an Doo n, Niels
A icle
The con ingencies o pla o m powe and isk
managemen in he gig economy
In e ne Policy Re iew
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Alexande on Humbold Ins i u e o In e ne and Socie y (HIIG), Be lin
Sugges ed Ci a ion: an Doo n, Niels (2024) : The con ingencies o pla o m powe and isk
managemen in he gig economy, In e ne Policy Re iew, ISSN 2197-6775, Alexande on Humbold
Ins i u e o In e ne and Socie y, Be lin, Vol. 13, Iss. 2, pp. 1-27,
h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2024.2.1778
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/300745
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/3.0/de/legalcode
Volume 13 |
The con ingencies o pla o m powe and
isk managemen in he gig economy
Niels an Doo n Uni e si y o Ams e dam
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2024.2.1778
Published: 26 June 2024
Recei ed: 14 No embe 2023 Accep ed: 22 Ma ch 2024
Funding: This esea ch was suppo ed by he Eu opean Resea ch Council, unde he
Ho izon 2020 esea ch and inno a ion p og am [g an numbe 759776].
Compe ing In e es s: The au ho has decla ed ha no compe ing in e es s exis ha
ha e in luenced he ex .
Licence: This is an open-access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e
Commons A ibu ion 3.0 License (Ge many) which pe mi s un es ic ed use,
dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly
ci ed. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/3.0/de/deed.en
Copy igh emains wi h he au ho (s).
Ci a ion: an Doo n, N. (2024). The con ingencies o pla o m powe and isk
managemen in he gig economy. In e ne Policy Re iew, 13(2). h ps://doi.o g/
10.14763/2024.2.1778
Keywo ds: Pla o m powe , Gig economy, Risk, Pla o m-adjacen app oach, E e yday
li e
Abs ac : Wha do we miss abou he daily ope a ions o pla o m powe , and abou powe
dynamics in he gig economy mo e b oadly, when ocusing on algo i hmic managemen as he
p ima y sou ce o subo dina ion and p eca i y in he wo kplace? D awing on a i e-yea esea ch
p ojec in es iga ing pla o m-based ood deli e y and domes ic cleaning in Ams e dam, Be lin,
and New Yo k Ci y, his pape ad ances he a gumen ha in o de o unde s and he si ua ed and
con ingen na u e o pla o m powe in he gig economy we should examine how gig wo ke s
manage isk. While a hand ul o s udies ha e explici ly add essed his opic, we s ill know li le
abou how socioeconomic s a i ica ion wi hin gig wo k o ces media es wo ke s’ ulne abili y o
a ious kinds o isk, as well as hei suscep ibili y o pla o m powe . In esponse, he pape
de elops a “pla o m-adjacen ” app oach ha si ua es gig wo k wi hin people’s la ge wo k and li e
ajec o ies. I demons a es how gig pla o ms can become bo h a esou ce o isk managemen
and a new sou ce o isk, depending on he complex in e ac ion be ween a pla o m’s labou
managemen s a egies on he one hand and he mix o suppo s uc u es and dependencies in a
wo ke ’s li e on he o he . Ul ima ely, he pape o e s a mo e nuanced and comp ehensi e
unde s anding o how gig pla o ms become in eg a ed in o people’s e e yday li e and how
pla o m powe is a icula ed and nego ia ed o e ime.
Issue 2
This pape is pa o Loca ing and heo ising pla o m powe , a special issue o In e ne
Policy Re iew gues -edi ed by Da id Niebo g, Thomas Poell, Robyn Caplan and José an
Dijck.
In oduc ion
How and whe e does powe ake shape in he pla o m-media ed gig economy? To
da e, he p e ailing answe among gig economy schola s is ha pla o m compa-
nies exe an excessi e amoun o powe by using algo i hmic managemen sys-
ems ha enable wo k o ce con ol a scale (G iesbach e al., 2019; Wood e al.,
2019; S a k & Pais, 2020). Indeed, c i ics ha e a gued ha algo i hmic echnolo-
gies a e “ushe ing in a no el o m o a ional con ol ha is dis inc om he ech-
nical and bu eauc a ic con ol used by employe s o he pas cen u y” (Kellogg e
al., 2020, p. 383). This de elopmen has been subjec o ex ensi e schola ly sc u i-
ny, as has i s dual coun e -mo emen : indi idual and collec i e o ms o wo ke e-
sis ance o he powe o algo i hms on he one hand (Anwa & G aham, 2020;
Came on & Rahman, 2022; Macca one e al., 2023) and egula o y o policy ini ia-
i es o cu b his powe on he o he (Ponce & Na anjo, 2022; Veale e al., 2023).
Ye wha do we miss abou gig wo ke s’ e e yday nego ia ions o pla o m powe
ac oss speci ic se ings and si ua ions when p io i ising he s udy o algo i hmic
labou con ol? While he implemen a ion o algo i hmic managemen sys ems has
ce ainly a o ded pla o m companies dis inc means o con ol, i is equally clea
ha such con ol does no ma e ialise iden ically ac oss pla o ms o indus ies
(G iesbach e al., 2019) o will ha e he same impac on all gig wo ke s (Scho e
al., 2020).
D awing on a i e-yea esea ch p ojec in es iga ing pla o m-based ood deli e y
and domes ic cleaning in Ams e dam, Be lin, and New Yo k Ci y, his pape ad-
ances he a gumen ha unde s anding he si ua ed and con ingen na u e o
pla o m powe in he gig economy equi es an analy ical shi away om pla -
o m-go e ned algo i hmic managemen and owa d he isk managemen p ac-
ices o gig wo ke s — p ac ices ha exceed he poin o p oduc ion and a e
caugh up in a ious kinds o powe . To be su e, algo i hmic managemen is essen-
ially a o m o isk managemen o pla o m companies, whose p ima y ope a-
ional isk ollows om hei p ac ice o hi ing wo ke s as independen con ac o s
a he han employees, which signi ican ly educes labou cos s bu also limi s
manage ial con ol o e hei wo k o ce. Impo an ly, howe e , algo i hms do no
only suppo labou p ocess con ol. App oached mo e expansi ely, hey also help
2 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(2) | 2024
o “s abilise complex and ongoing social ela ions” (Thomas e al., 2018, p. 2) p ed-
ica ed on a neolibe al consensus ha e e yone — companies and wo ke s alike —
mus accep esponsibili y o managing he isk associa ed wi h being an en e-
p eneu ial ma ke pa icipan (T nka & T undle, 2014). In doing so, hei imple-
men a ion can ein o ce and e en exace ba e capi alism’s unequal dis ibu ion o
he bene i s and cos s associa ed wi h isk managemen , which s uc u ally a ou s
co po a ions o e wo ke s (Snide & Bi le, 2022). Besides hei algo i hms, pla -
o m i ms ha e a hei disposal a ange o inancial and legal esou ces o man-
aging business isk and ep oducing hei powe ac oss alue and weal h chains
(G as en e al., 2023).
