Sa asin, O iane; Fasel, Nicole; G een, E a G. T.; Helbling, Ma c
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When sexual h ea cues shape a i udes owa d
immig an s: he ole o insecu i y and bene olen sexism
F on ie s in Psychology
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Sa asin, O iane; Fasel, Nicole; G een, E a G. T.; Helbling, Ma c (2015) : When
sexual h ea cues shape a i udes owa d immig an s: he ole o insecu i y and bene olen sexism,
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ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 28 July 2015
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2015.01033
Edi ed by:
Ma k Hallahan,
College o he Holy C oss, USA
Re iewed by:
Melissa Ma ie McDonald,
Michigan S a e Uni e si y, USA
Julia Becke ,
Uni e si y o Osnab ück, Ge many
*Co espondence:
O iane Sa asin,
Na ional Cen e o Compe ence
in Resea ch LIVES, Facul y o Social
and Poli ical Sciences, Uni e si y
o Lausanne, Geopolis Building,
CH-1015 Lausanne, Swi ze land
o iane.sa [email protected]
Special y sec ion:
This a icle was submi ed o
Pe sonali y and Social Psychology,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Psychology
Recei ed: 13 Feb ua y 2015
Accep ed: 06 July 2015
Published: 28 July 2015
Ci a ion:
Sa asin O, Fasel N, G een EGT
and Helbling M (2015) When sexual
h ea cues shape a i udes owa d
immig an s: he ole o insecu i y
and bene olen sexism.
F on . Psychol. 6:1033.
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2015.01033
When sexual h ea cues shape
a i udes owa d immig an s: he ole
o insecu i y and bene olen sexism
O iane Sa asin1,2*, Nicole Fasel3, E a G. T. G een3and Ma c Helbling1,4
1Mig a ion and Di e si y, WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e , Be lin, Ge many, 2Na ional Cen e o Compe ence in Resea ch
LIVES, Facul y o Social and Poli ical Sciences, Uni e si y o Lausanne, Lausanne, Swi ze land, 3Ins i u e o Psychology,
Facul y o Social and Poli ical Sciences, Uni e si y o Lausanne, Lausanne, Swi ze land, 4Depa men o Poli ical Science,
Uni e si y o Bambe g, Bambe g, Ge many
D awing on psychological and poli ical science esea ch on indi iduals’ sensi i i y o
h ea cues, he p esen s udy examines eac ions o poli ical pos e s ha depic
male immig an s as a sexual dange . We expec an i-immig an a i udes o be mo e
s ongly p edic ed by eelings o insecu i y o ep esen a ions o men and women
as s ong and agile when indi iduals a e exposed o sexual h ea cues han when
hey a e no . Resul s om wo online expe imen s conduc ed in Swi ze land and
Ge many la gely con i med hese assump ions. Compa ing wo an i-immig an pos e s
(gene al and non-sexual h ea s. sexual h ea ), Expe imen 1 (n=142) showed ha
eelings o insecu i y we e ela ed o an inc eased suppo o expelling immig an s
om he hos coun y in bo h cases. Howe e , only in he sexual h ea cues condi ion
and among emale pa icipan s, we e pe cep ions o women as agile—as measu ed
wi h bene olen sexism i ems— ela ed o suppo o expelling immig an s. Fu he
dis inguishing be ween di e en o ms o iolence h ea cues, Expe imen 2 (n=181)
showed ha collec i e eelings o insecu i y we e mos s ongly ela ed o suppo o
expelling immig an s when a male immig an was p esen ed as a iolen c iminal. In
con as , bene olen sexis belie s we e ela ed o an i-immig an s ances only when
pa icipan s we e exposed o a depic ion o a male immig an as a apis . In bo h cases
a i udes we e pola ized: on he one hand, ep esen a ions o immig an s as c iminals
p o oked eac ance eac ions— ha is, mo e posi i e a i udes—among pa icipan s
sco ing low in insecu i y eelings o bene olen sexism. On he o he hand, hose sco ing
high in hese dimensions exp essed sligh ly mo e nega i e a i udes. O e all, by applying
social psychological concep s o he s udy o an i-immig an poli ical campaigning, he
p esen s udy demons a ed ha indi iduals a e sensi i e o speci ic h ea cues in
pos e s.
Keywo ds: h ea , p ejudice, immig a ion, sexual iolence, insecu i y, bene olen sexism
In oduc ion
Disc imina o y a i udes and ac s agains immig an s a e i e in many Wes e n coun ies. A ecen
epo om he OECD (2013), o ins ance, s a es ha in hese coun ies up o 15% o fi s -
gene a ion immig an s and 25% o second-gene a ion immig an s eel ha hey belong o a
disc imina ed g oup. An i-immig an a i udes a e in g ea pa explained by he ac ha
F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 1July 2015 | Volume 6 | A icle 1033
Sa asin e al. Sexual h ea cues and an i-immig an a i udes
immig a ion is o en desc ibed and pe cei ed as a h ea o
he ecei ing coun y (Wagne e al., 2010). Pe cep ions o
immig an s h ea ening he local economy (e.g., by “s ealing” jobs
o abusing social benefi s) and cul u e (e.g., by ha ing diffe en
eligious o cul u al alues and p ac ices) a e widesp ead.
Nume ous s udies ha e been de o ed o in es iga ing he
an eceden s and consequences o economic and symbolic h ea s
ela ed o immig a ion (G een e al., 2015). In con as , he
impac o ano he o m o h ea , ha is pe cei ing male
immig an s as a sexual dange , has a ac ed a less esea ch
a en ion. This lack o in e es is su p ising, since male ou -
g oup membe s—in pa icula men om e hnic and mig an
mino i ies—a e gene ally pe cei ed as mo e dange ous and
iolen han hei emale coun e pa s (Quillian and Page , 2001;
Plan e al., 2011). In addi ion, compa ed o in-g oup men,
ou -g oup men a e mo e o en seen as a sexual dange o in-
g oup women (Nagel, 2001;Na a e e e al., 2010). Echoing
and maybe gal anizing hese ea s, in o ma ion and messages
associa ing male immig an s wi h sexual iolence a e equen ly
ound in he media. Fo example, when analyzing media epo s
o sexual offenses in he UK, G o e and Soo hill (1996) ound
ha offende s’ e hnici y was mo e o en men ioned when hey
had an e hnic o immig an backg ound han when hey did no .
