Circular and Transformative Economy: Advances towards Sustainable Socio-economic Transformation

Nhamo, Luxon (Ed.); Mpandeli, Syl es e (Ed.); Liphadzi, S anley (Ed.); Mabhaudhi,
Ta adzwanashe (Ed.)
Book
Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy: Ad ances owa ds
Sus ainable Socio-economic T ans o ma ion
A ica Ci cula Economy Se ies
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Taylo & F ancis G oup
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Nhamo, Luxon (Ed.); Mpandeli, Syl es e (Ed.); Liphadzi, S anley (Ed.);
Mabhaudhi, Ta adzwanashe (Ed.) (2024) : Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy: Ad ances
owa ds Sus ainable Socio-economic T ans o ma ion, A ica Ci cula Economy Se ies, ISBN
978-1-003-32761-5, CRC P ess, Boca Ra on, FL,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1201/9781003327615
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/290432
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Ci cula and
T ans o ma i e Economy
The main aim o his book is o illus a e ci cula models o sus ainable esou ce
managemen . I highligh s he bene i s o ans o ma i e app oaches in in eg a ing,
simpli ying, and acili a ing unde s anding o complex sys ems and ans o ming
sys ems owa ds g ea e sus ainabili y while achie ing mul iple social, economic,
and en i onmen al ou comes. I p o ides pa hways owa ds s a egic policy decisions
on socio‑economic ans o ma ion suppo ed by case s udies.
Fea u es:
• Discusses explo a ion o a ansi ional pa h o he ci cula economy, explo ed
om he poin o iew o was e and echnology.
• Explains ans o ma ional change owa ds sus ainable socio‑ecological
in e ac ions.
• Re iews p o ision o pa hways owa ds sus ainabili y h ough scena io
de elopmen .
• P o ides assessmen o p og ess owa ds Sus ainable De elopmen Goals.
• P esen s c oss‑sec o al and mul icen ic app oaches owa ds ci cula i y.
This book is aimed a esea che s and p o essionals in wa e and en i onmen al engi‑
nee ing, ci cula economy, sus ainabili y, and en i onmen al s udies.
A ica Ci cula Economy Se ies
CRC P ess (Taylo and F ancis G oup) in oduces he A ica Ci cula Economy
Se ies (wi h a Science and Technology ou look bu p e e ably mo e in e disciplin‑
a y). Unde his ini ia i e, we in i e schola s, academicians, esea che s, and p o‑
essionals o con ibu e o his se ies. We a e in e es ed in discussing monog aphs,
e e ences, ex books, sho ‑ o m books and handbooks o add o ou book p og ams
a unde g adua e, pos g adua e, and doc o al le els. All he books published unde
his se ies will be pa o ou Global Publishing p og am.
Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy: Ad ances owa ds Sus ainable
Socio‑economic T ans o ma ion
Edi ed by Luxon Nhamo, Syl es e Mpandeli, S anley Liphadzi
and Ta adzwanashe Mabhaudhi
Ci cula and
T ans o ma i e Economy
Ad ances owa ds Sus ainable
Socio‑economic T ans o ma ion
Edi ed by
Luxon Nhamo, Syl es e Mpandeli,
S anley Liphadzi and Ta adzwanashe Mabhaudhi

Designed co e image: Anja Van De Me we
Fi s edi ion published 2024
by CRC P ess
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CRC P ess is an imp in o Taylo & F ancis G oup, LLC
© 2024 selec ion and edi o ial ma e , Luxon Nhamo, Syl es e Mpandeli, S anley Liphadzi and
Ta adzwanashe Mabhaudhi; indi idual chap e s, he con ibu o s
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Funded by Uni e si y o KwaZulu-Na al, Du ban, Sou h A ica.
T adema k no ice: P oduc o co po a e names may be adema ks o egis e ed adema ks and a e
used only o iden i ica ion and explana ion wi hou in en o in inge.
Lib a y o Cong ess Ca aloging‑in‑Publica ion Da a
Names: Nhamo, Luxon, edi o . | Mpandeli, Syl es e , edi o . | Liphadzi, S anley, edi o .
Ti le: Ci cula and ans o ma i e economy : ad ances owa ds sus ainable socio- economic
ans o ma ion / edi ed by Luxon Nhamo, Syl es e Mpandeli, S anley Liphadzi and
Ta adzwanashe Mabhaudhi.
Desc ip ion: 1 edi ion. | Boca Ra on, FL : CRC P ess, 2024. | Se ies: A ica ci cula economy se ies |
Includes bibliog aphical e e ences and index.
Iden i ie s: LCCN 2023050302 (p in ) | LCCN 2023050303 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032356013
(ha dback) | ISBN 9781032356037 (pape back) | ISBN 9781003327615 (ebook)
Subjec s: LCSH: Ci cula economy. | Sus ainable de elopmen . | En i onmen al enginee ing. |
Wa e -supply—En i onmen al aspec s.
Classi ica ion: LCC HC79.E5 C57 2024 (p in ) | LCC HC79.E5 (ebook) |
DDC 338.9/27—dc23/eng/20231120
LC eco d a ailable a h ps://lccn.loc.go /2023050302
LC ebook eco d a ailable a h ps://lccn.loc.go /2023050303
ISBN: 9781032356013 (hbk)
ISBN: 9781032356037 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003327615 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003327615
Typese in Times
by codeMan a
Con en s
Going Ci cula : A Fo ewo d .....................................................................................xi
P e ace.................................................................................................................... xiii
Abou he Edi o s ..................................................................................................... x
Lis o Con ibu o s ................................................................................................x ii
Acknowledgemen s .................................................................................................xxi
Chap e 1 Unde s anding ci cula i y and ans o ma i e app oaches
and hei ole in achie ing sus ainabili y ...............................................1
Luxon Nhamo, Syl es e Mpandeli, S anley Liphadzi,
and Ta adzwanashe Mabhaudhi
1.1 In oduc ion ...............................................................................1
1.2 De ining ans o ma i e app oaches ..........................................2
1.3 Signi icance o ci cula i y and ans o ma i e app oaches ..........5
1.4 Conclusions ................................................................................6
Re e ences ............................................................................................6
Chap e 2 Volun a y ag eemen s and sys emic lock‑in in he ci cula
economy: he ce i ica ion o sewage sludge in Sweden ......................9
Pa ik Söde holm and K is ina Söde holm
2.1 In oduc ion ...............................................................................9
2.2 Theo e ical poin s o depa u e ............................................... 12
2.3 The managemen o sewage sludge in Sweden ........................15
2.4 The ou comes and challenges o REVAQ ...............................18
2.5 Concluding discussion .............................................................22
Re e ences ..........................................................................................25
Chap e 3 Global s a us o ci cula economy adap a ion wi hin was ewa e
se ices: ansi ion pa hways and he ole o inno a ion ........................29
John Ngoni Z imba, Eus ina Mus o o, Nom uselelo Mgwenya,
and Buyisile Kholisa
3.1 In oduc ion .............................................................................29
3.2 Ci cula economy adap a ion p og ess .................................... 30
3.3 Ci cula economy solu ions in he wa e sec o ......................34
3.4 Technical e alua ion o he EHTP p ocess as an
eme ging echnology ...............................................................37
3.5 App op ia e echnologies o coupling wi h he EHTP
p ocess o p omo e a ci cula economy .....................................50
3.6 Conclusions ..............................................................................57
Re e ences ..........................................................................................57
i Con en s
Chap e 4 T ansi ional pa hways owa ds sus ainable ood sys ems...................60
Luxon Nhamo, Syl es e Mpandeli, S anley Liphadzi,
Samkelisiwe Hlophe‑Ginindza, and Ta adzwanashe Mabhaudhi
4.1 In oduc ion .............................................................................60
4.2 The concep ual amewo k ......................................................63
4.3 Pa hways owa ds achie ing sus ainabili y o
ood sys ems ............................................................................68
4.4 Recommenda ions ...................................................................72
4.5 Conclusions ..............................................................................72
Re e ences ..........................................................................................73
Chap e 5 S eng hening he ans o ma ional implemen a ion
o na ional clima e change adap a ion plans o enhance
ag icul u al esilience .........................................................................78
Cha les Nhemachena, Daniel Njiwa, Mcloud Kayi a Chi wa,
Anabela Manhica, Assan Ng’ombe and P o ase Echessah
5.1 In oduc ion .............................................................................78
5.2 Li e a u e e iew .....................................................................80
5.3 Me hods o he s udy ...............................................................90
5.4 Resul s and discussion .............................................................91
5.5 Conclusions and ecommenda ions .........................................95
Re e ences ..........................................................................................97
Chap e 6 P og ess owa ds he ci cula economy: case s udies o
sani a ion and o ganic was e–de i ed esou ce eco e y
echnologies in Sou h A ica ............................................................ 101
Ta u inga Badza, William Musazu a, Mendy Zibuyile Shozi,
Al ed Oduo Odindo, and Ta adzwanashe Mabhaudhi
6.1 In oduc ion ........................................................................... 101
6.2 Conclusion .............................................................................128
Re e ences ........................................................................................129
Chap e 7 The ci cula economy as a ca alys o en i onmen al
andhuman heal h ............................................................................. 139
Nonhlanhla Kalebaila, Mpho Kapa i, Luxon Nhamo,
andSyl es e Mpandeli
7.1 In oduc ion ...........................................................................139
7.2 Linea economy and he eme gence o in ec ious
diseases .................................................................................. 142
7.3 The ci cula economy model .................................................146
iiCon en s
7.4 Ecological bene i s o he ci cula economy ......................... 147
7.5 Using he ci cula economy o build esilience
agains u u e in ec ious diseases ..........................................154
7.6 Conclusion ............................................................................. 155
Re e ences ........................................................................................156
Chap e 8 Gende no ms and social ans o ma ion o ag icul u e
inSub‑Saha an A ica ......................................................................159
E e is o Mapedza
8.1 In oduc ion ...........................................................................159
8.2 Si ua ing gende wi hin A ica .............................................. 160
8.3 Me hodology .......................................................................... 165
8.4 Eme ging hemes om he li e a u e e iew ......................... 165
8.5 Discussion ..............................................................................166
8.6 Conclusion ............................................................................. 167
Re e ences ........................................................................................ 168
Chap e 9 Sus ainable wa e managemen : does gende ma e ? ...................... 175
Dalia Saad
9.1 In oduc ion ........................................................................... 175
9.2 Unde s anding gende in he con ex o wa e ....................... 176
9.3 Women and wa e “ he un apped connec ion” ...................... 177
9.4 Wa e and women’s wel a e ................................................... 178
9.5 Gende and decision‑making powe ......................................180
9.6 Gende and capaci y building ................................................ 181
9.7 Bene i s o gende ‑balanced wa e managemen ................... 182
9.8 Conclusions ............................................................................184
Re e ences ........................................................................................ 184
Chap e 10 Enhancing socio‑ecological in e ac ions o achie e
sus ainable decen alised sani a ion sys ems:
why people a e no using echnical solu ions ................................... 188
Be sie le Roux, A ie an Nieke k, E na K uge ,
and Be y Maimela
10.1 In oduc ion ...........................................................................188
10.2 Me hodology ..........................................................................190
10.3 T adi ional A ican cul u es and he Wa e ‑Ene gy‑Food
nexus ...................................................................................... 191
10.4 Discussion .............................................................................. 200
10.5 Conclusions ............................................................................204
Re e ences ........................................................................................204

x
Abou he Edi o s
Luxon Nhamo is a Resea ch Manage a he Wa e Resea ch Commission o Sou h
A ica (WRC) and an Hono a y Resea ch Fellow a he Uni e si y o KwaZulu‑Na al
(UKZN), Sou h A ica. He has o e 20 yea s o p og essi e esea ch expe ience
in ag icul u al wa e managemen , en i onmen al Geog aphic In o ma ion Sys ems
(GIS) and emo e sensing, wa e ‑ene gy‑ ood nexus, clima e change adap a ion, and
ea ly wa ning sys ems.
Syl es e Mpandeli is an Execu i e Manage a he Wa e Resea ch Commission
o Sou h A ica and an Adjunc P o esso a he Uni e si y o Venda. He is Vice
P esiden o he In e na ional Commission on I iga ion and D ainage (ICID) and
he Sou h A ican Na ional Commi ee on I iga ion and D ainage (SANCID)
Chai man. He is a membe o he Gau eng P o ince P emie ’s Ad iso y Team and a
Sou h A ican Wea he Se ices boa d membe .
S anley Liphadzi is a G oup Execu i e Manage a he Wa e Resea ch Commission
(WRC) and an Adjunc P o esso a he Uni e si y o Venda. He leads he Resea ch
& De elopmen B anch in he WRC in he p oduc ion o new knowledge and
inno a ion in wa e and sani a ion. S anley’s esea ch in e es is in sys ems hinking
o sus ainable de elopmen .
Ta adzwanashe Mabhaudhi is a P o esso o Clima e Change, Food Sys ems and
Heal h a he London School o Hygiene and T opical Medicine. P e iously, he was he
Resea ch G oup Leade : Sus ainable and Resilien Food Sys ems a he In e na ional
Wa e Managemen Ins i u e (IWMI). He holds Hono a y P o esso appoin men s
a he Uni e si y o KwaZulu‑Na al (UKZN) and he Uni e si y o No ingham,
Malaysia. He has mo e han en yea s o esea ch expe ience, ansla ing i in o policy
ou comes. He has published mo e han 200 pape s and ecei ed se e al awa ds.
x ii
Con ibu o s
Ta u inga Badza
Wa e , Sani a ion & Hygiene Resea ch
& De elopmen Cen e, Uni e si y
o KwaZulu‑Na al (UKZN)
Pie e ma i zbu g, Sou h A ica
Mcloud Kayi a Chi wa
Alliance o a G een Re olu ion
inA ica (AGRA)
Nai obi, Kenya
Tinashe Lindel Di wai
In e na ional Wa e Managemen
Ins i u e (IWMI)
P e o ia, Sou h A ica
Nosipho Dlamini
School o Enginee ing, Uni e si y
o KwaZulu‑Na al (UKZN)
Pie e ma i zbu g, Sou h A ica
P o ase Echessah
Alliance o a G een Re olu ion
inA ica (AGRA)
Nai obi, Kenya
Webs e Gumindoga
Cons uc ion and Ci il Enginee ing
Depa men , Uni e si y o Zimbabwe
Ha a e, Zimbabwe
Samkelisiwe Hlophe‑Ginindza
Wa e Resea ch Commission (WRC)
P e o ia, Sou h A ica
Nonhlanhla Kalebaila
Wa e Resea ch Commission (WRC)
P e o ia, Sou h A ica
Mpho Kapa i
Wa e Resea ch Commission (WRC)
P e o ia, Sou h A ica
Buyisile Kholisa
Wa e Resea ch Commission (WRC)
P e o ia, Sou h A ica
E na K uge
Mahla hini De elopmen Founda ion
(MDF)
Pie e ma i zbu g, Sou h A ica
Edwa d Ku wakumi e
Geoma ics Depa men , Tshwane
Uni e si y o Technology
P e o ia, Sou h A ica
Be sie le Roux
Food and Wa e Resea ch (FAWR)
P e o ia, Sou h A ica
S anley Liphadzi
Wa e Resea ch Commission (WRC)
P e o ia, Sou h A ica
Ta adzwanashe Mabhaudhi
In e na ional Wa e Managemen
Ins i u e (IWMI), P e o ia,
Sou h A ica and he Uni e si y
o KwaZulu‑Na al (UKZN),
Pie e ma i zbu g, Sou h A ica
James Magidi
Geoma ics Depa men , Tshwane
Uni e si y o Technology
P e o ia, Sou h A ica
x iii Con ibu o s
Be y Maimela
Mahla hini De elopmen Founda ion
(MDF)
Pie e ma i zbu g, Sou h A ica
Anabela Manhica
Alliance o he G een Re olu ion
inA ica (AGRA)
Nai obi, Kenya
E e is o Mapedza
In e na ional Wa e Managemen
Ins i u e (IWMI)
P e o ia, Sou h A ica
Nom uselelo Mgwenya
T uSense Consul ing Se ices
P e o ia, Sou h A ica
Jenni e Molwan wa
Wa e Resea ch Commission (WRC)
P e o ia, Sou h A ica
Syl es e Mpandeli
Wa e Resea ch Commission (WRC)
P e o ia, Sou h A ica
Lindiwe Ca ol M he hwa
Facul y o Educa ion, Uni e si y
o Zululand
Richa ds Bay, Sou h A ica
William Musazu a
Uni e si y o KwaZulu‑Na al
Pie e ma i zbu g, Sou h A ica
Eus ina Mus o o
T uSense Consul ing Se ices
P e o ia, Sou h A ica
Assan Ng’ombe
Alliance o he G een Re olu ion
inA ica (AGRA)
Nai obi, Kenya
Luxon Nhamo
Wa e Resea ch Commission (WRC)
P e o ia, Sou h A ica
Cha les Nhemachena
Alliance o a G een Re olu ion
inA ica (AGRA)
Nai obi, Kenya
Daniel Njiwa
Alliance o a G een Re olu ion
inA ica (AGRA)
Nai obi, Kenya
Al ed Oduo Odindo
Wa e , Sani a ion & Hygiene Resea ch
& De elopmen Cen e, Uni e si y
o KwaZulu‑Na al (UKZN)
Pie e ma i zbu g, Sou h A ica
Dalia Saad
School o Chemis y, Molecula
Sciences Ins i u e, Wi s Uni e si y
Johannesbu g, Sou h A ica
Aidan Senzanje
School o Enginee ing, Uni e si y
o KwaZulu‑Na al (UKZN)
Pie e ma i zbu g, Sou h A ica
Mendy Zibuyile Shozi
Wa e , Sani a ion & Hygiene Resea ch
& De elopmen Cen e, Uni e si y
o KwaZulu‑Na al (UKZN)
Pie e ma i zbu g, Sou h A ica
Na iisa Sob a ee‑Faju ally
In e na ional Wa e Managemen
Ins i u e (IWMI)
P e o ia, Sou h A ica
K is ina Söde holm
Luleå Uni e si y o Technology
Luleå, Sweden
xixCon ibu o s
Pa ik Söde holm
Luleå Uni e si y o Technology
Luleå, Sweden
Cu hbe Tagu a
Uni e si y o KwaZulu‑Na al (UKZN)
Pie e ma i zbu g, Sou h A ica
A ie an Nieke k
No a Ins i u e, and Cen e o Fai h and
Communi y, Facul y o Theology
and Religion, Uni e si y o P e o ia
P e o ia, Sou h A ica
John Ngoni Z imba
Wa e Resea ch Commission (WRC)
P e o ia, Sou h A ica

xxi
Acknowledgemen s
The edi o s a e mos g a e ul o he chap e con ibu o s, as his book would no ha e
been possible wi hou hei commi men . I has been a deligh wo king wi h hese
pleasan and humble subjec expe s. We would also like o app ecia e he cons uc‑
i e commen s o he anonymous e iewe s, whose commen s we used o enhance
he book’s quali y. Las bu no leas , his book p ojec would no ha e come o ui‑
ion wi hou he suppo o he Wa e Resea ch Commission o Sou h A ica (WRC),
he In e na ional Wa e Managemen Ins i u e (IWMI), Nexus Gains Ini ia i e o he
CGIAR, he Cen e on Clima e Change and Plane a y Heal h a he London School
o Hygiene and T opical Medicine, and he Cen e o T ans o ma i e Ag icul u al
and Food Sys ems (CTAFS), Uni e si y o KwaZulu‑Na al (UKZN). We a e indeb ed
o Lani an Vuu en and Mpho Kapa i, who dissec ed e e y wo d we sc ibbled, and
Anja Van De Me we, who wo ked on g aphics.