I is clea ha , in compa ison, gig wo ke s ha e signi ican ly ewe and less powe -
ul means o manage isk. While hey a e con on ed wi h di e en ypes o isk,
hey lack he capaci y o s a egically disembed om isky spaces o jump h ough
legal loopholes in ways ha allow pla o m companies o bene i om isk inan-
cially (G as en e al., 2023). Ne e heless, a hand ul o s udies (e.g. Scho e al.,
2023; Ma ie, 2023; Le coe e al., 2023; G ego y, 2021) ha e shown how gig wo k-
e s in di e en sec o s and se ings use e e y a ailable esou ce o na iga e o
e en exploi pla o m-media ed isk o he bes o hei abili ies, o en unde p e-
ca ious ci cums ances. Ye we s ill know li le abou how he socioeconomic condi-
ions and ajec o ies o speci ic gig wo ke s shape hei ulne abili y o a ious
kinds o isk o hei access o esou ces ha suppo he managemen o hese
isks, bo h o which can be expec ed o media e hei suscep ibili y o pla o m
powe — as will be explained below.
In esponse, his pape akes wha Aa on Shapi o and I call a “pla o m-adjacen ”
app oach o he s udy o pla o m powe (Van Doo n & Shapi o, 2023), which si u-
a es gig wo k wi hin people’s b oade wo k and li e ajec o ies. A pla o m-adja-
cen app oach includes in i s analy ical scope biog aphies, social a angemen s,
and o ms o ins i u ional (dis)embeddedness usually omi ed om gig economy
esea ch ha ains i s c i ical eye on labou p ocess con ol. In his way, i seeks o
gene a e a mo e nuanced and comp ehensi e unde s anding o how pla o ms be-
come in eg a ed in o people’s e e yday li es and how pla o m powe is a icula -
ed and nego ia ed o e ime in conjunc ion wi h o he powe ela ions. As I will
show, gig pla o ms can ea u e bo h as a esou ce o isk managemen and a new
sou ce o isk, depending on he complex in e ac ion be ween a pla o m’s labou
managemen s a egies on he one hand and he mix o suppo s uc u es, depen-
dencies, and esponsibili ies in a wo ke ’s li e on he o he . Besides expanding and
e ining he scope o schola ly esea ch, a pla o m-adjacen app oach also u ges
3 an Doo n
egula o s and policymake s o e hink he pa ame e o hei esponse o pla o m
powe in he gig economy, highligh ing how i is mo e han a labou o ech issue.
Beyond he poin o p oduc ion, pla o m policy should be hough o as social pol-
icy (Van Doo n, 2022) since cu bing he powe o gig pla o ms will equi e com-
p ehensi e e o ms ac oss policy a eas such as low-wage labou , mig a ion, wel-
a e, men al heal h, and housing. The iabili y o such e o ms will, howe e , de-
pend on s a e ac o s’ willingness o collec i ely examine how hei own powe s
a e en angled wi h — and may e en sho e up — pla o m powe .
In he nex sec ion, I discuss schola ship ha has examined he powe o gig pla -
o ms in ela ion o hei capaci y o shapeshi be ween being a wo kplace and a
ma ke place, which ma e s o how we concei e o isk in he gig economy. The
ollowing sec ion hen swi ches pe spec i e om he pla o m company o he gig
wo ke , c i ically engaging especially wi h Julie Scho ’s con ibu ions (Scho e al.,
2020; 2023) o ( e) heo ise he ela ionship be ween wo k o ce he e ogenei y,
pla o m dependency, wo ke app oaches o isk, and he a icula ion o pla o m
powe . This se s he scene o sec ion 3, elabo a ing on he s udy’s me hodology,
which in u n con ex ualises he wo biog aphical wo ke na a i es ha a e p e-
sen ed in sec ion 4. Sec ion 5 discusses hese na a i es in ligh o he key concep-
ual amewo ks de i ed om he li e a u e, be o e concluding wi h a e lec ion on
he policy implica ions o aking a pla o m-adjacen app oach o he s udy o pla -
o m powe in he gig economy.
1. Pla o m-media ed gig wo k: Be ween wo kplace
and ma ke place isk
To compensa e o he lack o o mal manage ial con ol o e hei eelance wo k-
o ce, gig pla o ms ha e in oduced echnical and legal inno a ions ha in ensi y
labou con ol and wo ke p eca i y while ende ing hese changes legible o
wo ke s and cou s as pa o he en ep eneu ial isk associa ed wi h ma ke -
based eedom (Ma ie, 2023). These blu ed bounda ies be ween gig pla o ms as
a wo kplace and a ma ke place a e a p e alen heme in gig economy esea ch.
Richa dson (2023), o example, p oposes a shi om app oaching pla o ms as
si es o wo k o unde s anding hem as in as uc u es o wo k. As in as uc u es,
pla o ms “con ingen ly s uc u e wo k” h ough “ he socio- echnical p ac ices o
a angemen and coo dina ion” ha allow o bo h s anda disa ion and lexibili y (p.
2, emphasis in o iginal). No ably, howe e , an ea lie s udy by Richa dson (2020)
heo ised pla o ms as ma ke -make s a he han in as uc u es o wo k, which, I
a gue, poin s o mo e han a shi in c i ical pe spec i e. Ins ead, i e lec s b oade
4 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(2) | 2024
schola ly e o s o g apple wi h wha pla o ms a e and do. As Viljoen e al. (2021)
ha e no ed, he highly au oma ed ways in which p inciples and me hods om he
ield o mechanism design a e implemen ed on digi al pla o ms “ca ies o wa d
he no ma i e jus i ica ion o ma ke s in o se ings ha appea like ma ke s bu
ope a e mo e like con ol in as uc u es” (p. 2). Keeping up his appea ance is i al
o he su i al o gig economy pla o ms since, as men ioned abo e, i exemp s
hese companies om cos ly employe s a us.
In an incisi e a emp o b idge, o a he ci cumna iga e, he wo kplace-ma ke -
place di ide, Shapi o (2023) in oduces he e m “pla o m sabo age” o desc ibe
how “gig pla o ms ac i ely enginee ine icien ou ines in o and beyond he se -
ice ansac ions hey b oke ” (p. 2). The in oduc ion o such “s a egic ine icien-
cies” (Shapi o, 2023) in e ec aises he ansac ion cos s ha hese pla o ms a e
supposed o lowe , exposing gig wo ke s o a ious isks such as ha ing o pe o m
unpaid wo k, dealing wi h suddenly cancelled jobs, ge ing in o acciden s, and ne-
go ia ing income luc ua ions (G ego y, 2021). Bu a e hese wo kplace o ma ke -
place isks? On he one hand, pla o m sabo age gene a es he kinds o “deg aded
wo k” iden i ied by Doussa d en yea s ea lie , by upda ing “ he s a egies, ac ics,
and ma ke -making p ac ices employe s use o maximise he bene i s o low-wage
wo k” (Doussa d, 2013, p. 29). On he o he hand, howe e , pla o m companies’ pi-
onee ing use o boile pla e Te ms o Se ice ag eemen s in a labou ma ke con-
ex has sough o shi gig wo k om he ealm o employmen law o ha o con-
ac law (Cohen, 2019). Gi en his unp eceden ed s a egic combina ion o echni-
cal and legal means by which hese companies ha e c ea ed ma ke -like a chi ec-
u es o go e n hei wo k o ce, some schola s iden i y a p o ound ans o ma ion
in which he pla o m p esen s a new “ins i u ional” (B a on, 2015; Kenney e al.,
2021) o “economic” (Vallas & Scho , 2020) o m ha “inco po a es many o he
ea u es o p io economic s uc u es — ma ke s, hie a chies, and ne wo ks” (Vallas
& Scho , 2020, p. 282).