Radical igh pa ies ha e also sugges ed ha male immig an s
can be a dange o women. As an illus a ion, a ew yea s ago,
he s ee s o Swi ze land we e plas e ed wi h a pos e ea u ing
“I an,” a fic i ious male immig an cha ac e —mos likely om
Eas e n Eu ope—con ic ed o ape and on he e ge o ob aining
Swiss ci izenship.
D awing on psychological and poli ical science esea ch on
indi iduals’ sensi i i y o h ea cues, he p esen s udy examines
eac ions o poli ical pos e s ha associa e male immig an s
wi h sexual iolence. We expec ha h ea ening ep esen a ions
o immig an s a e mos effec i e when hei con en esona es
wi h specific an eceden s o an i-immig an a i udes. Based on
his easoning, sexual h ea cues should influence o a g ea e
ex en he a i udes o hose who ea iolence o who belie e
ha men’s du y is o p o ec women. In con as , hose who do
no adhe e o such belie s may ejec he messages con eyed in
pos e s con aining sexual h ea cues, and consequen ly, ou o
eac ance, exp ess mo e posi i e iews. These assump ions we e
es ed and la gely confi med in wo online expe imen s. The fi s
expe imen —conduc ed in Swi ze land (n=142)—compa ed
wo eal an i-immig an pos e s (i.e., p e iously used in poli ical
campaigning) ep esen ing immig an s, o a subca ego y o hem,
ei he as a gene al h ea o as a sexual h ea . To confi m
Expe imen 1’s findings, a second expe imen was conduc ed
wi h fic i ious pos e s in a compa able na ional se ing whe e his
ype o pos e was unknown (Ge many; n=181). Mo eo e ,
o disen angle he iolence aspec s om he gende ed aspec s
con ained in sexual h ea cues, we ex ended ou in es iga ion
by compa ing eac ions o diffe en ep esen a ions o c iminal
immig an s (i.e., as a apis , a iolen c iminal, o a d ug deale ).
Th ea Cues
Membe s om he na ional majo i y may eel h ea ened by
immig a ion based on wha hey obse e in hei e e yday li es.
Howe e , hei p ima y sou ce o in o ma ion on immig a ion
and immig an s is gene ally indi ec , such as h ough he
media (Blume , 1958;B ade e al., 2008), in which e hnic and
mig an mino i ies end o be o e ep esen ed and linked o
nega i e e en s ( an Dijk, 1991;Lubbe s e al., 1998). Poli ical
pa ies also o en men ion immig a ion in hei ad e isemen s,
which is, in gene al, an effec i e way o inc easing o e s’
knowledge abou specific issues (G oenendyk and Valen ino,
2002;Holbe e al., 2002). Nega i e a i udes owa d immig an s
and immig a ion a e a key an eceden o suppo o adical
igh pa ies (I a sfla en, 2008); i is hus unsu p ising ha hese
pa ies in pa icula o en d aw on h ea ening ep esen a ions o
immig an s o mobilize o e s (e.g., in Swi ze land, Ga u o and
Mai e, 2013). Indeed, when ea is igge ed, igilance ends o
ise and indi iduals a e mo e easily pe suaded (B ade , 2005).
Because isual image y—and especially when con eying
h ea ening ep esen a ions—is a powe ul means o affec
poli ical and social a i udes (Huddy and Gunn ho sdo i , 2000;
Mai e, 2015), poli ical pa ies’ p ima y way o communica ing—
especially in Eu ope—is h ough pos e s, while TV ads a e
mo e o en used in he US (Hol z-Bacha and Kaid, 2006).
When walking down a s ee o d i ing, indi iduals ha e only
a ew seconds o ca ch he meaning o a poli ical pos e . Thus,
messages need o be s ong and easy o ca ch (Lessinge e al.,
2003), such as in he much-deba ed pos e s used by he Swiss
Peoples’ Pa y, he main Swiss adical igh pa y. A amous
example is a pos e used du ing he campaign p eceding a
e e endum on he expulsion o c iminal immig an s, in which
whi esheeps andingon heSwissflagkickou ablack
sheep.
I is e y likely ha adical igh pa ies’ an i-immig an
pos e s ha e a g ea e impac on some indi iduals han on
o he s. Indeed, social psychological esea ch has shown ha
ep esen a ions o ou -g oup membe s as h ea ening ac i a e
p ejudice among hose p edisposed o i , because o he ea s
hey ha e, he ideologies hey hold o hei a achmen o hei
g oup (e.g., B ewe , 1999;Jackson, 2002). Thus, h ea ening
depic ions o immig an s—o e en hei me e p esence—ha e
been ound o ha e a s onge effec on hose p edisposed
o ejec immig a ion. Fo ins ance, he highes ejec ion o
immig an s was ound in indi iduals a aid o walking alone a
nigh when hey li ed in a eas wi h a high immig a ion a e
(Sibley e al., 2013). Simila ly, a me a-analysis by Coh s and
S elzl (2010) e ealed ha he ela ionship be ween belie ing in
no ms, adi ions and he powe o au ho i ies, and nega i e
a i udes owa d immig an s is pa icula ly s ong in coun ies
whe e immig an s a e pe cei ed o inc ease he c ime a e.
Indi iduals holding hese belie s we e also ound o eac
wi h ha she immig a ion a i udes when immig an s we e
p esen ed as adhe ing o diffe en no ms and alues (Ducki
and Sibley, 2010) o as ejec ing he local no ms (and, by
doing so, b eaching in-g oup con o mi y; Thomsen e al.,
2008).
