. These examples show how o pu
plane a y well-being in o p ac ice (Figu es 5.2–5.4).

A landscape app oach o plane a y well-being 75
Ag oecological a ming sys ems: F om ield o landscape le els
Decades o  a ming in ensi ica ion and landscape homogeniza ion ha e
subs an ially dec eased biodi e si y in ag icul u al landscapes (Ben on, Vick-
e y and Wilson, 2003). In con as o indus ialized a ming sys ems, which a e
based on ag ochemicals and mechaniza ion, he ag oecological app oach elies on
biodi e si y-d i en ecological unc ions o suppo ood p oduc ion (Jeanne e
e al., 2021). Key ecological unc ions, which a e pe cei ed as ecosys em se ices
by humans, include soil e ili y (Chap e 6), na u al pes con ol and pollina ion.
Impo an ly,ag oecologicalp ac icesbuildonandbene i  om helocaldi e si y
o species and hei bio ic and abio ic in e ac ions which main ain ecological unc-
ions (Dainese e al., 2019). Gi en he e y la ge ex en o ag icul u al land on
Ea h and he i al socie al impo ance o ag icul u e, he ag oecological landscape
app oach has emendous po en ial o enhance plane a y well-being by suppo ing
biodi e si y and a ious ecosys em se ices. Figu e 5.2 shows how he ag oecolog-
ical landscape app oach is linked o plane a y well-being, wi h a ocus on o ganism
ood p o isioning.
The biodi e si y o ag icul u al landscapes (including species ha co-p oduce
p ocesses use ul o humans) depends on he p o ision o esou ces needed by he
FIGURE 5.2 Concep ualiza ion o a land-use planning p inciple o ag oecological a m-
ing, as a landscape app oach o plane a y well-being, wi h a ocus on ood
p o isioning o humans and nonhuman species. The h ee basic dimen-
sions o a landscape (ac o s, p ocesses, and biophysical elemen s) can be
seen om he human and nonhuman pe spec i e (icons). This chap e
ocuses on he biophysical elemen s and p ocesses ha media e need sa is-
ac ion o humansandnonhumans.Figu ec ea edbyMā isG unskis/@
PHOTOGRUNSKIS.
76 Rémi Du lo e al.
species, such as eeding, shel e , and ep oduc ion and o e win e ing si es. These
a eo enno a ailablewi hin hec op ieldsbu , a he ,in hei su oundings.Thus,
he cen al p ocess is he mo emen o species be ween semi-na u al habi a s and
c op ieldso be weenc op ieldso di e en  ypes,enablingspecies oaccess
hei equi ed esou ces a di e en places and ime and adap o ecu en dis-
u bances (Bli ze e al.,2012).A  he ieldle el, hein ensi yo  a mingp ac-
ices, e.g., ela ed o he amoun o pes icides, de e mine he sui abili y o a c op
o hos ingdi e sespeciesandsuppo ingassocia edecological unc ions(Du lo 
e al.,2022).Typically,o ganically a med ieldsha ehighe speciesdi e si yand
abundance (Puech e al., 2014). A he landscape le el, mos o ganisms ely on
esou ces p o ided by semi-na u al habi a s (e.g., lo al esou ceso o e win e ing
si es), he e o e, landscapes wi h a high pe cen age o such non-c op habi a s ha e
highe biodi e si y and ecological unc ions (Dua e e al., 2018).
Because mos species in ag icul u al landscapes a e e y mobile, he ag oe-
cological app oach acknowledges he need o main ain adequa e ecological con-
di ionsa bo h helocal- ieldandlandscapele els(Jeanne e e al., 2021). The
syne ge icin luenceo landscapehe e ogenei yand a mingin ensi yonbiodi-
e si y and he associa ed unc ions (Ricci e al., 2019) sugges s ha en i onmen-
ally iendlyp ac icesa e equi eda bo h he ieldandlandscapele els.P ac ices
such as less in ense soil managemen (e.g., no illage and di ec seeding), longe
and mo e di e si ied c op o a ions, and c op mix u es ha e signi ican  po en-
ial o main ain biodi e si y, unc ional ag oecosys ems, and p oduc i e a ming
sys ems (Du u e al., 2015). A he landscape le el, inc easing he p opo ion o
semi-na u alhabi a s,c opdi e si y,and educing ieldsizep omo ebiodi e si y
and ecological unc ions ha con ibu e o c op p oduc ion (Si ami e al., 2019).
Complexcon igu a ionpa e nwi hmanyedgesbe weendi e en habi a  ypes
andsmalle  ieldswill acili a especiesaccess omul iple esou cesand, he e o e,
u he enhance biodi e si y, ela ed ecological unc ions, and c op yields (Ma in
e al., 2019).
Ag oecological app oach also p o ides a socio-ecological pe spec i e o ood
p oduc ion and highligh s he leading ole o a me s and he impo ance o sel -
su icien  a ms o sus ainablelandscapemanagemen (Jeanne e e al., 2021).
Fo his pu pose, ag i-en i onmen -clima e policy schemes (such as a pa o he
EU Common Ag icul u al Policy) subsidize a selec ion o ag oecological p ac ices
aimeda  educing ield-le elin ensi yo p ac ices and es o ingsome o m o 
landscape he e ogenei y (e.g., h oughimplemen a iono g assyo  lowe s ips).
While educing a me s’ dependency on ag ochemicals and p omo ing biodi e -
si y, he implemen a ion o such ag i-en i onmen -clima e schemes emains lim-
i eddue olacko ins i u ionalsuppo and inancial esou ces(Pe’e e al., 2020).
As ag icul u al landscapes consis o spa ially in e mingled ne wo ks o a me s
andnon- a me s,andco esponding a ms, ields, ieldma ginsando he land-
scapeelemen s,suchschemeswould,howe e ,alsobene i  omaddi ionals a e-
gies o in eg a ed landscape-le el coope a ion (e.g., h ough collec i e con ac s;
Jeanne e e al., 2021; Viala e e al., 2019).
A landscape app oach o plane a y well-being 77
G een in as uc u e in u ban design: Res o ing p ocesses
inhea ily modi ied ecosys ems
O e 55% o he wo ld’s human popula ion li e in u ban landscapes, wi h u he
u baniza ion being p ojec ed (Uni ed Na ions (UN), 2019). Mo eo e , u ban a ea is
inc easing wice as as as he u ban popula ion, sp eading in o o he aluable land
uses, and is expec ed o quad uple globally by 2050 as compa ed o 2000. U ban
expansion ans o ms ege a edlandco e sin oa i icialsu aceswi hinu bana eas
and hei su oundings.U banlandscapesa ehea ilymodi iedbyhumans,wi han
al e ed biophysical en i onmen and ecosys em unc ioning, he eby comp omis-
ing plane a y well-being. Fo ins ance, u baniza ion inc eases he agmen a ion and
sh inking o g een a eas, which esul in d ama ic decline in biodi e si y in u ban
landscapes (Lepczyk e al.,2017).I alsodis up simpo an ecosys em luxes,asa i-
icialsu acesp e en wa e in il a ion,whichc ea esad yen i onmen and looding
isks (Chap e 6), and inc eases sola ene gy abso p ion and s o age, which inc eases
he ai empe a u e in ci ies (IPBES, 2019). The de elopmen o u ban landscapes
wi h g een in as uc u e, i.e., an in e connec ed ne wo k o na u e-based elemen s
(he ea e g eenspaces),p o ides a iousbene i s o bo hhumansandnonhumans
(ibid.) and may, hus, suppo plane a y well-being. Figu e 5.3 shows how he e ec s
o g een in as uc u e a e linked o plane a y well-being, wi h a ocus on o ganism
mobili y.
FIGURE 5.3 Concep ualiza ion o a land-use planning p inciple o u ban g een in a-
s uc u e, as a landscape app oach o plane a y well-being, wi h a ocus on
human and nonhuman o ganism mobili y. The h ee basic dimensions o a
landscape (ac o s, p ocesses, and biophysical elemen s) can be seen om he
human and nonhuman pe spec i e (icons). This chap e ocuses on he bio-
physical elemen s and p ocesses ha media e need sa is ac ion o humans
andnonhumans.Figu ec ea edbyMā isG unskis/@PHOTOGRUNSKIS.
78 Rémi Du lo e al.
U ban g een in as uc u es o e a a ie y o habi a s, anging om emnan s o
na i e ege a ion, acan land, and ga dens o g een oo s and managed pa ks (Lep-
czyk e al., 2017). In u ban landscapes, habi a pa ches a e ypically small, and spe-
cies’ habi a selec ion is o en go e ned by pa ch size and landscape he e ogenei y
(e.g., Pi hon e al., 2021). The e o e, g een in as uc u e is commonly planned in he
o m o habi a ne wo ks, consis ing o mul iple habi a pa ches ha a e connec ed
by co ido s o allow o ganisms o mo e wi hin he ne wo k (Lepczyk e al., 2017).
The abili y o mo e is based on landscape connec i i y, which is conside ed a majo
ac o in species su i al and he long- e m pe sis ence o biodi e si y (C ooks and
Sanjayan, 2006). Thus, u ban biodi e si y is bes suppo ed by he ca e ul spa ial
planningo g eenspacesand hei landuses,includingspeci ichabi a managemen 
ac ions (e.g., in equen g ass mowing). U ban g een in as uc u e can suppo pop-
ula ions o species ha can adap o u ban en i onmen s and p o ide complemen a y
habi a s o species h ea ened by in ensi e a ming and comme cial o es y in u al
a eas (e.g., Selonen and Mäkeläinen, 2017). Biodi e si y also suppo s ecosys em
unc ioning in u ban a eas, he eby, p omo es plane a y well-being.
Rec ea ion in g een a eas bene i s human heal h ia h ee main pa hways
(Ma ke ych e al., 2017): (1) Reducing ha m, e.g., educing exposu e o hea
and noise; (2) es o ing capaci ies, e.g., elie ing s ess (Ty äinen e al., 2014)
and p oducing posi i e psychological e ec s (see Chap e 12); and (3) building
capaci ies, e.g., suppo ing immune balance (Haah ela, 2019), acili a ing social
cohesion, and encou aging physical ac i i y. Simul aneously, elemen s o g een
in as uc u e p o ide ecosys em se ices o humans, e.g., by educing wa e
uno , heyp o idepeak lowcon oland loodalle ia ion o in ense ain alls
and s o mwa e managemen (Li e al., 2019). Ideally, g een in as uc u e is
de eloped a he landscape le el du ing he u ban de elopmen planning phase.
Howe e , elemen s o g een in as uc u e can be added o exis ing u ban land-
scapes. Fo example, se ing aside acan land o unmanaged o less in ensi ely
main ainedg eena easis shown o bea cos -e icien way o inc easeg een
in as uc u e and inc ease access o g een spaces (McKinney and Ve Be kmoes,
2020). Fu he mo e, encou aging esiden s o u n hei ya ds in o ga dens wi h
na i e species can con ibu e g ea ly o g een in as uc u e and suppo mul iple
p ocesses (Came on e al., 2012). In ol ing s akeholde g oups in g een in a-
s uc u e de elopmen and managemen may inc ease knowledge o decision-
making, as well as empowe ing ci izens and he local communi y o ake agency
(G ê -Regamey e al., 2021), bu i also equi es he conside a ion o social inclu-
si eness and he econcilia ion o di e ing iews.
Mul i-objec i e o es managemen : Imp o emen s
h ough landscape zoning
Managing o es esou ces while balancing he ecological needs o species li ing
in o es edlandscapes equi easpeci ic ocuson he equencyandin ensi yo 
A landscape app oach o plane a y well-being 79
o es managemen .T adi ionally, o es managemen hasp io i ized imbe p o i s
(Faus mann, 1849), ope a ing on homogenous pa cels o o es land. This imbe -
o ien ed managemen aims a sus ained imbe ex ac ion, ha is, maximizing
o es g ow hwhileensu ingane en lowo  imbe  o  he o es indus y.Mean-
while, he habi a needs o species li ing in he o es ha e been la gely igno ed in
p ac ice, ha ming o es biodi e si y. Inno a i e managemen p ac ices in ended o
enhance he quali y and amoun o sui able o es habi a s s i e o mimic na u al
dis u bances and he associa ed a iabili y o o es s uc u es, i.e., habi a he e o-
genei y (Kuulu ainen e al., 2021). To econcile human in e es s and biodi e si y
conse a ion, he di ision o o es landscape in o in ensi e use, ex ensi e use, and
ese e zones has been p oposed (Himes e al., 2022). This landscape app oach
plansandconduc s o es ope a ionsa mul iplele els, i s  ialandscapezones,
wi heacho  hemp io i izingaspeci icobjec i e(i.e., imbe p oduc ion, mul-
iple use, and conse a ion), and hen ia locally applying di e se managemen
p ac ices, wi h a ied ha es ing in ensi ies and cu ing me hods (e.g., con inu-
ous co e o es y o delayed clea -cu ha es s). Such land-use planning o o -
es managemen ocuses on balancing he socie al demand o aw ma e ial and
ene gy wi h he needs o nonhuman species and ecosys ems, ha is, con ibu ing
o plane a y well-being i sel . Mul i-objec i e o es managemen zoning is shown
in Figu e 5.4, which desc ibes how human ac i e and passi e managemen o he
o es landscape impac s plane a y well-being, ocusing on main aining esou ce
ex ac ion while p ese ing he p ocesses o he o es ecosys em.
The p ocesses o na u al dis u bance-succession dynamics, i.e., he p og ess o
o es eg ow h a e pa ial o o al nonhuman ee des uc ion, is c ucial o o -
es biodi e si y, as a ious species g oups depend on he di e si y o successional
s ages and he s uc u e c ea ed by dis u bances, e.g., deadwood (Hilme s e al.,
2018; Tikkanen e al., 2006). P io i izing biodi e si y conse a ion will, he e o e,
equi ea ans o ma iono how wemanage human-modi ied o es landscapes
(A oyo-Rod íguez e al., 2020). The o es managemen zoning s a egy allows
landscape p ocesses o p oceed along di e ing dis u bance-succession dynamics.
Ex ensi e o es managemen aims a main aining some le el o o es complexi y
locally and o he e ogenei y a landscape le el. This can be achie ed h ough sub-
s an ialadjus men sinhow o es yisappliedand hedi e si ica iono manage-
men p ac ices(Du lo ,Fah igandMönkkönen,2022).Howe e ,managed o es s
a e no compa able wi h na u al o es s, because he ee species composi ion, ee
age s uc u e, and cha ac e is ics o deadwood composi ion di e conside ably,
e en i o es s a e managed ex ensi ely. Thus, o es ese es mus be included in
he land-use plan o allow ecological p ocesses wi hou human in e e ence.
Meanwhile, some p opo ion o ca e ully loca ed a eas o in ensi e o es y,
p ima ily o ien ed owa ds imbe p oduc ion, could be used o mee human needs.
In ensi eex ac i eac i i iesin he o es landscapecanp o idean e en low
o imbe , allowing o a shi away om non- enewable esou ces (e.g., ossil
uels),1 indi ec ly con ibu ing o enhanced plane a y well-being (e.g., clima e

80 Rémi Du lo e al.
FIGURE 5.4 Concep ualiza ion o a land-use planning p inciple o o es managemen
zoning, as a landscape app oach o plane a y well-being, wi h a ocus on
sus ained o es managemen . The h ee basic dimensions o a landscape
(ac o s, p ocesses, and biophysical elemen s) can be seen om he human
and nonhuman pe spec i e (icons). This chap e ocuses on he biophysi-
cal elemen s and p ocesses ha media e need sa is ac ion o humans and
nonhumans.Figu ec ea edbyMā isG unskis/@PHOTOGRUNSKIS.
changemi iga ion).In ensi e imbe ex ac ioncancon lic wi h,and educe, he
a ailabili yo o he  o es bene i s o bo hhumansandnonhumans(Ey indson
e al., 2021). Human ac i i ies in he o es dis up he na u al unc ioning o o -
es ecosys ems, leading o a subs an ially educed long- e m ecological alue o
biodi e si y and ecosys em se ices (Pohjanmies e al., 2021). Ex ensi e manage-
men ocused on mul iple uses, including non- imbe se ices (e.g., wa e quali y
and ec ea ion) can ha e syne gies wi h he ecological unc ioning o he o es
landscape. Fo example, o ec ea ional a eas, humans p e e sub le y managed
o es so as o ease access and c ea e places o enjoy landscape is as (Pukkala,
Lähde and Laiho, 2012).