Since Vallas and Scho ’s con ibu ion o he deba e is widely ci ed and o e s one
o he mos sophis ica ed heo isa ions o pla o m powe in he gig economy o
da e, I e iew i mo e closely he e. They in oduce he concep o “pe missi e po-
en a e” o ame hei a gumen “ ha pla o ms go e n economic ansac ions no
by expanding hei con ol o e pa icipan s bu by elinquishing impo an dimen-
sions o con ol and delega ing hem o he o he wo pa ies o he exchange”,
namely wo ke s and cus ome s (Vallas & Scho , 2020, p. 282). Pla o m companies
e ain con ol o e c i ical unc ions and decisions (e.g. ask alloca ion, se ice
p icing, da a collec ion/analysis, and ope a ional op imisa ion s a egies) while
5 an Doo n
dis ibu ing con ol o e elemen s such as wo k me hods, scheduling, o pe o -
mance e alua ion. Consequen ly, he au ho s asse , “ he ex ac ion o alue es s
on a new s uc u al o m [o “economic a chi ec u e”, as hey also call i ] in which
pla o ms emain powe ul e en as hey cede con ol o e aspec s o he labo
p ocess” (Vallas & Scho , 2020, p. 282). I would add he e, ollowing Viljoen e al.
(2021), ha his dis ibu ion o con ol among di e en “sides” o hei pla o m
ma ke is p ecisely wha enables gig companies o d ess up labou con ol as ma -
ke -based isk. Bu wha abou he gig wo ke s who a e expec ed o manage such
isk? The nex sec ion shi s he analy ical an age poin om he pla o m o he
people doing pla o m wo k.
2. Theo ising pla o m powe ’s di e en ia ed impac s
One bene i o Vallas and Scho ’s model o pla o m powe is i s pliabili y: i is able
o accommoda e di e ences wi h espec o a pla o m’s ela i e pe missi eness,
i s speci ic dis ibu ion o labou con ol, and he impac o hese decisions on gig
wo ke s — all o which will depend on he indus y o ype o wo k being go -
e ned, he egula o y con ex , and he chosen business model. As he au ho s ad-
mi , e idence om ide-hailing and ood deli e y sugges s ha pe missi e po en-
a es can become “pe missi e p eda o s” when hey le e age he enginee ed ee-
dom o pla o m go e nance o enhance he exploi a ion o hei wo k o ce (Vallas
& Scho , 2020, p. 282; Shapi o, 2023). Howe e , while he “pe missi e po en a e”
model o pla o m powe accoun s o he e ogenei y among gig pla o ms, i has
less capaci y o explain di e si y wi hin he gig economy wo k o ce and how such
di e si y media es pla o m powe . A e all, al hough pla o ms clea ly exe powe ,
his will no a ec all wo ke s in he same way o o he same deg ee — as has
been compellingly demons a ed in esea ch on gende ed and acialised expe i-
ences o gig wo k (Webs e & Zhang, 2020; Milkman e al., 2021; Geb ial, 2022;
James, 2024), and in he g owing body o li e a u e on gig economies in he Global
Sou h and China (e.g. A iagada e al., 2023; Tandon & Ra hi, 2022; Qad i & D’ig-
nazio, 2022; Sun & Zhao, 2022; Pollio, 2019).
Vallas and Scho do no e ha , due o hei low en y ba ie s, “pla o ms os e
g ea e a ia ion in he wo k o ien a ions, labo ma ke posi ions, and sociodemo-
g aphic composi ion o hei wo ke s” compa ed o adi ional low-wage indus ies
(Vallas & Scho , 2020, p. 283), esul ing in a ying le els o wo ke s’ dependency
on pla o m ea nings. Bu how o heo ise he link be ween he o me and he la -
e and he eby o ge a mo e complex and ela ional no ion o pla o m powe ? To
help ad ance such a heo isa ion, I u n o a mo e ecen con ibu ion om he
6 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(2) | 2024
same au ho s, which builds on he “pe missi e po en a e” model as well as on
Scho ’s ea lie wo k on wo k o ce he e ogenei y and pla o m dependence (Scho
e al., 2020).
No ably, a he han heo ising he nuances o pla o m powe di ec ly, he au ho s’
objec i e in his s udy is o explain how he gig economy’s “s uc u ally induced
wo k o ce he e ogenei y” esul s in di e en o ien a ions o isk among wo ke s
(Scho e al., 2023, p. 2). They p opose a heo y o “di e en ial embeddedness, in
which he s uc u al posi ions ha gig wo ke s hold in he economy condi ion how
hey pe cei e and expe ience he isks ha pla o m wo k en ails” (Scho e al.,
2023, p. 5, emphasis in o iginal). Gene ally, he mo e a gig wo ke is embedded in
he “con en ional economy” and he g ea e hei “dis ance o necessi y”, o inan-
cial secu i y (Scho e al., 2023), he mo e likely hey a e o pe cei e gig- ela ed
isks op imis ically. To ep esen and schema ize hese a ia ions, he au ho s in-
oduce a ypology o isk o ien a ions anging om consen o con es a ion. Gig
wo ke s who con es pla o m- and cus ome -induced isk, acco ding o he au-
ho s’ indings, end o be mo e economically disembedded and hus mo e depen-
den on pla o m ea nings. Wha eme ges om hei s udy, hen, is a s uc u al(is )
model in which di e en ial embeddedness de e mines pla o m dependency which
in u n shapes isk o ien a ion.