While his “ac i a ing” effec o h ea ening ep esen a ions
is cu en ly a opic o in e es in social psychology, in o he
fieldsonly wos udiesha e, oou knowledge,sough oexplain
indi iduals’ sensi i i y o an i-immig an poli ical pos e s. Bo h
F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 2July 2015 | Volume 6 | A icle 1033
Sa asin e al. Sexual h ea cues and an i-immig an a i udes
ocusing on educa ional a ainmen , hese wo s udies confi med
ha h ea cues a e mo e effec i e when hei con en esona es
wi h specific an eceden s o p ejudice. In a s udy conduc ed
in Swi ze land, Ma hes and Ma qua (2013) assumed ha
hose wi h low educa ion a e no only mo e likely o eel
in compe i ion wi h immig an s o he same goods (e.g.,
jobs, housing, and benefi s) bu , because hey a e less used
o gene a ing coun e a gumen s when aced wi h poli ical
messages, hey should also be mo e easily pe suaded by hese
messages. Confi ming hese assump ions, hese au ho s ound
ha when seeing an an i-immig an pos e wi h a s ong
emo ional message, indi iduals wi h low educa ion epo ed
ea ing immig an s o a g ea e ex en han hose wi h high
educa ion. Highly educa ed people, in con as , had an a e si e
(o “ eac ance”) eac ion, by exp essing he mos nega i e s ances
owa d adical igh campaigning when exposed o he same
pos e . Howe e , because hey did no dis inguish be ween
diffe en ypes o h ea , i was no possible o de e mine
whe he pe cei ed economic h ea o pe suasion explained he
sensi i i y o hose wi h low educa ion. Compa ing diffe en
immig a ion- ela ed h ea s in a s udy conduc ed in Aus ia,
Schmuck and Ma hes (2014) confi med he ole played by
pe cei ed economic compe i ion. A e exposu e o a pos e ha
pic u ed immig an s as an economic h ea , only adolescen s
wi h low educa ional a ainmen became mo e nega i e owa d
immig a ion. In con as , he impac o educa ion on an i-
immig an a i udes was no mode a ed by a depic ion o
immig an s as h ea ening he hos na ion’s cul u e (compa ed
o adolescen s wi h simila educa ional a ainmen in a “no
pos e ” condi ion). In he p esen s udy we apply his “sensi i i y
o h ea cues” easoning o he case o ep esen a ions o
male immig an s as a sexual h ea . Because physical iolence
and gende ela ions a e wo co e aspec s o sexual iolence,
we assume ha h ea depic ions inducing hese aspec s will
affec mos hose who ea iolence (i.e., who epo eelings
o insecu i y) o who belie e in he p o ec i e ole o men
(i.e., who exp ess bene olen sexis belie s). Con e sely, i may
be ha indi iduals who sco e low on hese wo dimensions
ejec he messages con eyed by he poli ical pos e s, and,
as a consequence, exp ess mo e posi i e a i udes owa d
immig an s.
Feelings o Insecu i y
Because p esen ing male immig an s as a sexual dange elies on
he s e eo ypical iew ha immig an s a e dange ous and iolen ,
sexual iolence cues a e assumed o mos influence hose who
eel conce ned abou secu i y. While a clea associa ion be ween
immig a ion and c ime is a om es ablished (Hia , 2007),
immig an s a e indeed o en associa ed wi h c ime and iolence,
in adical igh pa ies’ messages (e.g., Mai e, 2015)aswellasin
indi iduals’ ep esen a ions (e.g., Quillian and Page , 2001;Dinas
and an Spanje, 2011). Indi iduals can ea o hei own secu i y,
o o secu i y in hei communi y (Schwa z and Boehnke, 2004).
Feelings o pe sonal insecu i y ela e o ea s and wo ies o one’s
own well-being and sa e y, while eelings o collec i e insecu i y
imply ea ing ha he s abili y and ha mony o la ge en i ies
(e.g., ci ies, na ions) is a s ake. Bo h a e known o influence
indi iduals’ a i udes owa d immig an s: ea ing o one’s own
secu i y, such as when walking alone in one’s neighbo hood a e
da k, has been ela ed o nega i e a i udes owa d immig an s
(e.g., Chandle and Tsai, 2001;Rus enbach, 2010), whe eas
eelings o collec i e insecu i y, such as wo ying abou c ime,
ha e been ound o p edic conce ns abou immig a ion mo e
han he ac ual c ime a e (Fi zge ald e al., 2012). Based on hese
s udies, we expec ha eelings o bo h pe sonal and collec i e
insecu i y unde lie nega i e a i udes owa d immig an s. When
encoun e ing a pos e associa ing male immig an s o sexual
iolence, compa ed o an an i-immig an pos e whe e sexual
h ea cues a e absen , i is pa icula ly hose who eel insecu e
who should eac wi h ha she an i-immig an a i udes. Because
collec i e insecu i y pe ains o socie y as a whole, we expec
men and women wi h s ong eelings o collec i e insecu i y
o eac in a simila way when acing sexual h ea cues. In
con as , when exposed o depic ions o a male immig an as
a apis , he impac o pe sonal secu i y should be s onge
o women, he p ima y a ge s o sexual iolence, han o
men.
Bene olen Sexis Belie s
Sexual iolence cues a e also assumed o ha e he s onges
influence on hose who belie e ha —weake bu complemen a y
o men—women need o be p o ec ed. Based on ep esen a ions
o men and women as, espec i ely, s ong and agile, hese
belie s a e pa o wha is called bene olen sexism, one o
he wo aspec s o ambi alen sexism. Indeed, a i udes owa d
women a e known o be qui e complex: Ac oss cul u es, hos ile
sexism—a unidimensional cons uc —has been dis inguished
om he mo e complex bene olen sexism (Glick and Fiske,
1996;Glick e al., 2000). On he one hand, women iola ing
adi ional gende oles, such as eminis s o ca ee women,
end o ace bla an in ole an a i udes. These openly nega i e
a i udes define hos ile sexism. On he o he hand, a i udes
owa d women gene ally a e o en mo e posi i e han hose
owa d men. This can be explained by he p e alence o he
belie s ha women a e “be e ” (e.g., pu e , mo e sensi i e)
human beings han men. These seemingly posi i e a i udes
ne e heless ely on nega i e s e eo ypical iews o women:
hey a e seen as agile and equi ing p o ec ion om men,
who, by way o con as , a e pe cei ed as much s onge .
These belie s—complemen a y gende diffe en ia ion (CGD) and
p o ec i e pa e nalism (PP)—a e wo componen s o bene olen
sexism ha pe ain o he s eng h s. agili y pe cei ed
opposi ion be ween men and women. The hi d componen
o bene olen sexism—he e osexual in imacy—is defined as “a
genuine desi e o psychological closeness” (Glick and Fiske,
1996, p. 493).