De e mining he ela i e p opo ion and spa ial dis ibu ion o he managemen
zones is challenging (Himes e al., 2022). Fo es ed landscapes a e o en domina ed
byhumanac i i ies,wi h hein ensi yo managemen beingde inedby hehuman
demand o imbe and non- imbe esou ces. This human-cen ic pe spec i e mus
shi owa ds a ocus on plane a y well-being. This can be accomplished by wisely
managing he o es in a way ha minimizes damage o he ecological sys em, e.g.,
choosing he managemen plan wi h mos simila i y wi h he na u al dis u bance-
succession dynamics (Cô é e al.,2010).Thespeci icdis ibu ionando ganiza ion
o he zones should also be ca e ully conside ed, as imp o ed ecological ou comes
A landscape app oach o plane a y well-being 81
(e.g., ep esen a i eness and connec i i y o p o ec ed a ea ne wo ks) a e possible
a a ela i ely low economic cos (Ti le e al., 2015).
Conclusion
Asillus a edby heabo eland-useplanningp inciples,landscapeshos con lic s
and syne gies be ween human and nonhuman na u e, p o iding an oppo uni y o
pu plane a y well-being in p ac ice. The a ailabili y o sui able biophysical ele-
men s and hei spa ial o ganiza ion in a landscape a e impo an aspec s o each
o ou examples, demons a ing how he exis ence o li e-suppo ing p ocesses
depends on he abili y o o ganisms o co-occupy he landscape. Ecological p o-
cesses, such as dispe sal and succession, a e impac ed by in ensi e land use. To
elax he human-induced p essu es aced by nonhuman na u e and acili a e eco-
logical unc ioning, he planning o land uses a he landscape le el mus be done
ca e ully. Landscapes a e he a ena in which human ac ions ake place; hus, land-
scapes a e he ope a ional le el o achie e plane a y well-being. Because hey ha e
ans o ma i e po en ial, landscapes can ac as an in e ace ac oss a ious disci-
plines and s akeholde s, p o iding a sha ed ep esen a ion o space as maps, which
a e powe ul ools o guide human ac i i ies owa ds plane a y well-being.
Howe e , all landscape app oaches ha e wo main limi a ions ha may hinde
hei abili y o enhance plane a y well-being. Fi s , landscapes a e open sys ems
subjec  oex e nalin luences.Thus,no allp oblemscanbesol eda  helandscape
le el i hey o igina e om ou side o he sys em. Landscapes a e embedded in
la ge en i ies, such as ecological egions, cul u es, o economic and ins i u ional
con ex s, which impac he o ganiza ion and dynamics o landscapes. T ans o m-
ing nega i e impac s in o plane a y well-being posi i e will also equi e ac ions
beyond he landscape le el. In addi ion, wha is done in a landscape may “leak”
elsewhe e. Fo example, planning o less dense ci ies wi h mo e g een spaces will
likely p omo e u he u ban expansion. Tha being said, he challenges esul ing
om he unboundedness o landscapes can be somewha con olled o by consid-
e ing con ex dependencies in landscape analyses.
Second, landscape app oaches o en elude e hical conside a ion; he p esen ed
examples o e no p inciples ega ding how o balance be ween human and non-
humanneeds.Theydono de inelegi ima eo jus ac ions iawhich omee  he
basic needs o o ganisms, excep he p esump ion ha suppo ing biodi e si y, as
amani es a iono e olu ion,isdesi able.Thelacko auni iede hicsonplane a y
well-being-o ien edlandusesis e lec edin hep o idedexamples,whichdi e -
en ia e ecosys em se ices (human needs) om biodi e si y conse a ion (nonhu-
man needs).
Al hough land-use planning is gene ally a p ocess ha has been conduc ed p i-
ma ily by and o humans, i p o ides an oppo uni y o look o syne gies be ween
ecosys em se ices and biodi e si y conse a ion. We a gue ha land-use plan-
ning based on knowledge abou ecosys em and landscape p ocesses can s ongly
82 Rémi Du lo e al.
bene i bo hhumanandnonhumano ganismsandul ima elyp omo eplane a y
well-being.Landscapeapp oachesa epowe ulinde ec ingsuchmu ualbene i s
gi en ha nonhuman species a e equally conside ed as ac o s in landscape-le el
p ocesses. In ha sense, he concep o plane a y well-being migh igge a e olu-
ioninland-useplanningbygi ingequalmo alsigni icance ohumanandnonhu-
man species.
Acknowledgemen
RémiDu lo was inanciallysuppo edbyapos doc o alg an  om heKone
Founda ion.Ki siE.Keskinenwas inanciallysuppo edbyag an  omJuho
VainioFounda ion.KyleEy indsonwaspa ially inanciallysuppo ed om
he No wegian Resea ch Council (NFR p ojec 302701 Clima e Sma Fo -
es y No way). Kaisa J. Raa ikainen was a pos doc o al ellow o he School o
Resou ce Wisdom. The s udy sponso s had no ole in designing o w i ing he
book chap e .
No e
1 S udies explo ing he po en ial displacemen o ca bon emissions om wood subs i u ion
highligh ha , in gene al, subs i u ion o wood dec eases GHG emissions (Mylly ii a
e al., 2021).
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90 Saana Ka aja-aho and Ja i Haimi
mi es and sp ing ails, which chop up dead o ganic ma e and inc ease he su aces
a ailable o mic obes.Ecosys emenginee s(o ganisms ha signi ican lymod-
i y o e en c ea e hei habi a ) p ocess he soil habi a by eeding and bu ow-
ing ac i i ies, such as mixing o ganic and ino ganic ma e ials and a ec ing soil
s uc u e. Ea hwo ms, an s, and e mi es a e o en e e ed o as soil enginee s as
heysigni ican lymodi y hei habi a s.Mic o- oodwebs,li e  ans o me s,and
ecosys em enginee s ope a e in he complex soil en i onmen in hei own spa ial,
size and imescales (Wa dle, 2002; Coleman, Callaham and C ossley, 2018). All
hese di e se unc ional g oups con ibu e o majo ecosys em p ocesses such as
nu ien cycling,ca bon ans o ma ionand u he  o o ma ionandmodi ica ion
o soil s uc u e. In addi ion, al hough hey li e in hei own mic oen i onmen s,
soil o ganisms s ongly in e ac wi h he popula ions o o he o ganisms and e en-
ually a ec abo eg ound biodi e si y.
Clima e egula ion
Nea ly 80% o he ca bon in Ea h’s e es ial ecosys ems is ound in soils (Lal,
2008; Eglin on e al., 2021). Co espondingly, he soil ca bon pool is mo e han
h ee imes la ge han ha o he a mosphe e (Oelke s and Cole, 2008). Mo e
han 60% o he soil ca bon is o ganic ca bon, dead o ganic ma e a some s age
o he decomposi ion p ocess. The es is soil ino ganic ca bon, o elemen al ca -
bon and ca bona e ma e ials (Lal, 2008). By being he majo e es ial pool o
ca bon, he soil ca bon s ock is c i ical o he global ca bon cycle and o egula -
ing Ea h’s clima e (Figu e 6.1). E en a small change in he soil ca bon pool can
cause a la ge impac on a mosphe ic CO2 concen a ion (C ow he e al., 2016;
Bispo e al., 2017). Soil p ocesses also con ol he emissions and seques a ions
o  heo he signi ican g eenhousegases,suchasme haneandni ousoxide,and
elease ae osols o he a mosphe e. In addi ion o being he ese oi o ca bon,
soilswi h ege a ion ixmo e hana hi do an h opogenicca bonemissions o he
a mosphe e. Fu he , soils con ibu e o Ea h’s adia ion balance, ei he posi i ely
o nega i ely, h ough e apo a ion and he albedo o Ea h’s su ace (Lal e al.,
2021). Hence, he composi ion o a mosphe e and consequen ly Ea h’s clima e a e
s ongly ela ed o he s uc u e, composi ion, and p ocesses o soils.
Wa e e en ion and cleaning p ocesses
When ain eaches Ea h’s su ace, he wa e picks up a ying amoun s o di e en
impu i ies, such as pa icles and chemicals. In u al se ings and na u al en i on-
men s,mos  ainwa e in il a es h ough hesoil.Pa o  hewa e iscap u ed
along hewaydownin hesoilp o ile, ese edinsoilpo espacesandg adually
used by o ganisms ha need wa e o hei me abolism. Wa e is one aw ma e-
ial in pho osyn hesis, and nu ien s needed in o he biosyn heses (such as p o ein
syn hesis) a e anspo ed in o plan issues in he p ocess o anspi a ion. As wa e

Soil p ocesses a e cons i uen s o plane a y well-being 91
passes h ough hesoilp o ile,i iscleanedphysically,chemically,andbiologically.
Soils wi h many g ain sizes con ain a ma ix o po es o di e en sizes and can
e icien ly il e pa iclesou o  hein il a ingwa e (Figu e6.1).Soilo ganicma -
e is, howe e , he mos impo an in emo ing impu i ies om wa e (On l and
Schul e, 2012). Mos soils a e nega i ely cha ged and hence hey cap u e posi i ely
cha ged ions om soil wa e . These ions, ino ganic o ms o nu ien s, a e a ail-
able o up ake by g een plan s and mic obes, and also p e en ed om leaching
in o g oundwa e and su ace wa e s. Many o he chemicals a e emo ed om he
wa e as hey become adso bed in o soil pa icles, o example h ough a p ocess o
co alen bonding. Mo eo e , many bac e ia and ungi a e capable o ans o ming
and decomposing chemicals dissol ed in wa e wi h app op ia e enzymes. E en
ha m ul an h opogenic o ganic chemicals, such as pes icides and sol en s, can be
me abolized by ce ain mic obes (C a o-Lau eau e al., 2017; Pesce e al., 2020).
Soils de oxi y chemicals and p e en hei p oblema ic e ec s on non- a ge o gan-
isms and p ocesses. In his way, hey ese e and pu i y esh wa e , which is a i al
p ocess o all e es ial o ganisms, including human beings.
Deg ada ion and loss o soils
Human impac on he Ea h sys em is con inuously in ensi ying, and land use o
ag icul u e, li es ock a ming, and comme cial o es y speed up he loss o biodi-
e si y and habi a deg ada ion (Vi ousek e al., 1997; Goudie, 2019). Ag icul u al
managemen p ac ices and in ensi e o es y ha e also deg aded soils physically,
chemically, and biologically, o example, h ough e osion and loss o o ganic
ma e (Kaise , 2004; On l and Schul e, 2012). These subs an ial changes in soil
composi ion and s uc u e may lead o se ious inhibi ion o soil-d i en ecosys em
p ocesses.
Soil oodwebsha ebeenshown obes onglychangedandsimpli iedunde 
mo e in ensi e managemen sys ems, such as inc eased use o e ilize s and pes-
icides,in ensi ied illage,useo la ge andhea ie  ehicles,andhighe g azing
p essu e (Ba dge , 2005). These changes a e associa ed wi h inc eased nu ien
leaching and ca bon losses om he sys em. I also seems hese changes in he
soil ood web s uc u e may e en be i e e sible (ibid.). Howe e , he educ ion
o o ganic ma e losses om cul i a ed soils by using less in ensi e managemen
p ac ices and he addi ion o o ganic amendmen s could esul in posi i e de elop-
men in he abundance and di e si y o soil bio a and he in ensi y o soil-media ed
ecosys em p ocesses (On l and Schul e, 2012). Co espondingly, mo e sus ainable
managemen p ac ices in o es y can inc ease soil heal h in o es s.
The cons an ly inc easing global popula ion and u baniza ion ha e d as ically
dec eased he amoun o soil ha is o ganically and unc ionally pa o ecosys-
ems.Globally,hugea easo landha ebeensealedwi ha i icialimpene able
su aces o housing as well as o anspo , indus ial, and comme cial in as uc-
u e (Liu e al., 2014). Soil sealing leads o se ious in e e ence o o al inhibi ion
92 Saana Ka aja-aho and Ja i Haimi
o mos ecosys em p ocesses ha ei he ake place in he soil o a e media ed by
soils.Thisissimplybecauseo  helacko  luxeso wa e ,ma e ,andelemen s
be ween belowg ound and abo eg ound se ings and he disappea ance o soil–
plan in e ac ions.Inu banizeda eas,wa e can lowo e  hesealedsoilsu ace
and anspo impu i ies and nu ien s o wa e cou ses o su ace-wa e d ains. The
s ain on he wa e sys ems may esul in eu ophica ion and pollu ion o s eams
and lakes and he eby d as ically dec ease he quali y o hese wa e basins as habi-
a  o aqua ico ganismssuchas ishes,mussels,andplank on.Fu he mo e,wa e 
con amina ion dec eases he quali y o human d inking wa e , while la ge-scale
soil sealing pe manen ly dis u bs ca bon and nu ien cycling in u ban a eas (Lu,
Ko ze and Se älä, 2020). Sealed soils also become una ailable as habi a s o any
o ganisms, wi h he excep ion o a ew mic obes.
Soildeg ada ionalsoa ec s hemi iga iono clima echange.The ixa iono ca -
bon emissions by ege a ed soils is endange ed because o human-induced en i on-
men al change (Eglin on e al., 2021; Lal e al., 2021). Especially, he amoun o soil
o ganicca bonisac i icalcomponen whichcon olssoil–a mosphe eca bon luxand
clima echange.Ai  empe a u eandp ecipi a ionsigni ican lya ec soilp ocesses
and, consequen ly, soil o ganic ca bon s ocks, while clima e change may des abilize
hese s ocks. The eedbacks may be la ge and unp edic able especially in he soils in
no he n pe ma os egions. In addi ion, soil o ganic ca bon s ocks a e p one o human
land use changes. As a ule, in ensi e land use (de o es a ion, indus ial ag icul u e,
inc easing mining and cons uc ion) inc eases he elease o ca bon om he soil o he
a mosphe e. Thus, all ac ions ha minimize an h opogenic soil dis u bance can help o
es ainclima echange.Seques a iono ca boninsoilse icien lymi iga eschanges
in he clima e and en i onmen ha a e e olu iona ily oo apid.
Concluding ema ks
Soils play a c ucial ole in nume ous ecosys em and global p ocesses ha enable
he exis ence and well-being o e es ial o ganisms, om mic obes and ungi o
plan s and animals, including humans (Figu e 6.1). Con e sely, hose i al p o-
cesses do no occu wi h he p ope s eng h and equency i o ganisms li ing
in he soil a e dis u bed in a way ha hey a e unable o play hei oles in hei
communi ies. Soil o ganisms and p ocesses, he e o e, a e an excellen example o
how suscep ible and agile he in eg i y o he Ea h sys em is and how impo an
ce ain pa s o he ecosys em can be o plane a y well-being (Ko e mäki e al.,
2021).Al hough human well-being has no  speci ically been add essed in his
chap e , all soil-d i en and soil-media ed p ocesses a e also essen ial o human
well-being: Soils p o ide many o he ecosys em se ices ha humankind ( ega d-
less o all echnological de elopmen ) s ill equi es (see Chap e 5).
Fo example, local popula ions o pollina o s in cool egions depend on o e -
win e ing in soil, and human p ac ices ha deg ade o seal soil wi h impe meable
Soil p ocesses a e cons i uen s o plane a y well-being 93
su aces ha m his o e win e ing p ocess, which in u n educes he pollina ion
success o ood c ops and u he dec eases ood p oduc ion o bo h humans and
nonhumans. Mo eo e , he cul i a ion o ood and o age c ops equi es a able
land whe e soil e ili y is main ained by soil s uc u e and p ocesses. I soil in
an a ea is dis u bed ei he physically, chemically, o biologically, ege a ion will
espondand ecip ocallya ec soilp ope ies,whichunde minesbene icial ood
p oduc ion condi ions, wi h di ec and indi ec ha m ul impac s on human and non-
human well-being. Soil dis u bances ha a e s ong enough and la ge enough a e
e lec edalsoa  helandscapele el.