1Unde s anding ci cula i y
and ans o ma i e
app oaches and hei ole
in achie ing sus ainabili y
Luxon Nhamo, Syl es e Mpandeli, S anley
Liphadzi, and Ta adzwanashe Mabhaudhi
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The inc easing complexi ies wi h oday’s in e linked challenges ela ed o esou ce
insecu i ies, he eme gence o no el in ec ious diseases, socio‑economic decline
and en i onmen al deg ada ion equi e sys emic app oaches ha add ess ade‑o s,
enhance syne gies, minimise esou ce deple ion, and p omo e was e educ ion while
ope a ing wi hin he plane a y bounda ies (Kimani‑Mu age e  al., 2021; Men on
e al., 2020; Naidoo e al., 2021a). Today’s age, which is dubbed he 4 h Indus ial
Re olu ion, depends on sophis ica ed, c oss‑cu ing, c oss‑sec o al, and in e con‑
nec ed sys ems o con enien ly deli e goods and se ices (Nhamo and Ndlela, 2021).
Al hough his globalisa ion has come wi h conside able echnological ad ances and
oppo uni ies o de elopmen , i has also exposed he globe and i s sys ems o se e e
dis up ions and shocks, as demons a ed by clima e change and pandemics which
o en cause dis up ions in global supply chains (Magableh, 2021; Shang e al., 2021).
As in any complex sys em, ensions always mani es be ween e iciency and esil‑
ience, he abili y o an icipa e, abso b, eco e , and adap o unexpec ed dis up ions
(Nhamo and Ndlela, 2021). These ensions indica e he connec edness be ween he
a ibu es o a sys em, and he e o e, add essing he ensions indi idually is bound o
exace ba e exis ing challenges. The e o e, sec o ‑based o sys em‑speci ic esilience
in e en ions a e o en accompanied by sys emic isks esul ing om ini ia i es
ha lead o subop imal e iciencies in one sec o a he expense o o he s (Nhamo
and Ndlela, 2021). C oss‑sec o al challenges equi e c oss‑sec o al in e en ions o
ealise in eg a ed and mul i‑cen ic solu ions (Naidoo e al., 2021b). The e o e, ans‑
o ma i e app oaches a e c oss‑sec o al and polycen ic decision suppo ools capa‑
ble o sys ema ically and holis ically add essing c oss‑sec o al challenges. This is
enhanced by p omo ing he euse and ecycling o esou ces, ensu ing ha esou ces
s ay in use o longe pe iods, hus mi iga ing esou ce deple ion and educing en i‑
onmen al was e (Mas os e al., 2021). The e o e, ans o ma i e app oaches p o‑
mo e ci cula i y and con ibu e owa ds achie ing Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC‑BY‑NC 4.0 license
1
DOI: 10.1201/9781003327615-1
8Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
Nhamo, L., Ndlela, B. (2021) Nexus planning as a pa hway owa ds sus ainable en i onmen al
and human heal h pos Co id‑19. En i onmen Resea ch 192, 110376.
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Volun a y ag eemen s
and sys emic lock-in in
he ci cula economy
The ce i ica ion o sewage
sludge in Sweden
Pa ik Söde holm and K is ina Söde holm
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.1.1 Backg oUnd and mo i a ion
The Eu opean Union (EU) p omo es a ansi ion o a ci cula economy in which he
alues o p oduc s, ma e ials and esou ces a e main ained (Eu opean Commission,
2015). Th ough was e p e en ion and he euse o ecycling o gene a ed was e,
a oiding he o en‑signi ican en i onmen al cos s associa ed wi h he ex ac ion o
i gin na u al esou ces is possible. The e a e also conce ns abou he u u e a ail‑
abili y o some i gin esou ces; hei long‑ un supply could be h ea ened due o
deple ion and/o es ic ed o ela i ely ew coun ies in poli ically uns able egions.
A he same ime, howe e , he gene a ed was e may con ain high con amina ion le ‑
els. This implies ha eusing and ecycling esou ces and ma e ials in ol e di icul
ade‑o s. Speci ically, i is impo an o iden i y sus ainable managemen p ac ices
ha can add ess he o en‑con lic ing goals o inc eased ci cula ion o was e on he
one hand and dec eased exposu e o oxic elemen s on he o he (B unne , 2010;
Johansson e al., 2020).
This chap e depa s om his dual objec i e o eusing was e. A he same ime,
mi iga ing pollu ion add esses he oppo uni ies and challenges o managing his
h ough olun a y ag eemen s be ween s akeholde s (e.g., supplie s, end use s, and
public agencies). In oducing ci cula economy policies and egula ions has p o ed
di icul (e.g., Beng sson and Tillman, 2004; Söde holm, 2020). One impo an ea‑
son o his is ha a ious s akeholde s and ac o s, including scien is s om di e ‑
en disciplines, o en ha e con lic ing iews ega ding he ex en o which esou ce
ecycling can be p omo ed wi hou jeopa dizing pollu ion con ol.
In his con ex , i is in e es ing o obse e how olun a y ag eemen s be ween
s akeholde s ha e eme ged o add ess ba ie s in he ci cula economy. These ba ‑
ie s include, o ins ance, cases in which one i m manu ac u es a p oduc in a
way ha inc eases he cos o ecycling o he downs eam p ocesso . In such a
2
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC‑BY‑NC 4.0 license
9
DOI: 10.1201/9781003327615-2
10 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
case, a olun a y ag eemen be ween he manu ac u e and he ecycle can in e ‑
nalize his cos and encou age he manu ac u e o change he p oduc design o
enable downs eam ecycling (e.g., Nicolli e al., 2012). Many olun a y ag eemen s
in ol e e o s o in e nalize ela ed ba ie s in he ma ke s o en i onmen al i ue,
no leas in o ma ion p oblems be ween i ms and hei s akeholde s (Po oski and
P akash, 2013). In he ci cula economy, in o ma ion abou he p esence o ace
elemen s and pollu an s in a ious ma e ials and was e ac ions is an ap example
(Johansson, 2018). Volun a y ag eemen s–o g een clubs–can help alle ia e such
in o ma ion p oblems, e.g., by in es ing in and equi ing in‑dep h analyses o was e
s eams and building us o was e eco e y among s akeholde s.
In he chap e , we add ess he challenges o sewage sludge managemen in
Sweden, wi h a pa icula emphasis on he lessons ha can be d awn ollowing he
in oduc ion o a olun a y ce i ica ion scheme aiming o imp o e sludge quali y,
he eby acili a ing i s use in he ag icul u al sec o .
2.1.2 he case o sewage slUdge
The wa e used by households and indus ies will ypically mix wi h su ace wa e
un‑o and be anspo ed o a WWTP. A he plan , he was ewa e is ea ed
mechanically, biologically, and chemically o emo e mic o‑o ganisms and o he
subs ances ha may be ha m ul o people and/o he na u al en i onmen be o e i
e‑en e s he wa e cycle. Sewage sludge (biosolids) is he ma e , i.e., he solid esi‑
dues, esul ing om his ea men . Following anae obic diges ion, sewage sludge can
be managed in di e en ways. In he EU, he main euse ou e is he applica ion on
ag icul u al soil (48%), pa icula ly in coun ies such as Denma k, F ance, I eland,
Po ugal, Slo akia, Spain, and Sweden (e.g., Eu Eau, 2021). O he signi ican sewage
sludge des ina ions in he EU Membe S a es include incine a ion, land ill, and land
eclama ion. Clea ly, sewage sludge managemen is also a opic o signi ican in e es
in he Global Sou h (e.g., LeBlanc e al., 2008; Tes ama iam e al., 2015).
Using sewage sludge in he ag icul u al sec o is a ele an empi ical illus a‑
ion o he ade‑o s in add essing bo h ci cula economy and non‑ oxic en i on‑
men conce ns. Sewage sludge con ains aluable esou ces–no leas phospho us
and ni ogen. Applying sludge o a able land p o ides an oppo uni y o make use o
he nu ien s in he sludge and educe he p oduc ion and use o mine al e ilize s,
which con ibu e o signi ican g eenhouse gas emissions.1 Howe e , he sludge also
ac s as a sink o a ious pollu an s, i.e., oxic elemen s, o ganic con aminan s, pa ho‑
gens, pha maceu ical esidues, and mic oplas ic. Thus, applying sewage sludge on
ag icul u al soil will di use hese pollu an s, and he con en o hea y me als (e.g.,
cadmium, me cu y, lead and zinc) emains se e al imes highe in sludge compa ed
o mine al e ilize s (Swedish En i onmen al P o ec ion Agency, 2011).
The le els o many o he ca ego ies o subs ances–such as pa hogens, pha ma‑
ceu ical esidues, and mic oplas ics–ha e inc eased o e ime bu a e gene ally no
a all de ec ed in mine al e ilize s. These subs ances could cause ha m o human
heal h and he na u al en i onmen . This, combined wi h he unce ain ies ega ding
he speci ic cha ac e is ics and impac s o undesi able pollu an s, could u n sew‑
age sludge in ag icul u e in o a ela i ely isky and complex p ac ice om bo h a
11Volun a y ag eemen s and sys emic lock-in in he ci cula economy
heal h and business poin o iew (Bowle , 1999; Ekane e al., 2021).2 The applica‑
ion o sludge on ag icul u al soil, especially o ood c op p oduc ion, has aced a
lo o esis ance om key s akeholde s such as a ming and consume o ganiza ions
(Hul man e al., 2000).
Sewage sludge managemen also ep esen s a ield in which olun a y ag ee‑
men s be ween key s akeholde s ha e been launched, e.g., in Ge many and Sweden
(Johansson, 2018). In Sweden, he so‑called REVAQ scheme in ol es he olun a y
ce i ica ion o WWTPs. I was launched in 2008 o allay he conce ns abou sludge
applica ions on a able land. In b ie , his scheme se s limi s on key con aminan s
in he sludge (no leas ce ain me als) and demands con inuous educ ion o hese
in he was ewa e eaching plan s. These equi emen s ha e helped build us o
sludge euse in Sweden among he key s akeholde s, including a me s and consume
o ganiza ions. In his chap e , we ocus on he expe iences o his olun a y sludge
managemen ag eemen and he lessons ha can be d awn om i .
2.1.3 oBjec i e and esea ch con iBU ion
The chap e aims o in es iga e and discuss he eme gence, ou comes, and u u e
challenges o he Swedish olun a y ce i ica ion scheme REVAQ. By doing his, we
con ibu e o exis ing esea ch by add essing he ension be ween sys em op imiza‑
ion and sys em change in he con ex o olun a y en i onmen al ag eemen s (see
also below). The chap e also sheds new empi ical ligh on he challenges o sewage
sludge managemen o ag icul u al pu poses.
P e ious li e a u e on sewage sludge managemen is ex ensi e (see K ogmann
e al. (1997) o an ea ly e iew). Social science esea ch has add essed he con‑
lic s su ounding sludge ecycling. Pas s udies ha e been conce ned wi h he na u e
and he causes o hese con lic s, e.g., shedding new ligh on he ole o media (e.g.,
Goodman and B e , 2006), public educa ion (e.g., LeBlanc e al., 2008), he isk pe ‑
cep ions o impo an s akeholde s (e.g., Ekane e al., 2021), he managemen chal‑
lenges in he p esence o scien i ic unce ain y (e.g., Beng sson and Tillman, 2004;
Öbe g and Mason‑Ren on, 2018), and he socie al challenges in e ms o di icul‑
ies in es ablishing a common knowledge base (e.g., Ekman Bu gman, 2022; Ekman
Bu gman and Walls en, 2021).
Rela ed esea ch has also in es iga ed ways o sol e hese con lic s, including he
in ol emen o he public in di e en decision‑making p ocesses (e.g., Mason‑Ren on
and Luginaah, 2018; Pollans, 2017) and he adop ion o sani a y no ms in he in a‑
s uc u e (e.g., Ge ling, 2019). The e exis s, o cou se, plen y o p e ious esea ch
on al e na i e echnological solu ions ha enable he eco e y o nu ien s om he
sewage sludge (e.g., Jedelhause and Binde , 2018), including he no el sani a ion
solu ions ha a e mo e di e se in e ms o , o ins ance, sou ce sepa a ion and decen‑
aliza ion (e.g., u ine di e sion) ( o a e iew, see Ho mann e al., 2020). In his
con ex , s udies also add ess he ba ie s o socio‑ echnical change in he sewage
sludge managemen ield (e.g., Ba que e al., 2020; Bugge e al., 2019; McCon ille
e al., 2017a, 2017b; Söde holm e al., 2022).
In line wi h he la e s and o esea ch, his chap e also builds on he sus ain‑
abili y ansi ions li e a u e. This means ha we depa om he no ion ha exis ing
12 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
wa e and was ewa e sys ems can be concep ualized as la ge socio‑ echnical sys‑
ems consis ing o ne wo ks o ac o s and ins i u ions (i.e., egula ions, s anda ds,
codes o conduc , e c.) as well as ma e ial a e ac s and knowledge (Geels, 2002;
Kemp e al., 1998). A key ea u e o such sys ems is pa h dependency, i.e., whe e
wa e and was ewa e sys ems end o be locked in in o a ew echnological pa hways.
These pa hways end o be pa icula ly sel ‑ ein o cing since he in es men s a e
cha ac e ized by high up on cos s and inc easing e u ns om adop ion (such as
scale, lea ning and ne wo k economies). Exis ing ins i u ions–e.g., laws and codes
o conduc –could also con ibu e o pa h dependence; hese o en a ou he incum‑
ben ac o s and echnologies (see Sec ion 2.2 o a mo e in‑dep h discussion).
Unlike p e ious esea ch, hough, we de o e pa icula a en ion o how olun a y
ag eemen s among incumben ac o s in he socio‑ echnical sys em will in luence
he choice be ween sys em op imiza ion, such as imp o ing he exis ing sys em in
e ms o educed p oduc ion cos s and imp o ed en i onmen al pe o mance, and
sys em change, i.e., seeking o inno a e beyond he exis ing sys em, and in as uc‑
u e (see Bugge e al., 2019). The la e will ypically equi e he eme gence o no el
alue chains, ac o ne wo ks, and ins i u ional change. The chap e highligh s chal‑
lenges ha a e o pa icula conce n o he es ablishmen o a ci cula economy.
Speci ically, while olun a y ag eemen s can help in e nalize he ex e nal cos s
associa ed wi h ups eam p oduc ion (in his way acili a ing ecycling) and add ess
in o ma ion ailu es among s akeholde s, such ag eemen s isk a ou ing he incum‑
ben ac o s ha o en p e e o p io i ize sys em op imiza ion o e sys em change.
2.1.4 oU line
Sec ion 2.2 ou lines some simple heo e ical poin s o depa u e o he analysis.
Sec ion 2.3 ou lines he de elopmen o Swedish sewage sludge managemen o e
ime, including he oles o s akeholde pe cep ions, go e nmen egula ions, and
ac o collabo a ions. The eme gence, he ou comes, and he challenges o he Swedish
olun a y ce i ica ion scheme REVAQ a e in es iga ed in Sec ion 2.4, while Sec ion
2.5 ends he chap e wi h a concluding discussion.
2.2 THEORETICAL POINTS OF DEPARTURE
The wa e and was ewa e sec o can be concep ualized as a socio‑ echnical sys em
consis ing o ne wo ks o ac o s and ins i u ions–i.e., egula ions, s anda ds, and
codes o conduc –as well as ma e ial a e ac s and knowledge (Geels, 2002). This
sec o is also cha ac e ized by la ge‑scale in as uc u e wi h a long‑ e m in es men
ho izon, c ea ing pa h dependency. As a esul , he sys em will end o be locked
in in o a ce ain pa hway o economic, echnological, and ins i u ional de elopmen
(Kli kou e al., 2019).
Se e al mechanisms o en con ibu e o such sys emic lock‑in (Blanken e al.,
2019; Eijlande and Mulde , 2019). Fi s and pe haps o emos , he incumben ac o s,
no leas he WWTPs, a e specialis s in exis ing echnologies and a e, by de ini ion,
he es ablished ac o s who domina e he exis ing egime. Mo eo e , hese incum‑
ben ac o s possess subs an ial powe and esou ces o in luence he echnological
13Volun a y ag eemen s and sys emic lock-in in he ci cula economy
ajec o ies ha will domina e he u u e. Second, he policies and ins i u ions ha
ha e eme ged o e ime e lec he in e es s and pe spec i es o he incumben ac o s
ha comp ise he sys em. These ins i u ions include bo h legal ules bu also in o mal
no ms and p ac ices. Fo ins ance, in he was ewa e sec o , lock‑in ends o be based
on a pa adigm ha po ays cen alized sys ems as mo e e icien han small‑scale
and decen alized sys ems (Ba que e al., 2020; Söde holm e al., 2022).
Sus ainabili y‑o ien ed esea ch has de o ed much a en ion o he long‑ e m,
mul idimensional ans o ma ion p ocesses ha shi he es ablished socio‑ echnical
sys em in o mo e sus ainable modes o p oduc ion and consump ion (e.g., Ma ka d,
2011). This li e a u e emphasizes he ini ial p o ec ion o pa h‑b eaking inno a ions,
which will o he wise ail o compe e wi h he incumben socio‑ echnical sys ems.
Hence, so‑called niches play a key ole, i.e., b eeding places o e ol ing new ech‑
nological solu ions, egula o y s uc u es, use p ac ices, and so o h (Kemp e al.,
1998). These niches hus p o ec agains he es ablished echnologies and c ea e pos‑
sibili ies o inno a ion, e.g., lea ning‑by‑doing p ocesses ha help lowe cos s and
imp o e en i onmen al pe o mance.
The ansi ion o mo e sus ainable p oduc ion and consump ion pa e ns ends
o ake place h ough a g adual con igu a ion and econ igu a ion based on wha is
happening wi hin he sys em, e.g., in di e en compe ing niches, bu also on e en s
in wha is o en e e ed o as he landscape le el (e.g., Geels, 2014). A he land‑
scape le el, comp ehensi e ecological, cul u al, geopoli ical, and mac oeconomic
changes could occu , ypically a ec ing all socio‑ echnical sys ems. In he sludge
managemen con ex , impo an landscape‑le el changes could in ol e consume
p e e ences owa ds ood, inc eased awa eness o clima e change, and echnological
ends (such as digi aliza ion).
