When sexual threat cues shape attitudes toward immigrants: the role of insecurity and benevolent sexism

Sa asin, O iane; Fasel, Nicole; G een, E a G. T.; Helbling, Ma c A icle — Published Ve sion When sexual h ea cues shape a i udes owa d immig an s: he ole o insecu i y and bene olen sexism F on ie s in Psychology P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e Sugges ed Ci a ion: Sa asin, O iane; Fasel, Nicole; G een, E a G. T.; Helbling, Ma c (2015) : When sexual h ea cues shape a i udes owa d immig an s: he ole o insecu i y and bene olen sexism, F on ie s in Psychology, ISSN 1664-1078, F on ie s Media, Lausanne, Vol. 6, pp. --, h ps://doi.o g/10.3389/ psyg.2015.01033 This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/231507 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen (insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en, gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e. Te ms o use: Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal and schola ly pu poses. You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public. I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 28 July 2015 doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2015.01033 Edi ed by: Ma k Hallahan, College o he Holy C oss, USA Re iewed by: Melissa Ma ie McDonald, Michigan S a e Uni e si y, USA Julia Becke , Uni e si y o Osnab ück, Ge many *Co espondence: O iane Sa asin, Na ional Cen e o Compe ence in Resea ch LIVES, Facul y o Social and Poli ical Sciences, Uni e si y o Lausanne, Geopolis Building, CH-1015 Lausanne, Swi ze land o iane.sa [email protected] Special y sec ion: This a icle was submi ed o Pe sonali y and Social Psychology, a sec ion o he jou nal F on ie s in Psychology Recei ed: 13 Feb ua y 2015 Accep ed: 06 July 2015 Published: 28 July 2015 Ci a ion: Sa asin O, Fasel N, G een EGT and Helbling M (2015) When sexual h ea cues shape a i udes owa d immig an s: he ole o insecu i y and bene olen sexism. F on . Psychol. 6:1033. doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2015.01033 When sexual h ea cues shape a i udes owa d immig an s: he ole o insecu i y and bene olen sexism O iane Sa asin1,2*, Nicole Fasel3, E a G. T. G een3and Ma c Helbling1,4 1Mig a ion and Di e si y, WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e , Be lin, Ge many, 2Na ional Cen e o Compe ence in Resea ch LIVES, Facul y o Social and Poli ical Sciences, Uni e si y o Lausanne, Lausanne, Swi ze land, 3Ins i u e o Psychology, Facul y o Social and Poli ical Sciences, Uni e si y o Lausanne, Lausanne, Swi ze land, 4Depa men o Poli ical Science, Uni e si y o Bambe g, Bambe g, Ge many D awing on psychological and poli ical science esea ch on indi iduals’ sensi i i y o h ea cues, he p esen s udy examines eac ions o poli ical pos e s ha depic male immig an s as a sexual dange . We expec an i-immig an a i udes o be mo e s ongly p edic ed by eelings o insecu i y o ep esen a ions o men and women as s ong and agile when indi iduals a e exposed o sexual h ea cues han when hey a e no . Resul s om wo online expe imen s conduc ed in Swi ze land and Ge many la gely con i med hese assump ions. Compa ing wo an i-immig an pos e s (gene al and non-sexual h ea s. sexual h ea ), Expe imen 1 (n=142) showed ha eelings o insecu i y we e ela ed o an inc eased suppo o expelling immig an s om he hos coun y in bo h cases. Howe e , only in he sexual h ea cues condi ion and among emale pa icipan s, we e pe cep ions o women as agile—as measu ed wi h bene olen sexism i ems— ela ed o suppo o expelling immig an s. Fu he dis inguishing be ween di e en o ms o iolence h ea cues, Expe imen 2 (n=181) showed ha collec i e eelings o insecu i y we e mos s ongly ela ed o suppo o expelling immig an s when a male immig an was p esen ed as a iolen c iminal. In con as , bene olen sexis belie s we e ela ed o an i-immig an s ances only when pa icipan s we e exposed o a depic ion o a male immig an as a apis . In bo h cases a i udes we e pola ized: on he one hand, ep esen a ions o immig an s as c iminals p o oked eac ance eac ions— ha is, mo e posi i e a i udes—among pa icipan s sco ing low in insecu i y eelings o bene olen sexism. On he o he hand, hose sco ing high in hese dimensions exp essed sligh ly mo e nega i e a i udes. O e all, by applying social psychological concep s o he s udy o an i-immig an poli ical campaigning, he p esen s udy demons a ed ha indi iduals a e sensi i e o speci ic h ea cues in pos e s. Keywo ds: h ea , p ejudice, immig a ion, sexual iolence, insecu i y, bene olen sexism In oduc ion Disc imina o y a i udes and ac s agains immig an s a e i e in many Wes e n coun ies. A ecen epo om he OECD (2013), o ins ance, s a es ha in hese coun ies up o 15% o fi s - gene a ion immig an s and 25% o second-gene a ion immig an s eel ha hey belong o a disc imina ed g oup. An i-immig an a i udes a e in g ea pa explained by he ac ha F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 1July 2015 | Volume 6 | A icle 1033 Sa asin e al. Sexual h ea cues and an i-immig an a i udes immig a ion is o en desc ibed and pe cei ed as a h ea o he ecei ing coun y (Wagne e al., 2010). Pe cep ions o immig an s h ea ening he local economy (e.g., by “s ealing” jobs o abusing social benefi s) and cul u e (e.g., by ha ing diffe en eligious o cul u al alues and p ac ices) a e widesp ead. Nume ous s udies ha e been de o ed o in es iga ing he an eceden s and consequences o economic and symbolic h ea s ela ed o immig a ion (G een