While his is an impo an con ibu ion o he gig economy li e a u e, and one ha
has subs an ially ad anced my own hinking on he opic, he e a e a ew issues
ha should be add essed be o e hei model can help me e hink how powe ope -
a es in he gig economy. Fi s , I a gue ha he au ho s’ heo y o “di e en ial em-
beddedness”, while pe inen , is no su icien ly holis ic and agile o ully accoun
o he di e se and dynamic na u e o gig wo ke s’ socioeconomic si ua ions, wo k
mo i a ions, and a achmen s o pla o ms. In hei model, gig wo ke s a e s a ical-
ly posi ioned in an economic o de , whe e being embedded means being inancial-
ly secu e. Ye his economis ic pe spec i e misses o he ele an o ms o embed-
dedness, such as membe ship o social ne wo ks (including amilial and diaspo ic
ies), which may a o d modes o secu i y and wellbeing ha cons i u e a bu e
agains isk ou side o he o mal economy (Ray & Sam, 2023). Mo eo e , he
means by which people es ablish a measu e o “dis ance om necessi y” a e di-
e se and may en ail a ious (in ima e) powe ela ions and inequali ies ha a e
likely o in o m mo i a ions o doing pla o m wo k and na iga ing i s isks (Van
Doo n & Vijay, 2021).
This is o say ha i ma e s whe he one’s inancial secu i y de i es om “a secu e
‘main job’, spousal o amily suppo , sa ings, o o he bu e s” (Scho e al., 2023,
7 an Doo n
p. 3), since some gene a e dependencies while o he s may o e mo e au onomy
(Van Doo n, 2023; Ray & Sam, 2023). Finally, people ake up gig wo k a a ious
poin s in hei li es, lea ing and e u ning o i as hei pe sonal and p o essional
li e ajec o ies un old (Van Doo n, 2023) and as pla o ms e ol e in ways ha
(dis)ad an age some wo ke s o e o he s. This means ha wo ke s’ posi ion in he
economic o de is dynamic: a he han hinking in e ms o s a ic g oups o mo e
o less embedded gig wo ke s and mapping hei expe iences on a ypology o isk
o ien a ions, i is mo e p oduc i e o conside how di e en modes and shi ing
deg ees o embeddedness co ela e o a iable, some imes con adic o y, unde -
s andings and expe iences o isk.
This b ings me o he second issue: he p oposed heo y doesn’ qui e cap u e he
ambi alence ha is cen al o gig wo ke s’ pe cep ions and expe iences o isk. Ac-
co ding o he au ho s, hei indings can sensi ise schola s “ o a la gely un ecog-
nized duali y o labo pla o ms: while o many, pla o m wo k cons i u es a cause
o he isks, o o he s i mi iga es exposu e o he isks hey migh o he wise con-
on ” (Scho e al., 2023, p. 3). Ra he han cons i u ing a di ision be ween wo
g oups o gig wo ke s, howe e , my own esea ch shows ha his duali y is be e
hough o as a undamen al ambi alence expe ienced by nea ly e e yone doing
gig wo k: pla o ms mi iga e some ypes o isk while simul aneously in oducing
new isks (Van Doo n, 2023). As gig wo ke s, people ace labou - ela ed “ma ke
isk” (Ma ie, 2023) induced by pla o ms and cus ome s, which can be physical, i-
nancial, and epis emic in na u e (G ego y, 2021). Ye as (undocumen ed) mig an s,
pa en s, wel a e ecipien s, enan s, c edi o s, and/o deb o s, hey also na iga e
o he kinds o isk — o en in ela ion o a ious s a e ins i u ions — ha pla o m
wo k can help hem deal wi h, albei in o en p o isional ways (Me awala e al.,
2021; Wol , 2022).
Risk, as I will demons a e below, appea s in mul iple o ms and comes om a i-
ous di ec ions and sou ces ha equen ly exceed he pla o m-go e ned poin o
p oduc ion, eme ging om o bleeding in o sphe es o social ep oduc ion. Acco d-
ingly, s udying how gig wo ke s’ “di e en ial embeddedness” in luences hei sus-
cep ibili y o and nego ia ion o isk would bene i om a pla o m-adjacen ap-
p oach ha seeks o o eg ound “wha has so a ea u ed in he backg ound o gig
economy esea ch, by sc u inizing p ac ices and ela ionships loca ed a he edges
o he ield’s concep ual and me hodological bounda ies” (Van Doo n & Shapi o,
2023, p. 3). These edges a e whe e gig wo k in e sec s wi h people’s b oade wo k
and li e ajec o ies: whe e social ies, income, asse s, (ca e) esponsibili ies, igh s,
and obliga ions a e gained, main ained, and los o discon inued. Risk, as one can
8 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(2) | 2024
and Deli e oo makes him “good money”. Bu , mo e impo an ly, doing deli e y
wo k makes him happy. Fo him, he job has been he apeu ic: “ he hing is, I can-
no ind a ucking psychologic ha speak Spanish in Be lin. So when you a e on
he s ee en hou s, on he bike, you ha e ime a lo o hinking, a lo o ime o
hinking many hings. I 's like he apy!” Al hough he wo k is in ense, Deli e oo al-
so o e ed him a space o ep ie e om his daily men al s uggles, mos p omi-
nen ly du ing he pe iod leading up o and ollowing his di o ce. As s ange as i
may sound o some, Pablo is hank ul o ha e Deli e oo in his li e. The pla o m
bo h g inds and g ounds him, he la e in bo h he men al and geog aphical
sense. He ells me he hopes o be wo king o Deli e oo o he o eseeable u u e,
jus as he in ends o s ay in Be lin o see his child en g ow up. The pla o m and
his kids a e wha embeds him in Be lin. He no longe eels he need o ebel, un
o and y elsewhe e.
This is why i pained me so much o hea ha , only a ew mon hs a e ou in e -
iew in he sp ing o 2019, Pablo’s accoun was deac i a ed a e an al e ca ion a
a es au an . Appa en ly, i wasn’ he i s ime he go in o ouble wi h a es au-
an owne and his ime Deli e oo decided o e mina e hei use ag eemen . I
was de as a ing o him, since losing access o he pla o m mean no only losing
his income bu also being dep i ed o one o his main li e ancho s. He made e-
pea ed a emp s o ge eins a ed, suppo ed by pleas om ellow ide s, bu o no
a ail. When he ealised he wasn’ going o be allowed back, he signed up wi h
Lime, an elec ic scoo e en al s a up, o which he oamed a ound he ci y in he
middle o he nigh cha ging ba e ies. His noc u nal li es yle as a “juice ” was y-
ing, mainly because i kep him om being a ound his child en as much as he
would like since he had o sleep du ing he day. Bu Pablo has always been ough
so he managed o pe se e e un il, igh be o e he Co id-19 pandemic hi Ge -
many, he signed up wi h Lie e ando — a subsidia y o Jus Ea Takeaway. In an
i onic wis o a e, Pablo had e u ned o doing ood deli e y no e y long a e
Deli e oo e ea ed om Be lin and o he Ge man ma ke s in Augus 2019 (Al-
en ied, 2021).
Tish
Tish, who is A ican Ame ican and ecen ly u ned 27, go he i s cleaning job a
he age o 18 h ough New Yo k Ci y’s Back o Wo k wo k o ce e-en y p og amme.