I human ac i i y s eadily and inc easingly deg ades soils by, o example,
dec easing he amoun o soil o ganic ma e and changing he soil s uc u e, soils
canno deli e he ecosys em se ices hey used o o e . Human ac i i ies ha
ha e a s ong nega i e e ec on soil heal h include, o example, de o es a ion,
in ensi ica iono ag icul u eandli es ock a ming,and heenla gemen o u ban-
ized a eas. Soil deg ada ion impai s he ypical cha ac e is ics and capaci ies o
my iad o ganisms, no only soil decompose s bu also hose inhabi ing soils du ing
a ce ain pa o hei li e cycles, o he le el whe e ecosys em-le el and global
p ocesses do no unc ion p ope ly. A ha s age, he in eg i y o he Ea h sys em
could be i e e sibly los . When humani y ca es o he heal h o soil, i is also ak-
ing ca e o he well-being o bo h human and nonhuman o ganisms and con ibu -
ing o plane a y well-being.
Acknowledgemen s
We a e g a e ul o he edi o ial eam o hei aluable commen s on ou ea lie e -
sions o his chap e , and Ma Wue h ich o language checking. Thanks o Boos
p ojec o Janne Ko iaho o suppo ing he language check. We hank Pho og un-
skis o he g ea illus a ion hey p epa ed o ou chap e .
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PART III
Challenging he
economic impe a i e
In oduc ion
As explained in he in oduc ion o his book, plane a y well-being is a s a e ha
impa ially acknowledges human and nonhuman well-being as a pa o heal hy
Ea h sys ems and ecosys ems (Ko e mäki e al., 2021). In his chap e , en i-
onmen al his o y is used o add a empo al pe spec i e o unde s anding plan-
e a y well-being. As he ealiza ion o plane a y well-being equi es, o ins ance,
es ain s o he human use o na u al esou ces, i is necessa y o look in o he pas
and ask, “Wha has p e en ed less an h opocen ic concep ions o well-being om
h i ing and why?” This is all he mo e impo an since his o ically, i has been
ypical o mode n indus ial socie ies o p omo e an unde s anding o well-being
wi h a sociocen ic1 emphasis wi h li le o no a en ion paid o he well-being o
ei he o he species o u u e human gene a ions.
Thissociocen icemphasis,whileo en aken o g an ed,no onlysimpli ies
ou eali y eno mously in o me e social needs bu has also been c i icized o easily
u ning bo h na u e and humans in o me e esou ces o socie al (economic) needs
(Connolly, 2017). This chap e p esen s an example o how his endency can be
unde s oodhis o icallyin he ieldo poli ics,inwhich headap a iono amo e
ecocen ic amewo k o well-beinghasp o enpa icula lydi icul .
Examples o di e en concep ualiza ions gi en o sus ainable de elopmen
o e ime by global and na ional ac o s, such as he Eu opean Union (EU) and
he G een Pa ies in Finland and Ge many, demons a e how ou unde s anding
o well-being de elops in ime en angled wi h ou social p ocesses. We analyze
why he p ac ical implica ions o a non-an h opocen ic unde s anding o well-
beingha eno  lou ishedandhowdi e en pa hdependenciesandsocialneeds
p o ide incen i es o a d awback ha ypically occu s despi e good in en ions.
7
AN ECONOMIC TAIL WAGGING AN
ECOLOGICAL DOG? WELL-BEING
ANDSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF
ENTANGLED HISTORY
Ris o-Ma i Ma e o and A e A man
DOI: 10.4324/9781003334002-11
106 Ris o-Ma i Ma e o and A e A man
p og amme, al hough a shi o g een g ow h ideology had al eady happened in
1991 (Die G ünen, 2002, p. 28). The discussion o adically e-concep ualize he
an h opocen ic and g ow h-o ien ed unde s anding o well-being disappea ed
om pa y p og ammes, as he ocus u ned back on an economically o ien ed
unde s anding o well-being. Finnish G eens we e explici ly a aid o losing com-
pe i i eness i g een echnology was no o be de eloped o expo a ion (Vih eä
Lii o, 1994), using en i onmen al poli ics as ools o he economy.
The explici easons o he u n we e no ably unideological in na u e in G een
a gumen a ion: The e was a p agma ic need o adap o a sys em ha demanded
ce ain p econdi ions o be aken as g an ed in o de o access powe . The Finnish
G eens el his ha shly in he 1991 go e nmen nego ia ions: Du ing an e a o
dep ession, hey had no possibili ies o go e nmen al coope a ion wi h a g ow h-
c i ical p og amme (Iso alo, 2007a). As s a emen s om leading G een poli icians
e eal,manyG eenac o swe e ocusedonmain ainingpoli icalin luence,which
waspe cei edasap e equisi e oac e icien lyin henewpa adigm.InFinland,
G een en i onmen al minis e Pekka Haa is o poin ed ou how no hing would
ha e been accomplished wi h he a i ude o he NGOs a e NGO c i icism s a ed
o build up owa ds he G eens’ go e nmen pa icipa ion (Iso alo, 2007b); in Ge -
many, ealo G een Hube Kleine was explici ly a aid o he pa y dying ou
en i elyi  heywould ail o ind“e icien ”means opa icipa einpoli ics(Klein-
e , 1991, p. 35). These quo es p o ide jus a ew o he many examples in which
G een ac o s hus el compelled o adap o he p esupposi ions o he su ounding
discou sesino de  obecomemo ee icien in hepoli ical ield.
“Race o he bo om” in a nu shell
In o de o unde s and hese de elopmen pa e ns as pa h-dependen , hei ou -
come would ha e had o be somewha p edic able, since s epping away om he
pa h would ha e become inc easingly cos ly. This is p ecisely he case he e. As
an ini ial s ep, Eu opean poli icians s a ed demanding he su passing o s a e-led
indus y egula ion policies (and o he obs acles o economic p oduc i i y), wi h
demands o e-alloca ing esponsibili y o he consume . Second, as one coun y
c ea ed a ou able compe i i e condi ions, o he s el compelled o ollow, caus-
inga“ ace o hebo om” ha becameinc easinglydi icul  os op.Finally,as
G een pa ies wan ed o pa icipa e in na ional-le el decision-making, hey ound
hemsel esinsi ua ionsinwhiche icien means opa icipa einpoli icswe e
al eady ied o a pa h-dependen epe i ion o p omo ing indus y compe i i eness.
Thus, he ep esen a i e poli ical sys em did no allow decision powe o hose who
d i ed oo a away om he cul u al no malcy o sociocen ic p emises, causing
he ocus o shi om ecological o economic pe spec i es.
The example o wha happened o G een pa ies in he 1990s in he p essu e
o new ma ke - iendly en i onmen alism demons a es he kind o pa h depend-
encies ha end o d aw adical hinking back owa ds a s a e o no malcy when

An economic ail wagging an ecological dog? 107
en e ing he ealm o poli ics. As Mahoney poin ed ou , changing a sys em a any
gi en ime is mo e cos ly han e u ning o he pa h-dependen sequences al eady
inuse ha p o ideimmedia ebene i s.Thisisap imeexampleo asi ua ionwhe e
“ac o s a ionally choose o ep oduce ins i u ions […] because any po en ial bene-
i so  ans o ma iona eou weighedby hecos s”(Mahoney,2000,pp.507–512).
Re-alloca ing esponsibili y o he indi idual consume was he mos p edic able
ou come also among o he pa ies pa icipa ing in his “ ace o he bo om”. Poli i-
cal ac o s in indi idual coun ies el compelled o adap o his changing pa adigm
(Olsen, 2019). He e, G een pa ies a e examples o he same hegemonic na u e o
ma ke -o ien ed hinking in Wes e n poli ical cul u e4 ha was in he p ocess o
s eng hening in o he pa ies du ing he 1980s and 1990s due o he globaliza ion
o he economy.
When add essing his de elopmen , i is wo h no ing ha hese pa h dependen-
cies a e no en i ely de e minis ic, as hey ake place in he o m o “expec a ions”,
as men ioned abo e (Mahoney, 2000). Expec a ions, howe e , a e ho oughly sub-
jec i e and discu si ely cons uc ed. Economis Ma iana Mazzuca o has claimed
ha he de egula o y amewo k associa ing compe i i eness wi h comple e ee-
dom o he ma ke s is based on a “discu si e ba le”, wi h poli ical incen i es
d i ing he discou se ha is e en ually aken o g an ed once i has achie ed a
hegemonic s a us. These discou ses “ ep oduce s e eo ypes and images which
se e only ideological ends”, she claims, as p esumed ma ke punishmen s ha
supposedly ollow ma ke in e en ions a e no ue in any empi ical sense bu
me ely discu si ely assumed (Mazzuca o, 2014, pp. 1–13). Belie s play a majo
ole in such discu si e games: As John D yzek (2005a) has poin ed ou , i has been
he belie o sus ainingin es o con idencein ea o ma ke punishmen s ha has
d i en poli icians o emphasize compe i i eness o e o he alues ha hey migh
pe sonally endo se. B eaking ee om such ea -based pa h dependencies is hus
no a ques ion o poli ical eali ies bu o poli ical will.
Concep ually, he emphasis on economic compe i i eness has led o a con-
sume is change in he meanings gi en o sus ainable de elopmen , as discussed
abo e. Je emy Ca adonna (2018, pp. 154–158) poin ed ou ha e en he sus ain-
able de elopmen discou se s a ed ou as “a adical depa u e om he s a us quo
o indus ial g ow h”, an a emp o econcile a comp omise be ween he needs o
human and nonhuman well-being. When he concep o sus ainable consump ion
was de eloped in poli ical language in he ea ly 1990s, he sus ainable de elop-
men discou se had al eady u ned in o an a emp o s and by he ma e ialis ically
unde s ood concep ion o well-being, al hough wi h he add-on o no jeopa dizing
he needs o u u e (human) gene a ions (Akenji, 2019). The comp omise o s a
using he concep in a mo e ma ke -complian manne linked he whole concep
wi h an an h opocen ic and ma e ialis ic unde s anding o well-being, hus u ning
he ocus away om new ideals o he ma ke -o ien ed amewo k o g ow h and
compe i i eness (D yzek, 2005b). Fu he mo e, his comp omise c ea ed a con a-
dic ion be ween he s a ed goals and he means used o ge he e, as en i onmen al
108 Ris o-Ma i Ma e o and A e A man
esponsibili y was simul aneously e-alloca ed o indi idual consume s in o de
o enhance indus y compe i i eness. Based on his de elopmen , Lewis Akenji
(2019, p. 14) poin ed ou how g een consume ism “lays he esponsibili y on con-
sume s o unde ake he unc ion o main aining economic g ow h while simul a-
neously, con adic o ily and wi h limi ed agency, bea ing he bu den o d i e he
socio-economic sys em owa ds ecological sus ainabili y”.
Ou social concep ualiza ions o well-being a e also connec ed o en anglemen s
wi h na u e. Howe e , as hese concep ualiza ions a e d awn back o an h opocen-
ism, hey end o blind us om he needs o Ea h sys ems, on which all human
well-being is ne e heless s ill based. This seems o be p ecisely wha occu ed
in en i onmen al poli ics in he 1990s. As he social zei geis o he decade p o-
mo ed globaliza ion (Kananen, 2008), he needs o he Ea h’s sys ems, as well as
he h ea scausedbyad ancingclima echange,dese i ica ion,andbiodi e si y
loss, ma e ed li le (Ca adonna, 2018). Ins ead o labelling hese decisions “g een-
washing”, as some schola s (e.g. ibid.)ha edone,we indi mo econs uc i e o
unde s and hese u ns as pa h dependencies ha can be ca e ully analyzed and
unde s ood as a ional d awbacks, caused by he unde s andable need o be e ec-
i ein he ieldo poli ics,and ha canbea oidedoncede ec ed.Aspoli icians
a e making decisions based on sho - e m expec a ions o economic and poli ical
bene i s, hep essu e oadap  oou cul u alneedsisimmenselys ong,whichis
why adical isions o well-being ha e ended o all back o a s a e o sociocen-
ic no malcy. Once hese expec a ions a e unde s ood as pa o discu si e and
ideological de elopmen , hey can be ques ioned and po en ially abandoned. This
would equi e enough poli ical cou age and imagina ion o abandon he e e yday
p esupposi ions ha ha e so a guided poli ical decision-making.
Conclusion
Looking a en i onmen al poli ical ideas and concep s om he pe spec i e o
en angled his o y opens up new esea ch ques ions. The e is an inc easing need
o unde s and he easons behind he belie s and ideas ha guide poli ical hink-
ing back o a s a e o sociocen ic no malcy. We ha e mapped some key elemen s
ha a ec how well-being is concep ualized in poli ics and o whom well-being is
a ibu ed. As en i onmen al poli ical goals a e mo ing in a mo e mode a e di ec-
ionwhilespeciesex inc ion,dese i ica ion,oceanacidi y,andclima echange,
among o he issues, a e apidly ad ancing, we conclude ha he key incen i es o
his de elopmen ha e no lied in ecological needs bu a he in economic, human-
o ien ed needs, based on poli ical, social, and economic pa h dependencies.
The case o sus ainable de elopmen and i s e ec s on G een pa ies is me ely
one example o a much la ge phenomenon ha en i onmen al his o y can make
isible: Ou unde s anding o well-being being d i en back owa ds a s a e o
an h opocen icno malcyino de  oac e icien lywi hinsocials uc u es.F om
he pe spec i e o en anglemen s, he dange o eeling compelled o e u n o
An economic ail wagging an ecological dog? 109
no malcy in poli ical decision-making is closely connec ed wi h he well-being o
he nonhuman na u e, as he posi i e e ec s o poli ical ac ion on he en i onmen
can diminish. The e o e, i is o i al impo ance o de ec and analyze he causes
o hese d awbacks in o de o s a de eloping e ec i e s a egies on how o mani-
es plane a y well-being wi hou losing i s pa adigm-shi ing na u e in con ex s o
ac ion, such as poli ics.
App oaching he issue his way opens up ano he , pe haps mo e impo an ques-
ion: How can we b eak ee om hese pa h dependencies? In o he wo ds, how
can we b eak ee om he de e minis ic pe cep ion o poli ics ha eso s o sho -
e m calcula ions as a manda o y mus in a globalizing wo ld? How can we no le
aneconomic ailwaganecologicaldog?The i s s epin hisdi ec ionwouldbe
o unde s and ha he p esumably una oidable pe spec i es o poli ics a e, in ac ,
always discu si ely cons uc ed and o ged o seem as i he e a e no al e na i es
o hem. In ou examples, such assump ions ha e been aken o g an ed, causing
a d awback in ideas ha a emp o escape he s a us quo in he ieldo poli ics.
Wea e emindedo howeasilyanewse o ideas,noma e howbene icial
and inno a i e, ge s d awn back when i is pu o use in con ex s o ac ion, such
as poli ics, in which e ec i e ac ion is pa h-dependen on olde models o conduc
and hough . S epping ou o hese models equi es s epping ou o a sociocen ic
unde s anding o well-being. This equi es poli ical will, cou age, and imagina ion
o look ou side he sel -c ea ed box. Meanwhile, his o ical esea ch i sel can do
i s pa in challenging old ways o hinking by de eloping a heo y embedded in
en angled humanism a he han in pu ely an h opocen ic g ounds.
No es
1 The e m is used somewha in e changeably wi h “an h opocen ism”, bu is also laden
wi h social alues, such as he economic measu emen o well-being.
2 The Moli o epo p oposals a e di ec ly quo ed in he Commission’s commen a y.
3 This idea was examined mo e ho oughly in he upcoming disse a ion o Ris o-Ma i
Ma e o (2023) cu en ly in e iew.
4 Meaning he e p ima ily Wes e n libe al democ acies.
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In oduc ion
The plane a y well-being app oach emphasizes he need o p o ec i al na u al
p ocesses in o de o secu e he well-being o bo h human and nonhuman na u e.
While he cu en hegemonic concep aming he balance be ween human needs
and en i onmen al p o ec ion is e iden ly “sus ainable de elopmen ”, plane a y
well-being depa s om his idea, o e ing a mo e holis ic app oach and a s onge
emphasis on nonhuman na u e (he ea e na u e) beyond i s ins umen al alue.