e al., 2015). In con as , he impac o ano he o m o h ea , ha is pe cei ing male immig an s as a sexual dange , has a ac ed a less esea ch a en ion. This lack o in e es is su p ising, since male ou - g oup membe s—in pa icula men om e hnic and mig an mino i ies—a e gene ally pe cei ed as mo e dange ous and iolen han hei emale coun e pa s (Quillian and Page , 2001; Plan e al., 2011). In addi ion, compa ed o in-g oup men, ou -g oup men a e mo e o en seen as a sexual dange o in- g oup women (Nagel, 2001;Na a e e e al., 2010). Echoing and maybe gal anizing hese ea s, in o ma ion and messages associa ing male immig an s wi h sexual iolence a e equen ly ound in he media. Fo example, when analyzing media epo s o sexual offenses in he UK, G o e and Soo hill (1996) ound ha offende s’ e hnici y was mo e o en men ioned when hey had an e hnic o immig an backg ound han when hey did no . Radical igh pa ies ha e also sugges ed ha male immig an s can be a dange o women. As an illus a ion, a ew yea s ago, he s ee s o Swi ze land we e plas e ed wi h a pos e ea u ing “I an,” a fic i ious male immig an cha ac e —mos likely om Eas e n Eu ope—con ic ed o ape and on he e ge o ob aining Swiss ci izenship. D awing on psychological and poli ical science esea ch on indi iduals’ sensi i i y o h ea cues, he p esen s udy examines eac ions o poli ical pos e s ha associa e male immig an s wi h sexual iolence. We expec ha h ea ening ep esen a ions o immig an s a e mos effec i e when hei con en esona es wi h specific an eceden s o an i-immig an a i udes. Based on his easoning, sexual h ea cues should influence o a g ea e ex en he a i udes o hose who ea iolence o who belie e ha men’s du y is o p o ec women. In con as , hose who do no adhe e o such belie s may ejec he messages con eyed in pos e s con aining sexual h ea cues, and consequen ly, ou o eac ance, exp ess mo e posi i e iews. These assump ions we e es ed and la gely confi med in wo online expe imen s. The fi s expe imen —conduc ed in Swi ze land (n=142)—compa ed wo eal an i-immig an pos e s (i.e., p e iously used in poli ical campaigning) ep esen ing immig an s, o a subca ego y o hem, ei he as a gene al h ea o as a sexual h ea . To confi m Expe imen 1’s findings, a second expe imen was conduc ed wi h fic i ious pos e s in a compa able na ional se ing whe e his ype o pos e was unknown (Ge many; n=181). Mo eo e , o disen angle he iolence aspec s om he gende ed aspec s con ained in sexual h ea cues, we ex ended ou in es iga ion by compa ing eac ions o diffe en ep esen a ions o c iminal immig an s (i.e., as a apis , a iolen c iminal, o a d ug deale ). Th ea Cues Membe s om he na ional majo i y may eel h ea ened by immig a ion based on wha hey obse e in hei e e yday li es. Howe e , hei p ima y sou ce o in o ma ion on immig a ion and immig an s is gene ally indi ec , such as h ough he media (Blume , 1958;B ade e al., 2008), in which e hnic and mig an mino i ies end o be o e ep esen ed and linked o nega i e e en s ( an Dijk, 1991;Lubbe s e al., 1998). Poli ical pa ies also o en men ion immig a ion in hei ad e isemen s, which is, in gene al, an effec i e way o inc easing o e s’ knowledge abou specific issues (G oenendyk and Valen ino, 2002;Holbe e al., 2002). Nega i e a i udes owa d immig an s and immig a ion a e a key an eceden o suppo o adical igh pa ies (I a sfla en, 2008); i is hus unsu p ising ha hese pa ies in pa icula o en d aw on h ea ening ep esen a ions o immig an s o mobilize o e s (e.g., in Swi ze land, Ga u o and Mai e, 2013). Indeed, when ea is igge ed, igilance ends o ise and indi iduals a e mo e easily pe suaded (B ade , 2005). Because isual image y—and especially when con eying h ea ening ep esen a ions—is a powe ul means o affec poli ical and social a i udes (Huddy and Gunn ho sdo i , 2000; Mai e, 2015), poli ical pa ies’ p ima y way o communica ing— especially in Eu ope—is h ough pos e s, while TV ads a e mo e o en used in he US (Hol z-Bacha and Kaid, 2006). When walking down a s ee o d i ing, indi iduals ha e only a ew seconds o ca ch he meaning o a poli ical pos e . Thus, messages need o be s ong and easy o ca ch (Lessinge e al., 2003), such as in he much-deba ed pos e s used by he Swiss Peoples’ Pa y, he main Swiss adical igh pa y. A amous example is a pos e used du ing he campaign p eceding a e e endum on he expulsion o c iminal immig an s, in which whi esheeps andingon heSwissflagkickou ablack sheep. I is e y likely ha adical igh pa ies’ an i-immig an pos e s ha e a g ea e impac on some indi iduals han on o he s. Indeed, social psychological esea ch has shown ha ep esen a ions o ou -g oup membe s as h ea ening ac i a e p ejudice among hose p edisposed o i , because o he ea s hey ha e, he ideologies hey hold o hei a achmen o hei g oup (e.g., B ewe , 1999;Jackson, 2002). Thus, h ea ening depic ions o immig an s—o e en hei me e p esence—ha e been ound o ha e a s onge effec on hose p edisposed o ejec immig a ion. Fo ins ance, he highes ejec ion o immig an s was ound in indi iduals a aid o walking alone a nigh when hey li ed in a eas wi h a high immig a ion a e (Sibley e al., 2013). Simila ly, a me a-analysis by Coh s and S elzl (2010) e ealed ha he ela ionship be ween belie ing in no ms, adi ions and he powe o au ho i ies, and nega i e a i udes owa d immig an s is pa icula ly s ong in coun ies whe e immig an s a e pe cei ed o inc ease he c ime a e. Indi iduals holding hese belie s we e also ound o eac wi h ha she immig a ion a i udes when immig