Despi e hei diffe ences, hos ile and bene olen sexism
a e gene ally posi i ely co ela ed, because hey bo h ely on
s e eo ypical iews o women (Glick and Fiske, 1996;Sibley
and Pe y, 2010). We hus expec his o be he case he e. In
u n, since hey bo h en ail bla an nega i e a i udes exp essed
owa d disad an aged g oups, hos ile sexism and a i udes
owa d immig an s should co a y (such as “ adi ional” sexism
and acism a e gene ally ound o do; e.g., Aos ed and Long,
F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 3July 2015 | Volume 6 | A icle 1033
Sa asin e al. Sexual h ea cues and an i-immig an a i udes
2006;Zick e al., 2008). In con as , because o i s insidious
bu sub le na u e, bene olen sexism should be only weakly
ela ed o o e an i-immig an s ances, and his especially when
hos ile sexism is also conside ed. In line wi h his assump ion,
bene olen sexism, when con olling o hos ile sexism, has
been ound o be un ela ed o he endo semen o bla an
hie a chies be ween social g oups, a gene al ideological endency
known o p edic diffe en o ms o p ejudice, such as an i-
immig an s ances (Ch is ophe and Mull, 2006). Howe e ,
when women’s alleged weakness and need o p o ec ion a e
made salien by depic ions o male immig an s as apis s,
indi iduals associa ing s eng h o men and agili y o women
(i.e., sco ing high in CGD and PP) a e likely o eac wi h
nega i e a i udes owa d immig an s. We expec o find his
effec in bo h men and women. On he one hand, o men
sco ing high on hese wo dimensions he willingness o p o ec
women om he alleged h ea (i.e., he male immig an
agg esso ) is inc eased. Fo his eason, hey a e likely o exp ess
heigh ened nega i e a i udes owa d immig an s. On he o he
hand, p esen ing immig an s as a sexual h ea is likely o
ac i a e he need o be p o ec ed among women wi h s ong
bene olen sexis belie s. Women wi h such belie s may hus
exp ess nega i e immig a ion a i udes a e exposu e o cues
ha ende salien he agg essi e po en ial o some men—he e
immig an s. Finally, we do no expec he impac o he e osexual
in imacy o be ac i a ed by sexual h ea cues because his
dimension o bene olen sexism pe ains abo e all o pe sonal
ela ionships.
Expe imen 1
Me hod
Pa icipan s
Ou online ques ionnai e, conduc ed wi h Psychsu eys.o g,
a ge ed he F ench-speaking egion in Swi ze land. Gene ally,
he e is e idence ha findings d awn om online samples a e
consis en wi h hose ob ained wi h adi ional me hods (Gosling
e al., 2004). Mo eo e , we elied on da a collec ed online because
hey allow mo e ex apola ion o he gene al popula ion han,
o ins ance, s uden samples. Rec ui ing pa icipan s om all
social backg ounds is all he mo e impo an in he p esen case
because indi iduals wi h low and high educa ional a ainmen a e
known o eac diffe en ly o an i-immig an pos e s (Ma hes
and Ma qua , 2013;Schmuck and Ma hes, 2014). Snowball
sampling was used o collec he da a: he fi s au ho con ac ed a
la ge numbe o acquain ances by email, o in i e hem o bo h
ake pa in he s udy and o wa d he in i a ion email. Fou
hund ed and six y- wo indi iduals clicked on he link, and 181
comple ed he ques ionnai e. F om he final sample, only 27.54%
indica ed ha ing ecei ed he in i a ion di ec ly om he fi s
au ho (no e ha pa icipan s who we e con ac ed di ec ly by he
fi s au ho did no diffe significan ly in any o he measu es o
in e es om hose who we e no ).
We selec ed da a o Swiss ci izens (n=142; 83 women and 59
men). Pa icipan s anged in age om 19 o 100 (Median =30,
Mean =34.31, SD =13.62). Fo y-fi e esponden s epo ed
ha ing ano he ci izenship in addi ion o Swiss, and sligh ly mo e
han wo hi ds o he sample (n=102) had a high school
diploma.
P ocedu e
Pa icipan s fi s comple ed a se ies o scales on a ious “socie al
opics” (as desc ibed in he ques ionnai e), including i ems
measu ing eelings o insecu i y and sexis belie s. Then, hey
ead ha he second pa o he ques ionnai e pe ained o
immig a ion specifically, as a cen al opic o many ecen
poli ical campaigns in Swi ze land. To cap u e he pa icipan s’
a en ion, we fi s p esen ed o all o hem a pos e ha was
seen in he s ee s o Swi ze land a he ime we launched ou
su ey. Used in a campaign o educe mig a ion o Swi ze land,
he pos e showed ee walking on he Swiss flag, accompanied
wi h he “S op mass immig a ion” slogan. On he same page,
pa icipan s also saw one o wo pos e s used du ing a sligh ly
olde campaign ha p eceded a e e endum on he expulsion o
c iminal immig an s (in No embe 2009). They we e andomly
assigned o one o he wo condi ions by Psychsu eys. In he
sexual h ea condi ion (n=73) pa icipan s we e p esen ed
he I an pos e . This pos e showed a fic i ious immig an
cha ac e —mos likely o Balkan o Eas e n Eu opean o igin—
con ic ed o ape and on he e ge o ob aining Swiss ci izenship.
“I an, apis , and soon o be Swiss?” was w i en in a la ge
black ba hiding pa o his ace. In he non-sexual h ea
condi ion (n=69), hey we e p esen ed he Sheep pos e , in
which h ee whi e sheep a e s anding on he Swiss flag as
one o hem kicks a black sheep away. These pos e s a e e y
well-known in Swi ze land: Only six pa icipan s in he sexual
h ea (I an) condi ion, and no one in he non-sexual h ea
(Sheep) condi ion epo ed ha ing ne e seen he pos e . Finally,
pa icipan s we e in i ed o espond o a ious measu es ela ed
o immig a ion, including he dependen a iable o he p esen
s udy.
This s udy was ca ied ou in acco dance wi h he
ecommenda ions o bo h he Code o Deon ology o he
Swiss Psychological Socie y and he Ame ican Psychological
Associa ion. Be o e comple ing he ques ionnai e, pa icipan s
we e in o med ha hey we e abou o ake pa in a scien ific
s udy and ha hei esponses would emain anonymous. They
we e also old ha hey could pass a ques ion o qui he su ey
a any ime. In he mon hs ollowing hei pa icipa ion in he
s udy, pa icipan s ecei ed an email desc ibing he goals and
esul s o he s udy.