The summe be o e u ning 18, she had al eady aken on a summe job a a
women’s shel e h ough he Ci y’s you h employmen p og am, a e he dad was
inca ce a ed and she had o basically ake ca e o he sel . Once she mo ed in wi h
he g andmo he , she also helped he pay he bills. A e he bi hday, she u ned
15 an Doo n
o Back o Wo k because she needed he money and, ha ing been on wel a e
h ough he pa en s, she p e e ed ha ing a job and ecei ing a wage. Al hough
she didn’ wan o do cleaning wo k a i s , she decided o gi e i a y. The i s
company she wo ked o paid $9 an hou and quickly wen ou o business, a e
which she ound ano he cleaning job ia C aigslis – o he books o $10 an
hou . Howe e , she qui his posi ion a e she ound ou ha he woman she
wo ked o scammed he ou o nea ly $700 in unpaid wages. By ha ime she was
also in school o an associa e deg ee in business managemen and ied o ind a
posi ion ha be e ma ched he skills, bu o no a ail. The p essu es o moun ing
bills and s uden loans hen pushed he owa d ano he cleaning company, which
paid $11 on he books and p omo ed he o supe ision a e a ew mon hs. While
she was “climbing up he pay ladde li le by li le”, he sala y didn’ ma ch he
eno mous amoun o wo k she was now esponsible o and she g ew inc easingly
impa ien . I was a ound his ime ha she saw a s ee able p omo ing he Handy
pla o m, bu i e en ually ook he ano he yea o inally qui he job and sign up,
in 2013.
Once she did, she lo ed he “easy app o al” p ocess. She only had o a end a
g oup o ien a ion session (a ea u e o Handy’s “onboa ding” ou ine, since discon-
inued) whe e hey checked basic cleaning knowledge and handed e e yone a big
blue bag con aining a acuum cleane and o he supplies o which hey sub ac -
ed $150 om he i s paycheck. Tish was ine wi h his: “I mean, Handy was saying
‘oh, we' e hi ing cleane s o $15 an hou ’ and I'm like ‘oh my god ha 's he mos
I' e e e made!’” As she was used o doing h ee o ou cleanings pe day, she
claimed a lo o o e s du ing he i s mon hs — as many as she could — and
quickly mo ed om he $15 ie o $17 and hen e en o $22 o a while, aking in
money. In hose ea ly days she would e en ge paid daily, which made he “ eel
like a celeb i y, like I would jus wake up and be like ‘am I d eaming?’” Pulling
50-hou wo k weeks was exhaus ing, especially wi h all he a elling, bu he ex-
pe ience o inancial independence was in oxica ing. Handy’s ie ed wage sys em
u he s imula ed he wo king pace: o e ain hei ie ed hou ly a e, “P os” (as
he company calls i s cleane s) need o keep up hei a ings and mee he ie ’s
mon hly job a ge . Once you sink below one o he se h esholds, you a e demo -
ed.
A e aking a wo-mon h b eak because she go sick om wo king oo much and
no aking p ope ca e o he sel , Tish ound ou ha she was back a he bo om
ie making $15 an hou . This made he eel a li le be ayed: “I don’ like i be-
cause […] you wo k ha d o i , and i 's like all he wo k ha I pu in hese las
16 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(2) | 2024
mon hs doesn' mean any hing igh now […] You jus eel o go en abou .” She
had no op ion bu o s a all o e again and climb he paymen ie s. This ime,
howe e , she ne e made i back o he $22 ie because Handy made i ha de o
each. The jobs we e ge ing wo se oo, as she was o en con on ed wi h ang y
clien s who ook hei us a ions wi h Handy o p e ious P os ou on he . Mo e-
o e , some clien s would y o scam Handy by submi ing a complain so hey
wouldn’ ha e o pay o he cleaning, which means Tish wouldn’ ge paid ei he
o would e en ge ined. Fines a e an impo an “s ick” ha o ms a coun e pa o
Handy’s ie ed sys em o “ca o s” and seem o ha e g own in o a sou ce o e enue
in and by i sel (Van Doo n, 2018). One ime she a elled o a dis an neighbou -
hood in Queens only o be s ood up by he clien and hen ound ou ha Handy
cha ged he a $50 ee o os ensibly ailing o show up wi hou p io no ice. These
kinds o inciden s igge ed a sense o indigna ion: “I' e pu a lo o wo k in, I had
g ea a ings, you know, cus ome s ga e me g ea eedback, like why would I e e
do a no show?” Whe eas she used o be able o call a numbe and alk o someone,
by hen she had o email he objec ions and i ook a long ime o ge a esponse.
He appeal wasn’ success ul and Tish’s accoun was e en deac i a ed o a ew
weeks.
When Tish s a ed wi h Handy he e we e no ees ye , bu now she had o be much
mo e ca e ul abou a i ing la e o a job o lea ing ea lie , because clien s could
— and did — epo he and she would be cha ged a $15 ee. Ye some hings we e
beyond he con ol, such as when he g andmo he go sick and she had o cancel
a numbe o jobs less han 48 hou s in ad ance, o which Handy cha ged he be-
ween $10 and $40 each. Ins ead o making money she was now losing income,
which mean ha she needed o accep mo e jobs o make up o he losses. I i
would ha e only been possible o eschedule none o his would ha e happened,
bu Handy only sha es he con ac in o ma ion o new clien s ou hou s ahead o
he job and e ases i a e wa ds ( o one-o cleanings). Impo an ly, his is no he
only in o ma ion he company e ases o es ic s: a e being deac i a ed a second
ime, Tish pe manen ly los access o he accoun :
I was an obs acle because I had no p oo o all he wo k ha I did. O he
ecogni ion. You know once you ge deac i a ed, you can' log back in o he app
anymo e […] Especially because Handy shows how many jobs I did. And I had
like almos 700 jobs. So I would lo e o show people how long I' e wo ked wi h
hem, how many jobs I' e comple ed, you know.
Deac i a ion doesn’ only pose an immedia e li elihood c isis bu is also a h ea
17 an Doo n
o u u e job oppo uni ies because you essen ially lose you esume, which u ns
ou ne e o ha e been uly you s in he i s place. A he ime o ou in e iew,
Tish was looking o se up he own cleaning company, expanding he cus ome
base ia he social ne wo k o he small g oup o clien s she e ained a e he de-
ac i a ion. He bigges asse s, she knows, a e he ex ensi e p o essional expe i-
ence and he Associa e Deg ee in Business Managemen . All she s ill needs is a
business licence, o which she is sa ing up, and he own websi e. Since she’s been
wo king o a local upscale cleaning se ice o ea n ex a money, she has ecei ed
many good a ings and pe sonalised e iews on Yelp and she’s hinking abou
copy-pas ing hese o he u u e websi e as e idence o he skills. Un o una ely,
she won’ be able o do he same wi h he epu a ional da a accumula ed ia
Handy.