an s we e p esen ed as adhe ing o diffe en no ms and alues (Ducki and Sibley, 2010) o as ejec ing he local no ms (and, by doing so, b eaching in-g oup con o mi y; Thomsen e al., 2008). While his “ac i a ing” effec o h ea ening ep esen a ions is cu en ly a opic o in e es in social psychology, in o he fieldsonly wos udiesha e, oou knowledge,sough oexplain indi iduals’ sensi i i y o an i-immig an poli ical pos e s. Bo h F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 2July 2015 | Volume 6 | A icle 1033 Sa asin e al. Sexual h ea cues and an i-immig an a i udes ocusing on educa ional a ainmen , hese wo s udies confi med ha h ea cues a e mo e effec i e when hei con en esona es wi h specific an eceden s o p ejudice. In a s udy conduc ed in Swi ze land, Ma hes and Ma qua (2013) assumed ha hose wi h low educa ion a e no only mo e likely o eel in compe i ion wi h immig an s o he same goods (e.g., jobs, housing, and benefi s) bu , because hey a e less used o gene a ing coun e a gumen s when aced wi h poli ical messages, hey should also be mo e easily pe suaded by hese messages. Confi ming hese assump ions, hese au ho s ound ha when seeing an an i-immig an pos e wi h a s ong emo ional message, indi iduals wi h low educa ion epo ed ea ing immig an s o a g ea e ex en han hose wi h high educa ion. Highly educa ed people, in con as , had an a e si e (o “ eac ance”) eac ion, by exp essing he mos nega i e s ances owa d adical igh campaigning when exposed o he same pos e . Howe e , because hey did no dis inguish be ween diffe en ypes o h ea , i was no possible o de e mine whe he pe cei ed economic h ea o pe suasion explained he sensi i i y o hose wi h low educa ion. Compa ing diffe en immig a ion- ela ed h ea s in a s udy conduc ed in Aus ia, Schmuck and Ma hes (2014) confi med he ole played by pe cei ed economic compe i ion. A e exposu e o a pos e ha pic u ed immig an s as an economic h ea , only adolescen s wi h low educa ional a ainmen became mo e nega i e owa d immig a ion. In con as , he impac o educa ion on an i- immig an a i udes was no mode a ed by a depic ion o immig an s as h ea ening he hos na ion’s cul u e (compa ed o adolescen s wi h simila educa ional a ainmen in a “no pos e ” condi ion). In he p esen s udy we apply his “sensi i i y o h ea cues” easoning o he case o ep esen a ions o male immig an s as a sexual h ea . Because physical iolence and gende ela ions a e wo co e aspec s o sexual iolence, we assume ha h ea depic ions inducing hese aspec s will affec mos hose who ea iolence (i.e., who epo eelings o insecu i y) o who belie e in he p o ec i e ole o men (i.e., who exp ess bene olen sexis belie s). Con e sely, i may be ha indi iduals who sco e low on hese wo dimensions ejec he messages con eyed by he poli ical pos e s, and, as a consequence, exp ess mo e posi i e a i udes owa d immig an s. Feelings o Insecu i y Because p esen ing male immig an s as a sexual dange elies on he s e eo ypical iew ha immig an s a e dange ous and iolen , sexual iolence cues a e assumed o mos influence hose who eel conce ned abou secu i y. While a clea associa ion be ween immig a ion and c ime is a om es ablished (Hia , 2007), immig an s a e indeed o en associa ed wi h c ime and iolence, in adical igh pa ies’ messages (e.g., Mai e, 2015)aswellasin indi iduals’ ep esen a ions (e.g., Quillian and Page , 2001;Dinas and an Spanje, 2011). Indi iduals can ea o hei own secu i y, o o secu i y in hei communi y (Schwa z and Boehnke, 2004). Feelings o pe sonal insecu i y ela e o ea s and wo ies o one’s own well-being and sa e y, while eelings o collec i e insecu i y imply ea ing ha he s abili y and ha mony o la ge en i ies (e.g., ci ies, na ions) is a s ake. Bo h a e known o influence indi iduals’ a i udes owa d immig an s: ea ing o one’s own secu i y, such as when walking alone in one’s neighbo hood a e da k, has been ela ed o nega i e a i udes owa d immig an s (e.g., Chandle and Tsai, 2001;Rus enbach, 2010), whe eas eelings o collec i e insecu i y, such as wo ying abou c ime, ha e been ound o p edic conce ns abou immig a ion mo e han he ac ual c ime a e (Fi zge ald e al., 2012). Based on hese s udies, we expec ha eelings o bo h pe sonal and collec i e insecu i y unde lie nega i e a i udes owa d immig an s. When encoun e ing a pos e associa ing male immig an s o sexual iolence, compa ed o an an i-immig an pos e whe e sexual h ea cues a e absen , i is pa icula ly hose who eel insecu e who should eac wi h ha she an i-immig an a i udes. Because collec i e insecu i y pe ains o socie y as a whole, we expec men and women wi h s ong eelings o collec i e insecu i y o eac in a simila way when acing sexual h ea cues. In con as , when exposed o depic ions o a male immig an as a apis , he impac o pe sonal secu i y should be s onge o women, he p ima y a ge s o sexual iolence, han o men. Bene olen Sexis Belie s Sexual iolence cues a e also assumed o ha e he s onges influence on hose who belie e ha —weake bu complemen a y o men—women need o be p o ec ed. Based on ep esen a ions o men and women as, espec i ely, s ong and agile, hese belie s a e pa o wha is called bene olen sexism, one o he wo aspec s o ambi alen sexism. Indeed, a i udes owa d women a e known o be qui e complex: Ac oss cul u es, hos ile sexism—a unidimensional cons uc —has been dis inguished om he mo e complex bene olen sexism (Glick and Fiske, 1996;Glick e al., 2000). On he one hand, women iola ing adi ional gende oles, such as eminis s o ca ee women, end o