The abo e implies ha he sus ainable ansi ion o he wa e and was ewa e
sys ems in ol es a ension be ween wha can be achie ed: (a) wi hin he exis ing
socio‑ echnical sys em, i.e., h ough sys em op imiza ion in e ms o con inuous
inc emen al imp o emen s, o (b) h ough nu u ing and de eloping no el echnolog‑
ical ajec o ies, i.e., inno a ion beyond he exis ing sys em. Ei he o hese pa hways
equi es coo dina ion and communica ion ac oss he ac o s in he alue chain and he
mobiliza ion o suppo o wha hese ac o s–and hei s akeholde s–conside o
be he mos sus ainable op ions (Bowle , 1999).
One impo an example o an ac o ‑ne wo k collabo a ion, which ends o be
closely associa ed wi h he sys em op imiza ion pa hway, is olun a y en i onmen‑
al ag eemen s–o g een clubs ( an’ Veld and Ko chen, 2010). In hese ag ee‑
men s, ac o s in he sys em ag ee o comply wi h ce ain en i onmen al s anda ds
and/o ac i i ies. The club aspec he e e e s o he ac ha he ag eemen p o ides
non‑ i al –ye excludable– epu a ion bene i s o he pa icipa ing ac o s, while
g een implies ha his ag eemen gene a es en i onmen al public goods. I should be
clea ha he Swedish REVAQ ce i ica ion scheme mee s his de ini ion o a g een
club (see u he Sec ion 2.4).
Speci ically, many olun a y ag eemen s a emp o add ess in o ma ion p ob‑
lems be ween he a ious ac o s in he socio‑ echnical sys em and hei s akeholde s
(Po oski and P akash, 2013). Gene a ing en i onmen al public goods equi es sha ed
knowledge and collabo a ion among ac o s, e.g., in o ma ion abou ace elemen s

14 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
in exis ing was e s eams. By es ablishing a benchma k o bes en i onmen al p ac‑
ices, he ac o s ha o m pa o he ag eemen will eap mu ual epu a ion bene i s.
The bene i s a e made excludable, e.g., h ough a ce i ica ion scheme exclusi ely o
club membe s (Sandle and Tschi ha , 1980). In he case o REVAQ, he ce i ica‑
ion o he WWTPs ha ha e joined he club–and hus ha e commi ed hemsel es
o in es in (ups eam) en i onmen al imp o emen s–signals ha he quali y o he
gene a ed sewage sludge is good enough o ag icul u al use.
Po oski and P akash (2013) iden i y and discuss ou collec i e challenges acing
g een clubs o his kind. These a e (a) p og amme es ablishmen , hus secu ing ha
he ele an ac o s in es esou ces o c ea e he ag eemen despi e he incen i es o
ee ide on he e o s o o he s; (b) ec ui ing, i.e., o e he joining ac o s (exclud‑
able) bene i s om joining he club; (c) moni o ing, hus making su e ha he joining
ac o s adhe e o he club equi emen s; and (d) ma ke ing, in he sense ha s ake‑
holde s (e.g., consume s) need o be made awa e o he en i onmen al public goods
join ly p o ided by he club membe s.
By combining hese challenges wi h he socio‑ echnical sys em pe spec i e in o‑
duced abo e, i is use ul o make h ee ema ks. Fi s , add essing he abo e chal‑
lenges acing g een clubs, excep o pe haps (a), in ol es con inuous e o s on he
pa o he club membe s. Changes a he landscape le el could lead o al e ed p io i‑
ies and inc eased e o s. Fo ins ance, changes in consume p e e ences could imply
ha he scope o he en i onmen al ac i i ies needs o be b oadened (e.g., educ‑
ing p e iously una ended ace elemen s in he was e s eams), and any p og ess
made in o med o s akeholde s. Failu es o adap o such changing ci cums ances
may des abilize he collabo a ion, and he signals communica ing he club membe s’
en i onmen al c eden ials (e.g., he ce i ica ion o plan s, p ocesses, o p oduc s)
could s a o be ques ioned.
Second, i is easonable o hypo hesize ha in he absence o echnological niches
challenging he exis ing socio‑ echnical sys em, g een clubs– hei objec i es and
s uc u e–will ypically be shaped by a g oup o incumben ac o s. As no ed abo e,
he ins i u ions ha ha e eme ged o e ime end o e lec he in e es s and pe spec‑
i es o hese ac o s. The e o e, hey also ha e he esou ces and powe o de e mine
he na u e o he g een club ac i i ies. Ano he eason is ha olun a y ag eemen s
a e easie o es ablish i ansac ion cos s, i.e., he cos s o iden i ying po en ial pa ‑
ne s and eaching an ag eemen , a e low. This is ypically he case in he exis ing
socio‑ echnical sys em, no leas hose sys ems building on la ge‑scale in as uc u e
in ol ing ela i ely ew and easily iden i ied ac o s. The es ablishmen o olun a y
ag eemen s will also be acili a ed by he ac ha he exis ing ins i u ions end o
a ou he incumben s.
Thi d, and inally, he e will na u ally be impo an consequences o his s ong
posi ion o he incumben ac o s. Posi i e eedback e ec s in echnology sys ems
ein o ce echnology choices, e.g., i ms o en choose o build on accumula ed
echnology‑ speci ic knowledge when de eloping no el and be e ‑pe o ming p od‑
uc s and p ocesses. This leads o pa h‑dependen beha iou , and he cos s o explo ing
al e na i e echnology pa hways inc ease. Fo ins ance, es ablishing new ac o ne ‑
wo ks a ound he no el echnology may be cumbe some due o coo dina ion ailu es
and unce ain ies abou which ac o s should ake on which oles in he echnological
15Volun a y ag eemen s and sys emic lock-in in he ci cula economy
de elopmen (S o y e al., 2011). In o he wo ds, es ablishing g een clubs will no
necessa ily p omo e no el echnological niches and isks educing he scope o
es ablishing new alue chains and ac o collabo a ions. E o s o gene a e en i on‑
men al public goods will ocus on sys em op imiza ion a he han sys em change.
In he emainde o his chap e , we discuss he issue o socio‑ echnical change in
he p esence o g een clubs and he challenges acing such ag eemen s. The speci ic
case o sewage sludge managemen in Sweden, including he olun a y ce i ica‑
ion scheme REVAQ, is s udied based on a se o seconda y sou ces. Speci ically,
he analysis elies on p e ious esea ch wo k, a icles in sec o magazines (e.g.,
VAV‑ny ) and deba e a icles in Swedish na ional newspape s. This ma e ial is ich,
no leas gi en he con lic s su ounding sewage sludge managemen in Sweden, and
p o ides a good oppo uni y o g asp he a gumen s made by a ious sys em ac o s
and he p io i ies hese ha e made o e ime.
2.3 THE MANAGEMENT OF SEWAGE SLUDGE IN SWEDEN
Du ing he second hal o he 20 h cen u y, he olumes o sewage sludge soa ed,
no leas due o he g owing numbe o households connec ed o he sewage sys em.
Since he u n o he cen u y, he o al p oduc ion o sewage sludge om WWTPs in
Sweden has exceeded 200,000me ic ons (d y solids), wi h a modes dec ease om
222,000 ons in 2000 o 211,000 ons in 2018 (S a is ics Sweden, annual).
Figu e2.1 illus a es he use o his sludge in e ms o he pe cen age sha es applied
o ag icul u e, land ills, and land ill co e s o e he pe iod o 1988–2018. Ano he
signi ican use (no displayed in he igu e) includes o he land applica ions, such as
FIGURE2.1 The use o sewage sludge in Sweden, 1988–2018 (pe cen age sha es).
Sou ce: S a is ics Sweden (annual). Repo s on discha ges o wa e and sludge p oduc-
ion (MI 22).
16 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
in he o m o o es e ilize s, applica ion in g een a eas ( ollowing compos ing),
and opsoil p oduc ion. Figu e2.1 also highligh s a ew key egula o y changes and
e en s in he sewage sludge managemen ield o e he pe iod.
Since he 1960s, he ag icul u al use o sewage sludge has ypically been pe ‑
cei ed as a low‑cos solu ion o he disposal p oblem, which also bene i s a me s.3
Only in he 1970s we e egula ions pu in place o mi iga e he isks om pa hogens
in he sludge (Dage skog and Olsson, 2020). In 1973, Sweden in oduced limi al‑
ues ega ding he maximum allowed concen a ions o hea y me als o applying
sewage sludge o a able land. These limi s ha e become mo e s ingen o e ime
(Hul man e al., 2000). Du ing he la e 1990s– ollowing he implemen a ion o he
EU Di ec i e (86/278EEC) egula ing he use o sewage sludge in he ag icul u al
sec o in Swedish legisla ion– he go e nmen also in oduced equi emen s on he
maximum amoun o sludge ha can be applied on a able land in e ms o limi al‑
ues exp essed in g ams o a ious me als pe hec a e and yea .4 The Swedish equi e‑
men s ha e o e all been mo e s ingen han hose s ipula ed in he EU Di ec i e.
Despi e his egula o y p og ess, he 1970s and 1980s also wi nessed he ad en
o an in ensi e deba e on he heal h and en i onmen al isks ela ed o pollu an s,
bo h hea y me als and o ganic subs ances. The e was hesi ance om he public and
a me s abou using human was e as e ilize . In he mid‑1980s, he deba e was
pa icula ly uelled by conce ns abou he p esence o o ganic mic opollu an s (e.g.,
dioxin) in he sludge.5 Ques ions we e also aised abou o he ways o managing he
sludge, and esea che s no ed ha incine a ion o diges ed sludge was one in e es ing
al e na i e wo hy o u he e alua ion (Hul man e al., 2000). Un il now, hough,
incine a ion o sewage sludge (wi h o wi hou phospho us eco e y) has been low in
Sweden, ep esen ing a ound 1%–2% o o al use o e he pe iod o 2010–2018 (and
ze o du ing ea lie pe iods).
In 1988, he Fede a ion o Swedish Fa me s (LRF) claimed a ban on sewage
sludge applica ion on a able land (Balme and F os , 1990). This ban was, howe e ,
li ed ollowing nego ia ions be ween LRF, he Swedish Wa e and Was ewa e
Associa ion (SWWA), and he Swedish En i onmen al P o ec ion Agency (SEPA).
This ul ima ely led o o ming o a na ional consul a ion g oup ha aimed o s imu‑
la e he applica ion o high‑quali y sludge on ag icul u al soil and ag ee upon a ious
p ecau iona y measu es (Hul man e al., 2000). The ag eemen in ol ed addi ional
equi emen s on he me al con en o he sludge. In 1999, he SWWA also in oduced
a ce i ica ion scheme–i.e., essen ially a o e unne o REVAQ–and gained suppo
om he ood indus y (Johansson, 1999).
Howe e , his ag eemen did no las long ollowing a new ecommenda ion o LRF
o ban he applica ion o sewage sludge on ag icul u al land. This ime, i was p ima ily
due o conce ns abou he p esence o b omina ed lame e a dan s in he sludge and hei
po en ial nega i e e ec s on soils and o ganisms. The Swedish Chemicals Agency had
also aised conce ns abou sil e , cadmium, and polychlo ina ed biphenyls (PCB), and
he ban was in luenced by epo s on hygienic isks ela ed o was ewa e om hospi als
(Beng sson and Tillman, 2004). Consequen ly, LRF a gued ha he exis ing olun a y
ag eemen had no eached i s objec i es (Eks ä d, 1999), while he SWWA main ained
ha la ge enough secu i y ma gins ela ed o he con en s o hea y me als and oxic
o ganic ma e ials we e al eady applied (Hells öm, 2000).
17Volun a y ag eemen s and sys emic lock-in in he ci cula economy
Figu e2.1 shows ha he conce ns abou he con en o he sewage sludge gen‑
e a ed we e ollowed by a signi ican decline in he ag icul u al use o sludge as a
sha e o o al sludge p oduc ion. Following he ban in 1999, SEPA was se o e alua e
he heal h and en i onmen al aspec s o sludge use. The agency was o e all posi‑
i e owa ds sludge applica ion on a able land and no ed ha he p esen si ua ion
equi es ha “o e a ansi ion pe iod, socie y will ha e o accep a balance be ween
inc eased eco e y and educed pollu ion and isk o he sp ead o disease” (SEPA,
2002, p.71). This s andpoin emained in ollow‑up e alua ions. One cen al conclu‑
sion o SEPA was ha “sewage sludge can be applied o a able land in he sho ‑ as
well as he long un wi h accep able isks conce ning he added me als and o ganic
subs ance as well as in ec ion con ol” (SEPA, 2010, p.12).
The di icul ies o he WWTPs in iden i ying sui able applica ions o hei gen‑
e a ed sludge in ensi ied wi h he in oduc ion o policy ins umen s aiming a aban‑
doning land ills as a was e managemen op ion. Figu e2.1 displays ha be o e he
u n o he cen u y, he sha e o sewage sludge des ined o land ills was signi ican
and ypically abo e 40%. Howe e , in 2002, he go e nmen in oduced a ax on
land ill disposal, and since2005, he e is also a ban on he land ill o o ganic was es,
including sludges om WWTPs. One consequence o hese policies has been ha
no new land ills a e c ea ed in Sweden, pu ing a cap on he demand o sludge o
land ill co e pu poses.
This si ua ion pu much p essu e on WWTPs and SWWA o iden i y ways o
make sludge applica ion on ag icul u al soil mo e accep ed. One impo an s ep was
he in oduc ion o he join ce i ica ion scheme REVAQ in 2008, which s a ed as
a smalle de elopmen p ojec in 2002 (l’Ons e al., 2012). REVAQ is a olun a y
ag eemen ini ially managed by SWWA, LRF, he Swedish Food Fede a ion, and he
Swedish Food Re aile ’s Fede a ion in coope a ion wi h SEPA. The cu en REVAQ
sys em is owned and adminis e ed solely by he SWWA. The ag eemen ’s objec‑
i e has been o a oid an unaccep able long‑ e m accumula ion o me als and unde‑
si ed o ganic subs ances on ag icul u al land. A WWTP can be ce i ied h ough
REVAQ, and he plan owne s hen commi o, no leas , ups eam wo k in he o m
o emo ing he sou ces o me als and o he con aminan s be o e hese each he
plan (Pe sson e al., 2015). Included in he REVAQ sys em a e also equi emen s ha
he sludge mus be ho oughly cleaned by one o a se o de ined me hods o p e en
he dis ibu ion o pa hogens and i uses o a able land. LRF and he SWWA ecom‑
mend ha solely sludge om REVAQ‑ce i ied WTTPs ha comply wi h he abo e
equi emen s–sligh ly below 50% o o al sludge p oduc ion in Sweden–should be
used on ag icul u al soil. O e all, REVAQ has s ic e egula ions (e.g., s anda ds)
han a e legisla ed.
Figu e2.1 shows ha he sha e o ag icul u al use o sewage sludge has inc eased
ollowing he in oduc ion o he REVAQ scheme. In his way, he scheme has been
success ul (see u he Sec ion 2.4). Howe e , he launch o REVAQ has no se led
he con o e sies ega ding he use o sludge on a able land. Fo ins ance, Swedish
lou mills do no accep g ain e ilized wi h sewage sludge, p ima ily o ea o
consume backlash. The deba e on mic oplas ics in sewage sludge has led se e al
a me s o e use o accep sludge applica ions on hei land (Johansson, 2018).
O e all, Swedish a me s a e la gely agains he sp eading o sludge on hei land,
24 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
ins ead op o a mo e adical change in he sys em (e.g., h ough incine a ion and
phospho ous eco e y), building us among all s akeholde s, no leas lay ci izens,
will be e y impo an . Managing he o en‑con lic ing objec i es o inc eased ci ‑
cula ion o was e on he one hand and dec eased exposu e o a ious ace elemen s
on he o he is di icul and has o acknowledge he isk pe cep ions o he ci izens. I
he chosen solu ion does no align well wi h hese isk pe cep ions, i will no ma e
whe he i is a solu ion ha ocuses on sys em op imiza ion o sys em change.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial suppo om he Swedish Resea ch Council Fo mas (G an No.
2018‑00194), wi hin he na ional esea ch p og amme Sus ainable Spa ial Planning, is
g a e ully acknowledged, as a e commen s om wo anonymous e iewe s. Any
emaining e o s eside solely wi h he au ho s.
NOTES
1 The e ha e also been conce ns abou he u u e a ailabili y o phospho us ese es,
bo h geologically and since exis ing ese es a e con olled by only a ew coun ies
(Co dell and Whi e, 2011).
2 S ingen egula ions o he ea ed was ewa e om WWTPs ha e led o mo e e icien
ea men p ocesses bu his has also implied ha an inc easing pe cen age o pollu an s
in he was ewa e has ins ead been ans e ed o he sludge ea men phase.
3 In he 1950s, he sludge was dumped in wa e ways, and ollowing opposi ion, in in e ‑
na ional wa e s. The la e app oach was howe e also abandoned when deemed en i‑
onmen ally unaccep able (Ekman Bu gman, 2022).
4 Baue e al. (2020) p esen an upda ed e iew o he legisla ion ela ing o sewage sludge
disposal in Sweden compa ed o a selec ion o o he EU Membe S a es.
5 The scien i ic basis o he claims made abou sludge ep esen ing haza dous was e was
occasionally claimed o be ela i ely weak (e.g., Palm e al., 1989).
6 Johansson (2018) no es ha in Denma k, he e is no single agency o chemicals con‑
ol; ins ead, his issue is he esponsibili y o he Danish En i onmen al P o ec ion
Agency. This c ea es, i can be a gued, a mo e consis en s ance owa ds sewage sludge
managemen in Denma k compa ed o Sweden.
7 Since 2008, o e 5000 di e en acili ies – e.g., indus ies, ca washes, hospi als,
e c.–ha e been app oached conce ning he p esence o undesi ed o ganic subs ances
ha could end up in he sewage sys em (REVAQ, 2021).
8 The Swedish was e managemen co po a ion Ragn‑Sells has ecen ly pa en ed a new
echnology o eco e ing phospho us om sludge ash (Dage skog and Olsson, 2020).
Lipinska (2018) also epo s abou he de elopmen o e men a ion echnologies, which
con ibu e o bo h he educ ion o sludge and o he p oduc ion o ene gy om biogas
gene a ed in he p ocess o me hane o ma ion.
9 One example is he u ine‑d ying echnology (P i h i, 2019). I can be plugged in o
exis ing oile s, di e ing, and d ying ou he u ine in a sepa a e box, and hus e ains
mos o he nu ien s wi hou majo e o i ing o pipes.
10 A simila de elopmen has aken place in Swi ze land whe e a ban on sludge applica ion
was in oduced in 2006 (Kä man e al., 2019).
11 The implemen a ion o a Ge man ban on sludge applica ion in ag icul u e is p ojec ed o
ake 12 yea s. A simila mo e in Sweden could likely ake e en longe , his since incin‑
e a ion al eady is he mos common o m o sludge ea men in Ge many (Rasmussen
e al., 2020).