Bu o ap he ull po en ial o he plane a y well-being concep , insigh s om
o he disciplines should be used o complemen i s co e ideas. In his chap e ,
we lay ou a pe spec i e om c i ical de elopmen s udies. C i ical de elopmen
s udies assis s us o unde s and he sho comings o he sus ainable de elopmen
app oach. I highligh s how “de elopmen ” as a p ac ice and a mindse has shaped
ou unde s anding o socie al p oblems and solu ions, and how cu en ideas abou
de elopmen (and hence also sus ainable de elopmen , despi e he ecen b oaden-
ing o i s agenda) s and in he way o p og ess owa ds he aims o plane a y well-
being. C i ical de elopmen s udies also p o ides ideas ha a e complemen a y o
plane a y well-being by emphasizing he need o ecognize he di e si y o knowl-
edge sys ems and hence o ele an ways o ela ing o he na u al en i onmen ,
as well as he ole o global economic pa e ns in c ea ing and sus aining inequali-
ies. These insigh s assis plane a y well-being heo y o unde s and he sys ems o
powe and inequali y which cu en “de elopmen ” sub ly ad oca es and ope a es
wi hin, as he heo y mo es owa ds add essing he needs o human socie ies and
he plane .
This chap e explica es and illus a es he c i ical de elopmen s udies app oach
and how i can con ibu e o plane a y well-being. We begin wi h a c i ical
8
LOCAL KNOWLEDGE AND
GLOBAL JUSTICE
F om hegemonic de elopmen
o plane a y well-being
Teppo Eskelinen, Vee a Jo o and God ed Obeng
DOI: 10.4324/9781003334002-12
114 Teppo Eskelinen e al.
assessmen o he meaning o de elopmen , ocusing on i s ole as an epis emic
monocul u e and hie a chical sys em. This is done by means o a li e a u e e iew.
Then we apply ideas om he e iewed li e a u e o a case s udy on clima e change
and cash c op cul i a ion, o illus a e he di e ences be ween sus ainable de elop-
men and plane a y well-being app oaches. The chap e closes wi h a discussion
and conclusions.
The p oblems o de elopmen as we know i
As a concep , de elopmen appea s o cap u e he human s i ing o p og ess,
and i desc ibes bo h a cul u e o mode ni y and an economic policy p og amme.
Thanks o hese associa ions, de elopmen easily becomes sel -jus i ica o y: As
de elopmen is equa ed wi h p og ess, e e y hing ha alls unde he label o
de elopmen can claim o be posi i e. Mo eo e , i is he basis o policy in e en-
ions. When p oblems such as pe sis en po e y and en i onmen al des uc ion a e
no ed, de elopmen eme ges as he sugges ed amewo k o design he emedies.
Fo hese easons, i is pa icula ly impo an o sc u inize he concep c i ically.
De elopmen is adi ionally unde s ood as economic g ow h, and as ins umen-
al in o eg ounding he g and a ge o achie ing “ he end o po e y” (Sachs,
2005). I is associa ed wi h he Enligh enmen adi ion along wi h ad ances in sci-
ence, anspo , heal hca e, and he like. Bu he cul u e unde lying hese ad ances
also en ails he pe cep ion o human beings as supe io , “es anged” and “sepa-
a ed” om na u e (Diaz C uz, 2020), leading o a emp s o domina e na u e as
human beings see hemsel es as he only measu e o ue alue (Pu se , Pa k
and Mon uo i, 1995). Th ough he p ocess, na u e has come o be seen as p ima -
ily a esou ce s ock (Abedi-Se as ani and Shah ali, 2008), leading o a eckless
exploi a ion o he en i onmen .
Abili ies o explain and con ol he na u al wo ld ha e also impac ed upon he
a i ude o he “de eloped” owa ds o he knowledge sys ems (Nyg en, 1999).
A my iad o cul u es and ela ed knowledges abou local na u e ha e been deemed
“backwa ds”, in e io , o e en incapable o eason. Du ing he colonial e a, sub-
jec s in he colonies aced disc imina ion as hei supposed p oximi y o na u e
cons i u ed an excuse o hei domina ion. While less explici and appea ing in
a mo e bene olen guise oday, he no ion o “ he hi d wo ld” (Escoba , 1995)
and he pe cep ion o “unde de elopmen ” as an undigni ied condi ion (Es e a,
1992) con inue o legi imize in e en ions among he “unde de eloped” o bo h
he implemen e s and ecipien s o his in e en ion (Escoba , 1995).
Fu he mo e, jus i ying policy p ocesses in e ms o de elopmen has mean he
en o cemen o ma ke ela ions and igh s, as well as a shi o owne ship pa e ns
away om communal owne ship (B yan , 1998). Wi hin cul u es o mode ni y, he
s a e and he ma ke a e o en seen as mu ually exclusi e domains, and in p ac ical
e ms de elopmen has mean p ecisely he en o cemen o hese wo loca ions o
powe a he expense o he communi y.
Local knowledge and global jus ice 115
No only a p ocess bu also a c i e ion, de elopmen became he epis emological
basis o how “good quali y o li e” was unde s ood in e ms o a command o goods
wi h ma ke alue as well as speci ic kinds o ela ionships be ween s a es and indi-
iduals (Ris , 2007), ende ing o he ela ionships in isible. The esul ing meas-
u es and app oaches e lec ed he a emp o uni e salize he li es yles o he global
No h. La e , hese ideas abou quali y o li e we e a ionalized in o echnical indi-
ca o s (Bhu a, Mali o and Umbach, 2018), he mos p ominen being o cou se he
G oss Domes ic P oduc . As he s anda ds and benchma ks used o measu e “high
quali y o li e” di ec ly e lec No he n li es yles, in e ec maximizing consump-
ion, hey a e in di ec con lic wi h many o he alue sys ems. Anecdo ally, o
example, many Andean popula ions c i ique Wes e n no ions o de elopmen as
inc eased ma e ial p oduc ion and consump ion (Ca bonnie e al., 2017). Ra he ,
he e exis s he mul i-le el wo ld heo ies which in luence and en ich he o e a ch-
ing concep o “buen i i ” o “good li ing” which gene ally depic s de elopmen
no as an end o achie emen o he s a e bu as an ongoing p ocess o enhancing
na u e-communi y li ing (ibid.).
In addi ion o o ganising and assessing s a es’ pe o mance, de elopmen can
be also seen as he name and jus i ica ion o he exis ing global poli ical o de . In
his sense i shapes and upholds exis ing global ela ions, such as he lock-in o he
colonized coun ies’ ole as p oduce s o a single un e ined c op. While de elop-
men is jus i ied as a discou se based on he no ion o poo e coun ies “ca ching
up” economically wi h weal hie ones, he global economic sys em has pushed
economic dispa i ies o an unp eceden ed le el. Ma ke ela ions, which a e a he
hea o cul u es o de elopmen , mean ha dis ibu i e logics do no ollow human
needs bu ma ke demands, which is s ic ly con a y o he idea o plane a y well-
being. Economic dispa i ies a e also in e wined wi h dispa i ies in poli ical powe
and epis emological dominance.
Recen ly, he e has been a u he expansion o economic ela ions. The de el-
opmen o he mode n ma ke socie y has mean a globaliza ion o esou ces and
ex e nali ies, wi h nega i e ex e nali ies alloca ed o al eady disad an aged social
ca ego ies and egions (Ho nbo g, 2009). The cul u al ideas unde lying mode ni y
and capi alism, acco ding o which na u e can be ea ed as “ esou ces” o “ aw
ma e ial”, ha e been combined wi h he globaliza ion o hose ideas and he ma -
ke s o hose esou ces. This has led o new and des uc i e pa e ns o ela ing o
na u e. Such p ocesses ha e also pa ed way o phenomena such as land-g abbing
and cap u e (Abe ne hy e al., 2017), and he p i a iza ion o s a e p ope y a ound
he global Sou h.
Al e na i e pa hways: De elopmen as usual o some hing else?
To sum up, despi e he p og ess associa ed wi h de elopmen , seeing he wo ld as
essen ially comp ising na ions a di e en “de elopmen le els” implici ly jus i ies
he downplaying o global hie a chies and a cul u e ha is des uc i e o he na u al
122 Teppo Eskelinen e al.
well-being o speci ic na u al ecosys ems in o de o unde s and he condi ions o
human well-being in speci ic loca ions.
The sus ainable de elopmen app oach would mean adap ing o exis ing con-
di ions as a as possible, secu ing esponsible ac ion wi hin he domains unde
each ins i u ion’s o indi idual’s con ol, bu accep ing he cons ain s o expo
o ien a ion, consume powe , and exis ing sys ems o ade go e nance. Fa me s
could p ac ise mixed c opping, shi o o he egions i necessa y, and pa icipa e in
ce i ica ion schemes ha would inc ease he alue o hei p oduce in he eyes o
powe ul global consume s. Possibly, a me s could also gain access o bes p ac-
ices om o he egions. Wha is omi ed in his discou se is ques ions ela ed o he
global di ision o labou , he alloca ion o ulne abili ies, local epis emologies, and
he oom o manoeu e a ailable o di e en socie al posi ions. I is also unclea
wha sus ainable de elopmen posi s as he goal o cocoa a me s. Is he e any
“ca ch-up”, o jus he pe ennially unequal global o ganiza ion? Is he e inc eased
e inemen , new and di e se p oduc ion me hods, o imp o ed ood secu i y wi h
mo e di e se p oduce? Mos impo an ly, is he e any ecognized ela ionship wi h
one’s na u al en i onmen o he han an ins umen al one? Plane a y well-being,
on he o he hand, sugges s a holis ic app oach. I espec s limi s in e ms o bo h
plane a y bounda ies and he p o ec ion o local ecosys ems, bu i also posi s he
empowe men o p oduce s so ha a needs-d i en app oach will eplace exis ing
powe s uc u es. I we a e ying o unde s and he condi ions o well-being, i is
necessa y o lea n abou local pe cep ions, and o ask ques ions abou he well-
being o na u e om a non-an h opocen ic pe spec i e.
I needs o be no ed oo ha local pe cep ions ma e , beyond con i ming wha
science al eady ells us. Local en i onmen al knowledge has an impo an ole o
play in al e ing en i onmen ally des uc i e beha iou , bu i migh ha e a limi ed
impac i indi iduals eel powe less o change he wide sys em. Fa me s cons uc
hei ela ionship wi h na u e based on bo h he gene al condi ions o cul i a ion
(la gely impac ed by clima e change) and hei own app oach o a ming ( o exam-
ple, op ing o o ganic a ming). Bu i is he b oade sys em o ma ke s ha de e -
mines wha is p oduced, and mos d i e s o en i onmen al change a e beyond he
con ol o local a me s.
Discussion
Abo e, we ha e c i ically p esen ed he concep and p ac ice o de elopmen and
he undamen al ension i in ol es, illus a ing ou poin s wi h a case s udy. On
one hand, de elopmen is an e o owa ds p og ess: To u ilize exis ing knowl-
edge o he bene i o he whole o humani y. I s achie emen s need o be no ed.
Hence, de elopmen goals end o be ambi ious and exp essed in e y e hical he o-
ic (Eskelinen, 2018). Bu de elopmen (as bo h a p ocess and an in e en ion) can
and should also be seen c i ically as (1) a p ojec o undo locally ele an o ms o
knowing and ela ing o he immedia e en i onmen , in a ou o an epis emological

Local knowledge and global jus ice 123
monocul u e and an app oach ha sees na u e in e ms o esou ces o be u ilized
on he global ma ke ; (2) a p ocess o uni e salizing ma ke ela ions; (3) he mak-
ing o a se o global hie a chies; (4) he se ing o c i e ia o quali y o li e ha
a e in o med by hese ela ionships and hie a chies. Unde s anding de elopmen
en ails unde s anding i bo h as p og ess and as a mani es a ion o all hese aspec s.
So, wha can c i ical de elopmen s udies b ing o plane a y well-being? We
need o no e ha heo e ical ideas always ca y old pa e ns o hough , and i no
c i ically sc u inized hese old ideas may unin en ionally in o m he new ideas oo.
Plane a y well-being heo y hus isks aking on dominan ideas abou de elopmen
i hei oo s and impac a e no p ope ly ecognized. C i ical de elopmen s udies
p o ides ools o analyze hese dominan ideas. No only can de elopmen s udies
help us o ind new ways o unde s anding he oo p oblems o his c isis and o
engage wi h al e na i e isions, bu i can also help o expand discussions o plan-
e a y well-being by aming he domain o he issue and whe e solu ions may exis .
I sheds ligh on he powe ela ions ha cu en ly exis and need o be unmade i
holis ic well-being is o be pu sued.
While de elopmen as a p ac ice and idea is no homogenous, i s co e ideas
pe sis in sub ly jus i ying a cul u e ha po ays na u e as a esou ce s ock and is
based on seeing a ious people and cul u es as in e io p ecisely because o hei
supposed p oximi y o na u e. E en hough ideas e ol e, his co e o de elopmen
hinking emains s ong. These ideas need o be unde s ood, especially in e ms o
how hey o m obs acles o mo e holis ic ideas o well-being and how hey c eep
in o os ensibly p og essi e app oaches such as sus ainable de elopmen . While i
needs o be no ed ha he dis inc ion be ween business as usual and al e na i es is
no always clea -cu — o example, esou cis app oaches can be inco po a ed in o
e y c i ical accoun s, such as discussions o ecological bounda ies—i is impo -
an o unde s and how de elopmen as an idea and p ac ice wo ks. C ucially, e en
al e na i e app oaches o de elopmen econcep ualize he dynamics o human
socie y, a he han human–na u e ela ionships.
Bu he e e iden ly emain human socie ies ha a e unable o e en mee basic
needs, and he e o e he e is a genuine need o ensu e ha all human beings can
enjoy a digni ied li e. This en ails an economic aspec : Fa me s keep a ming o
achie e necessa y ma e ial goods oo. While he exis ence o po e y con inues
o be he jus i ica ion o de elopmen , i is c ucial o ea icula e he need o
mee exis ing wan s in acco dance wi h plane a y well-being alues. Plane a y
well-being is no abou oman icizing po e y, bu abou showing he connec-
ions be ween he well-being o humans and nonhuman na u e—and we can add
ha i is necessa y o see he di e si y o possible ocabula ies o he good li e
and p og ess.
Human beings always con empla e hei ela ionships wi h na u e, use a ious
ocabula ies, and a ach di e en meanings o na u e. I needs o be asked wha
kind o knowledge is p i ileged and ecognized as ele an in he igh agains
en i onmen al des uc ion (Kaijse and K onsell, 2014). En i onmen al p o ec ion
124 Teppo Eskelinen e al.
in ol es mo e han s a e-le el en i onmen al policies o mee oday’s needs
wi hou comp omising hose o he u u e (B und land, 1987), o “ esou ce e i-
ciency”: I is a call o human beings o econside hei ela ionship wi h he en i-
onmen , and a ious sou ces o ideas and inspi a ion a e needed o his. Ou case
s udy showed ha a me s a e cons an ly con empla ing changes in na u e based on
hei expe ience, and seeking solu ions wi h a ailable me hods. Ye hei oom o
manoeu e is cu ailed by une en ela ions in he global economy, epis emology,
en i onmen al damage, and isk alloca ion. Fa me s ha e some oom o manoeu-
e, some space o hei expe iences and in e p e a ions o be hea d, and some
sha e o esponsibili y o mi iga ing clima e change, bu his space is limi ed by
economic and epis emological inequali ies.
Well-being should be seen no only as a ma e o mee ing ce ain baselines, bu
as a quali y and i ue o socie y, ex ending om local communi ies o global soci-
e y. Seen in his way, he issue is no o o e come po e y, bu o o e come ma e-
ial inequali ies and epis emological hie a chies. I is necessa y o see he a ious
ace s o inequali y: Weal h, poli ical powe , and cul u al dominance. C ucially,
inequali ies a e no a bi a y o caused by a ia ions in indi idual achie emen s;
a he , hey a e ou comes o long his o ical p ocesses and economic and cul u al
s uc u es. In he con ex o en i onmen al p o ec ion, i should be no ed ha he
le el o esponsibili y o en i onmen al damage a ies signi ican ly be ween indi-
iduals, g oups o people, and na ions. The plane a y well-being app oach helps
us o un old hese a ious and o e lapping aspec s and unde s and how hey in e -
wine, a he han managing policy wi hin he sys em as i exis s. The app oach
emphasizes ha he deple ion o na u al p ocesses also disables human well-being:
C i ical de elopmen s udies complemen s his no ion by emphasizing ha he
means o well-being a e dependen on con ex . No all means o well-being can
be educed o esou ces, and hence no e en o esou ce e iciency. O he pe cep-
ions o human–na u e ela ionships may be mo e ele an o p omo ing gene al
plane a y well-being.