Measu es
The whole ques ionnai e was in F ench. Means, SD, and sco e
in e co ela ions a e displayed in Table 1.
Ou dependen a iable—nega i e a i udes owa d
immig an s—was measu ed by pa icipan s’ suppo o
expelling law- and no m-b eaking immig an s, since his was
he objec o bo h he I an and he Sheep pos e s. To his
end, pa icipan s we e in i ed o s a e o wha ex en — om
1=s ongly disag ee o 7 =s ongly ag ee— hey hough ha
immig an s who we e long- e m unemployed, we e sen enced o
p ison o we e illegally in Swi ze land mus be expelled om he
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Sa asin e al. Sexual h ea cues and an i-immig an a i udes
TABLE 1 | Means, SD, and in e co ela ions o a i udinal a iables in Expe imen s 1 and 2.
Expe imen 1 M SD BS: PP–CGD BS: HI HS EXP
Insecu i y 2.51 (2.49) 0.22∗∗ 0.19∗∗ 0.26∗∗ 0.53∗∗∗
Bene olen sexism: PP–CGD 2.54 (1.07) 0.52∗∗∗ 0.57∗∗∗ 0.45∗∗∗
Bene olen sexism: HI 2.69 (1.38) 0.46∗∗∗ 0.43∗∗∗
Hos ile Sexism 2.77 (1.27) 0.63∗∗∗
Expelling immig an s (EXP) 2.93 (1.66)
Expe imen 2 M SD I-C BS: PP–CGD BS: HI HS EXP
Insecu i y: pe sonal (I-P) 2.44 (0.75) 0.41∗∗∗ 0.23∗∗ 0.07 0.21∗∗ 0.23∗∗
Insecu i y: collec i e (I-C) 3.16 (1.62) 0.24∗∗∗ 0.14∗0.40∗∗∗ 0.56∗∗∗
Bene olen sexism: PP–CGD 3.06 (1.25) 0.63∗∗∗ 0.50∗∗∗ 0.38∗∗∗
Bene olen sexism: HI 3.75 (1.76) 0.44∗∗∗ 0.35∗∗∗
Hos ile Sexism 2.89 (1.17) 0.53∗∗∗
Expelling immig an s (EXP) 2.95 (1.86)
∗p<0.05, ∗∗p<0.10, ∗∗∗p<0.001.
coun y (i ems adap ed om he Eu opean Social Su ey, 2014;
α=0.87).
Feelings o insecu i y and he belie ha women a e mo e
agile han men o med he wo p edic o s o suppo o
expelling immig an s. Fi s , wo i ems measu ed pa icipan s’
eelings o insecu i y. Fo pe sonal insecu i y, hey had o
indica e, on a scale om 1 = o ally sa e o 4 = o ally unsa e,
how hey el when walking alone in hei neighbo hood a e
da k (adap ed om he Eu opean Social Su ey, 2014). Fo
collec i e insecu i y, hey indica ed, on a scale om 1 =no
a all o 5 =alo , whe he hey ea ed an inc ease in iolence
and andalism in hei neighbo hood (adap ed om Snide man
e al., 2004). Because he co ela ion be ween hese wo i ems
( =0.63, p<0.001) can be qualified as la ge (Cohen, 1988), we
compu ed a wo-i em sco e o eelings o insecu i y (α=0.76).
No e ha , because hey had a diffe en scale, we escaled he
wo insecu i y i ems o ange om 0 o 10. Second, bene olen
sexism (BS) was measu ed wi h 11 i ems (Glick and Fiske,
1996; F ench ansla ion by Da denne e al., 2006). Two o i s
subdimensions—PP ( ou i ems) and CGD scales ( h ee i ems)—
ap he belie ha women a e diffe en om and mo e agile
han “s ong” men, and hus need hei p o ec ion. P elimina y
explo a o y ac o analysis (EFA) e ealed ha hese i ems loaded
on he same ac o , wi h he excep ion o one i em (i.e., “in
a disas e , women ough o be escued be o e men”). Fo his
eason we c ea ed a six-i em sco e (PP–CGD: α=0.81; see Glick
and Fiske, 1996, o he i ems’ wo ding) ha we diffe en ia ed
om he e osexual in imacy (HI— ou i ems loading on a second
ac o ; α=0.85). In addi ion, o single ou he “s eng h s.
agili y” side o bene olen sexism om gene al sexis belie s, we
added as a con ol he sco e o hos ile sexism (HS—all 11 i ems
om Glick and Fiske, 1996;α=0.94). Fo bo h bene olen and
hos ile sexism, esponse scales anged om 1 = o ally disag ee o
7= o ally ag ee, wi h high sco es indica ing s ong sexis belie s.
Resul s
Hie a chical eg essions we e used o es he ou lined
hypo heses. All con inuous sco es we e cen e ed a he g and
mean. Main effec s o he con ol and independen a iables
we e en e ed in Model 1: expe imen al condi ion (1 =I an
condi ion), gende (1 =male), age, educa ion (1 =high school
diploma o highe ), ha ing dual ci izenship, eelings o insecu i y,
bene olen (PP–CGD and HI) and hos ile sexis belie s. The
in e ac ions be ween condi ion and BS: PP–CGD o eelings
o insecu i y we e en e ed in Model 2. Then, we explo ed in
u he models whe he he e we e diffe ences be ween male
and emale pa icipan s, by en e ing he necessa y wo- and
h ee-way in e ac ions. Only significan h ee-way in e ac ions
we e included in Model 3. Final models a e p esen ed in
Table 2.
As shown in Model 1, pa icipan s exp essed a simila suppo
o expelling immig an s a e seeing he wo poli ical pos e s.
Mo eo e , age, gende , and ha ing an immig an backg ound
did no ha e a significan impac . Consis en wi h p e ious
esea ch (e.g., Lancee and Sa asin, 2015), hose wi h a high
school diploma o mo e exp essed less suppo o expelling
immig an s han hose wi hou . When i comes o he ac o s o
in e es he e, eelings o insecu i y we e, as expec ed, posi i ely
ela ed o an inc eased suppo o expelling immig an s. The
belie ha women a e diffe en and weake han men (BS: PP–
CGD) had no significan impac (no e ha hos ile sexis belie s
and he e osexual in imacy we e bo h ela ed o a highe suppo ).