25Volun a y ag eemen s and sys emic lock-in in he ci cula economy
12 One impo an challenge o policy make s who a emp o p omo e sus ainable ech‑
nology de elopmen is whe he o ocus on a single echnological pa hway o ins ead
adop a po olio app oach, hus suppo ing se e al pa hways in pa allel. The Ge man
app oach, wi h i s ocus on mono‑incine a ion ollowed by phospho ic acid p oduc ion,
has been c i icized o i s na ow scope, and he ac ha o he new echnologies could
ha e a g ea e en i onmen al po en ial (e.g., pe mi ing he eco e y o also ni ogen
and ca bon) (Ba que e al., 2020).
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28 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
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3Global s a us o
ci cula economy
adap a ion wi hin
was ewa e se ices
T ansi ion pa hways and
he ole o inno a ion
John Ngoni Z imba, Eus ina Mus o o,
Nom uselelo Mgwenya, and Buyisile Kholisa
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In ecen yea s, he concep o a ci cula economy (CE) has ecei ed global p omi‑
nence in poli ics, business, and esea ch agendas. Resea ch has iden i ied nume ous
po en ial bene i s ha can be de i ed om ansi ioning om a adi ional linea
economy o a CE. These include economic, social, imp o ed esou ce secu i y,
and educed g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Eu opean En i onmen Agency,
2016). Despi e hese po en ial bene i s, i is acknowledged ha ans o ming he
adi ional linea economic model is a big challenge ha en ails ans o ming he
cu en p oduc ion and consump ion pa e ns. In his ega d, inno a i e ans o ‑
ma ional echnologies such as digi al and enginee ing echnologies in combina ion
wi h c ea i e hinking ha e been iden i ied as ac o s ha can d i e undamen al
changes ac oss en i e alue chains ha a e no es ic ed o speci ic sec o s o ma e‑
ials (Accen u e, 2014; Acsin e & Ve beek, 2015; Vanne e al., 2014). Such a majo
ans o ma ion would, in u n, signi ican ly impac he economy, en i onmen , and
socie y. Unde s anding hese impac s is c ucial o esea che s and policymake s in
designing u u e policies in he ield (Eu opean Commission, 2017; Rizos e al., 2017;
Vanne e al., 2014).
Al hough he wa e sec o has no ye ully ansi ioned o a CE, wa e u ili ies
ha e been ea ly adop e s o echnologies and business p ac ices ha suppo he CE
(Jazbec e al., 2020). This has been in esponse o a ious h ea s and challenges he
sec o has aced in ecen yea s (i.e., wa e sca ci y, inc easing ene gy p ices, mo e
s ingen egula ions, apid u banisa ion and clima e change impac s). Impeding
egula o y en i onmen s and opaque ma ke condi ions a e he main obs acles o
he wa e sec o ’s ansi ion o a CE (In e na ional Wa e Associa ion, 2016). Thus,
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC‑BY‑NC 4.0 license
29
DOI: 10.1201/9781003327615-3

30 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
o de ine a clea ole o wa e u ili ies in ansi ioning o a CE, he IWA de eloped
a amewo k a ge ed a decision‑make s in wa e u ili ies and key s akeholde s. The
amewo k iden i ied h ee key in e ela ed pa hways (wa e , ene gy, and ma e ials) o
achie ing CE p inciples in he wa e sec o . In addi ion, consume s, indus y, egula‑
ion, in as uc u e, and u ban and basin economies ha e been iden i ied as he main
ac o s ha d i e and enable he ansi ion o he wa e sec o o a CE (In e na ional
Wa e Associa ion, 2016). Wa e u ili ies mus an icipa e, espond o, and in luence
hese ac o s o accele a e he pa hways o achie ing a CE. In ansi ioning o a CE,
wa e u ili ies mus also change hei cu en ope a ion and seek new managemen
app oaches, pa ne ships, and business oppo uni ies.
The IWA amewo k u he iden i ied WWTPs as one o he key junc ions in he
h ee pa hways o ansi ioning o a CE. This is mainly because, wi hin he man‑made
wa e cycle, was ewa e ca ies 50%–100% o was e esou ces los , mos ly in he
o m o un eco e ed wa e , ene gy, and hyd ocha ma e ials (Mus o o & Mgwenya,
2022). The was ewa e ea men sec o is also esponsible o app oxima ely 3%
o elec ici y consump ion globally, accoun ing o abou 56% o he ope a ional
ca bon oo p in o u ban wa e sys ems (Ba s one e al., 2015). Se e al esea che s
ha e s udied WWTPs and hei po en ial o eco e ing aluable esou ces (Swa z
e al., 2013; Van Vuu en e al., 2014; Z imba & Mus o o, 2020). These s udies ha e
shown ha ene gy e iciency in WWTPs and mo e e icien u ilisa ion o was ewa e
ene gy po en ial can lead o ene gy‑posi i e WWTPs. Also, implemen ing ene gy
conse a ion measu es and using enewable ene gy sou ces signi ican ly imp o e
he WWTPs’ ene gy e iciency. Fu he mo e, esou ce and ma e ials eco e y om
was ewa e , such as using ca bon o p oduce high‑ alue by‑p oduc s (biopolyme s
and ine chemicals) and nu ien s (phospho us and ni ogen), which a e use ul in
ag icul u e, educes he global en i onmen al impac o hei indus ial p oduc ion.
To success ully achie e he abo e, an unde s anding o he s a us o CE adap a ion
in he global was ewa e sec o and app op ia e amewo ks and s a egies ha can
be adap ed o applica ion by LMIC a e equi ed. Fu he mo e, he ole o inno a i e
echnologies as accele a o s o ansi ioning he wa e sec o o a CE equi es c i i‑
cal e alua ion. Such echnologies can suppo he u ilisa ion o WWTPs, iden i ied as
a key junc ion in he IWA amewo k, as was ewa e bio e ine y pla o ms a e a he
cen e o he ansi ion o imp o ed was ewa e managemen and esou ce eco e y.
3.2 CIRCULAR ECONOMY ADAPTATION PROGRESS
Regions ha ha e made conside able p og ess in p omo ing he CE a e he Eu opean
Union (EU), China, Japan, Sou h Ko ea, and pa s o he USA.
3.2.1 he eU opean Union
The CE concep eme ged in Eu ope in he 1980s and 1990s and is epo ed o ha e
been o mally used in an economic model o he i s ime by Pea ce and Tu ne
(1991). Howe e , be o e his, ea ly policies o EU membe s a es d awing on ideas
ha can be aced o he 1960s and 1970s had p omo ed elemen s o ci cula i y in
ce ain pa s o he economy. Fo example, d i en by a desi e o di e was e om
31T ansi ion pa hways and he ole o inno a ion
land ills, he Ne he lands and Ge many pionee ed he concep s o was e p e en ion
and educ ion. The was e hie a chy was in oduced o he Du ch Pa liamen in 1979
(McDowall e al., 2017). The concep has become inc easingly p ominen in he pas
decade and is now adop ed as pa o he EU economic policy and s a egy.
Resea ch has shown ha nume ous po en ial bene i s a e de i ed om ansi ion‑
ing om a linea economy o a CE, and he bene i s o implemen ing CE p inciples
wi hin EU coun ies we e ound o include (Eu opean En i onmen Agency, 2016):
• imp o ed esou ce secu i y and dec eased impo dependency,
• educed en i onmen al impac , including a d as ic educ ion in GHG
emissions,
• economic bene i s ha include new oppo uni ies o g ow h and inno a‑
ion, as well as sa ings ela ed o imp o ed esou ce e iciency, and
• social bene i s anging om new job c ea ion ac oss all skill le els o changes
in consume beha iou , leading o be e heal h and sa e y ou comes.
Th ough ansi ioning o a CE, he EU p edic s a doubling o economic and en i on‑
men al bene i s, 11% g ow h in a e age disposable incomes and a hal ing o ca bon
dioxide emissions by 2030 (Ellen MacA hu Founda ion, 2015). Speci ic bene i s o
coun ies and sec o s wi hin he EU ha e u he been highligh ed in subsequen s ud‑
ies (Bačo á e al., 2016; Eu opean En i onmen Agency, 2016). While he bene i s o
he CE a e being inc easingly acknowledged, he e is s ill a ange o ba ie s ha need
o be o e come. The ba ie s iden i ied as majo challenges o CE implemen a ion
a e echnological, policy and egula o y, inancial and economic, consume and social
(Eu opean Commission, 2014; Gal ão e al., 2018; Rizos e al., 2017).
The signi icance o hese ba ie s di e s o ma e ials, p oduc s, and sec o s. Se e al
ac ions a e equi ed a he EU, na ional, egional, and local le els o d i e ans o ma‑
ion, depending on he na u e o he ba ie aced. Va ious d i e s a e o en equi ed in
a sec o o alue chain o o e come hese ba ie s and conside he mul iple ac o s ha
o en in luence each o he . Due o i s complexi y, he ansi ion o a CE is a mul i‑le el
go e nance challenge, equi ing ac ions in he public and p i a e sec o s and a an
indi idual le el. Thus, iden i ica ion and de ailed unde s anding o speci ic ba ie s a e
e y impo an so ha app op ia e mi iga ion measu es can be implemen ed.
S udies in he EU ha e shown ha he ansi ion o a CE equi es sys emic change
and a mo e holis ic, in eg a ed app oach ha conside s he mul iple connec ions and
in luences wi hin and be ween sec o s, alue chains and s akeholde s (Eu opean
Commission, 2014; Humph is‑Bach e al., 2016). Wi h his app oach, key ac o s
such as di e en incen i es, dis ibu ion o economic ewa ds and impac s o spe‑
ci ic measu es along a alue chain ac oss di e en sec o s and policy a eas should
be conside ed. Complemen a y ools and app oaches ha can easily be ad anced by
he p i a e and public sec o s and indi iduals a all le els, om local o he EU, a e
equi ed. Policy in e en ion beyond p i a e ini ia i es has been iden i ied as a key
d i e in o e coming some ba ie s o ansi ioning o a CE. Iden i ied po en ial pol‑
icy ac ions include egula o y measu es, economic incen i es, a ge ed and inc eased
unding e o s o engage and link ac o s along he alue chain and ini ia i es o aise
awa eness o he bene i s o he CE and a ailable solu ions.
32 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
In 2015, he Eu opean Commission adop ed an ac ion o help accele a e he EU’s
ansi ion owa ds a CE, boos global compe i i eness, p omo e sus ainable economic
g ow h, and gene a e new jobs (Eu opean Commission, 2015). The ac ion plan se s
ou measu es o ‘close he loop’ o p oduc li ecycles, om p oduc ion and consump‑
ion o was e managemen and he ma ke o seconda y aw ma e ials. I also iden i‑
ies i e p io i y sec o s o speed up he ansi ion along hei alue chain, and hese
include (i) plas ics, (ii) ood was e, (iii) c i ical aw ma e ials, (i ) cons uc ion &
demoli ion, and ( ) biomass & bio‑based ma e ials. In his ega d, close coope a ion
wi h membe s a es, egions and municipali ies, businesses, esea ch bodies, ci izens
and o he s akeholde s in ol ed in he CE is p omo ed in he ac ion plan.
3.2.2 o he egions
Apa om he EU, o he egions ha ha e made signi ican p og ess in p omo ing a
CE a e China, Japan, Sou h Ko ea, and pa o he USA.
The concep o CE is no new in China, as i da es back o he 1990s, wi h o igins
in cleane p oduc ion, indus ial ecology and ecological mode nisa ion. The hink‑
ing was inspi ed by implemen a ion examples in Eu ope, he Uni ed S a es and Japan
(Geng e al., 2009). In 2003, he cen al go e nmen o mally accep ed he concep
as a new de elopmen s a egy ha culmina ed in he 2009CE P omo ion Law, he
na u al amewo k o ad ancing CE. Subsequen ly, a ious ac ion plans ha p o ide
u he de ails o speci ic sec o s, as well as cla i y on he implemen a ion o he
p o isions o he CE P omo ion Law, ha e been pu in place (McDowall e al., 2017).
Since i s implemen a ion, he P omo ion Law has e ol ed o include conce n o
eco‑design, po en ial p oduc egula ions and es ic ions on some classes o dispos‑
able goods, g een consump ion, and ex ended p oduce esponsibili y.
In addi ion, he P omo ion Law equi es es ablishing a ge esponsibili y sys ems
in suppo o he CE and measu ing and e alua ing p og ess agains indica o s. To
p omo e CE, he Chinese go e nmen has in es ed signi ican ly in demons a ion
p ojec s, deployed ax incen i es and allowed euse/ ecycling ac i i ies p e iously
banned, such as selling ela i ely clean was ewa e . I is es ima ed ha ex ending such
p ac ices would sa e Chinese businesses and households 32 illion yuan (US$4.6
illion) in 2030, equi alen o 14% o i s p ojec ed g oss domes ic p oduc ha yea
(Geng e al., 2019). Al hough he Chinese CE agenda is amed on he same p inciples
as he EU (was e minimisa ion, aw ma e ials, and esou ce e iciency), he e a e di ‑
e ences in policy ocus a eas. EU policies ocus on consump ion and p oduc design
mo e han China, ocusing on speci ic manu ac u ing sec o s (McDowall e al., 2017)
and measu es o inc ease e iciency and educe was e pollu ion in manu ac u ing.
Japan and Sou h Ko ea also ha e na ional s a egies o enabling CE. Japan has
legisla ed on eco‑design and made p oduce s esponsible o he a e ‑use o hei
p oduc s, he eby boos ing ma ke s o seconda y ma e ials. These CE ini ia i es
ha e sa ed ma e ials, was e, ene gy, and emissions. In Kawasaki, Japan, eusing
indus ial and municipal was es in cemen manu ac u ing has educed GHG emis‑
sions by abou 15% (41,300 onnes pe yea ) since2009 and sa ed up o 272,000
onnes o i gin ma e ials annually. Like China, Sou h Ko ea has ope a ed indus ial
pa ks ha use he p inciples o a CE o link companies’ supply chains and euse o
ecycle common ma e ials.
33T ansi ion pa hways and he ole o inno a ion
The Uni ed S a es has hund eds o co po a e ecycling and a hand ul o egional
p og ammes, such as he San F ancisco, Cali o nia Ze o Was e scheme. Howe e ,
beyond his, ew b oad ede al ini ia i es ha e been compa able o hose pu sued by
China and he EU (Klimen o , 2018). To de elop new CE oppo uni ies and ealise
hei ambi ions as e in he USA, he Ellen MacA hu Founda ion launched a US
chap e o i s Ci cula Economy 100 (CE100) p og amme in 2016. The CE100 is
a p e‑compe i i e inno a ion p og amme ha enables o ganisa ions o de elop new
oppo uni ies and ealise hei CE ambi ions as e . I b ings oge he co po a es,
go e nmen s and ci ies, academic ins i u ions, eme ging inno a o s, and a ilia es
in a unique mul i‑s akeholde pla o m. Specially de eloped p og amme elemen s
help membe s lea n, build capaci y, ne wo k, and collabo a e wi h key o ganisa ions
a ound he CE (Ellen MacA hu Founda ion, 2015).
The launch ollowed a s udy by he US Chambe o Comme ce Founda ion ha
showed ha he 5,589la ges publicly aded companies in he US sen 342million
me ic ons o was e o land ills and incine a o s in 2014 (Bowdish, 2016). Companies
gene a e 7.81me ic ons o was e o e e y million dolla s in e enue. Reducing
pape was e by a me e 1% would sa e hese companies nea ly $1 billion. To da e,
he membe s o he CE100 p og amme include la ge co po a ions like Walma ,
Mic oso , Coca‑Cola, Google, Nike, and o he ins i u ions.
3.2.3 soU h a ica
Sou h A ica does no ye ha e a uni ied na ional policy and s a egy o ansi ion‑
ing o a CE. Howe e , lessons lea n om o he egions and inc eased awa eness o
po en ial oppo uni ies s imula e se ious discussions and ini ia i es on a CE in he
public and p i a e sec o s. Despi e he lack o a na ional policy on CE, legisla ion
like he Na ional En i onmen al Managemen Ac (Republic o Sou h A ica, 2009)
is d i ing p og ess in some a eas o CE aspec s, such as was e ecycling and con e ‑
ing was e o ene gy. E o s a e also being made a he go e nmen and sec o le el
o coope a e wi h o he egions ha ha e gained ac ion in ansi ioning o a CE.
Examples o hese e o s include he ollowing:
• The CE Mission wi h he EU, whose main objec i es a e o inc ease coop‑
e a ion be ween he EU and LMIC in he ield o en i onmen al policy,
achie e a be e unde s anding o he en i onmen al challenges aced by
LMIC and p omo e g een solu ions h ough business pa ne ships ab oad
(Eu opean Commission, 2018). The Te ms o Re e ence o he Fo um
on En i onmen , Clima e Change, Sus ainable De elopmen and Wa e
be ween he EU and Sou h A ica include an ag eemen o u he coope ‑
a e in a eas ha include biodi e si y, CE and wa e esou ces managemen
issues, among o he s. The coope a ion also in ol es p i a e sec o ope a o s.
• Membe ship o he Pla o m o Accele a ing he Ci cula Economy (PACE),
a public‑p i a e collabo a ion pla o m and p ojec accele a o . PACE aims
o shape global public‑p i a e leade ship and accele a e ac ion owa ds he
CE. P ojec ocus a eas include plas ics, elec onics, ood & bioeconomy, a
business model, and ma ke ans o ma ion ac oss China, ASEAN, Eu ope,
and A ica.
40 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
3.4.3.1.1 Mic obiological class
A summa y o he mic obiological con en o WWS and FS eeds ock and he hyd o‑
cha p oduced om he EHTP p ocess is gi en in Table3.2. Compa ing he mic obi‑
ological con en in he eeds ock and p oduced hyd ocha wi h he limi s in he DWS
Guidelines shows ha bo h he WWS and FS eeds ock, including anae obically DS,
all in o Class C (He selman & Moodley, 2009; Snyman & He selman, 2006). The
EHTP p ocess emo ed all mic obial li e and p oduced a Class A hyd ocha .
3.4.3.1.2 S abili y class
Since he EHTP is a he mal p ocess, i is designed o p oduce hyd ocha ha sa ‑
is ies he s abili y Class 1 o he DWS Guideline (He selman & Moodley, 2009;
Snyman & He selman, 2006).
3.4.3.1.3 Pollu an class
Ul ima e analysis was ca ied ou on eeds ock and hyd ocha ollowing EHTP p o‑
cessing o de e mine he concen a ion o me als s ipula ed in he DWS Guidelines,
as shown in Table3.3. The esul s gene ally showed an inc ease in he con en o
hea y me als in he hyd ocha o all eeds ock samples. This indica es ha hea y
me als a e e ained in he solid p oduc in he EHTP eac o and no ans e ed in o
he liquid du ing he EHTP p ocessing o sludge. In his ega d, he classi ica ion
o he hyd ocha in e ms o he DWS Guidelines depends on he me al con en o
TABLE3.2
Mic obiological con en o eeds ock and EHTP hyd ocha
Pa ame e
Esche ichia coli (colonies/g) Helmin h O a (coun /d y g am)
Feeds ock Hyd ocha Feeds ock Hyd ocha
Sludge om WWTP
PS & WAS 5 × 1070 60 0
DS 5.1 × 1050 5 0
Faecal sludge om VIP la ines
A ea (A) FSa6.2 × 1040 0 0
A ea B FSb 1.5 × 10410 151 0
a Samples om pi la ines equen ly emp ied (once a week o less).
b Samples om s ockpiled FS ha ha e unde gone signi ican biological deg ada ion.