ace bla an in ole an a i udes. These openly nega i e a i udes define hos ile sexism. On he o he hand, a i udes owa d women gene ally a e o en mo e posi i e han hose owa d men. This can be explained by he p e alence o he belie s ha women a e “be e ” (e.g., pu e , mo e sensi i e) human beings han men. These seemingly posi i e a i udes ne e heless ely on nega i e s e eo ypical iews o women: hey a e seen as agile and equi ing p o ec ion om men, who, by way o con as , a e pe cei ed as much s onge . These belie s—complemen a y gende diffe en ia ion (CGD) and p o ec i e pa e nalism (PP)—a e wo componen s o bene olen sexism ha pe ain o he s eng h s. agili y pe cei ed opposi ion be ween men and women. The hi d componen o bene olen sexism—he e osexual in imacy—is defined as “a genuine desi e o psychological closeness” (Glick and Fiske, 1996, p. 493). Despi e hei diffe ences, hos ile and bene olen sexism a e gene ally posi i ely co ela ed, because hey bo h ely on s e eo ypical iews o women (Glick and Fiske, 1996;Sibley and Pe y, 2010). We hus expec his o be he case he e. In u n, since hey bo h en ail bla an nega i e a i udes exp essed owa d disad an aged g oups, hos ile sexism and a i udes owa d immig an s should co a y (such as “ adi ional” sexism and acism a e gene ally ound o do; e.g., Aos ed and Long, F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 3July 2015 | Volume 6 | A icle 1033 Sa asin e al. Sexual h ea cues and an i-immig an a i udes 2006;Zick e al., 2008). In con as , because o i s insidious bu sub le na u e, bene olen sexism should be only weakly ela ed o o e an i-immig an s ances, and his especially when hos ile sexism is also conside ed. In line wi h his assump ion, bene olen sexism, when con olling o hos ile sexism, has been ound o be un ela ed o he endo semen o bla an hie a chies be ween social g oups, a gene al ideological endency known o p edic diffe en o ms o p ejudice, such as an i- immig an s ances (Ch is ophe and Mull, 2006). Howe e , when women’s alleged weakness and need o p o ec ion a e made salien by depic ions o male immig an s as apis s, indi iduals associa ing s eng h o men and agili y o women (i.e., sco ing high in CGD and PP) a e likely o eac wi h nega i e a i udes owa d immig an s. We expec o find his effec in bo h men and women. On he one hand, o men sco ing high on hese wo dimensions he willingness o p o ec women om he alleged h ea (i.e., he male immig an agg esso ) is inc eased. Fo his eason, hey a e likely o exp ess heigh ened nega i e a i udes owa d immig an s. On he o he hand, p esen ing immig an s as a sexual h ea is likely o ac i a e he need o be p o ec ed among women wi h s ong bene olen sexis belie s. Women wi h such belie s may hus exp ess nega i e immig a ion a i udes a e exposu e o cues ha ende salien he agg essi e po en ial o some men—he e immig an s. Finally, we do no expec he impac o he e osexual in imacy o be ac i a ed by sexual h ea cues because his dimension o bene olen sexism pe ains abo e all o pe sonal ela ionships. Expe imen 1 Me hod Pa icipan s Ou online ques ionnai e, conduc ed wi h Psychsu eys.o g, a ge ed he F ench-speaking egion in Swi ze land. Gene ally, he e is e idence ha findings d awn om online samples a e consis en wi h hose ob ained wi h adi ional me hods (Gosling e al., 2004). Mo eo e , we elied on da a collec ed online because hey allow mo e ex apola ion o he gene al popula ion han, o ins ance, s uden samples. Rec ui ing pa icipan s om all social backg ounds is all he mo e impo an in he p esen case because indi iduals wi h low and high educa ional a ainmen a e known o eac diffe en ly o an i-immig an pos e s (Ma hes and Ma qua , 2013;Schmuck and Ma hes, 2014). Snowball sampling was used o collec he da a: he fi s au ho con ac ed a la ge numbe o acquain ances by email, o in i e hem o bo h ake pa in he s udy and o wa d he in i a ion email. Fou hund ed and six y- wo indi iduals clicked on he link, and 181 comple ed he ques ionnai e. F om he final sample, only 27.54% indica ed ha ing ecei ed he in i a ion di ec ly om he fi s au ho (no e ha pa icipan s who we e con ac ed di ec ly by he fi s au ho did no diffe significan ly in any o he measu es o in e es om hose who we e no ). We selec ed da a o Swiss ci izens (n=142; 83 women and 59 men). Pa icipan s anged in age om 19 o 100 (Median =30, Mean =34.31, SD =13.62). Fo y-fi e esponden s epo ed ha ing ano he ci izenship in addi ion o Swiss, and sligh ly mo e han wo hi ds o he sample (n=102) had a high school diploma. P ocedu e Pa icipan s fi s comple ed a se ies o scales on a ious “socie al opics” (as desc ibed in he ques ionnai e), including i ems measu ing eelings o insecu i y and sexis belie s. Then, hey ead ha he second pa o he ques ionnai e pe ained o immig a ion specifically, as a cen al opic o many ecen poli ical campaigns in Swi ze land. To cap u e he pa icipan s’ a en ion, we fi s p esen ed o all o hem a pos e ha was seen in he s ee s o Swi ze land a he ime we launched ou su ey. Used in a campaign o educe mig a ion o Swi ze land, he pos e showed ee walking on he Swiss flag, accompanied wi h he “S op mass immig a ion” slogan. On he same page, pa icipan s also saw one o wo pos e s used du ing a sligh ly olde campaign ha p eceded a e e endum on he expulsion o c iminal immig an s (in No embe 2009). They we e andomly assigned o one o he wo condi ions by Psychsu eys. In he sexual h ea condi ion (n=73) pa icipan s we e p esen ed he I an pos e . This pos e showed a fic i ious