Wha wo ies he , mo ing o wa d wi h he business plans, is he chance ha she
migh ge audi ed by he IRS. Tish did no pay any income ax du ing he ou
yea s she wo ked h ough he pla o m: “Hones ly, a ha ime, I didn' eally ca e
because i was jus he money, and I didn' eally unde s and i .” She belie es he
company should ha e done mo e o in o m i s P os, conside ing ha “ he majo i y
o people ha wo k wi h Handy a e mino i ies, you know, so we don' eally know
ha much abou axes. Like, a lo o people ha wo k he e was low-income.” S ill,
she holds no ha d eelings owa d Handy and, o e all, she looks back on ha pe i-
od as a “wonde ul ime”. In an almos c uel way, he pla o m se he on his pa h
owa d s a ing he own business, he eby making a ailable some hing i could
ne e o e : a po en ial ca ee . Wi h Handy, “i ’s no p og ession, no bene i s, no
g ow h, you know?”, she e lec s a he end o a long con e sa ion. He mood and
pe spec i e suddenly shi : “in ha sense I was ed my ime”. He a he always
pleaded wi h he o ge a job wi h bene i s, bu she con inues o be on Medicaid
despi e o icially exceeding he maximum income cap. Tha ’s ano he isk she’s
willing o ake, o now.
5. Discussion: The con ingencies o pla o m powe
Wha can hese wo biog aphical na a i es ell us abou he di e en ia ed and
e ol ing na u e o pla o m powe in he gig economy? To s a wi h a pla o m
pe spec i e, i is clea ha bo h Deli e oo and Handy a e a emp ing o minimise
he ope a ional isk/cos associa ed wi h gig wo ke au onomy. Handy’s app oach
has g own mo e disciplina y and puni i e o e ime, ying i s ie ed wage sys em
o a se o cus ome -e alua ed pe o mance me ics ha became inc easingly de-
manding, while in oducing i s NYC-based cleane s o a b oad ange o ees o de-
18 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(2) | 2024
e hem om b eaking he pla o m’s ules (Van Doo n, 2018). I Handy can be
cha ac e ised as a “pe missi e po en a e” (Vallas & Scho , 2020), i s powe o d ess
up con ol as ma ke -based isk ul ima ely de i es as much om s a egic and pe -
sis en ac s o sabo age as om he ou sou cing o discipline and punishmen o
cus ome s. Deli e oo, meanwhile, has mo ed in he opposi e di ec ion. Whe eas i
employed i s ide s when s a ing in Be lin so ha i could ain and s ee hem di-
ec ly, i swi ched o a eelance wo k o ce whose new ound au onomy had o be
cu bed in ways ha a en’ legible as labou con ol. E en ually, he i m in oduced
a “ ee login” sys em ha u he loosened i s pla o m-based con ol in as uc-
u e, making i appea like a ood deli e y ma ke whe e ide “pa ne s” a e ee o
en e and exi a any ime bu a e also expec ed o manage job- ela ed isks
(Viljoen e al., 2021). Acco dingly, Deli e oo has g own in o a “pe missi e p eda o ”
(Vallas & Scho , 2020), inso a as i deploys enginee ed eedoms o deepen he
exploi a ion o ide s who ace inc easing compe i ion due o he company’s o e -
hi ing s a egy.
Despi e de eloping in opposi e di ec ions, bo h Deli e oo and Handy nego ia e he
gene a i e ension be ween openness and cons ain — i.e. be ween being a ma -
ke place and a wo kplace — ha is cons i u i e o pla o m powe (Vallas & Scho ,
2020; B a on, 2015; Williams, 2015). While hey “se he e ms o pa icipa ion ac-
co ding o ixed p o ocols” (B a on, 2015, p. 44), hey also allow o a g ea a ie y
o pa icipan s o en e he pla o m, esul ing in gig wo k o ce he e ogenei y
(Scho e al., 2023). Wha happens nex will depend on he complex in e ac ion
be ween a pla o m’s ope a ions, he pa icula indus y o sec o , he local egula-
o y se ing, and he socio-economic si ua ion o indi idual gig wo ke s. In his pa-
pe , I ha e ocused on he la e by building on Scho e al.'s (2023) heo e ical
model in which “di e en ial embeddedness” explains he a ying ex en s o which
gig wo ke s a e dependen on pla o m ea nings. Ye ins ead o asking how his
shapes cul u al logics o “ isk o ien a ion”, I ha e examined how i impac s people’s
abili y o empowe hemsel es by using gig pla o ms o manage isk in hei
e e yday li es, which a e also shaped by o he kinds o powe ela ions.
Deli e oo showed up in Pablo’s li e when he el pa icula ly low and aliena ed
om Ge man socie y, whe e he was ying o oo himsel a e a long pe iod o in-
s i u ional disembeddedness while doing hospi ali y wo k ac oss Eu ope. The com-
pany’s ea ly “Mini Job” model el ela i ely isk- ee, especially since he was s ill
co e ed by his hen-wi e’s heal h insu ance and could claim wel a e suppo . To be
su e, his social sa e y ne had an impo an embedding unc ion, inso a as i p o-
ided Pablo a measu e o inancial p o ec ion. His hen-wi e also o med a social
19 an Doo n
ancho , helping him o apply wi h Deli e oo and checking he con ac s. In he ea -
ly days o his enu e wi h Deli e oo, mo eo e , Pablo elished in he communi y he
ound among ide s, which c ea ed a sense o p o essional embeddedness ha
made he nega i e aspec s o he job mo e pala able. Upon swi ching con ac s,
his ela i ely embedded posi ion s a ed o disin eg a e: Pablo los his social sa e-
y ne as well as his ide communi y, becoming inc easingly dependen on a pla -
o m ha was suddenly paying him pe deli e y and had o loaded mos esponsi-
bili ies o sus aining him o and on he job. While he was making a good amoun
o money by wo king e y ha d, and in his sense managed o keep some “dis ance
om necessi y”, he was also abso bing a highe le el o pla o m-induced isk. The
eason he did no jus qui and y his luck elsewhe e, howe e , is because he was
conside ing ano he , mo e impo an kind o isk: losing his job and he eby le ing
down o , wo se, losing con ac wi h his child en. In a psychologically complex way,
he wo had become in ima ely en angled and he hough o losing ei he one o
his ancho s in li e made him exceedingly willing o go he ex a mile o Deli e oo.
Acco dingly, he pla o m’s powe o e him — men al as much as inancial — g ew
mo e en enched.