TABLE3.1
Sou h A ican sludge classi ica ion sys em
Mic obial class A B C
S abili y class 1 2 3
Pollu ion class a b c

41T ansi ion pa hways and he ole o inno a ion
TABLE3.3
Concen a ion o egula ed me als in sludge om a ypical WWTP (Mus o o e al., 2018)
P ima y sludge WAS Diges ed sludge
Feed P oduc % Inc ease Feed P oduc % Inc ease Feed P oduc % Inc ease
Compulso y me als (mg/kg)
A senic (As) 12 11 −6.7 0 20 100.0 20 0 −100.0
Cadmium (Cd) 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ch omium (C ) 202 289 43.1 152 371 143.9 277 290 4.6
Coppe (Cu) 266 427 60.5 184 495 169.2 326 398 22.1
Lead (Pb) 82 152 83.9 143 384 168.6 301 245 −18.8
Me cu y (Hg) 0 0 0 0 0 0
Nickel (Ni) 48 87 81.8 0 0 73 0 −100.0
Zinc (Zn) 2,053 2,886 40.6 1,324 3,262 146.4 2,318 3,039 31.1
Some o he ecommended benchma k me als (mg/kg)
Manganese (Mn) 541 384 −29.1 898 1,445 61.0 1,069 1,225 14.6
Molybdenum (Mo) 16 23 45.6 7 17 131.0 10 19 84.8
Selenium (Se) 19 22 15.1 9 14 53.7 20 27 31.4
S on ium (S ) 103 104 1.2 90 142 57.3 123 153 24.0
Thallium (Ti) 2,254 3,780 67.7 1,384 3,679 165.9 2,489 3,632 45.9
Vanadium (V) 84 151 80.8 44 113 154.6 87 97 12.5
42 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
he o iginal eeds ock (He selman & Moodley, 2009; Snyman & He selman, 2006).
Al hough he EHTP p ocess inc eased he hea y me al con en o he hyd ocha , he
me al con en is s ill low enough o he hyd ocha o be classi ied as Class A. Simila
esul s we e ob ained o FS, whe e he hea y me al con en is e y low, and he
inc ease h ough he EHTP p ocess does no change he hyd ocha pollu an class.
3.4.3.1.4 O he mic opollu an s
The e iciency o he EHTP p ocess in emo ing con aminan s o eme ging conce n
(CECs) was also e alua ed a bo h labo a o y and pilo scales (Mus o o e al., 2019).
WWS eeds ock was p ocessed in he EHTP eac o , and bo h he eeds ock and p o‑
duced hyd ocha and p ocess supe na an we e analysed o selec ed pha maceu icals,
oes ogens and pe –poly luo oalkyl subs ances. The esul s showed signi ican des uc‑
ion o he selec ed CECs ollowing he p ocessing o WWS using he EHTP p ocess.
3.4.3.1.5 P ocess wa e
Abou 10%–20% o he ini ial solids con en was con e ed o liquid in he EHTP
p ocess. The p ocess, he e o e, p oduces an excep ionally low olume o p ocess
wa e consis ing o he ini ial wa e con en and wa e gene a ed om liqui ied sol‑
ids. Like he hyd ocha gi en in Table3.2, p ocess wa e analysis has shown ha i
is comple ely s e ile (no mic obial li e). Howe e , he p ocess wa e con ains a high
TCOD, TKN, and P concen a ion and is cha ac e ised by low pH. A cen alised
WWTPs, he p ocess wa e can be e u ned o he inle wo ks a e pH adjus men
and co‑ ea ed wi h he incoming was ewa e .
3.4.4 Bene icial Uses
3.4.4.1 Bio uel
The EHTP p ocess p oduced hyd ocha wi h a highe calo i ic alue han he eed‑
s ock excep in cases whe e he eeds ock has been p e iously p e‑p ocessed (e.g.,
DS, old FS). Combining p e‑p ocessed sludge wi h un ea ed sludge and/o o he
was e biomass (e.g., inle wo ks sc eenings, was e biomass om he communi y)
inc eases he calo i ic alue o he hyd ocha . The calcula ed cha ac e is ics neces‑
sa y o desc ibe he ene gy con en o bo h he eeds ock and hyd ocha a e highe
hea ing alue (HHV), uel a io, hyd ocha yield (Hy), ene gy densi ica ion (Ed) and
ene gy yield (Ey). These cha ac e is ics o selec ed eeds ock and p oduced hyd o‑
cha a e summa ised in Table3.4.
The sludge ha was no p e‑p ocessed (PS and WAS) as combined sludge eed‑
s ock p oduced hyd ocha wi h highe calo i ic alues and ene gy densi ica ion abo e
1, showing ha he EHTP p ocess imp o es ene gy densi ica ion in he eeds ock. The
uel a io (Fixed Ca bon/Vola ile Con en ) and he ash con en o hyd ocha we e also
highe han he eeds ock. WWTPs p ocessing WWS could p oduce be e quali y bio‑
uel han he plan s p ocessing FS due o lowe ash con en on he eed and hyd ocha .
Table3.5 summa ises he elemen al composi ion and calcula ed O/C and H/C
a ios o he eeds ock and hyd ocha . These a ios dec eased du ing he EHTP
p ocess due o dehyd a ion and deca boxyla ion eac ions. The O/C and H/C a ios
we e plo ed on a Van K e elen diag am (Figu e3.4), a widely accep ed me hod
o compa ing he uel p ope ies o coals and o he bio uels (Pe e s e al., 2016).
43T ansi ion pa hways and he ole o inno a ion
TABLE3.4
P oxima e analysis esul s and bio uel cha ac e is ics (p ocessing emp.190oC–200oC)
Vola ile (%) Ash (%) Fixed C (%) HHV (MJ/kgDS) Fuel a io Hy (%) Ed Ey (%)
Sludge eeds ock
PS/WAS Feeds ock 68.5 17 11.6 20.3 0.17
PS/WAS Hyd ocha 68.1 19.9 14.8 25.4 0.22 62.7 1.25 78.4
PS/WAS + Sc eenings Feeds ock 73.0 6.7 13.1 22.3 0.18
PS/WAS + Sc eenings Hyd ocha 78.9 14 14.5 27.6 0.18 47.9 1.24 59.3
DS Feeds ock 60.7 29.6 9.7 18.6 0.16
DS Hyd ocha 44.4 44.1 11.7 16.4 0.26 64.7 0.88 57.0
DS/Sc eenings Feeds ock 75.4 11.1 13.5 22.0 0.18
DS/Sc eenings Hyd ocha 70.2 13.4 16.5 25.0 0.24 60.1 1.14 68.3
Faecal sludge eeds ock
A ea B Coa se Sc eened FS Feeds ock 49.0 43.5 7.3 12.6 0.15
A ea B Coa se Sc eened FS Hyd ocha 35.6 54.2 10.0 10.6 0.28 45.4 0.84 38.3
A ea B Fine Sc eened FS Feeds ock 46.9 46.1 6.7 10.8 0.14
A ea B Fine Sc eened FS Feeds ock Hyd ocha 30.3 59.9 9.8 9.2 0.32 53.9 0.86 46.2
A ea B Coa se Sc eened FS/PS&WAS 51.8 39.1 8.2 12.4 0.16
A ea B Coa se Sc eened FS/PS&WAS
Hyd ocha
37.2 52.6 10.1 13.2 0.27 63.1 1.07 67.3
A ea B Fine Sc eened FS/PS&WAS 50.6 40.1 9.0 11.2 0.18
A ea B Fine Sc eened FS/PS&WAS Hyd ocha 35.3 54.1 10.5 12.4 0.30 51.8 1.11 57.5
A ea (A) FS 64.2 25.3 10.3 17.6 0.16
A ea (A) FS Hyd ocha 49.5 40.8 9.8 13.5 0.20 72.0 0.77 55.5
A ea (A) FS/PS &WAS 66.7 18.8 14.4 20.4 0.22
A ea (A) FS/PS &WAS Hyd ocha 64.0 20.8 15.2 23.4 0.24 60.0 1.15 68.9
44 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
TABLE3.5
Elemen al analysis and H/C and O/C a ios
Sample Elemen al analysis (% DS) H/C O/C
C N H S O
Sludge and aecal sludge
P ima y Sludge Hyd ocha 36.9 2.0 5.1 1.3 12.0 0.14 0.33
P ima y Sludge + Sc eenings Hyd ocha 36.2 1.7 6.6 0.7 20.9 0.18 0.58
WAS Feeds ock 31.0 12.8 3.0 1.3 40.7 0.10 1.31
WAS Hyd ocha 41.9 13.0 2.8 0.9 34.0 0.07 0.81
Diges ed Sludge Feeds ock 28.0 3.6 4.6 1.3 14.7 0.16 0.52
Diges ed Sludge Hyd ocha 26.8 2.3 4.0 0.9 11.6 0.15 0.43
Compos ed Sludge eeds ock 24.4 14.4 3.3 1.3 50.3 0.14 2.06
Compos ed Sludge Hyd ocha 34.2 16.4 2.6 0.9 49.4 0.08 1.44
A ea B Coa se Sc eened FS Feeds ock 27.3 2.0 3.7 0.9 17.9 0.13 0.66
A ea B Coa se Sc eened FS Hyd ocha 24.9 1.7 3.0 0.7 10.3 0.12 0.41
A ea B Fine Sc eened FS Feeds ock 25.7 2.1 3.8 0.9 21.5 0.15 0.84
A ea B Fine Sc eened FS Hyd ocha 15.4 1.3 1.9 0.5 21.0 0.12 1.36
A ea B Fine Sc eened FS + PS & WAS Feeds ock 30.0 2.3 4.6 0.9 23.1 0.15 0.77
A ea B Fine Sc eened FS + PS & WAS Hyd ocha 32.4 2.0 3.9 0.7 8.3 0.12 0.26
A ea B Coa se Sc eened FS PS & WAS Feeds ock 19.2 1.6 2.9 0.6 35.6 0.15 1.85
A ea B Coa se Sc eened FS+P & WAS Hyd ocha 22.5 1.7 3.0 0.5 18.2 0.13 0.81
A ea (A) FS Feeds ock 39.9 3.5 5.7 0.8 18.0 0.15 0.45
A ea (A) FS Hyd ocha 39.6 2.3 5.6 0.5 9.7 0.14 0.24
A ea (A) FS + PS & WAS Feeds ock 38.5 4.9 6.0 0.7 31.1 0.16 0.81
A ea (A) FS + PS & WAS Hyd ocha 52.3 2.5 7.1 0.5 16.8 0.14 0.32
45T ansi ion pa hways and he ole o inno a ion
O he uels
Wood 50.0 6.0 44 0.12 0.88
Pea 54.8 0.9 5.4 0.1 35.8 0.10 0.65
Ligni e 70.0 25.0 5.0 25 0.07 0.36
Coal (Pi sbu gh Seam) 75.5 1.2 5.0 3.1 4.9 0.07 0.06
Bi uminous Coal 83.0 2.0 5.0 11 0.06 0.13
An h aci e 83.0 2.0 3.5 2 0.04 0.02

46 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
0.0
0.0
0.1 0.2
0.2
0.3 0.4
0.4
0.5 0.6
0.6
0.7 0.8
0.8
0.9
A omic O/C
A omic H/C x 10
1.0
1.0
1.1 1.2
1.2
1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
EHTP Hyd ocha
Wood
Sludge/Was e Biomass
P ima y Sludge Hyd ocha
P ima y Sludge + Sc eenings Hyd ocha
WAS Feeds ock
WAS Hyd ocha
Diges ed sludge Feeds ock
Diges ed sludge Hyd ocha
Compos ed Sludge
Compos ed Sludge Hyd ocha
A ea B Coa se Sc eened FS Feeds ock
A ea B Coa se Sc eened FS + PS & WAS Feeds ock
A ea B Coa se Sc eened FS + PS & WA
S Hyd ocha
A ea B Fine Sc eened FS + PS & WAS Feeds ock
A ea B Fine Sc eened FS + PS & WAS Hyd ocha
A ea (A) FS Feeds ock
A ea (A) FS Hyd ocha
A ea (A) FS & WAS Feeds ock
A ea (A) FS & WAS Hyd ocha
Wood
Pea
Ligni e
Coal (Pi sbu gh Seam)
Bi uminous Coal
An h aci e
A ea B Coa se Sc eened FS Hyd ocha
A ea B Fine Sc eened FS Feeds ock
A ea B Fine Sc eened FS Hyd ocha
Pea
Coal-HG
An h aci e
Coal-HG
FIGURE 3.4 Van K e elen diag am o sludge eeds ocks, hyd ocha s om he EHTP p ocess, coals and o he uels.
47T ansi ion pa hways and he ole o inno a ion
The highes ‑ anked coals ha e he lowes O/C and H/C a ios, and a e no mally in
he bo om le co ne o he diag am.
The EHTP p ocess enhances he uel p ope ies o biomass by emo ing hyd o‑
gen and oxygen, esul ing in ca bon densi ica ion in he hyd ocha . The sludge
eeds ocks and combined sludge and o he biomass had oxygen and hyd ogen con‑
en highe han low‑g ade b own coal. A e EHTP p ocessing, hyd ocha oxygen
and hyd ogen con en s a e educed, and he hyd ocha O/C a io o alues be ween
low bi uminous coal and b own coal is achie ed while he H/C a ios a e highe
han coal.
CO2 emissions om uels depend p ima ily on hei ca bon con en and hei
hyd ogen–ca bon a io. O e he yea s, ossil uel usage ends ha e ended owa d
a highe hyd ogen‑ o‑ca bon (H/C) a io. The highe he H/C a io, he highe he
ene gy e iciency o he uel and he lowe he CO2 emissions om i s combus ion.
P imi i e uel, such as wood, had wice he ca bon con en compa ed o i s succes‑
so , coal. Howe e , coal, wi h a lowe H/C a io, is wice as ene gy e icien han
wood. La e , coal was succeeded by oil, which had a much highe H/C a io and hus
bene i ed o e wood and coal in ha ing highe ene gy e iciency and lowe CO2 emis‑
sions. Na u al gas has an e en lowe ca bon con en compa ed o oil. Howe e , he
a io o hyd ogen o ca bon is s ill lowe in bio uels. In ac , bio uels such as hyd ogen
ha e ze o H/C a ios.
The EHTP p ocess imp o es he uel cha ac e is ics o sludge and o he was e
biomass by p oducing a hyd ocha wi h lowe H/C and O/C a ios and highe calo‑
i ic alue. Hyd ocha also has a highe H/C a io han adi ional uels such as coal
and will hus ha e a lesse ca bon emission when combus ed as a bio uel.
Howe e , i mus be no ed ha he ash con en o he hyd ocha is highe han
ha o high‑g ade coal and will, he e o e, impac he combus ion e iciency o he
hyd ocha .
3.4.4.2 Ag icul u e
The hyd ocha p oduced om he EHTP p ocess has highe concen a ions o nu i‑
en s and ca bon han he eeds ock. Thus, he hyd ocha can be used as a soil condi‑
ione / e ilise p o ided ha he hea y me al concen a ions do no exceed he limi s
in he Sludge Guidelines (He selman & Moodley, 2009; Snyman & He selman,
2006). In his ega d, a de ailed in es iga ion o he applica ion o hyd ocha gene ‑
a ed om sludge o ag icul u al pu poses is equi ed. This should use he al eady
de eloped Sludge Applica ion Ra e Ad iso (Tes ama iam e al., 2015), a use ul ool
o sludge classi ica ion, a e applica ion, and me al accumula ion p edic ion.
3.4.4.3 Adso p ion media
P elimina y labo a o y es s ha e shown ha hyd ocha p oduced om p ocess‑
ing woody biomass in he EHTP p ocess can be applied as adso p ion media and
has cha ac e is ics like some comme cial‑g ade ac i a ed ca bon. S udies a e being
unde aken o in es iga e he e icacy o hyd ocha om p ocessing sludge as an
adso p ion media. The use o hyd ocha om p ocessing sludge as an adso p ion
media can be use ul as a polishing s ep o ea inal e luen om WWTPs as pa o
was ewa e eclama ion and ecycling in suppo o he wa e pa hway wi hin a CE.
48 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
3.4.4.4 O he applica ions
Hyd ocha also has he po en ial o be used as a building ma e ial (cemen and b ick
making) and ca hode in mic obial uel cells (MFCs), as well as an ene gy s o age
de ice due o he p esence o ni ogen unc ional g oups. Fu he in es iga ions on
hese applica ions need o be unde aken o ensu e di e si ied applica ions a e easible.
3.4.5 applica ions o he eh p p ocess
The ield es s ha e indica ed ha he EHTP p ocess can be applied o p ocess sludge
independen ly and in combina ion wi h o he was e biomass o p oduce a s e ile
hyd ocha wi h a ious po en ial uses.
Based on he esul s om he ield es ing, he EHTP p ocess can be applied o
was ewa e solids and o he communi y was e biomass managemen wi hin a CE as
ollows:
• p ocess un ea ed WWS o u he ea p e‑DS a cen alised WWTPs
in combina ion wi h o he was e biomass om he communi y. FS om
low‑cos sani a ion sys ems can also be co‑p ocessed.
• FS om low‑cos sani a ion sys ems a a cen alised acili y o a acili y o
a ew households. Applica ion o indi idual households a a small scale is
also easible.
These applica ions a e g aphically illus a ed in Figu es3.5 and 3.6, as p e iously
epo ed by Z imba e al. (2021). Figu e3.5 illus a es he inco po a ion o he EHTP
p ocess in o WWTPs in as uc u e. Gene ally, he inco po a ion o he EHTP p ocess
in o he cu en WWTP in as uc u e demons a es he applica ion o he echnology
o he ea men o WWS in combina ion wi h o he biomass o a quali y highe han
FIGURE3.5 Schema ic layou o EHTP p ocess e o i in o exis ing WWTP in as uc u e.
49T ansi ion pa hways and he ole o inno a ion
gene ally achie ed by commonly applied biochemical con e sion p ocesses u ilised by
he was ewa e se ices sec o , including u he educ ion o sludge quan i y.
Thus, he EHTP p ocess p o ides signi ican lexibili y based on i s abili y o
p ocess di e en sludge combina ions, including inco po a ing sc eenings and o he
ex e nal biomass gene a ing high ene gy con en hyd ocha . This u he indica es
he need o coupling he eme ging echnology wi h cu en WWTPs, he eby a oid‑
ing edundancy o exis ing in as uc u e and ad ancing he ision o es ablishing
esou ce e iciency wi hin was ewa e managemen o suppo ansi ioning o CE.