Then, he wo in e ac ions be ween he expe imen al condi ion
and eelings o insecu i y o bene olen sexis belie s we e en e ed
in Model 2 (R2,p=0.056). Con a y o ou expec a ions,
he impac o eelings o insecu i y was no mode a ed by he
expe imen al condi ion (and his in e ac ion was no u he
mode a ed by gende ). In con as , he impac o BS: PP–CGD
was ound o be diffe en a e exposu e o he I an pos e han o
he Sheep pos e .
We u he e ified whe he pa icipan s’ gende qualified
his in e ac ion. To his pu pose we en e ed in Model 3 he
wo necessa y wo-way in e ac ions along wi h he h ee-way
in e ac ion (R2,p=0.02). The h ee-way in e ac ion was
ound o yield a significan impac . Simple slopes es ima ion
(P eache e al., 2006) showed ha bene olen sexis belie s
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Sa asin e al. Sexual h ea cues and an i-immig an a i udes
TABLE 2 | Resul s o eg ession analyses, Expe imen 1.
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
bSE βbSE βbSE β
In e cep 3.57 (0.23) 3.57 (0.23) 3.46 (0.23)
Condi ion (C) 0.17 (0.18) 0.05 0.17 (0.18) 0.05 0.45∗(0.23) 0.14
Male (M) 0.07 (0.20) 0.02 0.09 (0.19) 0.03 0.35 (0.27) 0.10
Age −0.00 (0.01) −0.01 −0.00 (0.01) −0.00 −0.00 (0.01) −0.01
Educa ion −1.03∗∗∗ (0.23) −0.28 −1.00∗∗∗ (0.23) −0.27 −1.03∗∗∗ (0.23) −0.27
Dual ci iz. −0.13 (0.20) −0.04 −0.18 (0.20) −0.05 −0.18 (0.19) −0.05
Insecu i y (I) 0.23∗∗∗ (0.04) 0.34 0.29∗∗∗ (0.05) 0.43 0.30∗∗∗ (0.05) 0.45
BS: PP–CGD 0.06 (0.11) 0.04 −0.14 (0.14) −0.09 −0.42∗(0.17) −0.28
BS: HI 0.21∗∗ (0.08) 0.18 0.22∗∗ (0.08) 0.18 0.19∗(0.08) 0.16
HS 0.42∗∗∗ (0.10) 0.32 0.37∗∗∗ (0.10) 0.28 0.40∗∗∗ (0.10) 0.30
C×I−0.08 (0.07) −0.08 −0.10 (0.07) −0.10
C×BS: PP–CGD 0.42∗(0.18) 0.19 0.80∗∗∗ (0.23) 0.37
C×M−0.59 (0.36) −0.15
M×BS: PP–CGD 0.62∗∗ (0.23) 0.26
C×BS: PP–CGD ×M−0.81∗(0.34) −0.25
R262.0% 63.6% 66.5%
Uns anda dized and s anda dized coe icien s. ∗p<0.05, ∗∗ p<0.10, ∗∗∗p<0.001.
we e ela ed diffe en ly o suppo o expelling immig an s
ac oss condi ions and gende s. Figu e 1 e eals ha , in he
I an condi ion, among emale pa icipan s, bene olen sexis
belie s we e ela ed o mo e suppo o expelling immig an s
(b=0.38, SE =0.18, p=0.03). A simila bu non-significan
end was obse ed among male pa icipan s (b=0.19,
SE =0.20, p=0.33; no e, howe e , ha he diffe ence
be ween men and women sco ing high in bene olen sexism
was no significan : b=−0.44, SE =0.38, p=0.24).
An opposi e pa e n was ound in he Sheep condi ion (see
Figu e 2). Again, o male pa icipan s, he link was no
significan (b=0.20, SE =0.19, p=0.30). Fo emale
pa icipan s, howe e , he link was nega i e and significan
(b=−0.42, SE =0.17, p=0.01). Poin es s u he e ealed
ha he e we e no significan diffe ences be ween men and
women sco ing low in bene olen sexism (−1SD;b=−0.31,
SE =0.38, p=0.42), whe eas women sco ing high in bene olen
sexism exp essed lowe suppo o expelling immig an s han
men wi h simila sco es (+1SD;b=1.01, SE =0.35,
p=0.005).
Finally, we an models (omi ed om Table 2) o e i y
whe he he impac o educa ion and he e osexual in imacy
diffe ed ac oss he condi ions. Fi s , because s uden s wi h highe
educa ional a ainmen we e ound o be less sensi i e o an i-
immig an pos e s (Ma hes and Ma qua , 2013;Schmuck and
Ma hes, 2014), we en e ed he in e ac ion be ween educa ion
and he condi ion in an addi ional model. The impac o
educa ion was ound no o a y ac oss he wo condi ions
(b=−0.01, SE =0.44, p=0.97). Second, we examined whe he ,
as assumed, he impac o he hi d componen o bene olen
sexism—i.e., he e osexual in imacy—was no ac i a ed by sexual
h ea cues. To his end, we added o he models p esen ed in
Table 2 he ollowing in e ac ions: HI ×condi ion, HI ×gende ,
FIGURE 1 | Expe imen 1: Bene olen sexism ×pa icipan s’ gende
on suppo o expelling immig an s; I an condi ion.
and HI ×condi ion ×gende . Resul s showed ha he impac o
HI did no diffe ac oss he wo condi ions (b=−0.00, SE =0.15,
p=0.98; Model 2), and ha his in e ac ion was no u he
mode a ed by gende (b=0.03, SE =0.31, p=0.93; Model
3). Impo an ly, he h ee-way in e ac ion be ween condi ion,
gende , and BS: PP–CGD emained significan when adding hese
con ols.
Discussion
Expe imen 1 compa ed eac ions when pa icipan we e aced
wi h wo an i-immig an poli ical pos e s ha had been used
du ing hesameSwisspoli icalcampaign. These pos e s depic ed
immig an s as a gene al and non-specific h ea o as a sexual
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Sa asin e al. Sexual h ea cues and an i-immig an a i udes
FIGURE 2 | Expe imen 1: Bene olen sexism ×pa icipan s’ gende
on suppo o expelling immig an s; Sheep condi ion.
h ea , espec i ely. As expec ed, eelings o insecu i y we e
ela ed o a g ea e suppo o expelling c iminal immig an s.