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Unsus ainabili y in consump ion and business
Ma ke ing, consump ion, and plane a y well-being
Consump ion o he acquisi ion o goods and se ices has eached a le el ha
he plane canno sus ain om he iewpoin o secu ing long- e m human well-
being, le alone secu ing he p ospec s o nonhuman well-being. Sa is ying human
needs deple es esou ces on a scale ha comp omises he well-being o nonhuman
species. Ma ke ing is he engine ha s imula es consump ion (Ko le , 2011) and,
consequen ly, he use o eno mous amoun s o na u al esou ces. The in e con-
nec ed a eas o consump ion and ma ke ing ha e impo an oles in acili a ing he
ansi ion owa ds sus ainable consump ion (McDonagh and P o he o, 2014) ha
espec s plane a y well-being (Ko e mäki e al., 2021).
Due o he inc easing awa eness o he cu en ecological c isis and he isks i
poses, companies in eg a e sus ainabili y in o hei s a egies and p ac ices. Ne -
e heless, in he ques o business g ow h, e enues, and e u ns on in es men ,
companies con inue o eed excessi e consump ion (Gable , Lande s and Richey,
2021), subo dina ing ecological conce ns o hese goals. As ma ke ing and con-
sump ion ha e se e e ad e se e ec s on PW, sus ainable ma ke ing, which educes
he damage, can e en be conside ed an oxymo on. Conce n o na u e is seldom
p esen inma ke ingde ini ionsandp ac ices,wi ha ewexcep ions.Mac o-le el,
c i ical ma ke ing app oaches ha e been called o o os e ha monious ela ion-
ships be ween ma ke ing, consump ion, and na u e (McDonagh and P o he o,
2014).Ma in(2013,p.18)s essed he oleo na u ebyde iningsus ainablema -
ke ing as “a p ocess o c ea ing, communica ing and deli e ing alue o cus ome s
in ways ha ensu e main aining and eco e ing bo h na u al and human capi al”.
9
CONSUMPTION AND
PLANETARY WELL-BEING
Jessie Do, Mi a Salimi, S e an Baumeis e ,
MillaSa ja, Ou i Uusi alo, Te hi-Anna Wilska
and JohannaSuikkanen
DOI: 10.4324/9781003334002-13
Consump ion and plane a y well-being 129
Apa om emphasizing ha ma ke ing should be ecologically sus ainable, socially
jus , and economically endu ing, she s a ed ha i has pe suasi e powe and can
hus be used o encou age e e yone o pay a en ion o nonhuman needs. Pe sua-
si e communica i e ools can aid in mains eaming consump ion pa e ns ha do
no comp omise many species’ oppo uni ies o achie e well-being. Ins ead o end-
lessly os e ing heg ow ho  hedemand o andconsump iono eco-e icien 
goods and se ices, sus ainable ma ke ing should acknowledge he sys emic iew
and he delica e balance be ween human and nonhuman needs o suppo a he
han endange ecosys em p ocesses.
Companies seeking o comply wi h he PW p emises can ake mo e o less e ec-
i e al e na i e ou es o ma ke ing. Usually, companies op o make inc emen al
changes, ocusing on single sus ainabili y ac ions, such as inc easing hei eco-
e iciencyo addingg eenp oduc s o hei p oduc  anges(P ess,2021).Howe e ,
single ac s would no add ess he ecological c isis bu would signal weak sus ain-
abili y,whichasse s ha na u al esou cescanbeexploi ed oinc easep o i s.
Assuming ha  hebene i so economicg ow hcompensa e o  helosso na u-
al esou ces and ecosys em se ices (ibid.), weak sus ainabili y does no lead o
changes in he logic o he g ow h and deple ion o esou ces.
The s ong-sus ainabili y app oach ejec s subs i u abili y and equi es main-
aining and p o ec ing he na u al capi al in he ecosys em (Die z and Neumaye ,
2007). This implies c ea ing sys emic changes, espec ing he in insic alue o
na u e in ma ke ing, and al e ing e e yday consump ion p ac ices, including educ-
ing consump ion le els (Geels e al., 2015; P ess, 2021). Awa eness o he nega i e
impac s o excessi e consump ion has ca alyzed al e na i e ma ke s, he use o
second-hand i ems, sha ing, ecycling, and he ci cula economy (CE). Deepen-
ing conce n abou na u e gi es eason o se ing condi ions o and bounda ies o
consume s’andma ke e s’p ac ices.Anexampleo suchano missu iciency,
de inedbyGossen,Zieseme ,andSch ade (2019,p.252)as“ heabsolu e educ-
ion o he esou ces and ene gy used o consump ion by ques ioning he le el o
demand”. Limi ed consump ion can be ha d o achie e when consume s expec
ce ain social and cul u al pa e ns o e e yday li e dic a ed by he consume is
cul u e (Ko e mäki e al., 2021). These demands d i e consume s o go beyond
he le el o consump ion ha only mee s hei pe sonal needs and ha dec eases
he possibili ies o sa is ying nonhuman needs. In hese cases, aking inc emen al
s eps in sus ainabili y can be a p ac ical way o achie ing s onge sus ainabili y
o e he cou se o ime.
Ma ke ing is based on an an h opocen ic ideology ha is inconsis en wi h he
needs o na u e. Reducing he disc epancies be ween ma ke ing, consump ion, and
ca e o nonhuman species is a mo e owa ds ma ke ing ha acknowledges PW.
S uc u al and cul u al ans o ma ions a e needed o mo e p oduc ion, ma ke ing,
and consump ion om esou ce deple ion o esou ce main enance. Viable s eps
a e mi iga ing unsus ainabili y, educing was e, imp o ing esou ce managemen
h ough ci cula supply chains, and adop ing al e na i e consump ion p ac ices.
130 Jessie Do e al.
T ansg essions in ma ke ing
Humans’ dominance o e he plane causes las ing al e a ions o ecosys ems. The
i esponsible p ac ices o companies a e among he mos se ious haza ds, pu ing
a a ie y o ecological and economic unc ions in jeopa dy. I esponsibili y ha ms
bo h li ing en i ies (e.g., humans and na u e) and non-li ing en i ies (e.g., b ands
andbusinesses).Thesedamagingac i i iesin hema ke inga eaa eclassi iedas
b and ansg ession (Aake , Fou nie , and B asel, 2004), b and misconduc (Hube
e al., 2010), and co po a e social i esponsibili y (Lin-Hi and Mülle , 2013).
“B and ansg ession” is a b oade e m ha can co e bo h “b and misconduc ”
and “co po a e social i esponsibili y”.
Aake ,Fou nie ,andB asel(2004)de ineb and ansg essionasa iola iono 
heimplici andexplici  ulesin heconsume −b and ela ionship,andi canbe
ela ed o pe o mance and alue (Du a and Pullig, 2011). Pe o mance- ela ed
ansg essions pe ain o de ec i e goods o se ices (e.g., p oduc ecalls), whe eas
alue- ela ed ansg essions pe ain o social o e hical conce ns inhe en in b and
alues a he han issues di ec ly connec ed o goods o se ices. Value- ela ed
b and ansg essionsha e ami ica ions o  heconce nedb ands’pe cei edsym-
bolic meanings; hus, hei consequences on consume s’ and na u e’s well-being can
be mo e las ing and de imen al. A case o alue- ela ed ansg ession is Ryanai ’s
g eenwashing news in 2020: The ai line claimed ha i has he lowes ca bon emis-
sion a e among he Eu opean ai lines, bu he Ad e ising S anda ds Au ho i y
e ealed ha his claim is misleading and a om eali y (B i ish B oadcas ing
Co po a ion (BBC), 2020). While some ins ances o g eenwashing a e inad e -
en and a ise om a lack o unde s anding o wha en i onmen - iendliness is, i
is o en ca ied ou on pu pose using a a ie y o ma ke ing and public ela ions
echniques and misin o ma ion.
Among alue- ela ed ansg essions, social and en i onmen al unsus ainabili y
is common and has he mos angible implica ions o li e on Ea h; he esea ched
cases o alue- ela ed ansg essions in ol ed employee mis ea men and wo k-
place disc imina ion, co po a e aud, swea shop ac o ies and child labou , en i-
onmen al ha m and animal abuse, and con o e sial ma ke ing p ac ices and
une hical p oduc ion (e.g., Ouyang, Yao and Hu, 2020; Xu, Bol on and Win e ich,
2021). Unsus ainabili y is “ins i u ionalized” in many o he global con en ional
business s uc u es and economic sys ems (Ri ala, Alba eda and Bocken, 2021).
B eaking down hese ins i u ionalized pa e ns and acknowledging ha na u e and
humani y a e inex icably linked o each o he may be he key o a success ul an-
si ion o a mo e sus ainable economy, ensu ing a u u e o na u e and humans.
Inco po a ing he non-an h opocen ic and sys emic iew o PW in o business
s uc u es and economic sys ems is necessa y o his change as businesses and
consume s need o unde s and ha human and nonhuman en i ies a e in e con-
nec ed, and ou plane will no su i e unless he needs o di e se o ms o li e on
Ea ha esa is ied.Bo hconsume sandna u ep o ideinpu  ocompanies,and
Consump ion and plane a y well-being 131
na u e elies on he benign quali y o consume s’ and businesses’ inpu o na u e o
con inue o exis and be well.
The cu en ma ke ing and consump ion sys em is pa o he p oblem ha
h ea ensPW.Wesugges andemphasize ha ma ke ingcanbecomeasigni ican 
pa o he solu ion i i adop s bo h inc emen al and adical me hods o pu sue
plane - iendly ou comes. The second pa o his chap e discusses a ious solu-
ions poin ing o he con inuum om weak sus ainabili y ac ions o majo , sys em-
le el ans o ma ions as pa hs o PW.
Solu ions o consump ion o plane a y well-being
Enhancing sus ainable consume beha iou
Sus ainable consump ion helps es o e na u al and human esou ces and educe he
impac s o human consump ion on nonhuman needs by adop ing al e na i es ha
use ewe  i gin esou ces.I in ol esashi  omo ee icien lyp oducedneed
sa is ie s(Ko e mäkie al., 2021) ia was e educ ion, p oduc li e ex ension, and
euse and ecycling (Mai e-Eke n and Dalhamma , 2019).
Coming up wi h solu ions o unsus ainable consume beha iou equi es an
unde s anding o how needs and desi es a e cul u ally and socially de e mined
in di e en socie ies. I is also impo an o unde s and sus ainabili y in ligh o
consume s’ gene a ional alues and a i udes. Today, i is gene ally hough ha
he younges consume s a e he mos en i onmen ally conscious; Gene a ion Z
is equen ly called Gene a ion G een by he media. Howe e , many s udies in
di e en cul u es sugges ha he young gene a ions (Y and Z) do no make he
mos en i onmen ally iendly pu chase decisions. Ra he , he olde gene a ions
(Baby Boome s and Gene a ion X) ha e been he mos sus ainable consume s o
he pas ew decades (Wilska, 2002; Kuoppamäki, Wilska and Taipale, 2017; Ham
e al., 2021). Young people may ha e he g eenes alues and good in en ions, bu
high p oduc p ices and he hedonis ic pu sui o expe iences (Kuoppamäki, Wilska
and Taipale, 2017) may enhance unsus ainable consump ion among hem (Ham
e al., 2021). P oduc s ha ha e been p oduced in an en i onmen ally iendly
way a e o en mo e expensi e han non-g een p oduc s (e.g., as ashion), and
he desi e o expe iences may lead o unsus ainable p ac ices (e.g., a elling).
Li es yles wi h eal non-consump ion p ac ices a e s ill a e. Howe e , new ends
a e eme ging among he young, such as p e e ing second-hand ashion and egan
ood (Beda d and Tolmie, 2018).
The pe cep ions o wha is sus ainable and wha should be done o inc ease
sus ainabili y in consump ion a y in di e en heo e ical app oaches. The adical
iew emphasizes indi idual powe and esponsibili y, whe eas he e o mis iew
elies on s uc u al changes in socie y (Ga ne , 2000). The adical pe spec i e aims
ochange hewo ldbychangingpeopleo in luencing heway heyexpe ience he
wo ld (D yzek, 1997). Radical g een mo emen s emphasize he need o educe all
234 Aino-Kaisa Kois inen e al.
The exhibi ion de eloped on he hemes exp essed in Gus a sson&Haapoja’s
p e ious exhibi ions, such as The Museum o he His o y o Ca le (2014) o Museum
o Nonhumani y (2016–), ha c i icized he ole o museums as ins i u ions and
spaces o p ese ing only human his o y and cul u al he i age wi hou ecognizing
he ole o nonhuman animals in his o y and cul u e. In Pigs, Gus a sson&Haapoja
called a en ion o he well-being o bo h humans and nonhumans by p esen ing
he isi o s wi h he expe iences o pigs and pig indus y wo ke s, bo h su e ing
om poo li ing and wo king condi ions. Thus, he exhibi ion was hema ically
in e wined wi h global con ex s and c i ical ques ions on ecological, economic,
and social sus ainabili y and well-being on a plane a y scale.
The sound ins alla ion Wai ing Room consis ed o speake s playing pigs’ oices
and no hing else, bu i was amed by an exhibi ion ex in he oom leading o
he sound ins alla ion, s a ing ha he pigs we e eco ded on hei las nigh be o e
slaugh e . The minimalis se ing o he exhibi ion oom highligh ed he e ec o he
oices: The e was no much else ha he isi o could ocus on (see Figu e 17.1).
The isi o was hus o ced o encoun e he pigs in a manne o which mos ci y-
dwelling museum-goe s a e no accus omed— ha is, by hei o e whelming audi-
i e p esence. The lack o isual ep esen a ion o he pigs also emphasized he
simul aneous absence and p esence o pigs in socie y ha he exhibi ion sough
o add ess. Schola s such as Ca ol J. Adams (2010) and Timo hy Pachi a (2011,
p. 3; see also C eed, 2017, p. 114) ha e no ed he cul u al in isibili y o animals
ea ed o hei mea : The animals become p oduc s, mea , and he ac ual li ing
and dying animals a e concealed om sigh . The pigs’ oices e en seeped h ough
he headphones when iewing he ideos in he o he ooms, hus con ibu ing o
he iewing expe ience. The ac ha he oices we e eco ded on hei las nigh
be o e slaugh e highligh ed he pigs’ ulne abili y and dependency on humans and
con on ed he isi o wi h ques ions such as he pigs’ possible awa eness o hei
app oaching dea h.
The isual absence o he pigs in Wai ing Room was in s a k con as o he
ideo Un i led (Ali e) displayed in he p eceding oom—e en he i le o he ideo
se es as a coun e poin o he soon- o-be-dead animals. The ideo was cap u ed by
a aching a came a wi h a ha ness o he pig called Paa o, now li ing in an animal
shel e . The came a was a ached o Paa o’s neck, so his ea s and snou we e is-
ible om he back (see Figu e 17.2). In his sense, he ideo no only o e s a isual
ep esen a ion o a pig ( ha was lacking in Wai ing Room) bu in i es he iewe s
o see he wo ld h ough he eyes o one. Unlike he pigs in he sound ins alla ion,
Paa ois oaming eelyon he a m,sni inganddigging heg ound,napping,
and ecei ing human ca esses. Wa ching he ideo, i is easy o desc ibe Paa o as
ahappyhogwhoge s oac acco ding ohisspecies-speci icbeha iou .The ideo
po ays him as an indi idual, no as a esou ce o be consumed.