Besides e o i ing he eme ging echnology in o exis ing in as uc u e, as ou ‑
lined in Figu e3.5, he EHTP p ocess can be applied as a s andalone echnology o
g een ield applica ions. Figu e3.6 shows he closed‑loop CE concep o applying he
EHTP p ocess o p ocessing FS om a low‑cos sani a ion sys em a a cen alised
acili y, as p e iously epo ed by Z imba e al. (2021).
Figu e3.6 demons a es he possible in eg a ion o was e managemen as a wide
ange o biomass gene a ed wi hin communi ies can be po en ially p ocessed using
he EHTP p ocess o gene a e ma e ials use ul o mee ing communi y esou ce
equi emen s in suppo o ene gy and ood secu i y.
As illus a ed in Figu e3.6, adop ing he EHTP echnology o p ocessing di ‑
e en was e s eams acili a es he ansi ion o a CE wi h possibili ies o c ea ing
new business models and jobs, de eloping new skills and in es men s wi hin com‑
muni ies, and educing he ca bon oo p in as key social, economic, and en i on‑
men al bene i s. The e o e, he was ewa e se ices sec o needs o e hink i s sludge
FIGURE3.6 De ailed schema ic illus a ion o applica ion o he EHTP p ocessing aecal
sludge om low‑cos sani a ion sys ems a a cen alised acili y in combina ion wi h ano he
household biomass.
56 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
FIGURE3.9 Illus a ion o po en ial coupling o EHTP p ocess wi h o he echnologies wi hin he ma e ial pa hway (Adap ed om IWA, 2016 and
Mus o o & Mgwenya, 2022).

57T ansi ion pa hways and he ole o inno a ion
3.6 CONCLUSIONS
This chap e has e iewed he global s a us o CE adap a ion globally and in LMICs
like Sou h A ica. A e iew o he IWA amewo k demons a ed ha i co e s all
aspec s o he wa e cycle and is conside ed he mos app op ia e amewo k and s a ‑
egy o adop ion by he wa e sec o o ansi ioning o CE wi hin LMICs. Junc ion
oppo uni ies p esen ed by he h ee in e ela ed pa hways o wa e , ene gy and ma e‑
ials a e c i ical in achie ing his ansi ion in he wa e sec o . Mo eo e , inno a ion
has been no ed o play a signi ican ole as an accele a o in ansi ioning he wa e
sec o o a CE. In his ega d, he eme ging EHTP p ocess has been demons a ed as
a easible echnology o p ocessing WWS in combina ion wi h FS and o he was e
biomass o a mul iuse hyd ocha use ul as a bio uel, adso p ion media, soil amelio an
and cons uc ion ma e ial. The possible coupling o he eme ging echnology wi h
exis ing well‑es ablished echnologies and o he eme ging echnologies suppo ing
he wa e , ene gy, and ma e ial pa hways has also been ou lined as easible.
Fu he mo e, in eg a ing was e managemen h ough he applica ion o his
mul i‑biomass p ocessing eme ging inno a i e echnology as an accele a o o a CE
wi hin communi y se ings is qui e possible and achie able. Po en ial key social,
economic, and en i onmen al bene i s o such an app oach include c ea ing new
business models, jobs and new in es men oppo uni ies, de eloping new skills, and
educing he was e managemen ca bon oo p in . O e all, he chap e highligh s he
need o he was ewa e se ices sec o o e hink i s was ewa e managemen s a ‑
egy, en isaging maximum bene i s om esou ce eco e y ac oss he was ewa e
ea men cycle o suppo he CE implemen a ion.
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4T ansi ional pa hways
owa ds sus ainable
ood sys ems
Luxon Nhamo, Syl es e Mpandeli, S anley
Liphadzi, Samkelisiwe Hlophe‑Ginindza,
and Ta adzwanashe Mabhaudhi
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Food sys ems play an impo an ole in sus ainable de elopmen as hey a e a he cen e
o he nexus ha links ood and nu i ional secu i y, human heal h, p o ision o eco‑
sys em se ices, clima e change, and social jus ice (Ca on e al., 2018; UNGA, 2015).
Howe e , he ag icul u e sec o aces he challenge o mee ing he ood demands o a
g owing popula ion wi hou deg ading he en i onmen (Campbell e al., 2016; Mis a,
2014). An inc eased wo ld popula ion o 2 billion people om he cu en 7 billion by
2050 will exe p essu e on he ag icul u e sec o o p oduce enough ood o eed he
inc easing global popula ion (Ho on, 2017). As he popula ion is p ojec ed o each 9
billion people by 2050, ag icul u al p oduc ion should inc ease by a leas 70% du ing he
same pe iod o mee u u e ood and nu i ional equi emen s (Eh lich and Ha e, 2015;
K ishna Bahadu e al., 2018). Howe e , such changes will ha e o happen a a ime when
essen ial esou ces such as wa e , ene gy, and land a e deple ing and deg ading, and a
imes compelling humankind o exceed plane a y bounda ies as demand and use exceed
eplenishmen (Scoones e al., 2019; Whi mee e al., 2015). The challenges a e com‑
pounded by clima ic and en i onmen al changes induced by unsus ainable ood sys ems
(Mis a, 2014). These ad e se en i onmen al changes esul in he deg ada ion o abou
12million hec a es o e ile land globally pe annum, su icien o p oduce20 onnes
o g ain (Gibbs and Salmon, 2015; Higginbo om and Symeonakis, 2014). Besides, he
in ensi y and equency o d ough s, cyclones, and loods ha e inc eased in ecen yea s,
u he h ea ening ood secu i y (Nhamo e al., 2019a). The need o p oduce mo e ood
has wi nessed an inc ease in he global cul i a ed a ea o mo e han a hi d (4.8 billion ha)
o he o al global su ace a ea (13.5 billion ha) (FAO, 2020). As a esul , he ag icul u e
sec o is now he second la ges con ibu o o g eenhouse gases a e ene gy (IPCC,
2014) and he majo con ibu o o land and wa e deg ada ion (Bo elli e al., 2020).
In he case o sou he n A ica, ag icul u e con ibu es abou 20.2% o he g oss
domes ic p oduc (GDP) and, hus, plays an impo an ole in economic de elopmen
(Nhamo e al., 2019b). Howe e , he egion has los o e 25% o i s soil e ili y o e
he yea s due o deg ada ion and o e exploi a ion, u he exace ba ing i s ulne ‑
abili y (FAO, 2020; Nkonya e al., 2016). This happens when he sec o is expec ed
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC‑BY‑NC 4.0 license
60 DOI: 10.1201/9781003327615-4
61T ansi ional pa hways owa ds sus ainable ood sys ems
o p oduce mo e ood o eed a popula ion p ojec ed o each 2 billion people by 2050
in sou he n A ica alone (Hall e al., 2017). The e is, he e o e, a need o ans o ‑
ma ional change in ood sys ems h ough he adop ion o sma and clean p oduc ion
sys ems ha lead o a ci cula economy. Ope a ionalising and implemen ing he ci ‑
cula economy model is an icipa ed o p opel esou ce secu i y and a cleane en i‑
onmen (Hall e al., 2017). Adop ing ci cula app oaches in place o cu en linea
models is he i s ansi ional s ep owa ds sus ainable ood sys ems (Cosg o e and
Loucks, 2015), as hey p o ide pa hways owa ds ood and nu i ion secu i y o all
and a all imes wi hou comp omising he en i onmen (Béné e al., 2019a). This is
why ood sys ems a e a he hea o Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) and a e
linked o a leas 12 o he 17goals (Chaudha y e al., 2018; UNGA, 2015).
A sus ainable ood sys em e e s o an ag icul u al sys em ha deli e s heal hy
ood o mee cu en ood equi emen s while a he same ime p ese ing heal hy
and sus ainable ecosys ems ha a e capable o p o iding ood o gene a ions o
come wi h a con olled nega i e impac on he en i onmen (Allen and P ospe i,
2016; UNGA, 2015). I is a sys em ha encou ages local p oduc ion and knowledge,
p o iding nu i ious and heal hy ood which is a ailable, accessible, and a o dable
o all a all imes while p o ec ing a me s, wo ke s, consume s, and communi ies
(Eakin e al., 2017).
A ood sys em comp ises sub‑sys ems, including a a ming sys em, was e man‑
agemen sys em, and inpu supply sys em. I is also in ica ely connec ed o o he
ela ed sys ems such as ene gy, wa e , ade, and heal h sys ems (Figu e4.1) (Tomich
e al., 2019). The in e connec edness o hese sys ems indica es ha any s uc u al
change in a ood sys em migh o igina e om a change in ano he sys em (Béné
e al., 2019a). Thus, changes in a ood sys em could be igge ed by a policy ha
p omo es mo e bio uel in he ene gy sys em, impac ing he ood sys em. The e o e,
a ood sys em is a complex sys em d i en by in ica ely in e linked economic, social,
cul u al, and en i onmen al ac o s, which equi e ans o ma i e hinking and in e‑
g a ed assessmen ools o guide in o med s a egic policies ha lead o sus ainabili y
in he whole ag icul u al alue chain (Allen and P ospe i, 2016). Thus, ood sus ain‑
abili y ansi ions include he ans o ma ion p ocesses needed o d i e changes in
he ood alue chains owa ds sus ainable ood sys ems (El Bilali and Allahya i,
2018). Al hough i is complex, ecen echnological ad ances and digi alisa ion
ha e enhanced ongoing ans o ma ion p ocesses in global ag icul u e and ood
chains (El Bilali and Allahya i, 2018). Sus ainabili y ansi ions e e o long‑ e m,
mul i‑dimensional, mul i‑sec o al, and s uc u al ans o ma ional changes aimed a
achie ing shi s in socio‑ echnical sys ems owa ds mo e sus ainable modes o p o‑
duc ion and consump ion (Kle kx and Rose, 2020). The e m ansi ion is associa ed
wi h ansi ional pa hways, a e m e e ing o signi ican change p ocesses in socie y
(Geels e al., 2016). Sus ainabili y ansi ions in he ag icul u e and ood alue chains
acili a e changes owa ds no el p oduc ion and consump ion ways and p ac ices ha
a e mo e sus ainable (El Bilali and Allahya i, 2018).
The e o e, ansi ioning owa ds sus ainable ood sys ems should be buil a ound
in eg a ed s a egic policies o mula ed a ound he in ica ely linked esou ces o
wa e , land, en i onmen and ene gy, nu i ion, and heal h (Nhamo and Ndlela, 2021;
Wi man e al., 2017). T ansi ional pa hways conce n a dema ca ed ajec o y ha

62 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
leads om one si ua ion o ano he h ough a pa icula e i o y. T ansi ions a e
e olu iona y, open‑ended, non‑linea , and based on sea ching, lea ning, and expe i‑
men a ion (Geels e al., 2016). They a e mainly suppo ed by ans o ma i e and
ci cula models, which a e impo an in add essing oday’s challenges ha cu ac oss
all sec o s and equi e in eg a ed, i e a i e and c oss‑sec o al in e en ions (Naidoo
e al., 2021b). The pa hways in o m cohe en , s a egic policies ha lead o sus ain‑
able adap a ion and esilience.
Such in o med policies p o ide ans o ma i e pa hways owa ds na ional and
egional a ge s like egional in eg a ion, employmen c ea ion, po e y alle ia‑
ion, inclusi e economic g ow h, clima e ac ion, and good heal h and well‑being
(Mabhaudhi e al., 2019; Nhamo e al., 2018). One such ans o ma i e app oach is
nexus planning, which is a ca alys o achie ing he sus ainabili y o ood sys ems
(Mabhaudhi e al., 2021; Nhamo and Ndlela, 2021). Bu nexus planning is also linked
o in o med by o he ans o ma i e app oaches, including scena io planning, jus
ansi ioning, ci cula economy, one heal h, s a egic o esigh , and ho izon scanning
(Nhamo e al., 2021). These ci cula models p o ide ools ha in o m in es men
decisions on ag icul u e in as uc u e, clima e‑sma ag icul u e echnologies, ag i‑
cul u e wa e managemen , and on‑ ield decision‑suppo ools o manage esou ce
low and implemen and educe losses (Adamides, 2020; Naidoo e al., 2021a). Fo
example, sma sys ems and echnologies ha include p oduc se ice sys ems and
pe o mance models a e en isaged o guide he in e linkages be ween he ci cula
economy and he In e ne o Things (IoT) in ood sys ems and accele a e he needed
FIGURE4.1 The impac o clima e change on wa e , ene gy and ood esou ces and how
clima e ac ion d i es he e olu ion owa ds he g een economy and sus ainable ood sys ems
and acili a es emaining wi hin plane a y bounda ies.
63T ansi ional pa hways owa ds sus ainable ood sys ems
ans o ma ional change and achie e he g een economy (Ingema sdo e e al., 2019;
Naidoo e al., 2021a). In his digi al wo ld o globalisa ion, he ci cula economy
model is d i en by digi al echnologies like he IoT, Big Da a, and Da a Analy ics,
which acili a e he smoo h acking and low o p oduc s, componen s, and ma e‑
ials, allowing he de i ed da a o be used o imp o e esou ce managemen and
in o m decision‑making ac oss a ious phases o he p oduc ion cycle (K is o e sen
e al., 2020).
In pa icula , nexus planning and ci cula economy p o ide he decision‑suppo
pa hways ha lead o ans o ma ional change in he ag icul u al alue chain and
ensu e socio‑ecological sus ainabili y (Rocks öm e  al., 2017). Thus, his chap‑
e aims o p o ide policy and decision‑make s wi h ools ha guide he ansi ion
owa ds sus ainable ood sys ems. Achie ing sus ainable ood sys ems acili a es
balancing social, economic, and ecological sys ems and sus ainabili y (Lindg en
e al., 2018). The a ionale is o de elop nexus planning and ci cula economy ools
ha guide he ansi ional pa hways owa ds sus ainable ood sys ems, es ablishing
he in e linkages be ween ood sys em componen s, including p oducing, p ocess‑
ing, packaging, dis ibu ion, e ailing and consuming. This is essen ial o p o id‑
ing managemen solu ions o bo h syne gies and ade‑o s and iden i ying p io i y
a eas o in e en ion.
4.2 THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
As he concep o sus ainable ood sys ems is qui e complex and cu s ac oss many
sec o s and has a ious componen s, a concep ual amewo k was de eloped o
guide he iden i ica ion o pa hways ha d i e owa ds sus ainable ood sys ems.
The amewo k is based on he in ica ely in e linked bu dis inc componen s o a
ood sys em ha include p oducing, p ocessing, packaging, dis ibu ion, e ailing,
and consuming and how each connec ed sys em and componen is impac ed by cli‑
ma e change and o he d i e s o change. This is c i ical o unde s anding he socio‑
economic and en i onmen al in e ac ions and how hey in luence global en i onmen‑
al change. The de i ed knowledge acili a ed he e alua ion o socie al ou comes
such as ood secu i y, ecosys em se ices, and social wel a e esul ing om hese
in e ac ions (E icksen, 2008; Tendall e al., 2015). Figu e4.2 p esen s he de eloped
amewo k, illus a ing he in e linked p ocesses o a ood sys em and highligh ing
he ole o nexus planning in ansi ioning owa ds sus ainable ood sys ems. Nexus
modelling is p e e ed as i acili a es ans o ma ional change h ough i s polycen‑
ic and ci cula modelling capabili ies (Figu e4.2).
As ood sys ems a e complex social‑ecological sys ems ha include a ious
in e ac ions be ween humans (economic and poli ical ends, ood p ice ola il‑
i y, popula ion dynamics, changes in die s and nu i ion, and ad ances in science
and echnology) and na u al (landco e changes, land and soil deg ada ion, clima e
change, biodi e si y loss, sea‑le el ise, and ai pollu ion) componen s (Béné e al.,
2019b; E icksen, 2008; Ma shall, 2015), i is pa amoun o unde s and hese ela ion‑
ships and assess hem holis ically. This is he ini ial phase in ansi ioning owa ds
sus ainable ood sys ems. In be ween he social‑ecological sys ems a e ex e nal
d i e s (Figu e4.2), which include exposu e and sensi i i y, ha also de e mine he
64 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
impac o change on human and en i onmen al heal h. Knowledge o hese d i e s
and how hey in luence ac i i ies and ou comes o ood sys ems is impo an o
in o ming policy decisions (Béné e al., 2019a). Food and nu i ional secu i y and
sound human and en i onmen al heal h a e he main ou comes o any ood sys em
(Nemecek e al., 2016). Thus, a ood sys em is conside ed ulne able o esilien
depending on i s capabili y o deli e and ensu e ood secu i y (E icksen, 2008).
Acco ding o Figu e4.2, nexus planning connec s hese in e ac ions by de ining,
measu ing, and modelling p og ess owa ds sus ainabili y h ough indica o s o mu‑
la ed a ound esou ce u ilisa ion, accessibili y, and a ailabili y (Nhamo e al., 2020).
These de elopmen s acili a e modelling, moni o ing, and simula ing some aspec s
o sus ainabili y.
The amewo k (Figu e4.2) emphasises he de elopmen o a ood sys em ha
e icien ly uses esou ces and educes ood was e a e e y s age, om p ima y p o‑
duc ion o ans o ma ion and consump ion. An e icien ood sys em is, he e o e,
buil a ound ci cula models such as nexus planning, ci cula economy, one heal h,
s a egic o esigh , ho izon scanning and scena io planning (Ju gile ich e al., 2016),
o he han linea models ha encou age he in oduc ion o was es in o he en i on‑
men , causing de imen al en i onmen al and human heal h isks and clima e change
(Didenko e al., 2018). Fo example, nexus modelling de elops knowledge‑based ools
ha assess ulne abili y and esilience, as well as eco e y op ions and he po en ial
o a ood sys em (Nhamo e al., 2020). These ools acili a e he iden i ica ion o pa h‑
ways o simul aneous ood secu i y and esou ce conse a ion h ough an analysis o
ood sys em ac i i ies and ou comes, in eg a ing en i onmen al, social, poli ical, and
economic de e minan s summa ised in socio‑economic and global en i onmen al
change d i e s (Figu e4.2). This is based on he unde s anding ha ood sys ems a e
FIGURE4.2 A nexus planning‑based concep ual amewo k illus a ing he connec ed p o‑
cesses and in e ac ions needed o achie e a sus ainable ood sys em.
65T ansi ional pa hways owa ds sus ainable ood sys ems
socio‑ecological sys ems comp ising biophysical and social ac o s ha a e linked
h ough eedback mechanisms (Binde e al., 2013; E icksen, 2008; Ma shall, 2015).
Iden i ying and modelling he in insic p ocesses o a ood sys em h ough nexus
modelling ensu es ha ood and nu i ional ou comes a e p ese ed o enhanced o e
ime and ac oss gene a ions. This is achie ed by p omp ly iden i ying p io i y a eas
o in e en ion, allowing decision‑make s o ace p og ess owa ds sus ainabili y
and implemen policies ha os e posi i e ans o ma ions, and allowing humankind
o emain wi hin plane a y bounda ies in esou ce use. Thus, his chap e add esses
he ollowing iden i ied hema ic a eas ha d i e owa ds sus ainable ood sys ems:
(a) d i e s o change, (b) isk and exposu e, (c) nexus planning, and (d) pa hways
owa ds sus ainable ood sys ems.