Howe e , con a y o ou expec a ions, hei impac did no
a y ac oss condi ions o gende s. The belie ha women a e
diffe en om and mo e agile han men was ela ed o mo e
nega i e a i udes owa d immig an s in he sexual iolence
cues condi ions, bu , con a y o ou hypo hesis, only among
emale pa icipan s. As ou lined below, a second expe imen was
designed o shed u he ligh on hese findings.
The impac o eelings o insecu i y may no ha e diffe ed
ac oss he wo condi ions because bo h con ained a h ea ening
ep esen a ion o immig an s, ha is, in he apis pos e
condi ion, as a dange o women, and in he sheep pos e
condi ion, as de ian s needing o be expelled om he coun y.
Mo eo e , i may be ha he impac o physical iolence cues is
g ea e when immig an s a e p esen ed as physically—and no
only sexually— iolen and dange ous. Fo hese wo easons,
Expe imen 2 con ains, in addi ion o a apis condi ion, a con ol
condi ion wi h no pos e and pos e s pic u ing male immig an s
as a dange o he local popula ion (i.e., as is he case wi h
iolen c iminals o , o some deg ee, also wi h d ug deale s,
o en associa ed wi h insecu i y in ce ain neighbo hoods o
pa s o own). No e also ha we could no ea eelings o
pe sonal and collec i e insecu i y sepa a ely, which may explain
why hey did no ha e a s onge impac in women (we expec ed
his o be he case only o eelings o pe sonal insecu i y).
This empi ical closeness may ha e been due o bo h measu es
con aining a e e ence o insecu i ies a he neighbo hood le el
(i.e., walking alone in he neighbo hood, and ea o andalism
and iolence in he neighbo hood). Fo his eason, we use mo e
dis inc measu es in Expe imen 2. Fi s , o assess eelings o
pe sonal insecu i y, we use an i em apping he ea o unknown
men, immig an o no . Adjus ing ou ini ial hypo hesis, we
expec ha in pa icula women who ea unknown men will
eac wi h an i-immig an a i udes when exposed o he apis
pos e , compa ed o he h ee o he condi ions. Second, o
measu e eelings o collec i e insecu i y, we conside ea o
iolence and andalism a wo diffe en socie al le els, ha is
he neighbo hood and he na ion. Because hese ea s ela e
o socie al s abili y, pe cei ed as being endange ed by c iminal
immig an s, we expec ha bo h men and women wi h such
eelings will eac wi h nega i e a i udes when exposed o
a pos e associa ing immig an s o c imes ( ape, iolence, o
d ug afficking), compa ed o hose wi h simila eelings who
encoun e nopos e .
Fo male pa icipan s he belie ha women a e mo e agile
han men was un ela ed o suppo o expelling c iminal
immig an s in bo h o he wo condi ions. In he sexual
h ea cues condi ion, bene olen sexism (i.e., he PP and
CGD subdimensions) was significan ly ela ed o an i-immig an
s ances only among he emale pa icipan s. Howe e , wi h he
da a a hand, i is no possible o de e mine whe he his was
p o oked by he sexual componen o he h ea ening message,
o by i s ep esen a ion o a man as physically dange ous.
Compa ing he impac o pos e s pic u ing male immig an s
associa ed wi h diffe en ypes o c imes will help ackle his
ques ion. On he one hand, women who belie e in he p o ec i e
ole o men may eac wi h ha she an i-immig an a i udes
when p esen ed wi h a dange ous male immig an , he being
ei he sexually o gene ally iolen . I so, women wi h bene olen
sexis belie s should exp ess heigh ened an i-immig an s ances
when exposed o he apis o iolen c iminal depic ions, in
compa ison o he d ug deale o no-pos e condi ions. On he
o he hand, i may be ha emale pa icipan s eac ed mo e
s ongly o he I an pos e because women a e mo e o en
ic ims o sexual agg ession. In line wi h his a gumen , ea
o being aped was ound o unde lie nega i e a i udes owa d
ou -g oup men mo e s ongly han a i udes owa d in-g oup
men (Na a e e e al., 2010). Ano he ela ed in e p e a ion
may be ha bene olen sexism has a diffe en meaning o
men and women. Sibley and Pe y (2010) sugges ed ha he
o iginal defini ion o bene olen sexism—pa e nalis ic iews
owa d women—holds o men only. In he case o women,
bene olen sexism in ac eflec s a posi i e iew o he in-
g oup (i.e., women a e be e han men), especially when hos ile
sexism ( ha is, nega i e and ha sh a i udes) is con olled
o . Indeed, hese au ho s ound ha among men, bene olen
sexism was ela ed o nega i e a i udes owa d gende equali y
(as is gene ally expec ed), while among women i p edic ed
posi i e a i udes. Following his a ionale, women sco ing high
in bene olen sexism may eac o he I an pos e because hey
eel mo e connec ed o women in gene al, he alleged ic ims
o ( he fic i ious) I an. Based on his easoning, women wi h
s ong bene olen sexis belie s should exp ess heigh ened an i-
immig an s ances only when exposed o he apis depic ion,
bu no in he iolen c iminal, d ug deale , o no-pos e
condi ions.
The e e sed effec ound in he Sheep-pos e , ha is,
women showing a dec easing endency owa d he expulsion o
immig an s, also equi es a en ion. The sheep-pos e may indeed
ha e con eyed mul iple messages. While a black sheep ce ainly
e e s o he ou side -s a us o immig an s, he ac ha i was
iolen ly kicked ou by a whi e sheep may ha e igge ed empa hy
and conce n among women high in bene olen sexism. Indeed,
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Sa asin e al. Sexual h ea cues and an i-immig an a i udes
while women holding bene olen sexis belie s may be mo e
sensi i e o cues o sexual iolence a ge ing he sa e y o hei
own in-g oup, when con on ed wi h aspec s o immig an s hey
can ela e o, such as hei need o p o ec ion, solida i y may be
igge ed, leading o mo e inclusi e a i udes.