In Tish’s case, he p e ious wo k expe iences had c ea ed a ce ain pa h-dependen-
cy ha made Handy an appealing op ion. Facing bills and s uden deb , he pla -
o m p omised bo h highe ea nings and mo e au onomy — and indeed his is
wha i o e ed o a while. In inancial e ms, Handy inc eased he “dis ance om
necessi y” and he eby embedded he economically o an ex en ha was p e i-
ously inaccessible. Impo an ly, li ing wi h he g andmo he and ha ing access o
Medicaid also helped in his ega d, by lowe ing he expenses. Ye once i s Tish
and hen he g andmo he ell ill, Handy’s inc easingly puni i e labou manage-
men sys em u ned agains he and she ound he sel ha ing o manage much
mo e pla o m- and cus ome -induced isk han be o e. S ill, al hough he cos s o
wo king h ough Handy g ew signi ican ly, Tish did no qui because she con inued
o see he oppo uni ies i o e ed. She had also in es ed much ime and e o in-
o cul i a ing he epu a ion on he pla o m, which by hen had en enched i s
ga ekeeping powe . Once i pe manen ly closed he ga e on Tish, he ou come el
ambi alen : on he one hand, she mou ned he loss o he wo k his o y, ye on he
o he hand i may ha e been he push she needed o s a he own cleaning busi-
ness, e-embedding he sel while aking some o Handy’s cus ome s wi h he .
Tish and Pablo a e bo h weakly embedded in con en ional economic e ms, espe-
cially when judged by hei labou ma ke posi ions, and hey ha e been depen-
den on pla o m ea nings o la ge pe iods o ime. Ye hei a i ude owa d pla -
20 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(2) | 2024
o m-induced isk canno be uni o mly cha ac e ised as an agonis ic, esigned, o
acquiescing, as Scho e al. (2023) would sugges . How hey app oached he isks
associa ed wi h pla o m-based wo k was always ela ed o how hey es ima ed i s
oppo uni ies in he con ex o o he op ions, esou ces, and o ms o isk a ce ain
momen s in ime. In o he wo ds, he na iga ion o pla o m-induced isk is a
deeply ela ional, dynamic, and p agma ic a ai whose mo al economy is in o med
by o en a ec i ely d i en and alue-laden assessmen s o wha isks a e wo h
aking. A sense o agency in a web o dependencies is c i ical in bo h biog aphies;
some imes isk aking was en ep eneu ial in na u e, while a o he imes i jus
el po en ially ewa ding, digni ying, o simply he igh hing o do. Ye isk —
pa icula ly pla o m-induced isk — was also expe ienced as agency obs uc ing
and demo alising, especially when i was judged o be un ai o undue, which led
o eelings o ambi alence.
Ambi alence and change a e key hemes in bo h biog aphical na a i es. Ye hese
end o be o e looked in gig economy schola ship ha p io i ises wha happens a
he poin o p oduc ion o e wha happens o people in o he a eas o hei li es.
Taking in o accoun pla o m-adjacen wo k and li e ajec o ies expands his na -
ow c i ical scope and shows how “embeddedness”, “pla o m-dependency”, and
“ isk” a e mu a ing and mul i ace ed phenomena whose in e ac ion will co-de e -
mine how much and wha kind o powe a pla o m can exe cise. In bo h biog a-
phies, we ha e seen how pla o m powe can g adually g ow mo e en enched, as
changes in o he ela ions o powe and dependence — o en in ol ing s a e ins i-
u ions adminis e ing wel a e and axa ion — ende ed Pablo and Tish mo e ul-
ne able. Finally, despi e he ield’s p eoccupa ion wi h (algo i hmic) labou disci-
pline and con ol, he sudden deac i a ion o bo h Pablo’s and Tish’s accoun s
should emind us ha pla o ms ou inely wield a ype o “so e eign” powe ha
acu ely jeopa dises wo ke s’ li elihoods. Ye wha he na a i es also demons a e
is ha , e en hen, wo k and li e ajec o ies con inue. The e is a li e be o e and a e
pla o m wo k, e en as a pla o m can change one’s li e and in o m decisions ha
shape wo k ajec o ies.
6. Conclusion: Towa d a pla o m-adjacen policy
esponse
Gi en i s emphasis on ambi alence, complexi y, and change, i may be ha d o
imagine how an analysis o hese biog aphical na a i es could in o m egula o y
and policy ini ia i es seeking o imp o e labou condi ions in he gig economy. As I
ha e lea ned o e he yea s, such ini ia i es usually p e e unambiguous esea ch
21 an Doo n
esul ing in conc e e and ideally scalable “solu ions” ha can be implemen ed
ac oss he boa d. Like p e ious wo k ha emphasises wo k o ce he e ogenei y
(Scho e al., 2020; 2023), a pla o m-adjacen analysis complica es his p edispo-
si ion inso a as i pushes back agains sil e bulle app oaches ha oo na owly
ocus on pla o m culpabili y and misclassi ica ion while concei ing o pla o m
powe in uni e sal and “algo i hmic” e ms. In his sense, schola ly limi a ions in
unde s anding he isks and ulne abili ies ha gig wo ke s expe ience a e pa ly
esponsible o he p e alence o sho sigh ed egula o y in e en ions.
So wha does a pla o m-adjacen policy esponse look like? Fi s , i u ges egula-
o s and policymake s o adop a mul idimensional, holis ic app oach ha ea s
gig wo ke s no jus as wo ke s bu as people li ing complex li es ull o dynamic
ela ionships wi h o he people as well as a a ie y o public and p i a e ins i u-
ions ha can bo h empowe hem and dep i e hem o agency. Since gig pla -
o ms a e o en jus one ins i u ional ac o among o he s, policymake s should
s a by o ging a comp ehensi e image o he socioeconomic ci cums ances — i.e.
he pa icula needs, p oblems, wo k/li e ajec o ies, and aspi a ions — o hose
who seek ou gig wo k, be o e hey conside he powe o pla o ms o algo i hms.
While I ealise ha his will equi e much ime and e o , no o men ion poli ical
will, only ailo ed app oaches ha ake in o accoun he he e ogenei y o gig
wo k o ces and ecognize he complexi y o hei s uggles ha e a chance a las -
ing success.
Second, a pla o m-adjacen policy esponse should no only be holis ic wi h e-
spec o how i app oaches he p oblem space o gig wo k; i should also be sel -
e lexi e. This means ha policymake s and egula o s should acknowledge he
mul i a ious and ambi alen ole o he s a e in he li es o many gig wo ke s. I
should be no ed he e ha he legal schola ship on pla o m-media ed gig wo k
la gely mi o s he sel -concep ion o hose making and deba ing new pla o m
wo k legisla ion, inso a as bo h see he s a e as cus odian o he public good en-
us ed wi h he esponsibili y o ed ess injus ice and inju y (B own, 1995). How-
e e , many o my esea ch pa icipan s, including Pablo and Tish, ha e mo e di-
e se and con adic o y expe iences wi h s a e powe , as di e en s a e agencies
— a a ious scales o go e nmen — p o ide sou ces o ca e and suppo while al-
so inducing ulne abili y by exe cising o ms o puni i e and disciplina y powe .