4.2.1 gloBal d i e s o change impac ing ood sys ems
Achie ing sus ainabili y has become he guiding p inciple o ans o ma ional
change and he main goal o human de elopmen (Mensah and Rica Casade all,
2019; UNGA, 2015). The cu en and closely in e linked g and challenges ha ans‑
e se all socio‑economic and ecological sec o s (Figu e4.3) a e p omp ing a shi
om how humankind iews he wo ld om a linea iew o a ci cula pe spec i e
(Geissdoe e e al., 2017; Sa ia li, 2017). A shock in one sec o o en igge s a hos
o in e ela ed bu dis inc challenges in he o he sec o s (Nhamo and Ndlela, 2021).
Fo example, en i onmen al deg ada ion educes he a ea unde cul i a ion, causing
low c op yields and igge ing social dis ess, economic ins abili y, ood insecu i y
and p ice luc ua ions (Gomie o, 2016).
FIGURE4.3 In e ac ions be ween en i onmen and ood sys ems as d i e s o change and
he pa hways needed owa ds sus ainable de elopmen , as well as human and en i onmen al
heal h.
72 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
4.4 RECOMMENDATIONS
T ansi ioning owa ds a sus ainable ood sys em is a complica ed p ocess ha
equi es imp o emen s in land use and ag icul u al p ac ices. T ans o ma ional
and in eg a ed app oaches p o ide he pa hways o sus ainable ood sys ems, bu o
achie e op imum esul s, we ecommend he ollowing guidelines:
a. In eg a ed pa hways should emphasise c i ical biophysical and economic
‘le e age poin s’ in ood sys ems, ocusing on esou ce use e iciency and
enhancing ood p oduc ion p ocesses and he en i onmen ’s pe o mance
wi h he leas e o and cos . This calls o adop ing mode n echnologies
ha enhance p oduc i i y in all domains.
b. Ad ances ha a e ea ma ked o imp o e ag icul u al p oduc i i y should
also conside enhancing he ood sys em’s esilience. Al hough high‑
e iciency and mechanised ag icul u e ha e many bene i s, i is also highly
ulne able o disas e s ha include ex eme wea he e en s, no el pes s and
diseases, and economic shocks (Calicioglu e al., 2019).
c. The e is an u gen need o de elop me hods o e alua e ade‑o s o
ag icul u al p ac ices and balance hem wi h ad ances in echnological
de elopmen s. Resea ch should de elop decision‑suppo ools o suppo
managemen decisions, p oduc i i y, and en i onmen al s ewa dship.
d. Sus ainable de elopmen in he ag icul u e sec o should be a pa wi h
echnological de elopmen , as in o med by ci cula and ans o ma i e
modelling, which enhances ans o ma ional change, ensu ing ood secu‑
i y and en i onmen al pe o mance o ood sys ems. Cu en linea models
a e gene ally sec o ‑based and only exace ba e exis ing challenges by ocus‑
ing on a single sec o (Nhamo and Ndlela, 2021).
e. T ansi ioning owa ds sus ainable ood sys ems should be suppo ed by
cohe en policies ha c ea e a s a egic and enabling en i onmen o ag o‑
ecology. This is suppo ed by a policy amewo k based on a holis ic pe ‑
o mance moni o ing sys em ha conside s nu i ional and en i onmen al
impac s and he sys em’s long‑ e m s abili y.
Ag icul u e is he key d i e o en i onmen al and clima ic change. As a esul , he
sec o equi es a shi om he cu en linea app oaches o ci cula modelling o
enhance ood p oduc ion sus ainably. The ans o ma ion should be accompanied by
socie al awa eness o ca alyse a change om cu en p ac ices.
4.5 CONCLUSIONS
The sys emic c oss‑sec o al na u e and he in ica e in e dependencies and in e ac‑
ions o ood sys ems equi e ans o ma i e app oaches ha add ess challenges in an
in eg a ed manne and simpli y human unde s anding o complex socio‑ecological
connec ions. Nexus planning has been used o assess he ood sys em’s sus ainabil‑
i y by iden i ying key p ope ies ha suppo li e and heal hy en i onmen s. The
app oach guides policy and suppo s decision‑making o iden i y p io i y a eas ha

73T ansi ional pa hways owa ds sus ainable ood sys ems
need immedia e in e en ion, a key s ep in ensu ing ood and nu i ion secu i y while
p omo ing en i onmen al sus ainabili y. The essence o nexus planning is he capa‑
bili y o examine he mul i‑causali y o dynamic p ocesses wi hin a complex sys em,
including ood sys ems. Indica ing p io i y a eas needing immedia e in e en ion
pa es he way o using scena ios o e alua e a ious possibili ies ha lead o cohe ‑
en s a egies. This is c i ical o unde s anding and app ecia ing he change in ood
secu i y and social and en i onmen al ou comes. These ou comes depend on he
decisions and ac ions aken in he ac i i ies p ac ised du ing he ood sys em bu
a e also impac ed by global socio‑economic, poli ical, and en i onmen al d i e s.
Simpli ying human unde s anding o he complex in e ac ions among ood sys em
componen s p o ides pa hways ha educe isk and exposu e, an ini ial s ep owa ds
sus ainable de elopmen . This chap e has p o ided hese pa hways using nexus plan‑
ning as oday’s challenges a e complex, cu ac oss sec o s and in e linked. Sec o al
in e en ions ha do no conside he in e linkages and connec edness o sec o s will
only compound exis ing challenges.
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5S eng hening he
ans o ma ional
implemen a ion
o na ional clima e
change adap a ion
plans o enhance
ag icul u al esilience
Cha les Nhemachena, Daniel Njiwa,
Mcloud Kayi a Chi wa, Anabela Manhica,
Assan Ng’ombe and P o ase Echessah
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Clima e change, di ec ly and indi ec ly, impac s ood sys ems, ood ade, ood and
nu i ion secu i y, and he a ainmen o he Uni ed Na ions Sus ainable De elopmen
Goals, such as achie ing ze o hunge , ending po e y, ensu ing heal hy li es, and
p omo ing well‑being. The In e go e nmen al Panel on Clima e Change (IPCC) six h
assessmen epo (AR6) s a es ha e idence shows an inc eased in ensi y and occu ‑
ence o obse ed ex eme clima e changes such as hea y p ecipi a ion, ag icul u al
and ecological d ough s, hea wa es, and opical cyclones since he AR5. The AR6
u he highligh s, wi h high con idence, ha all egions a e p ojec ed o expe ience
u he inc eases in ho clima ic impac d i e s (CIDs1) and dec eases in cold CIDs.
Fo example, ex eme hea h esholds ele an o ag icul u e and heal h would be
exceeded mo e equen ly a highe global wa ming le els. Also, A ica is p ojec ed
o expe ience inc eased equency and o in ensi y o ag icul u al and ecological
d ough s wi h medium o high con idence (IPCC, 2021). These clima e changes sig‑
ni ican ly impac ood sys ems, ecosys em se ices, economic g ow h and de elop‑
men , disp opo iona ely impac ing ulne able sys ems and communi ies.
Gi en he ulne abili y o ood sys ems o clima e change a iabili y and ex emes,
building esilience is c ucial o help coun ies mee he g owing demand o heal hy
and sa e die s while achie ing socio‑economic and sus ainabili y goals. The 2015
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC‑BY‑NC 4.0 license
78 DOI: 10.1201/9781003327615-5
79S eng hening he na ional clima e change adap a ion plans
Pa is Ag eemen , adop ed by 196 Pa ies a he Con e ence o he Pa ies 21 on 12
Decembe 2015 and en e ed in o o ce on 4 No embe 2016, commi s all Pa ies o
engage in adap a ion planning p ocesses and implemen ing ac ions as well as de el‑
oping o enhancing ele an plans, policies and/o con ibu ions (A icle 7.9) o con‑
ibu e o he global goal o enhance adap i e capaci y, s eng hen esilience and
educe ulne abili y (A icle 7.1) (UNFCCC, 2015a). The Uni ed Na ions F amewo k
Con en ion on Clima e Change (UNFCCC) sec e a ia ’s 2021 p og ess epo on
na ional adap a ion plans (NAPs) indica es ha as o No embe 2020, 125 o he 154
de eloping coun ies had unde aken ac i i ies o o mula e and o implemen NAPs
(UNFCCC, 2021).
A icle 7 o he 2015 Pa is Ag eemen also calls o all Pa ies o implemen ,
moni o , e alua e and lea n om adap a ion plans, policies, p og ammes and ac ions
(UNFCCC, 2015a). Much o he ocus on clima e change adap a ion p og ess has
been on mains eaming and e ec i eness o planning o adap a ion policies, plans
and s a egies wi h limi ed e idence on implemen a ion and impac s o he adap a ion
plans (Baue , Feich inge , & S eu e , 2012; Lei e , 2021; Olazabal & De Gopegui,
2021; Runhaa , Wilk, Pe sson, Ui enb oek, & Wamsle , 2018; UNEP, 2021). The
IPCC Fi h Assessmen Repo acknowledged ha , a he global le el, e idence o
adap a ion implemen a ion emained limi ed and equi ed o e coming esou ce,
ins i u ional and capaci y ba ie s (Mimu a e al., 2014). The ex en o implemen a‑
ion, moni o ing and e alua ion emains limi ed ac oss A ican coun ies, despi e
a se ies o echnical and inancial suppo by na ional and in e na ional pa ne s
assis ing he coun ies in o mula ing he clima e change adap a ion plans/s a egies/
policies and implemen ing pilo p ojec s. O en, he implemen a ion ends a he pilo
p ojec s, and coun ies ha e no mains eamed he alloca ion o esou ces in hei
na ional‑ and local‑le el planning and budge ing p ocesses.
This gap makes indica o s ha assess whe he a coun y has de eloped a
na ional adap a ion plan/s a egy/policy, such as he SDG indica o “13.2.1
Numbe o coun ies wi h (…) na ional adap a ion plans (…)” (UN, 2020) and he
In e na ional Clima e Fund (ICF) Key Pe o mance Indica o (KPI) 13 sco eca d
on mains eaming clima e change in na ional ag icul u e plans/s a egies/policies
misleading o policymake s and he public as hey assume clima e change adap a‑
ion and esilience a e being add essed. The lack o e idence on clima e change
adap a ion implemen a ion a ec s he abili y o unde s and whe he coun ies a e
e ec i ely p epa ing hei popula ions and economic sec o s o be e cope wi h
clima e change shocks (Bine e al., 2021). The planning o clima e change adap a‑
ion and esilience is impo an ; howe e , ansla ing he plans in o implemen a ion
is c i ical o building he adap a i e capaci y o espond o he inc easing numbe
and in ensi y o clima e change shocks.
The go e nmen s o Malawi and Mozambique ecognise he c i ical ole o clima e
change adap a ion in hei medium‑ and long‑ e m de elopmen plans and in a ange
o o he s a egies and policies, o he ex en ha hey ha e de eloped and a e main‑
s eaming p og ammes add essing clima e change h ough, o example, he Malawi
Na ional Clima e Change Managemen Policy (Go e nmen o Malawi, 2016, 2017)
and he Mozambique Na ional Clima e Change Adap a ion and Mi iga ion S a egy
(NCCAMS) 2013–2025 (Go e nmen o Mozambique, 2012). Wi h echnical and
80 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
some imes inancial suppo om de elopmen pa ne s, he go e nmen s o Malawi
and Mozambique ha e ex ensi ely in es ed in na ional adap a ion plans/s a e‑
gies/policies. The na ional plans, s a egies and policies highligh he impo ance
o esponding o he impac s o clima e change and building adap i e capaci y o
be e p epa e o u u e isks and shocks. Howe e , despi e he a ou able na ional
amewo k and adap a ion plans/s a egies/policies de eloped o guide adap a ion
in es men s in hese coun ies, implemen ing ag icul u al sec o adap a ion p io i‑
ies emains a challenge. Fu he mo e, despi e se e al p ojec s implemen ed ac oss
he coun ies wi h suppo om na ional and in e na ional pa ne s, he e is scan
empi ical e idence o he implemen a ion ou comes; and a a highe le el, he e is
limi ed e idence o moni o ing and lea ning o he na ional clima e change adap a‑
ion plans/s a egies and policies.
The chap e ’s main objec i e was o assess he ex en and challenges o imple‑
men ing, moni o ing, and e alua ing clima e change adap a ion plans/s a egies/poli‑
cies o enhance ag icul u al esilience a na ional and sub‑na ional le els in Malawi
and Mozambique. This chap e con ibu es o he need o mo e empi ical e idence
on implemen ing, moni o ing, and e alua ing clima e change adap a ion and esil‑
ience policies and plans beyond s a ed in en ions in na ional planning documen s and
coun y submissions o he UNFCCC. Relying on s a ed in en ions in NAPs leads o
o e ‑es ima ion o coun ies implemen ing, moni o ing and e alua ing he p og ess
o hei plans (Lei e , 2021). The need o mo e empi ical esea ch on clima e change
policies/plans implemen a ion (Rykkja, Neby, & Hope, 2014) is con i med by he
AGRA ICF KPI 13 sco eca d esul s (AGRA, 2019, 2020, 2021) and he 2019 CAAP
Biennial Re iew. The empi ical indings o his chap e con ibu e o clima e change
ad iso y epo s o engage s akeholde s in he espec i e coun ies o s eng hen he
implemen a ion o na ional clima e change plans/s a egies/policies.
5.2 LITERATURE REVIEW
5.2.1 o e iew o he s a Us o clima e change
adap a ion planning and implemen a ion
The UNFCCC was es ablished in 1992 o help coun ies o mula e and implemen
na ional adap a ion s a egies. Leas de eloped coun ies de eloped Na ional Adap a ion
P og ammes o Ac ion (NAPA) ha documen ed he coun y’s pe cei ed u gen and
immedia e needs o adap o clima e change (UNFCCC, 2011). In addi ion o he NAPs
add essing medium‑ o long‑ e m impac s o clima e change, a e he 2015 Pa is
Decla a ion, coun ies ha e de eloped In ended Na ionally De e mined Con ibu ions
(INDCs). The IPCC Special Repo on he impac s o global wa ming o 1.5°C abo e
he p e‑indus ial le els shows he need o he u gency o g ea e ambi ion in NDCs
i he global mean empe a u e is o be limi ed o 1.5°C (IPCC, 2018). Pauw and Klein
(2020) a gue ha he ambi ion o he in ended NDCs be o e o sho ly a e he 2015
Pa is Clima e Con e ence is no enough, and he e is a need o coun ies o imp o e he
e ec i eness o he plans and policies unde pinning hei NDCs. This can be achie ed
h ough imp o ed anspa ency, cohe ence and implemen abili y o he NDCs (Pauw,
Cas o, Picke ing, & Bhasin, 2020; Pauw & Klein, 2020; Pauw e al., 2018).
81S eng hening he na ional clima e change adap a ion plans
Mains eaming clima e change in policy de elopmen ac oss sec o s is impo an
(England e al., 2018) o ensu e coun ies educe he ad e se impac s o clima e change
isks and be e p epa e o espond o p ojec ed u u e changes. Clima e change adap‑
a ion is inc easingly in eg a ed in o na ional planning and policy p ocesses. Röse ,
Wide be g, Höhne, and Day (2020) a gue ha he p ocess o p epa ing he NDCs
con ibu es posi i ely o na ional clima e policy p ocesses by aising awa eness, ca a‑
lysing ins i u ional change, and imp o ing poli ical buy‑in ac oss go e nmen and non‑
go e nmen s akeholde s. Howe e , he p ocess o p epa ing and implemen ing NDCs
in de eloping and eme ging coun ies aces challenges such as poli ical suppo , inan‑
cial, human and echnical esou ces, and analy ical capabili ies (Röse , Wide be g,
Höhne, & Day, 2020). Despi e e idence o delays due o he COVID‑19 pandemic on
NAP de elopmen p ocesses in some coun ies, especially leas de eloped coun ies,
he e is conside able p og ess on NAP agendas. As o Augus 2021, mo e han 75% o
A ican coun ies had adop ed a leas one na ional‑le el adap a ion planning ins umen
(such as a plan, s a egy, policy, o law) (see Figu e5.1) (UNEP, 2021).
Lei e (2021) conduc ed an e idence‑based global s ock ake o moni o ing and
e alua ion sys ems o na ional clima e change adap a ion plans o de e mine whe he
FIGURE5.1 S a us o adap a ion planning in A ica, as o 5 Augus 2021.
No e: Te i o ies ma ked as N/A a e hose which a e ecognised as dispu ed by he Uni ed
Na ions o whose s a us has no ye been ag eed upon.
Sou ce: UNEP (2021).
88 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
e alua ions inc eased by 40%. Lei e ’s (2021) s ock akes also ound ha sys em‑
a ic assessmen o NAP implemen a ion was lacking in mo e han 60 pe cen o
he coun ies ha adop ed NAPs, making i di icul o unde s and he impac s
o he NAPs. The indings abo e call o inc eased e o s in ensu ing coun ies
implemen he commi men s in hei NAPs and conduc sys ema ic moni o ing
and e alua ion o he implemen a ion and impac s in he espec i e economies.
A s udy on ways o e ec i ely build capaci y o adap o clima e change in Malawi
ound ha capaci y building om long‑ e m and sho ‑ e m aining complemen‑
a ily in luences he design and implemen a ion o success ul adap a ion p ac ices
(Ma aya, Vincen , & Dougill, 2020). This includes designing and implemen ing
sho ‑ e m aining pa icipa o y wo kshops cus omised o he needs o he ainees
and using con ex ‑speci ic examples as well as on‑ he‑job aining, ac ion planning
and men o ing a e he aining (Ma aya, Vincen , & Dougill, 2020). The s udy also
ei e a ed he impo ance o coo dina ed design, implemen a ion and moni o ing o
adap a ion capaci y‑building ac i i ies and ensu ing app op ia e ins i u ional suppo
a e he aining sessions o imp o e adap a ion planning ac oss he con inen .
The Mozambique Go e nmen , in collabo a ion wi h na ional and in e na ional
pa ne s, has implemen ed se e al clima e change‑ ela ed p ojec s and p og ammes.