Finally, while Expe imen 1 e ealed an impac o he pos e s
used, we canno asce ain ha his was due o he me e exposu e
o hei con en . Indeed, hese pos e s we e widely known in
Swi ze land, as eflec ed in almos all pa icipan s being amilia
wi h hem. Thus, he findings may ha e been p o oked by a
eminde o he hea ed deba es ha ollowed hei publica ion
a he han o hei con en i sel . To exclude his, Expe imen
2 was conduc ed in a compa able na ional con ex bu in which
pos e s o his kind had no been used. Ge many was selec ed
o i s simila i y o Swi ze land wi h espec o i s immig a ion
his o y ( h ough he massi e a i al du ing he 20 h cen u y o
Gas a bei e , i.e., mig an wo ke s), i s ci izenship egime (based
on an e hnic concep ion o he na ion), and he salience o hea ed
deba es on immig a ion and cul u al di e si y.
Expe imen 2
Me hod
Pa icipan s
Da a we e collec ed h ough a la ge social ne wo king se ice,
in which a andomly placed ad e isemen in i ed Ge man
esiden s o ake pa in an online su ey on “Ge man socie y.”
Eigh hund ed and o y- wo people clicked on he link, and
218 comple ed he ques ionnai e. We selec ed da a o Ge man
ci izens (n=181; 97 women and 84 men). Pa icipan s anged
in age om 18 o 75 (M=34.18, SD =12.20; no e ha
wo missing da a we e eplaced wi h he mean). Twen y- h ee
pa icipan s epo ed ha ing ano he na ional ci izenship. Finally,
a ound wo hi ds o he sample (n=123) decla ed ha ing
s a ed o comple ed highe educa ion (no e ha he esponse
op ions o he educa ional a ainmen scale we e adap ed o he
Ge man con ex and hus sligh ly diffe ed om hose used in
Expe imen 1).
P ocedu e
The o e all p ocedu e was simila o Expe imen 1. Pa icipan s
fi s comple ed a se ies o scales on diffe en socie al opics.
Nex , hey ead ha immig a ion— he opic o he second
pa o he ques ion—is a much-deba ed issue in many
Eu opean coun ies, and ha poli ical pa ies o en ely on
pos e s o exp ess hei opinions on his ma e . Pa icipan s
we e hen andomly assigned by Psychsu eys o one o
ou condi ions. In he No pos e condi ion (n=45) no
u he in o ma ion was added. In he h ee o he condi ions,
wo ex a sen ences desc ibed a ype o pos e hey could
po en ially see in Ge many. Toou knowledge,so a no
pos e associa ing, akin o he I an pos e , male immig an s
and sexual o physical iolence, has been used in Ge many.
In all cases he pos e —which we c ea ed ou sel es—showed
a on al pic u e o a bea ded whi e man in his 20 s, wi h
“Igo B.” w i en in a black ba hiding his eyes. A black
squa e, in on o his o so, con ained he desc ip ion o a
c iminal ollowed by “soon na u alized?” The diffe en ypes
o c iminal, cons i u ing he only diffe ence ac oss he h ee
las condi ions, we e: Rapis (n=44), Violen c iminal (VC,
n=52), and D ug deale (DD, n=40). Then, as in
Expe imen 1, pa icipan s esponded o a ious measu es ela ed
o immig a ion.
Expe imen 2 ollowed he ecommenda ions o he Ame ican
Psychological Associa ion. The in oduc ion o he ques ionnai e
was he same as in S udy 1. A e comple ing he ques ionnai e,
pa icipan s we e deb ie ed ha he young man p esen ed in he
pos e was no an ac ual c iminal.
Measu es
The whole ques ionnai e was in Ge man. Means, SD, and
in e co ela ions a e displayed in Table 1. As in Expe imen 1,
he dependen a iable was measu ed by he same h ee i ems
e alua ing pa icipan s’ suppo o expelling law- and no m-
b eaking immig an s (α=0.88).
As in Expe imen 1, eelings o insecu i y and bene olen
sexis belie s o med ou independen a iables o in e es . Fi s ,
we asked pa icipan s o wha ex en ( om 1 o 4) hey el sa e
when encoun e ing a g oup o unknown men a nigh . Then,
wo i ems measu ed pa icipan s’ eelings o collec i e insecu i y:
hey s a ed o wha ex en ( om 1 o 7) hey ea ed an inc ease
in iolence and andalism in hei neighbo hood o in Ge many
(adap ed om Snide man e al., 2004). While he wo collec i e
insecu i y i ems we e s ongly co ela ed ( =0.66, α=0.79),
hey we e only mode a ely ela ed o ea o unknown men
(neighbo hood: =0.43; coun y: =0.31). Fo his eason we
conside ed hem as wo diffe en p edic o s. Finally, he belie
ha women a e diffe en om and mo e agile han men was
apped wi h he same six i ems as in Expe imen 1 (PP and
CGD; α=0.82), which we e shown by EFA o load on he same
dimension (loadings >0.30). As in Expe imen 1, he e osexual
in imacy (α=0.88) and hos ile sexis belie s (α=0.93) we e
used as con ol a iables ( o bo h bene olen and HS, Ge man
ansla ion by Eckes and Six-Ma e na, 1999).
Resul s
As in Expe imen 1, hie a chical eg essions we e used o es
he ou lined hypo heses. All con inuous sco es we e cen e ed
a he g and mean. Dummy a iables apping he expe imen al
condi ions (wi h he no-pos e condi ion as e e ence ca ego y)
we e en e ed in Model 1, along wi h gende (1 =male), age,
educa ion (1 =ha ing s a ed o comple ed highe educa ion),
dual ci izenship, ea o unknown men, eelings o collec i e
insecu i y, bene olen (PP–CGD and HI) and hos ile sexis
belie s. The in e ac ions be ween he condi ions and PP–CGD
o eelings o collec i e insecu i y we e en e ed in Model 2
(p elimina y analyses e ealed ha he impac o ea o unknown
men did no a y significan ly ac oss he condi ions o ac oss
gende s; hese in e ac ions we e hus no en e ed in Model 2).
Finally, we e ified whe he he significan wo-way in e ac ions
we e u he mode a ed by pa icipan s’ gende . As no significan
h ee-way in e ac ions we e e ealed, hey we e excluded om
he final model. Final models a e p esen ed in Table 3.
F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 8July 2015 | Volume 6 | A icle 1033