While he na u e and impac s o s a e powe ha e always been mani old, con em-
po a y neolibe al s a es a e inc easingly composed o “ agmen ed go e nance a -
chi ec u es” and hei agendas “ acili a e sca e ed policy in e en ions” co-shaped
by p i a e ac o s se ing ma ke in e es s a he expense o he poo and wo king
22 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(2) | 2024
class (Taşan-Kok & Özogul, 2021, p. 1318). In his en i onmen , i is no jus c i i-
cal o ensu e ha pla o m policymake s a e p o ec ed agains co po a e in luence
bu also o c ea e amewo ks in which hey can engage in collabo a i e and inclu-
si e policy e o ms ac oss a eas o go e nance.
Thi d and inally, a pla o m-adjacen policy esponse hus encou ages a ela ional
and in eg a i e app oach o policy-making, seeking o disman le policy silos and
in ol ing mo e ins i u ional ac o s ha do no ep esen he in e es s o capi al. As
long as gig wo ke s and hei households a e asked o shoulde mo e isk, gig pla -
o ms will con inue o be a ac i e op ions o hose lacking obus esou ces o
income gene a ion and daily isk managemen . Recognising his, egula o s and
policymake s should wo k oge he wi h ad ocacy g oups and communi y-based
o ganisa ions o ind ways o ensu ing ha we do no allow hese pla o ms o be-
come people’s main sou ce o income, since his c ea es dependencies ha esul
in he en enchmen o pla o m powe — no wi hs anding he a iega ed impac s
o such powe . Se ious e o s o add ess he p oblems o he gig economy should
no and canno be disconnec ed om b oade policy e o ms ha add ess he gen-
de pay gap and acial weal h inequali ies, imp o e job oppo uni ies and wo king
condi ions o labou ma ke ou side s, and make wel a e, (heal h)ca e, and educa-
ional se ices mo e widely accessible and less puni i e o ma ginalised commu-
ni ies.
Re e ences
Al en ied, M. (2021). Mobile wo ke s, con ingen labou : Mig a ion, he gig economy and he
mul iplica ion o labou . En i onmen and Planning A: Economy and Space. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/0
308518X211054846
Anwa , M. A., & G aham, M. (2020). Hidden ansc ip s o he gig economy: Labou agency and he
new a o esis ance among A ican gig wo ke s. En i onmen and Planning A: Economy and Space,
52(7), 1269–1291. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/0308518X19894584
A iagada, A., Bonhomme, M., Ibáñez, F., & Ley on, J. (2023). The gig economy in Chile: Examining
labo condi ions and he na u e o gig wo k in a Global Sou h coun y. Digi al Geog aphy and Socie y,
5. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.diggeo.2023.100063
Ba abasch, A., & Me ill, B. (2014). C oss-cul u al app oaches o biog aphical in e iews: Looking a
ca ee ansi ions and li elong lea ning. Resea ch in Compa a i e and In e na ional Educa ion, 9(3),
287–300. h ps://doi.o g/10.2304/ cie.2014.9.3.287
Bissell, D. (2022). A ec i e li e o inancial loss: De aching om los in es men s in he wake o he
gig economy. En i onmen and Planning A: Economy and Space, 54(3), 477–492. h ps://doi.o g/10.11
77/0308518X211052054
23 an Doo n
B a on, B. H. (2016). The s ack: On so wa e and so e eign y. MIT P ess. h ps://doi.o g/10.7551/mi p
ess/9780262029575.001.0001
B own, W. (1995). S a es o inju y: Powe and eedom in la e mode ni y. P ince on Uni e si y P ess. h
ps://doi.o g/10.2307/j.c zgb898
Came on, L. D., & Rahman, H. (2022). Expanding he locus o esis ance: Unde s anding he co-
cons i u ion o con ol and esis ance in he gig economy. O ganiza ion Science, 33(1), 38–58. h p
s://doi.o g/10.1287/o sc.2021.1557
Cohen, J. E. (2019). Be ween u h and powe : The legal cons uc ions o in o ma ional capi amism.
Ox o d Uni e si y P ess. h ps://doi.o g/10.1093/oso/9780190246693.001.0001
Doussa d, M. (2013). Deg aded wo k: The s uggle a he bo om o he labo ma ke . Uni e si y o
Minneso a P ess. h ps://doi.o g/10.5749/minneso a/9780816681396.001.0001
Dybb oe, B. (2013). Wo k iden i y and con adic o y expe iences o wel a e wo ke s in a li e-his o y
pe spec i e. His o ical Social Resea ch/His o ische Sozial o schung, 38(2), 107–123. h ps://doi.o g/1
0.12759/hs .38.2013.2.107-123
Geb ial, D. (2022). Racial pla o m capi alism: Empi e, mig a ion and he making o Ube in London.
En i onmen and Planning A: Economy and Space. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/0308518X221115439
G as en, M., Seab ooke, L., & Wigan, D. (2023). Legal a o dances in global weal h chains: How
pla o m i ms use legal and spa ial scaling. En i onmen and Planning A: Economy and Space, 55(4),
1062–1079. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/0308518X211057131
G ego y, K. (2021). 'My li e is mo e aluable han his’: Unde s anding isk among on-demand ood
cou ie s in Edinbu gh. Wo k, Employmen and Socie y, 35(2), 316–331. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/0950
017020969593
G iesbach, K., Reich, A., Ellio -Neg i, L., & Milkman, R. (2019). Algo i hmic con ol in pla o m ood
deli e y wo k. Socius: Sociological Resea ch o a Dynamic Wo ld, 5. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/2378023
119870041
James, A. (2024). Pla o m wo k‐li es in he gig economy: Recen e ing wo k– amily esea ch.
Gende , Wo k & O ganiza ion, 31(2), 513–534. h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/gwao.13087
Kellogg, K., Valen ine, M., & Ch is in, A. (2020). Algo i hms a wo k: The new con es ed e ain o
con ol. Academy o Managemen Annals, 14(1), 366–410. h ps://doi.o g/10.5465/annals.2018.0174
Kenney, M., Bea son, D., & Zysman, J. (2021). The pla o m economy ma u es: Measu ing
pe asi eness and explo ing powe . Socio-economic e iew, 19(4), 1451–1483. h ps://doi.o g/10.10
93/se /mwab014
Le coe, A. D., Connelly, C. E., & Gella ly, I. R. (2023). Ride-hail d i e s, axi d i e s and mul iple
jobholde s: Who akes he mos isks and why? Wo k, Employmen and Socie y. h ps://doi.o g/10.11
77/09500170231185212
Macca one, V., Cini, L., & Tassina i, A. (2023). Resis ance and s uggle in he gig economy. In M.
A zeni, D. Azzellini, A. Mezzad i, P. Moo e, & U. Api zch (Eds.), Handbook o esea ch on he global
poli ical economy o wo k (pp. 360–370). Edwa d Elga Publishing. h ps://doi.o g/10.4337/9781839
106583.00042
Ma ie, M. D. (2023). Visible hands: How gig companies shape wo ke s’ exposu e o ma ke isk.
Indus ial Rela ions: A Jou nal o Economy and Socie y, 63(1), 59–79. h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/i el.1233
24 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(2) | 2024