In he exhibi ion ca alogue, Gus a sson&Haapoja desc ibe he ideo No Da a as
“an a emp o examine wha kind o wo ld is c ea ed by animal husband y”.3 They
alsono e hedi icul yina emp ing og asp hewholepic u eo pighusband y,

Towa ds cul u al ans o ma ion: Cul u e as plane a y well-being 235
whe e he well-being o bo h humans and nonhumans is connec ed o bac e ia, eed
p oduc ion, and indus ial in as uc u e. The name No Da a hus highligh s he
eno mous scale and inaccessibili y o he animal indus y. The agmen ed poe ics
o he ideo communica es his scale and inaccessibili y: The iewe s a e p esen ed
wi h changing images and ex s ha do no p o ide enough da a o see he whole
FIGURE 17.1
Wai ing Room. Copy igh : Jenni La a. Cou esy o Kuns halle Seinäjoki.
FIGURE 17.2
Un i led (Ali e). Sc eensho . Cou esy o Kuns halle Seinäjoki.
236 Aino-Kaisa Kois inen e al.
(see Figu e 17.3). The e ec is u he emphasized by he agmen ed na u e o he
p esen ed ex s, as he ollowing exce p s illus a e:
he bloodie inciden s eally bo he ed he , she said, such as when a new hi e
caugh his
an employee wo king on a sani a ion c ew pushed a bu on a e emo ing
pa s om he uppe o a machine. he employee hen placed his oo in o a
a wo ke was eaching o pick up a box o clea a jam when his jacke became
caugh in a olle . As he ied o pull ou , his
The agmen slea e hesen encesopen,allowing iewe s o illin hegaps.The
p omiseo “bloodyinciden s”in he i s  agmen in i es iewe s oassume ha 
he omi ed ex s would con ain some hing iolen o he wo ke s. I is no ewo hy
ha No Da a also encompasses he expe iences o he pig a me s in he agmen :
“Fa ms acing dis ess ha e elied on sho - e m loans”.4 The p eca ious condi ions
o he pig indus y wo ke s discussed in he ideo hus ex end o he a me s. P eca -
i y is commonly unde s ood as unce ain y o employmen and human li elihood
wi hin he global capi alis economy (see, e.g., P eca ias a la de i a, 2009, pp. 100,
387). In he e a o ecosocial c ises, p eca i y has become an exis en ial ques ion abou
he possibili y o u u e human and nonhuman li e on Ea h. In his p eca ious con-
di ion, humans and pigs a e bo h culp i s o en i onmen al disas e s ia complex
ecological and economic in e linkages, and simul aneously he ic ims o condi ions.
The agmen ed ex s bo ow hei aes he ics om poe y. Discussing he pos-
sibili y o w i ing he li e o ano he mea animal, he cow, Jessica Holmes (2021)
connec s poe y o ac i ism in i s po en ial o lend oices o hose who a e silenced,
“in pa due o i s capaci y o embody loss, agmen a ion, and absence”. Thus,
“poems o e al e na i e me hods o seeing o bea ing wi ness o, emembe ing
and assigning alue o indi idual subjec s” (ibid., p. 229). Wi hin he con ex o he
Pigs exhibi ion, he poe ic language o No Da a in i ed he iewe s o bea wi ness
o he ulne abili ies and in e connec ed li es o pigs and pig indus y wo ke s,
habi ually ende ed in isible by he shee logis ics o echnological ci iliza ion.
I is o en claimed ha he po en ial o a and li e a u e o ins iga e socie al
changes lies in hei capaci y o allow people o g asp he expe iences, eelings,
and emo ions o o he s, including nonhuman animals (Ri kin, 2010, p. 312; C eed,
2017, pp. 123–124; Weik on Mossne , 2017; Lähdesmäki and Kois inen, 2021). In
Pigs, he isi o s we e in i ed o sha e some pa s o he expe iences o bo h pigs
and pig indus y wo ke s. In No Da a, he a es and well-being o bo h humans
and nonhumans a e deeply en angled, speaking o hei sha ed ulne abili y and
p eca i y. The images and ex s depic condi ions ha a e haza dous and deadly o
bo h—and e en o he b oade na u al en i onmen ha is a ec ed by pig indus-
ial was e. Some o he agmen s also unde line he ole o immig an s as pig
indus y wo ke s in poo condi ions, highligh ing how some humans a e in mo e
p eca ious si ua ions han o he s (see Bu le , 2004).
Towa ds cul u al ans o ma ion: Cul u e as plane a y well-being 237
In he case o he oice ins alla ion and he ex agmen s o No Da a, Pigs can
also be in e p e ed as “gi ing oice” o cul u al “o he s”. The idea o speaking o
o he s may be con es ed in he case o humans, since ins ead o “speaking o ”
one migh ins ead need o lis en o o he s capable o speaking o hemsel es (e.g.,
ma ginalized, indigenous, o acialized people; see Mon e o-Siebu h, 2020).
Howe e , as he ex s in No Da a ep esen he wo ds o ac ual wo ke s, he a -
is s a e bo owing hei own wo ds o speak o hem, which eme ges as a o m
o lis ening. When i comes o nonhumans, “speaking o ” becomes somewha
p oblema ic, and he possibili y o human beings ep esen ing nonhumans ia lan-
guage has been c i icized (Ka kuleh o e al., 2020; MacCo mack, 2020, p. 56, pp.
79–80). Tha said, in human legisla ion and cul u al p ac ices, nonhuman animals
need humans o speak o hem, bu his “speaking o ” always equi es lis en-
ing ononhumans i s .Thesoundins alla ionWai ing Room can be in e p e ed
as in i ing he isi o s o lis en o he pigs as li ing, b ea hing, and some imes
noisy animals. I is no always possible o conc e ely lis en o nonhumans, bu
lis ening can be unde s ood as u ning human a en ion o nonhumans and hei
expe iences.
App oaching he expe iences o o he s h ough a s and li e a u e has been
a gued o lead o empa hy owa ds o he people (e.g., Keen, 2007; Fialho, 2019)
and pe haps e en o o he species (e.g., C eed, 2017, p. 19; Weik on Mossne ,
2017, pp. 1–16)—e en hough i canno , o cou se, be a gued ha his is always
he ou come o eading li e a u e o expe iencing a (Lähdesmäki and Kois inen,
FIGURE 17.3
The agmen ed poe ics o No Da a. Copy igh Jenni La a. Cou esy o
Kuns halle Seinäjoki.
238 Aino-Kaisa Kois inen e al.
2021). I can, howe e , be claimed ha he Pigs exhibi ion used he imagina i e
po en ial o a o expose museum-goe s o he expe iences and li ing/wo king
condi ions o bo h humans and animals in he pig indus y.5 Depending on he
iewe , his may ha e been an a ec i e and emo ional expe ience ha in ol ed
empa he ic eelings owa ds he pigs and mea indus y wo ke s and e eals he
mo e- han-human ulne abili y, injus ices, and (poli ical) s uggle in he indus ial-
ized, neolibe al, and pos colonial ma ke economy.
A and he changing meanings o wo k
The si e o he exhibi ion b ough ano he le el o he discussion on he animal
indus y. Un il he 1980s, he building was used as a cowshed, wi h a slaugh e -
house and a mea p ocessing plan in i s immedia e icini y. Kuns halle Seinä-
joki’s exhibi ions add ess issues a ising om i s loca ion on he in e sec ion o
u ban and u al con ex s. The animal indus y is s ill an impo an li elihood in
he egion, and Gus a sson&Haapoja wan ed o b ing he exhibi ion o discuss
he u u e o ood p oduc ion on-si e. The exhibi ion hi a p essu e poin a he
in e sec ion o local li elihoods, animal e hics, and sus ainable ans o ma ion
o ( ood) cul u e. In No embe 2021, Pigs a ac ed a lo o media a en ion.
A e wo middle school classes om he nea by own o Ku ikka had isi ed
he exhibi ion, he mayo o Ku ikka o bade u he elemen a y school classes
om isi ing i . Pa en s, many o hem pig a me s hemsel es, had con ac ed he
mayo . The ban was based on he claim ha he exhibi ion ga e oo one-sided an
image o pig husband y. Acco ding o he head o he local educa ion and cul u e
depa men , he decision aimed o p o ec child en om o ensi e con en (Koi-
u an a and Ahola, 2021).
The media deba e ha ollowed he ban on school isi s ques ioned whe he he
mayo had he au ho i y o in e ene in he cu iculum. A e all, animal wel a e
has been pa o he Finnish school cu iculum since 2016, al hough i a ies sig-
ni ican lyhow hisisimplemen edinschools.Inanin e iew(Mäenpää,2021),
he exhibi ion cu a o claimed ha people who had no e en seen he exhibi ion
ga e oo scandalous an image o i . Acco ding o he cu a o , many o he people
who had seen he exhibi ion said ha hey we e a he posi i ely disappoin ed han
shocked, as e e y hing was p esen ed in a sensi i e manne . The local pig a me s,
o hei pa , ook he exhibi ion as pa o a b oade a ack on hei li elihood,
e en hough he exhibi ion did no di ec ly commen on local pig husband y. Wha
was o go en in he media discussions a ound he exhibi ion was ha No Da a also
highligh s he p eca ious si ua ion o pig indus y wo ke s, as discussed abo e.
The a me s’ eac ion o he exhibi ion s esses he need o eimagining and
ans o ming li elihoods and wo k o plane a y well-being in ways ha no one is
le behind, e en when he ans o ma ion becomes a si e o hea ed cul u al nego-
ia ion and poli ical s uggle. We sugges ha he imagina i e po en ial o a can be
Towa ds cul u al ans o ma ion: Cul u e as plane a y well-being 239
used o ans o m he no malized pe cep ions o wo k, as made isible by he Pigs
exhibi ion and he media discussions i spu ed. Especially in he ideo No Da a,
pig indus y wo ke s’ p eca ious expe iences and ulne abili y can be in e p e ed
on he la ge scale o plane a y well-being, including bo h human and nonhuman
beings in c i ical discussions on ecological, economic, and social sus ainabili y. In
hese con ex s, i is in e es ing ha ecological c ises a e o en discussed in e ms
o consump ion—bo h on he le el o indi idual consume choices and he mul i-
la e al poli ical nego ia ions and ag eemen s o sus ainabili y—bu no so o en in
e ms o wo k. Ne e heless, mos en i onmen al ha m is connec ed o some kind
o wo k, and wo k causes many social and en i onmen al injus ices.
Wo k, like cul u e, is a mul i ace ed concep , bo h a noun and a e b. Wo k
may e e , o ins ance, o he e o o con e ing ma e in o a desi ed o m, o
o he di e se ways people con ibu e o socie y in exchange o sala y o goods—
o o se ices, cha i y, and ca e ha people o e o sha e wi hou any mone a y
exchange. Along wi h nume ous changing p ac ices ega ding wha we ea , how
we p oduce ene gy, and how mobili y is o ganized, he ans o ma ion en ails
undamen al cul u al changes conce ning wo k. Many occupa ions will become
obsole e, whe eas many new p o essions will be o med. A bes , indi iduals and
communi ieswould ecei esu icien economic,social,andpsychologicalsuppo 
when ansi ioning o new li elihoods, and he cul u al ans o ma ion could lea e
mo e ime o ca e, socie al pa icipa ion, and cul u al p ac ices such as a (c .,
BIOS, 2019; Jä ensi u and Toi anen, 2018). The ongoing cul u al ans o ma ion
o wo k equi es a new kind o poli ical economy, including no el solu ions o
income ha could acili a e meaning ul li es yles, economic, ecological, and social
sus ainabili y, and plane a y well-being.
Thecon lic  aisedby hePigsexhibi ioncanbepe cei edasacon lic o  al-
ues ha en ails a wicked mo al choice: Should socie y p io i ize he well-being o
pigs o he cu en li elihoods o a me s? The exhibi ion was p obably pe cei ed
as o ensi e as i showed pigs as indi iduals wi h desi es ha he isi o s could and
shouldempa hizewi h.Themo alcon lic washighligh edinNo Da a by p esen ing
he iewe wi h images and ex s ea u ing he ill-being o pigs, ollowed by a ques-
ion ha b ings o he o e he an h opocen ism o pig husband y: “Raising pigs on
conc e e—is i igh o me?” He e, he well-being o pigs emains concealed, and
he ocus emains on he human a me s: No one is asking whe he i is igh o he
pigs o aise hem on conc e e. Rega dless o ou mo al p e e ence, he pe suasi e
powe o a ma e s o he public discussion abou pigs and a m wo ke s—and his
discussion may, hen, ul ima ely a ec he ma e ial li ing condi ions o bo h.
Upon opening o he Pigs exhibi ion in Sep embe 2021, Gus a sson&Haapoja
o ganized a semina discussing pigs in socie y.6 They had in i ed se e al expe s
om di e en  ields o add ess he opic:An animal wel a e ep esen a i e, a
esea che o egene a i e ag icul u e, an animal igh s lawye , and an ac i is
sec e ly shoo ing ideos on animal a ms. The semina posed he ques ion o how

240 Aino-Kaisa Kois inen e al.
o li e mo e e hically wi h nonhuman animals while acknowledging he p ob-
lema ic posi ion o he a me s. In ligh o he semina , he media deba e on he
exhibi iono e simpli iedi bycons uc ingabiasbe weenlocalli elihoodsand
animal wel a e. Lau a Gus a sson ecognized how a me s a e caugh be ween a
ock and a ha d place, as hey a e bound o he cu en p oduc ion sys em by ag i-
cul u alsubsidiesandanemphasison hee iciencyandg ow ho  heag icul u al
sec o . Galina Kallio, a esea che in egene a i e ag icul u e, desc ibed he many
ways p oduce s a e al eady expe imen ing wi h e-o ganizing ood p oduc ion.
“In isible wo k” done by humans and ecosys ems is no explici in poli ical alk,
ma ke p ices,o o icials a is icsbu ne e helessinc eases hewell-beingo bo h
humans and ecosys ems. Cu en ly, hese new o ms o o ganizing wo k anspi e
mainly ou side o mal o ganiza ions (see also Kallio, 2018), bu making hem is-
ible h ough a and esea ch may make di e en ways o o ganizing li elihood
mo e widely a ailable o p oduce s.
In a ms whe e o ms o egene a i e ag icul u e a e al eady p ac ised, ela ion-
shipsbe weenhumansandnonhumananimalssuchaspigsa econ igu ed e ydi -
e en ly om he “con en ional” indus ial pig husband y. The animals on he a m
do wo k— hey may con ibu e, o ins ance, by keeping he g ass sho and p o-
cessing i in o manu e, hus ecycling nu ien s back o he soil. They do no exis
only obekilledandea en,and heyge  oli eacco ding o hei species-speci ic
and indi idual needs. Wo king o he well-being o he ecosys ems, animals, and
humans could p o ide a me s wi h new meaning ul li elihoods and wo k.
The Pigs exhibi ion and he semina exempli y a ’s po en ial o in i e he isi o s
o imagine a ans o ma ion owa ds mo e sus ainable li ing. I shows he po en ial
o a in aising ques ions abou plane a y well-being and making isible he sub-
o dina e ole o many, especially nonhuman, o he s in cul u e and socie y. While
he exhibi ion may ha e con ibu ed o he cul u al ans o ma ion owa ds plan-
e a ywell-beingbyques ioning hejus i ica iono indus ialmea p oduc ionand
ela ed wo k, i also showed how daun ing he ans o ma ion may be. Pig a me s
ha e been accusing u ban dwelle s and g een poli icians o aiming o educe mea
p oduc ion wi hou unde s anding whe e domes ic mea comes om and how he
animals a e ea ed. Du ing he exhibi ion, howe e , he a me s s ongly opposed
he a is s’ a emp a educa ing audiences abou pig a ming p ac ices—and, as
he media deba e shows, e en deemed he opic unsui able o hei child en. The
a me s appeal o hei igh o p ac ise hei legal li elihood, bu he deba e goes
deepe . By ques ioning he mo ali y o indus ial animal husband y, a challenges
he a me s’ iden i ies, exposing hei ulne abili y by d awing pa allels be ween
he su e ing o he pigs and o he animal indus y employees.
The example highligh s how a ’s a ec i e and poli ical impac can be con-
side ed h ea ening. This po en ial h ea is in ima ely connec ed o a ’s capac-
i y o imagine he pe spec i es o o he s—e en o people and c ea u es usually
conside ed aliens o enemies. In ansi ioning o cul u e as plane a y well-being,
Towa ds cul u al ans o ma ion: Cul u e as plane a y well-being 241
such conce ns should be add essed by lis ening o he oices o all conce ned—
consume s o p oduce s, pigs o a me s, a is s o poli icians.