immig an cha ac e —mos likely o Balkan o Eas e n Eu opean o igin— con ic ed o ape and on he e ge o ob aining Swiss ci izenship. “I an, apis , and soon o be Swiss?” was w i en in a la ge black ba hiding pa o his ace. In he non-sexual h ea condi ion (n=69), hey we e p esen ed he Sheep pos e , in which h ee whi e sheep a e s anding on he Swiss flag as one o hem kicks a black sheep away. These pos e s a e e y well-known in Swi ze land: Only six pa icipan s in he sexual h ea (I an) condi ion, and no one in he non-sexual h ea (Sheep) condi ion epo ed ha ing ne e seen he pos e . Finally, pa icipan s we e in i ed o espond o a ious measu es ela ed o immig a ion, including he dependen a iable o he p esen s udy. This s udy was ca ied ou in acco dance wi h he ecommenda ions o bo h he Code o Deon ology o he Swiss Psychological Socie y and he Ame ican Psychological Associa ion. Be o e comple ing he ques ionnai e, pa icipan s we e in o med ha hey we e abou o ake pa in a scien ific s udy and ha hei esponses would emain anonymous. They we e also old ha hey could pass a ques ion o qui he su ey a any ime. In he mon hs ollowing hei pa icipa ion in he s udy, pa icipan s ecei ed an email desc ibing he goals and esul s o he s udy. Measu es The whole ques ionnai e was in F ench. Means, SD, and sco e in e co ela ions a e displayed in Table 1. Ou dependen a iable—nega i e a i udes owa d immig an s—was measu ed by pa icipan s’ suppo o expelling law- and no m-b eaking immig an s, since his was he objec o bo h he I an and he Sheep pos e s. To his end, pa icipan s we e in i ed o s a e o wha ex en — om 1=s ongly disag ee o 7 =s ongly ag ee— hey hough ha immig an s who we e long- e m unemployed, we e sen enced o p ison o we e illegally in Swi ze land mus be expelled om he F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 4July 2015 | Volume 6 | A icle 1033 Sa asin e al. Sexual h ea cues and an i-immig an a i udes TABLE 1 | Means, SD, and in e co ela ions o a i udinal a iables in Expe imen s 1 and 2. Expe imen 1 M SD BS: PP–CGD BS: HI HS EXP Insecu i y 2.51 (2.49) 0.22∗∗ 0.19∗∗ 0.26∗∗ 0.53∗∗∗ Bene olen sexism: PP–CGD 2.54 (1.07) 0.52∗∗∗ 0.57∗∗∗ 0.45∗∗∗ Bene olen sexism: HI 2.69 (1.38) 0.46∗∗∗ 0.43∗∗∗ Hos ile Sexism 2.77 (1.27) 0.63∗∗∗ Expelling immig an s (EXP) 2.93 (1.66) Expe imen 2 M SD I-C BS: PP–CGD BS: HI HS EXP Insecu i y: pe sonal (I-P) 2.44 (0.75) 0.41∗∗∗ 0.23∗∗ 0.07 0.21∗∗ 0.23∗∗ Insecu i y: collec i e (I-C) 3.16 (1.62) 0.24∗∗∗ 0.14∗0.40∗∗∗ 0.56∗∗∗ Bene olen sexism: PP–CGD 3.06 (1.25) 0.63∗∗∗ 0.50∗∗∗ 0.38∗∗∗ Bene olen sexism: HI 3.75 (1.76) 0.44∗∗∗ 0.35∗∗∗ Hos ile Sexism 2.89 (1.17) 0.53∗∗∗ Expelling immig an s (EXP) 2.95 (1.86) ∗p<0.05, ∗∗p<0.10, ∗∗∗p<0.001. coun y (i ems adap ed om he Eu opean Social Su ey, 2014; α=0.87). Feelings o insecu i y and he belie ha women a e mo e agile han men o med he wo p edic o s o suppo o expelling immig an s. Fi s , wo i ems measu ed pa icipan s’ eelings o insecu i y. Fo pe sonal insecu i y, hey had o indica e, on a scale om 1 = o ally sa e o 4 = o ally unsa e, how hey el when walking alone in hei neighbo hood a e da k (adap ed om he Eu opean Social Su ey, 2014). Fo collec i e insecu i y, hey indica ed, on a scale om 1 =no a all o 5 =alo , whe he hey ea ed an inc ease in iolence and andalism in hei neighbo hood (adap ed om Snide man e al., 2004). Because he co ela ion be ween hese wo i ems ( =0.63, p<0.001) can be qualified as la ge (Cohen, 1988), we compu ed a wo-i em sco e o eelings o insecu i y (α=0.76). No e ha , because hey had a diffe en scale, we escaled he wo insecu i y i ems o ange om 0 o 10. Second, bene olen sexism (BS) was measu ed wi h 11 i ems (Glick and Fiske, 1996; F ench ansla ion by Da denne e al., 2006). Two o i s subdimensions—PP ( ou i ems) and CGD scales ( h ee i ems)— ap he belie ha women a e diffe en om and mo e agile han “s ong” men, and hus need hei p o ec ion. P elimina y explo a o y ac o analysis (EFA) e ealed ha hese i ems loaded on he same ac o , wi h he excep ion o one i em (i.e., “in a disas e , women ough o be escued be o e men”). Fo his eason we c ea ed a six-i em sco e (PP–CGD: α=0.81; see Glick and Fiske, 1996, o he i ems’ wo ding) ha we diffe en ia ed om he e osexual in imacy (HI— ou i ems loading on a second ac o ; α=0.85). In addi ion, o single ou he “s eng h s. agili y” side o bene olen sexism om gene al sexis belie s, we added as a con ol he sco e o hos ile sexism (HS—all 11 i ems om Glick and Fiske, 1996;α=0.94). Fo bo h bene olen and hos ile sexism, esponse scales anged om 1 = o ally disag ee o 7= o ally ag ee, wi h high sco es indica ing s ong sexis belie s. Resul s Hie a chical eg essions we e used o es he ou lined hypo heses. All con inuous sco es we e cen e ed a he g and mean. Main effec s o he con ol and independen a iables we e en e ed in Model 1: expe imen al condi ion (1 =I an condi ion), gende (1 =male), age, educa ion (1 =high school diploma o highe ), ha ing dual ci izenship, eelings o insecu i y, bene olen (PP–CGD and HI) and hos ile sexis belie s. The in e ac ions be ween condi ion and BS: PP–CGD o eelings o insecu i y we e en e ed in Model 2. Then, we explo ed in u he models whe he he e we e diffe ences be ween male and emale pa icipan s, by en e ing he necessa y wo- and h ee-way in e ac ions. Only significan h ee-way in e ac ions we e included in Model 3. Final models a e p esen ed in Table 2. As shown in Model 1, pa icipan s exp essed a simila suppo o expelling immig an s a e seeing he wo poli ical pos e