Conclusion: Cul u e as plane a y well-being
Cul u al ans o ma ion is a ma e o bo h isions and p ac ices. I encompasses
he imagina ion o wha plane a y well-being would look like in mo e- han-human
socie ies and he ongoing ealiza ion o such isions as conc e e ac ions. Some imes,
p omo ing cul u al ans o ma ion en ails paying a en ion o cul u al p ac ices ha
al eady con ibu e o plane a y well-being. In his chap e , we ha e sough o high-
ligh he wo k o socie ally engaged a is s such as Gus a sson&Haapoja. As ou
examina ion o Pigs shows, Gus a sson&Haapoja’s wo k in i es b oad audiences o
e hink how hei li es a e en angled wi h he li es o o he s—human and nonhuman.
The powe o cul u al p oduc ions, like a , lies in he possibili y o c ea ing
such isions o plane a y well-being. Mo e b oadly, cul u e as ways o li e has he
po en ial o shi he emphasis om cu en consume cul u e and i s p ac ices o
plane a y well-being. Plane a y well-being is based on “needs-based, nonsubjec-
i econcep ionso humanwell-being”,meaning he ul ilmen o humanneeds
such as “ he need o physical and men al heal h, o ela ionships, and o au on-
omy in ac ion and hough ” wi hin plane a y bounda ies (Ko e mäki e al., 2021,
p. 5). When a b ings us o ealize and e hink ou ma e ial embeddedness in he
li es o o he s and ou sha ed ulne abili y, i can deepen ou unde s anding o
wha hese needs a e— o ou sel es and o he s.
Mo eo e ,a canhelp ul ilsocialandpsychologicalneedsinways ha a eless
des uc i e o ecosys ems. Enjoying and p ac ising a and cul u al p oduc s can
enhance men al heal h (Fancou and Finn, 2019), o example, by suppo ing one’s
expe ience o li ing a meaning ul li e (e.g., Thiele, 2013, pp. 168–193; Aholainen
e al., 2021). The sense o meaning is essen ial in inspi ing people o wo k o he
g ea e good o he communi y, which may ex end o he b oade en i onmen
(Thiele, 2013, pp. 168–193; Salonen and Ba dy, 2015, p. 9). The sense o meaning
may also lessen he need o consume ma e ial goods and inspi e hope o a sus ain-
able u u e (Salonen and Ba dy, 2015, p. 4, 12). In his sense, he po en ial o a o
b ing meaning o li e should no be o e looked.
I should be acknowledged ha a is no independen o unsus ainable ma e-
ial condi ions (see Pa ikka, 2018; B ennan e al., 2019). The ecological oo p in s
o cul u al p oduc ions and p ac ices a y g ea ly. Compa ed o ene gy-in ensi e
digi almediase ices,la gemusic es i als,o bigHollywood ilms,smalle -scale
p ac ices such as d awing and w i ing, medi a ion, dancing, o loaning books om
helib a yha easigni ican lylowe ecological oo p in .Sus ainabili yisag ow-
ing conce n o he cul u al sec o (e.g., B ennan e al., 2019). Acknowledging hei
cu en ecological impac , many cul u al o ganiza ions ha e begun o eimagine
and econs uc hei wo king p ac ices.
242 Aino-Kaisa Kois inen e al.
In ou ision o cul u e as plane a y well-being, engagemen wi h a con ib-
u es osocialandecologicalsus ainabili ybyp o idingoppo uni ies o  e lec-
ion, c ea i i y, connec ion, and enjoymen . Wo king owa ds cul u e as plane a y
well-being could in ol e wha bo anis and Po owa omi philosophe Robin Wall
Kimme e (2020, p. 336) calls “biocul u al es o a ion”. Kimme e uses he e m
“cul u e” in he b oad sense, as comple e ways o li e. In hei iew, biocul u al
es o a ion means ha local people es o e damaged lands and ecosys ems, such as
o me mining a eas o pollu ed i e s, which in u n con ibu es o he es o a ion
o cul u es ha alue espec ul and ecip ocal ela ions o he land:
Like o he mind ul p ac ices, ecological es o a ion can be iewed as an ac o
ecip oci y in which humans exe cise hei ca egi ing esponsibili y o he eco-
sys ems ha sus ain hem. We es o e he land, and he land es o es us.
As we ha e a gued in his chap e , engagemen wi h a may be essen ial o such
es o a ion. No only can i ale us o he des uc i e ways o con empo a y cul-
u al p ac ices bu i can also o ien us owa ds cul u e as plane a y well-being.
No es
1 Lau a Gus a sson and Te ike Haapoja.
2 These wo ks we e accompanied by English and Finnish ansla ions o he ex s seen in No
Da a; Lau a Gus a sson’s essay on Paa o, he pig om Un i led (Ali e); and an exhibi ion
ca alogue, which includes a b ie desc ip ion o he exhibi ion and discusses he use and
well-beingo pigsinFinnishsocie y.Fo ou examina ion, he i s au ho  ookno esupon
isi ing he exhibi ion. We also collec ed media co e age o he exhibi ion om di e se
elec onic ou le s. In addi ion, he esea ch ma e ial includes some ela ed ideos and a
eco ding om a semina o ganized in connec ion wi h he exhibi ion. We a e g a e ul o
Gus a sson&Haapoja and Kuns halle Seinäjoki o p o iding he needed ma e ials and o
Gus a sson o p o iding in o ma ion on he sou ce ma e ials o No Da a.
3 T ansla ed by Kois inen.
4 T ansla ed by Kois inen om he Finnish ansc ip ha accompanied he ideo.
5 Museum-goe s’ eac ions oexhibi ionsa edi icul  op edic (seeLandkamme ,2018;
Somme and Klöckne , 2019), and exhibi ions may he e o e no p oduce he expec ed
e ec . People end o isi museums o s eng hen— a he han challenge— hei own
alues and belie s, and demog aphic ac o s may ha e an e ec on he choice o he
museum/exhibi ion (Smi h, 2021, pp. 3, 161–174). Museums ha e also been c i iqued
o ca e ing o eli e audiences (e.g., Hall, 2008; Dixon, 2016; Tu unen and Vii a-aho,
2021). The media discussion a ound Pigs ne e heless highligh s he po en ial o
museums “ o expand beyond hei walls” (Tu unen, 2020, p. 1022; see also K os, 2014),
eaching people no in e es ed in isi ing he physical museum space.
6 The semina was pa o a se ies en i led A and he Ru al Ga he ing, o ganized a Kun-
s halle Seinäjoki.
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se ies Doc o al disse a ions, 170/2018. A ailable a : h ps://aal odoc.aal o. i/han-
dle/123456789/34034 (Accessed: 26 Augus 2022).
Ka kuleh o, S. e al.(2020)‘Recon igu inghuman,nonhumanandpos human:S i ing
o mo e e hical cohabi a ion’, in Ka kuleh o, S., Kois inen, A.-K., and Va is, E. (eds.)
Recon igu ing Human, Nonhuman and Pos human in Li e a u e and Cul u e. New Yo k:
Rou ledge, pp. 1–19. h ps://doi.o g/10.4324/9780429243042
Keen, S. (2007) Empa hy and he No el. Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
Kimme e , R.W. (2020) B aiding Swee g ass. Indigenous Wisdom, Scien i ic Knowledge
and he Teachings o Plan s. London: Penguin Books.
250 Val e i A. Aal onen e al.
e al., 2016). Acco ding o UNESCO (2017), lea ning abou sus ainabili y mus
p epa es uden sandlea ne so allages o indsolu ions o  hechallengeso 
oday and he u u e. Educa ion should be ans o ma i e and should allow ci i-
zens o make in o med decisions and ake indi idual as well as collec i e ac ion o
change ou socie ies and ca e o he plane .
The hi d phase is he e a a e he Wo ld Summi o Sus ainable De elop-
men ha ook place in Johannesbu g in 2002. This e en se ed as he impe us
o he Decade o Educa ion o Sus ainable De elopmen (2005–2014), which
emphasized li elong lea ning and spu ed ini ia i es wo ldwide. Tha p ojec was
ollowed by he UN Global Ac ion P og amme (2015–2019), which aimed o
in ensi y he ini ia i es o Educa ion o Sus ainable De elopmen and se Sus ain-
able De elopmen Goals (SDGs), a amewo k adop ed by he UN in 2015 which,
in addi ion o p o iding gene al guidance o sus ainable change, places an explici
ocus on he quali y o and condi ions o educa ion (SDG 4) (Bianchi, 2020, p. 11).
Cu en ly, he UN Global Ac ion P og amme is being ollowed up by UNESCO’s
Educa ion o Sus ainable De elopmen as pa o i s 2030 p og amme, which aims
o b ing abou he pe sonal and socie al ans o ma ion ha is needed o achie e
sus ainable de elopmen wo ldwide (Bianchi, 2020; UNESCO, 2022).
Sus ainable de elopmen and sus ainabili y a e ubiqui ously p esen in educa-
ional policy discou se, bu i is no always clea wha hese e ms mean. Bianchi
(2020, p. 10) sums up he ecen policy ocus on sus ainable de elopmen and
sus ainabili y as ollows:
Sus ainabili y and sus ainable de elopmen a e o en used in e changeably,
despi e hei concep ualdi e ence.In e e ence o heUNESCOde ini ions,
sus ainabili y is bes desc ibed as a long- e m goal, such as a aining a mo e
sus ainable wo ld; while sus ainable de elopmen , like he e m sugges s, e e s
o he many p ocesses and pa hways o achie e de elopmen .
The “ ake-home message” o Bianchi is ha i makes a di e ence whe he we
discuss sus ainabili y o sus ainable de elopmen , and ha his choice has conse-
quences o educa ion. As indica ed by Ma e o and A man (see Chap e 7), he
concep o sus ainable de elopmen has been in e p e ed in di e en ways du ing
i s ela i ely sho his o y, depending on he con ex in which i is used. Howe e ,
o en i has been connec ed o he idea o con inuous economic g ow h, especially
by he O ganiza ion o Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen (OECD) and he
Eu opeanUnion.Economicg ow hasapolicygoalisdi icul  oalignwi hplan-
e a y well-being as i has been p e iously linked o o e consump ion o ma e ials,
ecosys em des uc ion, inequali y in human socie ies, and he gene al des uc ion
o li e on Ea h (see Ko e mäki e al., 2021). Hence, he concep o sus ainable
de elopmen oo can be ega ded as a di ec hei o he Enligh enmen adi ion and
he belie in human p og ess based on ins umen al a ionali y.

Educa ion o plane a y well-being 251
Sus ainable de elopmen - ela ed amewo ks a e globally in luen ial in he
ieldo educa ion o heex en  ha  heycane enbe e e ed oasapa adigm,
delinea ing hese o concep sandbelie s ha p e igu epublicdeba edu inga
pa icula pe iod o ime. The ambigui y o sus ainable de elopmen can be seen
in he ambi alence su ounding how he concep is in e p e ed and used by di -
e en schola s. The e o e, some educa ional esea che s consciously a oid using
he e m sus ainable de elopmen o a e scep ical o he concep o sus ainabili y.
Howe e , he e a e also app oaches ha use he wo d sus ainabili y bu s ill wan o
dis inguish hemsel es om he idea o con inuous g ow h implied by he concep
o sus ainablede elopmen .Fu he s ill, he ea esome amewo ksin he ieldo 
educa ion ha make no e e ence a all o ei he o hese concep s (e.g., Bianchi,
2020; Connelly, 2007; Jickling and Wals, 2008; Snaza e al., 2014).
Nex ,web ie lyin oducesomewell-knownandcommonlyused amewo ks
as al e na i es o he p e ailing sus ainable de elopmen pa adigm, ha is, al e -
na i es ha suppo he idea o educa ion o plane a y well-being. The concep
o sus ainabili y as educa ion,asde inedbyS ephenS e ling(2001,2010)and
A jen Wals (2006, 2015), who a e among he ea lies and mos cen al au ho s
ep esen ing he mo e, called o holis ic beha iou al change and ans o ma i e
lea ning. S e ling’s (2001) o iginal dis inc ion be ween sus ainabili y as educa ion
and educa ion o sus ainable de elopmen highligh s ha he la e was amed o
aise awa eness wi hou challenging he exis ing ins i u ions and s a us quo. Sus-
ainabili y as educa ion, ins ead, equi es a p o ound change in one’s wo ld iew,
swi ching om a dualis ic, hie a chical wo ld iew o sys ems unde s anding and
ela ional sus ainabili y compe ences.
Global Ci izenship Educa ion O he wise (And eo i, 2015; S ein and And eo i,
2021) c i icizes he amewo k o he aken- o -g an ed Eu ocen ic knowledge
sys em in ega d o how, o example, Sus ainable De elopmen Goals a e amed
and unde s ood as global goals by he Uni ed Na ions. The educa ion o global
ci izenship p omo es he ansi ion om a singula uni e sal belie o knowledge o
an app oach o lis ening and including coun e na a i es on knowledge in he cu -
iculum. In his app oach, educa ion is iewed as a dialogue ha conside s di e se
his o ical, poli ical, and knowledge ounda ions (And eo i, 2015).
In he No dic coun ies, he concep o eco-social educa ion (o eco-social
Bildung)isoneo  hemo ein luen ialcu en  amewo ks ha calls o  ans o -
ma ion by s essing he acu e need o p io i izing di e si y o li e on Ea h in he
alue sys em. Eco-social educa ion has been pa o he public deba e o mo e
han a decade, and i is explici ly men ioned, o example, in he na ional co e cu -
iculum o Finland (Finnish Na ional Boa d o Educa ion, 2014; Halinen, 2018;
Leh onen, Salonen and Can ell, 2018). Eco-social educa ion emphasizes ecology,
akes clima e c ises se iously, and conside s plane a y bounda ies (Rocks öm
e al., 2009) ins ead o he economy as he basis o social and economic well-being
(Salonen and Konkka, 2015).
252 Val e i A. Aal onen e al.
Ecojus ice educa ion (Ma usewicz, Edmundson and Lupinacci, 2011, p. 9)
highligh s “ he necessa y in e dependen ela ionship o humans wi h he land, ai ,
wa e , and o he species wi h whom we sha e his plane ”. Ecojus ice educa ion calls
o c i ical awa eness o he unequal powe dynamics ela ed o bina ies (e.g., men/
women, whi e/o he , Eu opean/o he , cul u e/na u e, eason/emo ion, science/local),
indigenous knowledges, and how hese inequali ies a e sus ained ac oss di e en
languages and means o communica ion. The heo e ical ounda ions o ecojus ice
educa ion include eco eminism and neo-ag a ianism, wi h a sha ed dedica ion o a
eminis e hic o ca e o ecological social jus ice and pos humanism (ibid.).
O he examples o app oaches ha a oid using he e m “sus ainable de elop-
men ” a e en i onmen al educa ion, in i s ad anced mode, (Reid e al., 2021) and
he hyb id concep o en i onmen al and sus ainabili y educa ion (Wals, Weakland
and Co co an, 2017). Bo h o hese can be ega ded as aking a c i ical s ance
owa d an h opocen ism. Addi ionally, we acknowledge ha c i ical app oaches
o human-cen ed educa ion ha e also been aised by pos humanis w i e s (e.g.,
Mo is, 2015; Snaza e al., 2014). O e all, pos human educa ion has wide pe -
spec i es in i s c i ic o humanism in educa ion, such as colonialism and complex
ela ions no only be ween humans and nonhuman animals, bu also echnology.
C i icism o an h opocen ism can be seen as a dis inguishing ac o acco ding
o which educa ion o sus ainabili y can be di ided in o wo di e en ypes o
app oaches: Weak and s ong (Connelly, 2007). The weak o m is associa ed wi h
con inuous echnological de elopmen and economic g ow h, o , a bes , so-called
ecological mode niza ion (ibid.,p.270)emphasizinge iciencyinene gyuseand
ecycling o ma e ials. The weak app oach also includes an assump ion abou
sus ainable de elopmen  bene i ing all humani y, bu , in eali y, he app oach
accep s d as ic inequali ies be ween di e en human communi ies, such as he
di ision be ween he global No h and global Sou h. Educa ion o sus ainabili y
in he s ong sense, in con as , could be ansla ed as eco-socialism (ibid.) wi h an
emphasis on a jus ansi ion owa d he well-being o all li e on Ea h, which aligns
well wi h he concep o plane a y well-being.