s. Mo eo e , age, gende , and ha ing an immig an backg ound did no ha e a significan impac . Consis en wi h p e ious esea ch (e.g., Lancee and Sa asin, 2015), hose wi h a high school diploma o mo e exp essed less suppo o expelling immig an s han hose wi hou . When i comes o he ac o s o in e es he e, eelings o insecu i y we e, as expec ed, posi i ely ela ed o an inc eased suppo o expelling immig an s. The belie ha women a e diffe en and weake han men (BS: PP– CGD) had no significan impac (no e ha hos ile sexis belie s and he e osexual in imacy we e bo h ela ed o a highe suppo ). Then, he wo in e ac ions be ween he expe imen al condi ion and eelings o insecu i y o bene olen sexis belie s we e en e ed in Model 2 (R2,p=0.056). Con a y o ou expec a ions, he impac o eelings o insecu i y was no mode a ed by he expe imen al condi ion (and his in e ac ion was no u he mode a ed by gende ). In con as , he impac o BS: PP–CGD was ound o be diffe en a e exposu e o he I an pos e han o he Sheep pos e . We u he e ified whe he pa icipan s’ gende qualified his in e ac ion. To his pu pose we en e ed in Model 3 he wo necessa y wo-way in e ac ions along wi h he h ee-way in e ac ion (R2,p=0.02). The h ee-way in e ac ion was ound o yield a significan impac . Simple slopes es ima ion (P eache e al., 2006) showed ha bene olen sexis belie s F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 5July 2015 | Volume 6 | A icle 1033 Sa asin e al. Sexual h ea cues and an i-immig an a i udes TABLE 2 | Resul s o eg ession analyses, Expe imen 1. Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 bSE βbSE βbSE β In e cep 3.57 (0.23) 3.57 (0.23) 3.46 (0.23) Condi ion (C) 0.17 (0.18) 0.05 0.17 (0.18) 0.05 0.45∗(0.23) 0.14 Male (M) 0.07 (0.20) 0.02 0.09 (0.19) 0.03 0.35 (0.27) 0.10 Age −0.00 (0.01) −0.01 −0.00 (0.01) −0.00 −0.00 (0.01) −0.01 Educa ion −1.03∗∗∗ (0.23) −0.28 −1.00∗∗∗ (0.23) −0.27 −1.03∗∗∗ (0.23) −0.27 Dual ci iz. −0.13 (0.20) −0.04 −0.18 (0.20) −0.05 −0.18 (0.19) −0.05 Insecu i y (I) 0.23∗∗∗ (0.04) 0.34 0.29∗∗∗ (0.05) 0.43 0.30∗∗∗ (0.05) 0.45 BS: PP–CGD 0.06 (0.11) 0.04 −0.14 (0.14) −0.09 −0.42∗(0.17) −0.28 BS: HI 0.21∗∗ (0.08) 0.18 0.22∗∗ (0.08) 0.18 0.19∗(0.08) 0.16 HS 0.42∗∗∗ (0.10) 0.32 0.37∗∗∗ (0.10) 0.28 0.40∗∗∗ (0.10) 0.30 C×I−0.08 (0.07) −0.08 −0.10 (0.07) −0.10 C×BS: PP–CGD 0.42∗(0.18) 0.19 0.80∗∗∗ (0.23) 0.37 C×M−0.59 (0.36) −0.15 M×BS: PP–CGD 0.62∗∗ (0.23) 0.26 C×BS: PP–CGD ×M−0.81∗(0.34) −0.25 R262.0% 63.6% 66.5% Uns anda dized and s anda dized coe icien s. ∗p<0.05, ∗∗ p<0.10, ∗∗∗p<0.001. we e ela ed diffe en ly o suppo o expelling immig an s ac oss condi ions and gende s. Figu e 1 e eals ha , in he I an condi ion, among emale pa icipan s, bene olen sexis belie s we e ela ed o mo e suppo o expelling immig an s (b=0.38, SE =0.18, p=0.03). A simila bu non-significan end was obse ed among male pa icipan s (b=0.19, SE =0.20, p=0.33; no e, howe e , ha he diffe ence be ween men and women sco ing high in bene olen sexism was no significan : b=−0.44, SE =0.38, p=0.24). An opposi e pa e n was ound in he Sheep condi ion (see Figu e 2). Again, o male pa icipan s, he link was no significan (b=0.20, SE =0.19, p=0.30). Fo emale pa icipan s, howe e , he link was nega i e and significan (b=−0.42, SE =0.17, p=0.01). Poin es s u he e ealed ha he e we e no significan diffe ences be ween men and women sco ing low in bene olen sexism (−1SD;b=−0.31, SE =0.38, p=0.42), whe eas women sco ing high in bene olen sexism exp essed lowe suppo o expelling immig an s han men wi h simila sco es (+1SD;b=1.01, SE =0.35, p=0.005). Finally, we an models (omi ed om Table 2) o e i y whe he he impac o educa ion and he e osexual in imacy diffe ed ac oss he condi ions. Fi s , because s uden s wi h highe educa ional a ainmen we e ound o be less sensi i e o an i- immig an pos e s (Ma hes and Ma qua , 2013;Schmuck and Ma hes, 2014), we en e ed he in e ac ion be ween educa ion and he condi ion in an addi ional model. The impac o educa ion was ound no o a y ac oss he wo condi ions (b=−0.01, SE =0.44, p=0.97). Second, we examined whe he , as assumed, he impac o he hi d componen o bene olen sexism—i.e., he e osexual in imacy—was no ac i a ed by sexual h ea cues. To his end, we added o he models p esen ed in Table 2 he ollowing in e ac ions: HI ×condi ion, HI ×gende , FIGURE 1 | Expe imen 1: Bene olen sexism ×pa icipan s’ gende on suppo o expelling immig an s; I an condi ion. and HI ×condi ion ×gende . Resul s showed ha he impac o HI did no diffe ac oss he wo condi ions (b=−0.00, SE =0.15, p=0.98; Model 2), and ha his in e ac ion was no u he mode a ed by gende (b=0.03, SE =0.31, p=0.93; Model 3). Impo an ly, he h ee-way in e ac ion be ween condi ion, gende , and BS: PP–CGD emained significan when adding hese con ols. Discussion Expe imen 1 compa ed eac ions when pa icipan we e aced wi h wo an i-immig an poli ical pos e s ha had been used du ing hesameSwisspoli icalcampaign. These pos e s depic ed immig an s as a gene al and non-specific h ea o as a sexual F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 6July 2015 | Volume 6 | A icle 1033 Sa asin e al. Sexual h ea cues and an i-immig an a i udes FIGURE 2 | Expe imen 1: Bene olen sexism ×pa icipan s’ gende on suppo o expelling immig an s; Sheep condi ion. h ea , espec i ely. As expec ed, eelings o insecu i y we e ela ed o a g ea e suppo o expelling c iminal immig an s. Howe e , con a y o ou expec a ions, hei impac did no a y ac oss condi ions o gende s. The belie ha women a e diffe en om and mo e agile han men was ela ed o mo e nega i e a i udes owa d immig an s in he sexual iolence cues condi ions, bu , con a y o ou hypo hesis, only among emale pa icipan s. As ou lined below, a second expe imen was designed o shed u he ligh on hese findings. The impac o eelings o insecu i y may no ha e diffe ed ac oss he wo condi ions because bo h con ained a h ea ening ep esen a ion o immig an s, ha is, in he apis pos e condi ion, as a dange o women, and in he sheep pos e condi ion, as de ian s needing o be expelled om he coun y. Mo eo e , i may be ha he impac o physical iolence cues is g ea e when immig an s a e p esen ed as physically—and no only sexually— iolen and dange ous. Fo hese wo easons, Expe imen 2 con ains, in addi ion o a apis condi ion, a con ol condi ion wi h no pos e and pos e s pic u ing male immig an s as a dange o he local popula ion (i.e., as is he case wi h iolen c iminals o , o some deg ee, also wi h d ug deale s, o en associa ed wi h insecu i y in ce ain neighbo hoods o pa s o own). No e also ha we could no ea eelings o pe sonal and collec i e insecu i y sepa a ely, which may explain why hey did no ha e a s onge impac in women (we expec ed his o be he case only o eelings o pe sonal insecu i y). This empi ical closeness may ha e been due o bo h measu es con aining a e e ence o insecu i ies a he neighbo hood le el (i.e., walking alone in he neighbo hood, and ea o andalism and iolence in he neighbo hood). Fo his eason, we use mo e dis inc measu es in Expe imen 2. Fi s , o assess eelings o pe sonal insecu i y, we use an i em apping he ea o unknown men, immig an o no . Adjus ing ou ini ial hypo hesis, we expec ha in pa icula women who ea unknown men will eac wi h an i-immig an a i udes when exposed o he apis pos e , compa ed o he h ee o he condi ions. Second, o measu e eelings o collec i e insecu i y, we conside ea o iolence and andalism a wo diffe en socie al le els, ha is he neighbo hood and he na ion. Because hese ea s ela e o socie al s abili y, pe cei ed as being endange ed by c iminal immig an s, we expec ha bo h men and women wi h such eelings will eac wi h nega i e a i udes when exposed o a pos e associa ing immig an s o c imes ( ape, iolence, o d ug afficking), compa ed o hose wi h simila eelings who encoun e nopos e . Fo male pa icipan s he belie ha women a e mo e agile han men was un ela ed o suppo o expelling c iminal immig an s in bo h o he wo condi ions. In he sexual h ea cues condi ion, bene olen sexism (i.e., he PP and CGD subdimensions) was significan ly ela ed o an i-immig an s ances only among he emale pa icipan s. Howe e , wi h he da a a hand, i is no possible o de e mine whe he his was p o oked by he sexual componen o he h ea ening message, o by i s ep esen a ion o a man as physically dange ous. Compa ing he impac o pos e s pic u ing male immig an s associa ed wi h diffe en ypes o c imes will help ackle his ques ion. On he one hand, women who belie e in he p o ec i e ole o men may eac wi h ha she an i-immig an a i udes when p esen ed wi h a dange ous male immig an , he being ei he sexually o gene ally iolen . I so, women wi h bene olen sexis belie s should exp ess heigh ened an i-immig an s ances when exposed o he apis o iolen c iminal depic ions, in compa ison o he d ug deale o no-pos e condi ions. On he o he hand, i may be ha emale pa icipan s eac ed mo e s ongly o he I an pos e because women a e mo e o en ic ims o sexual agg ession. In line wi h his a gumen , ea o being aped was ound o unde lie nega i e a i udes owa d ou -g oup men mo e s ongly han a i udes owa d in-g oup men (Na a e e e al., 2010). Ano he ela ed in e p e a ion may be ha bene olen sexism has a diffe en meaning o men and women. Sibley and Pe y (2010) sugges ed ha he o iginal defini ion o bene olen sexism—pa e nalis ic iews owa d women—holds o men only. In he case o women, bene olen sexism in ac eflec s a posi i e iew o he in- g oup (i.e., women a e be e han men), especially when hos ile sexism ( ha is, nega i e and ha sh a i udes) is con olled o . Indeed, hese au ho s ound ha among men, bene olen sexism was ela ed o nega i e a i udes owa d gende equali y (as is gene ally expec ed), while among women i p edic ed posi i e a i udes. Following his a ionale, women sco ing high in bene olen sexism may eac o he I an pos e because hey eel mo e connec ed o women in gene al, he alleged ic ims o ( he fic i ious) I an. Based on his easoning, women wi h s ong bene olen sexis belie s should exp ess heigh ened an i- immig an s ances only when exposed o he apis depic ion, bu no in he iolen c iminal, d ug deale , o no-pos e condi ions. The e e sed effec ound in he Sheep-pos e , ha is, women showing a dec easing endency owa d he expulsion o immig an s, also equi es a en ion. The sheep-pos e may indeed ha e con eyed mul iple messages. While a black sheep ce ainly e e s o he ou side -s a us o immig an s, he ac ha i was iolen ly kicked ou by a whi e sheep may ha e igge ed empa hy and conce n among women high in bene olen sexism. Indeed, F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 7July 2015 | Volume 6 | A icle 1033 Sa asin e al. Sexual h ea cues and an i-immig an a i udes while women holding bene olen sexis belie s may be mo e sensi i e o cues o sexual iolence a ge ing he sa e y o hei own in-g oup, when con on ed wi h aspec s o immig an s hey can ela e o, such as hei need o p o ec ion, solida i y may be igge ed, leading o mo e inclusi e a i udes. Finally, while Expe imen 1 e