Based on he e iew abo e, we conclude ha ou concep o educa ion o plane-
a y well-being builds on he ideas aised by many o he cu en amewo ks. In many
espec s, educa ion o plane a y well-being ag ees wi h he men ioned amewo ks;
i ad oca es non-an h opocen ic and pos humanis hinking as well as sus ainabili y
in he s ong sense. Howe e , i is mo e explici in ins illing he educa ional app oach
wi h he encompassing idea o plane a y well-being as a s a e in which all o ganisms,
including humans, can ealize hei ypical cha ac e is ics and capaci ies.
Dialogue as an on ological and pedagogical p inciple
Ou concep ualiza ion o educa ion o plane a y well-being is oo ed in a dia-
logic ela ionship be ween humans and o he li e o ms on Ea h, one in which
i is assumed ha human well-being is buil in dialogue wi h he es o na u e.
Educa ion o plane a y well-being 253
Dialoguecanbeiden i iedimplici lyinmanyo  hecu en  amewo ks,suchasin
sus ainabili y as educa ion, global ci izenship educa ion o he wise, and ecojus ice
educa ion. In educa ion o plane a y well-being, howe e , he dialogical way o
being is cen al and explici ly p esen , d awing om Bube ’s (2004) dialogical
philosophy and pos humanism (B aido i, 2013, 2019).
The opposi e o a dialogical ela ionship is a monologic (and an ins umen al)
ela ionship. The monological ela ionship is based on he a o emen ioned dualis ic
assump ion ha na u e is unde s ood as an objec sepa a e om humans and as an
ins umen o human well-being. In a dialogical ela ionship, humans a e iewed
as one o he species li ing in a gi en ecological niche o he Ea h sys em and
as la gely dependen on and connec ed o di e en ecosys ems and a ious o ms
o li e on Ea h. I is only h ough he in e ac ion o species in and be ween eco-
sys ems, including human socie ies, ha well-being occu s (see Ko e mäki e al.,
2021, p. 3). The dialogic app oach p o ides an on ological basis o he concep o
educa ion o plane a y well-being.
As an on ological p inciple, dialogue can be ega ded as a human way o being
whe e he ela ions be ween beings a e mo e undamen al han he beings hem-
sel es and whe e he e hical aspec o hese ela ions is emphasized. Beings a e
unde s ood o be cons uc ed h ough hese ela ionships, which a e cha ac e ized
by in e connec edness, di e si y, and espec o al e i y. The na u e o his on o-
logical “in-be weenness” has been ap ly desc ibed by Ma in Bube (2004) as wo
basic modes o exis ing, ep esen able as wo d-pai s: I–i and I–Thou. Acco ding
o Bube , he monological I–i ela ionship is cha ac e ized by he expe ience o a
de ached objec and a concep o onesel as an isola ed subjec o expe ience ha
de inesano he beingacco ding oone’sin e es s.Acco ding oBube ,onecanbe
uly human only in a dialogical ela ion be ween I and Thou, whe e he o he is
encoun e edopenlywi hou any es ic ingclassi ica ion.Hence,asa ue“o he ”,
Thou has an inhe en alue.
Applied o he plane a y well-being concep , his means ha bo h humans and
he es o na u e ha e an absolu e alue, o a he , ha human digni y is bes eal-
ized h ough he ecogni ion o he digni y o na u e. In his case, human beings
a e no seen as sepa a e om he es o he wo ld, bu as embodied being who co-
exis s h ough senses and a ec s. These ideas o co-exis ence and in e dependence
a e also ypical o pos humanism. Fo example, B aido i (2019) calls o become
awa e o human embodimen and accoun abili y o he way one a ec s and is
a ec ed in he dynamic web o human and nonhuman ela ions.
Educa ion o plane a y well-being equi es dialogic conside a ion and an
empa hic unde s anding o o he species’ needs also in he pedagogical p ac ice.
Dialogical p ac ice is a way o lea ning new, pos human, and e en plane a y ways
o ela e o o he species (see Da ies and Renshaw, 2020; Sau and Sido kin, 2018).
Howe e , heneedso di e en speciesa eo encon lic ingande okechalleng-
ing e hical ques ions ha should be acknowledged and discussed (Val onen, 2022).
Pos humanism o e s a iew o pedagogy ha emphasizes a c i ical awa eness
254 Val e i A. Aal onen e al.
o he highly unequal powe ela ions be ween humans and Ea h’s “o he s” and
embodied and sen ien being (B aido i, 2019). Pa icipa ion in a collec i e dialogic
p ac ice is a mo al phenomenon ocused on he na u e o ou iden i y and exis ence
as humans (Wege i , Me ce and Majo , 2020) and on how we a e connec ed o he
well-being o he whole plane .
Dialogue as pedagogical p ac ice is based on he collabo a i e cons uc ion o
knowledge h ough in e ac ion be ween lea ne and eache . The dialogical p in-
ciple is an al e na i e o monological eaching’s me e ansmission o knowledge
om a eache o a lea ne . In dialogical eaching, lea ne s a e no ega ded as
objec s o a eache bu a he as ac i e subjec s o knowledge cons uc ion. In his
sense, one could say ha educa ion o plane a y well-being is essen ially based on
cons uc i is lea ning (Tynjälä and Gijbels, 2012).
Acco ding o Alexande (2020), dialogic alk is unde s ood o be collec i e,
a i ma i e,and ecip ocal.Thismeans ha lea ne sand eache sadd esslea ning
asks oge he and a e able o exp ess hei ideas. I is also c ucially impo an o
lis en o o he s and p o oundly explo e al e na i e iewpoin s. Ideally, dialogue
is delibe a i e, cumula i e, and pu pose ul. Based on dialogue, some hing new
eme ges. Howe e , his does no mean ha lea ning goals canno be se in dialogic
eaching. Qui e he opposi e, dialogical lea ning can be s uc u ed owa ds a spe-
ci iclea ningou come.In hecon ex o plane a ywell-being, hedialogueshould
ocus on pe sonal meaning-making, emphasizing s ong sus ainabili y, plane a y
bounda ies, and social jus ice.
Dialogical eaching in e ms o educa ion o plane a y well-being calls o
humili y and empa he ic openness o al e i y in ou human way o ela ing o all li e
on Ea h. Dialogue hus enables ans o ma i e lea ning ins ead o a socializa ion
o cu en p ac ices and belie sys ems: I p omo es a s uc u al shi in he basic
p emises o hough , eeling, and ac ion ha can undamen ally al e he human
way o being in he wo ld (Mezi ow, 1994; O’Sulli an, Mo ell and O’Conno ,
2002; Wals, 2011).
A new measu e o humani y: Responsibili y
o plane a y well-being
This chap e has explo ed how plane a y well-being appea s in he con ex o edu-
ca ion in ela ion o o he amewo ks, and how plane a y well-being could be p o-
mo ed in educa ion h ough dialogue. Educa ion o plane a y well-being aligns
wi h many o he cu en app oaches, emb acing ans o ma i e lea ning owa ds
social change, aiming o humani y o li e in balance wi h o he li e o ms on Ea h
and wi hin he limi s o he plane . I can be iewed as he culmina ion o hese
de elopmen s, o e ing a new s epping s one o eaching a sha ed goal: The well-
being o all inhabi an s on plane Ea h.
The main a gumen o his chap e is ha wha is good o humans can no longe
be ega ded as he guiding p emise o educa ion; ins ead, wha is good o all li e
Educa ion o plane a y well-being 255
on Ea h should become he new ule. The e o e, a new heo em o educa ion o
plane a y well-being is in oduced o eplace he mo o o humanism, homo mensu a
o human is he measu e o e e y hing. Now, in acco dance wi h pos humanis hink-
ing, he guiding heo em can be u ned in o na u a mensu a o na u e is he measu e
o e e y hing (Niiniluo o, 2015). I is e iden ha a shi in pedagogy is needed,
away om he pe spec i e o humanis ic an h opocen ism and owa ds pos human-
ism wi h an emphasis on he well-being o bo h human and nonhuman li e o ms.
Ne e heless, he ansi ion om classical humanism o a pos humanis and
plane a y pe spec i e does no mean ha humans should no be he cen al ocus o
educa ion. Humankind mus eclaim i s name as Homo sapiens, he wise human.
Acco dingly, ou p oposal o a basic heo em o educa ion o plane a y well-
being is he ollowing: Responsibili y o plane a y well-being is he new measu e
o humani y. I is wo h poin ing ou ha his heo em does no unde mine human
digni y, a he he opposi e. By ollowing his p inciple, human beings could pa a-
doxically demons a e hei g ea ness by admi ing hei smallness be o e na u e,
o a he wi hin na u e. This new mo o o humani y would be he s a ing poin o
plane a y wisdom, which is a human abili y ha enables and p omo es plane a y
well-being, and hus helps us o build a wo ld wo h li ing in.
Acknowledgemen s
The w i ing o his chap e has been suppo ed by he ollowing esea ch unding:
Academy o Finland, Wisdom in P ac ice p ojec , unded unde g an ag eemen
351238 o Hannu L.T. Heikkinen, Niina Myk ä, and Anu S. Vi anen; Eu opean
Union’s G een Deal/Ho izon 2020 Resea ch and Inno a ion P og amme, ECF-
4CLIM p ojec , unded unde g an ag eemen 10103650 o Hannu L.T. Heik-
kinen, Niina Myk ä, and Anna Leh onen; Jy äskylä Uni e si y School o Business
and Economics, G an o doc o al esea ch o Me i Löy yniemi; Minis y o
Educa ion and Cul u e o Finland, KESTO p ojec , unded unde g an ag eemen s
OKM/239/523/2020 and OKM/117/523/2020 o Hannu L.T. Heikkinen and Anu
S. Vi anen; Wihu i Founda ion, g an o doc o al esea ch o Val e i A. Aal onen.
No e
1 This chap e is he esul o a collec i e e o and in ense discussions among he au ho s.
Allau ho scon ibu ed o hewo ksigni ican lyanda elis edinalphabe icalo de ,
excep  o  he i s and helas au ho .
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INDEX
No e: Bold page numbe s e e o ables; i alicpagenumbe s e e  o igu esandpage
numbe s ollowed by “n” deno e endno es.
Aake , J. 130
abo eg ound p ocess, soil and 92;
biodi e si y 90; he bi o es 88; see
also soil
academic discipline, social wo k 177–178
accoun ing sys em, o o ganiza ions
203–211; balance shee
208; EEIO da abases 207;
en i onmen al accoun ing 204–207;
en i onmen ally ex ended inpu -
ou pu analysis206,207; inancial
accoun ing203–207; inancial-
en i onmen al impac s a emen
207–209, 208, 209; li e cycle
assessmen 206, 207; ans o ming
inancial alue209–211
Ac wi h Na u e (AWN) 168, 171–172
Adams, C.J. 234
Addams, J. 178
Ad e ising S anda ds Au ho i y 130
Aedes aegyp i 64
Aedes albopic us 62, 64
a ec i e impac 238, 240
A ican Swine e e 66
agg ega i e p ope y, sys ems 27
ag icul u al managemen p ac ices 91
ag i-en i onmen -clima e schemes 76
ag oecological a ming sys ems 75, 75–76
Aichi Biodi e si y Ta ge s 192
Akenji, L. 108
animal husband y/indus y 64, 233–235,
238, 240
animal pollina ion 28
An h opocene Epoch 157
An h opocene p oli e a ion 44, 48–51
an h opocen ism 2, 10, 109n1; abandoning
o 102; Ca esian dualisms 43;
concep ions o well-being 100;
c i icism o 252; e hics 183;
nega i e impac 9; no ma i e 43;
o ien a ion 11; soil dis u bance 92;
sus ainabili y ansi ion 142
an h opogenic impac s: on disease bu den
in ecosys ems 61, 61–63; o ganic
chemicals 91; soil dis u bance 91
A man, A. 250
A is o le 159; eudaimonia 4, 158–160, 163;
empe ance 160; i ue 159, 160
a i icialin elligence(AI)134–135,137
a s: and changing meanings o wo k
238–241; as con empo a y a 233;
exhibi ion (see exhibi ion); and
sha ed ulne abili y 233–238; as
isual a 232
assemblage: mo e- han-human 44, 50–51;
heo y 48, 53n3; Tsing’s app oach
51, 53
aus e i y 161
266 Index
Moli o , B. 104; Moli o epo 103–105,
109n2
Mongelli, F.P. 224
monona u alism 46
mo al agency 29
mo al conside abili y, in plane a y well-
being 30–31, 33, 34
mo al du ies 31–33
mo al non-an h opocen ism 29
mo al alua ion 13, 30, 31
mo e- han-human: assemblages 44, 50–51;
e hics 29; his o ies 44, 48–51, 53;
ulne abili y 238
Moslene , U. 226
mul ic i e ial app oach, plane a y well-
being 30
mul icul u alism 45
mul ila e al en i onmen al
ag eemen s 192
mul ina u alism 45, 46
mul i-objec i e o es managemen zoning
78–81, 80
mul iscala app oach 10–12, 21
mul ispecies esu gence 44, 48–51, 53
museum 231, 234, 238
Museum o Nonhumani y (2016–) 234
The Museum o he His o y o Ca le (2014)
234
myco hiza 88
myxoma osis 66
na ional Red Lis s 196–198, 200
na u al capi al 209; cen al banks 224–225;
challenges 216–217; deb cos
225–226;equi y225–226; inancial
sys em and 221–226; public
ins umen s o 222; isks 221–222;
s ock 217
na u al dis u bance-succession dynamics
79–80
na u al ecosys ems 16
na u e-cen ic app oaches 117
na u e-connec edness 168–172
na u e-de imen al in es men capi al 221
needs 11, 31–32, 183; eudaimonia 158;
o human well-being 18–19;
o ganismal 15; econciling
human 17–19; sa is ac ion o 181;
sociocen ic, e aming sus ainable
de elopmen o 103–106; species-
speci ic30,36,167;uni e sal
18, 31, 32, 38; i al 34; see also
speci ic needs
needsa is ie s14, 15, 17, 19, 36, 38, 131,
136
nema ode 88, 89
Neo-A is o elian eudaimonia 158, 162
nes ed c ises, educa ion 246
new business models 148
Nicholls, J.A. 205
1992 UN Con en ion on Biological
Di e si y (CBD) 191
No Da a (2021), exhibi ion 233–237, 237
non-an h opocen ism 2, 11–12, 21;
concep ualiza ions 101; amings
o sus ainable de elopmen 35;
u u e esea ch ques ions 17; mo al
29; no ma i e app oach 13; no ion
31–32; p ac ical implica ions o 99;
econcep ualiza ion o sus ainabili y
encou ages 48; sus ainable
de elopmen 35; sys emic concep
16; sys emic concep ualiza ion 158
Non-Financial Repo ing Di ec i e 210
nonhuman well-being 1, 2, 10, 12–13;
animals 12, 32, 233, 234, 236, 237,
240, 252; concep 15; lou ishing
li e 34, 157, 158, 161; li e a u e on
12; mo al conce n o 30; uni ying
sys ems- hinking 21; alue o 29
nonsubjec i e well-being 13, 17, 27
No man, W. 204
no ma i e an h opocen ism 43
no ma i e concep 194
nudge app oach 132
nu ien ecycling 240
nu ien s 88, 89; cycling 89–90;
mine aliza ion 89
objec i e well-being 31
O’B ien, K. 162
OECD’s Minis e ial Decla a ion 103
Olsen, N. 105
One Heal h 59
on ological poli ics 44, 45
on ology: dialogue 52, 252–254;
di e ences 42–53; and e hics 26–39
o ganic cocoa a me s, in Ghana 119–122
o ganic ma e , decomposi ion o 89–90
o ganismal needs 15, 73
o ganismal well-being 15, 15, 67
o ganismic sel - egula ion 169
O ganiza ion o Economic Co-ope a ion
and De elopmen (OECD) 250;
OECD’s Minis e ial Decla a ion
103

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