ealed an impac o he pos e s used, we canno asce ain ha his was due o he me e exposu e o hei con en . Indeed, hese pos e s we e widely known in Swi ze land, as eflec ed in almos all pa icipan s being amilia wi h hem. Thus, he findings may ha e been p o oked by a eminde o he hea ed deba es ha ollowed hei publica ion a he han o hei con en i sel . To exclude his, Expe imen 2 was conduc ed in a compa able na ional con ex bu in which pos e s o his kind had no been used. Ge many was selec ed o i s simila i y o Swi ze land wi h espec o i s immig a ion his o y ( h ough he massi e a i al du ing he 20 h cen u y o Gas a bei e , i.e., mig an wo ke s), i s ci izenship egime (based on an e hnic concep ion o he na ion), and he salience o hea ed deba es on immig a ion and cul u al di e si y. Expe imen 2 Me hod Pa icipan s Da a we e collec ed h ough a la ge social ne wo king se ice, in which a andomly placed ad e isemen in i ed Ge man esiden s o ake pa in an online su ey on “Ge man socie y.” Eigh hund ed and o y- wo people clicked on he link, and 218 comple ed he ques ionnai e. We selec ed da a o Ge man ci izens (n=181; 97 women and 84 men). Pa icipan s anged in age om 18 o 75 (M=34.18, SD =12.20; no e ha wo missing da a we e eplaced wi h he mean). Twen y- h ee pa icipan s epo ed ha ing ano he na ional ci izenship. Finally, a ound wo hi ds o he sample (n=123) decla ed ha ing s a ed o comple ed highe educa ion (no e ha he esponse op ions o he educa ional a ainmen scale we e adap ed o he Ge man con ex and hus sligh ly diffe ed om hose used in Expe imen 1). P ocedu e The o e all p ocedu e was simila o Expe imen 1. Pa icipan s fi s comple ed a se ies o scales on diffe en socie al opics. Nex , hey ead ha immig a ion— he opic o he second pa o he ques ion—is a much-deba ed issue in many Eu opean coun ies, and ha poli ical pa ies o en ely on pos e s o exp ess hei opinions on his ma e . Pa icipan s we e hen andomly assigned by Psychsu eys o one o ou condi ions. In he No pos e condi ion (n=45) no u he in o ma ion was added. In he h ee o he condi ions, wo ex a sen ences desc ibed a ype o pos e hey could po en ially see in Ge many. Toou knowledge,so a no pos e associa ing, akin o he I an pos e , male immig an s and sexual o physical iolence, has been used in Ge many. In all cases he pos e —which we c ea ed ou sel es—showed a on al pic u e o a bea ded whi e man in his 20 s, wi h “Igo B.” w i en in a black ba hiding his eyes. A black squa e, in on o his o so, con ained he desc ip ion o a c iminal ollowed by “soon na u alized?” The diffe en ypes o c iminal, cons i u ing he only diffe ence ac oss he h ee las condi ions, we e: Rapis (n=44), Violen c iminal (VC, n=52), and D ug deale (DD, n=40). Then, as in Expe imen 1, pa icipan s esponded o a ious measu es ela ed o immig a ion. Expe imen 2 ollowed he ecommenda ions o he Ame ican Psychological Associa ion. The in oduc ion o he ques ionnai e was he same as in S udy 1. A e comple ing he ques ionnai e, pa icipan s we e deb ie ed ha he young man p esen ed in he pos e was no an ac ual c iminal. Measu es The whole ques ionnai e was in Ge man. Means, SD, and in e co ela ions a e displayed in Table 1. As in Expe imen 1, he dependen a iable was measu ed by he same h ee i ems e alua ing pa icipan s’ suppo o expelling law- and no m- b eaking immig an s (α=0.88). As in Expe imen 1, eelings o insecu i y and bene olen sexis belie s o med ou independen a iables o in e es . Fi s , we asked pa icipan s o wha ex en ( om 1 o 4) hey el sa e when encoun e ing a g oup o unknown men a nigh . Then, wo i ems measu ed pa icipan s’ eelings o collec i e insecu i y: hey s a ed o wha ex en ( om 1 o 7) hey ea ed an inc ease in iolence and andalism in hei neighbo hood o in Ge many (adap ed om Snide man e al., 2004). While he wo collec i e insecu i y i ems we e s ongly co ela ed ( =0.66, α=0.79), hey we e only mode a ely ela ed o ea o unknown men (neighbo hood: =0.43; coun y: =0.31). Fo his eason we conside ed hem as wo diffe en p edic o s. Finally, he belie ha women a e diffe en om and mo e agile han men was apped wi h he same six i ems as in Expe imen 1 (PP and CGD; α=0.82), which we e shown by EFA o load on he same dimension (loadings >0.30). As in Expe imen 1, he e osexual in imacy (α=0.88) and hos ile sexis belie s (α=0.93) we e used as con ol a iables ( o bo h bene olen and HS, Ge man ansla ion by Eckes and Six-Ma e na, 1999). Resul s As in Expe imen 1, hie a chical eg essions we e used o es he ou lined hypo heses. All con inuous sco es we e cen e ed a he g and mean. Dummy a iables apping he expe imen al condi ions (wi h he no-pos e condi ion as e e ence ca ego y) we e en e ed in Model 1, along wi h gende (1 =male), age, educa ion (1 =ha ing s a ed o comple ed highe educa ion), dual ci izenship, ea o unknown men, eelings o collec i e insecu i y, bene olen (PP–CGD and HI) and hos ile sexis belie s. The in e ac ions be ween he condi ions and PP–CGD o eelings o collec i e insecu i y we e en e ed in Model 2 (p elimina y analyses e ealed ha he impac o ea o unknown men did no a y significan ly ac oss he condi ions o ac oss gende s; hese in e ac ions we e hus no en e ed in Model 2). Finally, we e ified whe he he significan wo-way in e ac ions we e u he mode a ed by pa icipan s’ gende . As no significan h ee-way in e ac ions we e e ealed, hey we e excluded om he final model. Final models a e p esen ed in Table 3. F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 8July 2015 | Volume 6 | A icle 1033