The gaps and ba ie s iden i ied in he implemen a ion o clima e change adap a ion
ac ions in Mozambique include insu icien coo dina ion and go e nance mecha‑
nisms leading o policy cohe ence a he na ional, p o incial and dis ic le els; lack
o echnical capaci y o mains eam clima e change a na ional, p o incial and dis‑
ic planning and budge ing sys ems; and poo clima e change and gende ‑sensi i e
da a and in o ma ion (UNDP, UNEP, & GEF, 2020). The Na ional Adap a ion Plan
Global Suppo P og amme (NAP‑GSP) iden i ied he ollowing oppo uni ies o
s eng hen he NAP o mula ion and implemen a ion p ocesses in Mozambique:
de ine p ecise coo dina ion mechanisms; ope a ionalise he implemen a ion mech‑
anisms o he NCCAMS; elabo a e and implemen he capaci y plan o conduc
esea ch in ele an a eas; inc ease he capaci y o lead he clima e change adap a ion
cycle; s eng hen ele an ins i u ions o collec and manage da a and in o ma ion,
un clima e models and elabo a e scena ios a p o incial le els; de elop and imple‑
men s a egies o clima e change educa ion, awa eness‑ aising, communica ion
and public pa icipa ion; assess adap a ion echnology needs; upda e sec o al poli‑
cies; de elop o imp o e moni o ing and e alua ion ools; s eng hen capaci ies o
mains eam o he c oss‑cu ing issues such as gende o biodi e si y; build na ional
echnical and ins i u ional capaci ies o design and manage p ojec s o access clima e
inancing; and es ablish clima e insu ances (UNDP, UNEP, & GEF, 2020).
Al es e al. (2020) analysed implemen a ion challenges o clima e change poli‑
cies and agendas in 13 coun ies. They ound ha despi e accoun ing o di e en
non‑go e nmen al s akeholde s, he NAPs/NASs emain la gely s a e‑cen ed, wi h
he s ee ing and implemen a ion esponsibili ies assigned o each coun y’s Minis y
o En i onmen . The o he inding om he same s udy was ha he objec i es o he
NAPs e lec ed a mo e global agenda wi h less ocus on na ional/ egional con ex s
and ulne abili ies.
The expe iences om Nige indica e ha mos o he NAPA p io i ies we e
add essed h ough pilo p ojec s suppo ed by bila e al o mul ila e al coope a ion

89S eng hening he na ional clima e change adap a ion plans
a angemen s. Howe e , he challenge ha emains in mos de eloping coun ies is o
scale hese in o he medium and long e m (UNDP, UNEP, & GEF, 2018). The expe‑
iences o he NAPA p ocess in Nige also highligh simila cons ain s obse ed
in o he coun ies, such as coo dina ion; ins i u ional and echnical capaci y; da a
a ailabili y, eliabili y and managemen ; in eg a ing clima e change adap a ion in o
planning and budge p ocesses. Also, mobilising inancial esou ces emains c i ical
o scaling up and sus aining he pilo p ojec s co‑implemen ed wi h bila e al and
mul ila e al pa ne s (UNDP, UNEP, & GEF, 2018).
Ampai e e al. (2017) and Ampai e, Happy, Van As en, and Radeny (2015) anal‑
ysed policy de elopmen and implemen a ion gaps in Rakai Dis ic , Uganda, ocus‑
ing on ins i u ional challenges o clima e change adap a ion. The s udies we e based
on li e a u e e iews ac oss mul iple go e nance le els, spa ial scales, and ield
assessmen s. The policy de elopmen p ocesses we e cen alised a he na ional le ‑
els, and led by cen al go e nmen agencies wi h he insu icien engagemen o o he
ac o s, and local s akeholde s (communi ies) we e excluded. In addi ion, he s udy
ound he main cons ain s o clima e policy implemen a ion included a disconnec in
communica ion ac oss all go e nance le els (na ional, dis ic and communi y), lim‑
i ed echnical capaci y and inances, poli ical in e e ence and absence o unc ional
implemen a ion s uc u es ac oss all le els (Ampai e, Happy, Van As en, & Radeny,
2015; Ampai e e al., 2017). The s udy ecommended measu es o enhance linkages
ac oss all go e nance le els and among ac o s o imp o e policy o mula ion, imple‑
men a ion and adap a ion by smallholde a me s.
Ampai e e al. (2016) analysed ba ie s o he success ul implemen a ion o cli‑
ma e change policy in Tanzania. They ound ha he e ha e been conside able e o s
o suppo esilience‑building ac ions in he ag icul u e sec o . The main ba ie s o
implemen ing clima e change ac ions included limi ed clima e change knowledge
ac oss le els, lack o e ec i e na ional inance mechanism o di ec clima e unds
and poo coo dina ion o clima e change ac ions om na ional o local le els (discon‑
nec be ween na ional and local go e nmen s).
Ui enb oek (2016) analysed he ole o o ganisa ional ou ines in cons aining
he mains eaming o clima e change adap a ion a he implemen a ion s age. The
s udy ound ha despi e he ela i e ease o mains eaming clima e change adap a‑
ion in na ional policies, he p oblem is wi h implemen a ion. O en, policies a e
implemen ed by ac o s o he han he policymake s, whose ac ions a e guided by
o ganisa ional ou ines, which, i no adjus ed, hampe he implemen a ion o new
policy goals such as clima e change adap a ion (Ui enb oek, 2016). Ensu ing app o‑
p ia e changes in o ganisa ional ou ines ac oss all le els (na ional and sub‑na ional)
is impo an o s eng hen he implemen a ion o clima e change adap a ion plans/
s a egies/policies. Some equi ed changes include ealloca ing esou ces and adap ‑
ing exis ing p ac ices o implemen he p io i ies and ac ions in clima e change adap‑
a ion plans/s a egies/policies.
To in e al. (2015) ound ha despi e p og ess in o mula ing na ional clima e
change policies and ac ion plans in Ghana, Mali and Senegal, dis ic ‑le el s a
and he gene al public a he egional and local le els lacked awa eness and
unde s anding o he clima e policy implemen a ion p ocesses. The common ba ‑
ie s o policy de elopmen and e ec i e implemen a ion in he h ee coun ies
90 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
included: a lack o awa eness and unding, a lack o ope a ional capaci y a lowe
adminis a i e le els and li le in ol emen om s akeholde s. Fu he mo e, he
e ec i e implemen a ion o clima e policy was hampe ed by a lack o in o ma‑
ion lows on exis ing clima e policy p ocesses be ween na ional and local le els.
The s udy ecommended supe ised knowledge‑sha ing pla o ms o na ional,
egional and local policymake s and o he s akeholde s o s eng hen in o ma‑
ion lows and suppo policy de elopmen and implemen a ion. O he cons ain s
ha hampe he ansla ion o clima e change policies and plans in o conc e e
ac ions and implemen a ions in Ghana, Mali, and Senegal include lags in he
policy planning, de elopmen and app o al p ocesses. Fu he mo e, he de elop‑
men o clima e change policies in Ghana, Mali and Senegal was no comp ehen‑
si e in he pa icipa ion o all ele an s akeholde s, especially a he sub‑na ional
le els. E ec i e pa icipa ion is impo an in ensu ing he policy de elopmen
p ocess in eg a es con ex ‑speci ic inpu s o c ea e awa eness and unde s anding
o he p io i ies o be mains eamed in de elopmen ac i i ies, especially a he
sub‑na ional le els.
5.3 METHODS OF THE STUDY
Building on o he empi ical s udies on he implemen a ion o clima e change adap a‑
ion policies, such as hose p esen ed by se e al esea che s (Ampai e e al., 2016,
2017; Al es e al., 2020; Lei e , 2021), he chap e is based on a e iew o he li ‑
e a u e and quali a i e da a collec ed om key in o man in e iews wi h iden i ied
key na ional and sub‑na ional s akeholde s. The sys emic desk op e iew ocused on
clima e change adap a ion planning and policy documen s om na ional go e nmen
minis ies/depa men s (such as he Minis ies o En i onmen , Ag icul u e, and
T ade) esponsible o designing and implemen ing clima e change adap a ion plans/
s a egies/policies. The e iew assessed he a ailabili y o moni o ing and e alua ion
sys ems and epo s o he coun y’s na ional adap a ion plans/policies as indica ed
in he NAP echnical guidelines (UNFCCC, 2012) and A icle 7 o he 2015 Pa is
Ag eemen (UNFCCC, 2015a). We also explo ed ag icul u e sec o moni o ing and
e alua ion sys ems and published li e a u e like he global s ock ake o NAP moni‑
o ing and e alua ion sys ems such as Lei e (2021), UNFCCC NAP p og ess epo s,
and UNEP adap a ion gap epo s (UNEP, 2021), epo s om academics, na ional
and in e na ional o ganisa ions. In addi ion, he e iew iden i ied gaps and challenges
in clima e change policy implemen a ion p ocesses, such as echnical capaci y and
budge p o isions o ansla e he policy ac ions in o ou pu s and ou comes.
Fo key in o man in e iews, he iden i ied s akeholde s included policymake s,
a me s, scien is s, and non‑s a e ac o s such as de elopmen pa ne s and he p i a e
sec o wo king on clima e change adap a ion and esilience in he espec i e ocus
coun ies. The analysis iangula ed he indings om he sys emic li e a u e e iew
h ough ou each o key s akeholde s om go e nmen and na ional and in e na‑
ional pa ne o ganisa ions wo king on clima e change adap a ion in he espec i e
coun ies. The indings om he e iew and ou each o key in o man s akeholde s
om he espec i e coun ies helped de elop clima e change adap a ion ad iso y
epo s o in o m s akeholde engagemen .
91S eng hening he na ional clima e change adap a ion plans
5.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This sec ion discusses indings om s akeholde engagemen s in Malawi and Mozambique
on he ex en o implemen a ion o clima e change policies and p io i ies. as highligh ed
abo e. The wo coun ies ha e comp ehensi e se s o policy amewo ks de eloped o
add ess clima e change issues. The s akeholde s om bo h coun ies epo ed ha hey
ha e adequa e clima e change policy amewo ks ha , i implemen ed, would signi i‑
can ly con ibu e o building clima e change adap a i e and esilience capaci y ac oss
all le els and sec o s. The espec i e Minis ies o En i onmen coo dina e he na ional
policy amewo ks. The s akeholde engagemen s showed ha he challenges a ec ‑
ing he implemen a ion o clima e change adap a ion p io i ies/ac ions in na ional poli‑
cies included he ollowing: lack o inancial and echnical esou ces, implemen a ion
coo dina ion challenges, and lack o awa eness o he policy amewo ks, especially a
sub‑na ional le els. The s akeholde engagemen s showed ha much o he e o s ha e
been on mains eaming clima e change adap a ion in na ional planning documen s and
policies. The e is limi ed e idence o signi ican ac ion on he implemen a ion o hese
policies. Malawi and Mozambique emain ulne able o clima e change a iabili y and
ex emes. In ea ly 2022, bo h coun ies expe ienced opical s o ms, Anna and Gombe,
espec i ely, which signi ican ly des oyed li elihood sou ces and in as uc u e in he
a ec ed communi ies.
5.4.1 limi ed inancial esoU ces
The s akeholde engagemen s in bo h Malawi and Mozambique showed ha he low
and o en limi ed alloca ion o inancial esou ces emains a signi ican cons ain o
implemen ing clima e change adap a ion p io i ies ac oss sec o s such as ag icul u e.
Despi e he comp ehensi e na ional clima e change amewo ks in bo h coun ies,
wi hou adequa e inancial esou ces, many policy documen s ge o hei end da es
wi hou conside able implemen a ion. The espec i e clima e change depa men s
epo ed limi ed budge alloca ions o ope a ionalise hei annual plans. Malawi and
Mozambique ha e budge challenges and signi ican ly depend on dono suppo ;
e en i hey ha e he poli ical will, limi ed inancial esou ces hampe hei abili y
o ope a ionalise hei clima e change adap a ion policies/plans. Some go e nmen
s akeholde s highligh ed ha he limi a ions in inancial esou ces lea e he coun‑
ies la gely dependen on de elopmen pa ne s who o en d i e hei agenda, which
some imes does no align wi h go e nmen p io i ies.
Ano he challenge is he p io i ies ega ding budge ing alloca ions; o example,
in Malawi, close o 50% o he ag icul u e budge is alloca ed o he inpu subsidy
p og amme, lea ing minimal esou ces o o he ac i i ies, including implemen ing
clima e change adap a ion policies/plans.
The o he challenge ega ding inancial esou ces s akeholde s highligh ed in
Malawi is balancing public good p og ammes (such as ood and nu i ion secu i y)
and comme cial p og ammes in alloca ing public esou ces. Because go e nmen s
a e cons ained in esou ces, de elopmen pa ne s and NGOs d i e hei own
agenda. This a ec s he sus ainabili y o such p og ammes beyond he unding p o‑
g ammes i he go e nmen conside s hem p ima ily dono /NGO d i en wi hou
e ec i e pa ne ship in designing, planning and implemen a ion.
92 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
Inno a i e inancial app oaches a e c i ical o d i ing he implemen a ion o cli‑
ma e change adap a ion om domes ic and in e na ional sou ces. The capaci y o
go e nmen and o he domes ic ins i u ions should be imp o ed o help hem access
in e na ional clima e change adap a ion inances o implemen hei adap a ion plans
and policies. Ad ocacy o inc eased in es men s in clima e change adap a ion is
c i ical o ensu e he s eng hened implemen a ion o adap a ion policies and plans.
Clima e change adap a ion should no be aken as an ex a in he planning o he
Minis y’s annual plans. S ill, i should be embedded in he ongoing ac i i ies o
b ing ans o ma i e adap a ion ou comes ha help he coun ies de elop and build
esilience o clima e‑ ela ed isks.
5.4.2 limi ed awa eness o he policy amewo ks,
especially a sUB‑na ional le els
The s akeholde engagemen s in bo h coun ies also showed limi ed awa eness o
clima e change policy amewo ks a he sub‑na ional le els whe e implemen a ion
occu s. Despi e some o he o icials a sub‑na ional le els being consul ed in de el‑
oping hese documen s, when comple ed, copies a e o en no sha ed wi h hem. In
some cases, he policy documen s we e epo ed o be oo long and di icul o ead
and unde s and easily. The s akeholde s highligh ed ha hese need o be simpli‑
ied in o easy‑ o‑ ead and useable e sions o acili a e easy eading, unde s anding
and use in he planning and implemen a ion o sub‑na ional de elopmen plans. The
s akeholde s in ol ed in implemen ing clima e change adap a ion a sub‑na ional le ‑
els highligh ed ha in some cases, he o icials ha e ei he no seen he na ional cli‑
ma e change policies/plans o hey ha e no ead hem. S akeholde s in bo h Malawi
and Mozambique epo ed ha , in some cases, he clima e change adap a ion docu‑
men s emain in na ional o ices and a e ne e seen a he sub‑na ional le el.
The abo e indings con ibu e o weak mains eaming and implemen ing clima e
change adap a ion a he sub‑na ional le el as he o icials manda ed o de elop and
o e see sub‑na ional de elopmen ac i i ies ha e ei he been limi ed o a e unawa e o
clima e change policies/plans. Some o he s akeholde s in Malawi a gued ha in some
cases, he clima e change adap a ion policies/plans a e known o he o icials ac i ely
in ol ed in hei de elopmen . The limi ed awa eness in o he line minis ies beyond he
s a engaged in consul a ions du ing he de elopmen o he clima e change adap a ion
policies/plans a ec s he in eg a ion o adap a ion and esilience in b oade na ional p o‑
g ammes and ac i i ies. Fu he mo e, some non‑s a e s akeholde s a gued ha al hough
he e a e e o s o engage a ious ac o s in de eloping clima e change adap a ion poli‑
cies/plans, mo e needs o be done o ensu e e ec i e and inclusi e pa icipa ion. The
s akeholde s highligh ed ha engagemen should no only alida e al eady de eloped
policies/plans bu acili a e pa icipa ion in ac i ely shaping hei de elopmen .
5.4.3 coo dina ion challenges in planning and
implemen a ion o adap a ion p io i ies
Engagemen s wi h go e nmen , de elopmen pa ne s, NGOs, a me o ganisa‑
ions, e c., ei e a ed he lack o coo dina ed planning and implemen a ion o clima e
93S eng hening he na ional clima e change adap a ion plans
change adap a ion and esilience ac i i ies in bo h coun ies. Go e nmen depa ‑
men s (including in he same minis y) s ill wo k in silos on clima e change adap a‑
ion issues despi e e o s and s uc u es o coo dina e e o s. Simila ly, NGOs and
De elopmen Pa ne s (DPs) we e epo ed o implemen hei own p og ammes/
p ojec s some imes wi hou he e ec i e in ol emen o he go e nmen . The go ‑
e nmen s akeholde s a gued ha NGOs some imes ge money in he name o helping
he go e nmen implemen adap a ion p io i ies; howe e , he e is no accoun abili y
o he go e nmen and some imes epo ed ou pu s and impac s a e no wha is on he
g ound. Some s akeholde s highligh ed a disconnec be ween he esul s and impac s
in ins i u ional epo s and wha can be e i ied in he a ge communi ies.
Fu he mo e, coo dina ion o DPs (among hemsel es and wi h o by he go e n‑
men ) on implemen ing clima e change adap a ion and esilience ac i i ies was lim‑
i ed. S akeholde s highligh ed he u gen need o imp o e coo dina ion among DPs
and also wi h he go e nmen in planning and implemen ing clima e change adap‑
a ion p io i ies o he espec i e coun ies. Fo example, in Malawi, some s ake‑
holde s epo ed ha whoe e unds he Technical Commi ee on Clima e Change
called he sho s, and he commi ee’s ocus ended up wi h he ocus o he unding
agency. Some o he s akeholde s highligh ed ha he coo dina ion o he Technical
Commi ee on Clima e Change should be s eng hened o mi o he e ec i eness
o he DCAFS in coo dina ing and d i ing he implemen a ion o clima e change
adap a ion and esilience p io i ies in he coun y. Fu he mo e, hese echnical com‑
mi ees should mo e beyond discussing p ojec s o ocus on he coun y’s hema ic
clima e change adap a ion/ esilience p io i ies.
The lack o e ec i e and inclusi e coo dina ion in he planning and implemen‑
a ion o clima e change adap a ion and esilience a sub‑na ional le els esul s in
s a a hese le els ecei ing mul iple and di e en uncoo dina ed clima e change
adap a ion and esilience in o ma ion and p ojec s. The clima e change messaging
and p og amming can be o e whelming o sub‑na ional s a and end‑use s and ail
o achie e he desi ed ou pu s and impac . Coo dina ion can help s eamline clima e
change adap a ion, esilience messaging, and implemen a ion ac oss all le els. The
coo dina ion o he commi ee needs o emain b oad o co e na ional p io i ies and
d i e hei implemen a ion ac oss all sec o s. Some s akeholde s highligh ed ha
due o he lack o na ional coo dina ion, di e en ins i u ions ocus on ge ing as
many esou ces as possible in he name o clima e change adap a ion and esilience;
howe e , he e is no e idence o demons a e he impac . Despi e he manda e o
espec i e Minis ies o En i onmen o coo dina e clima e change issues in each
coun y, cu en e o s a e inadequa e as di e en ins i u ions con inue o plan and
implemen hei own ac i i ies wi hin he clima e change space.
5.4.4 limi ed anspa ency in he implemen a ion o
na ional adap a ion policies/plans
While some s akeholde s engaged in Malawi epo ed ha he Na ional Clima e
Change Resilience S a egy de eloped by he go e nmen was no being implemen ed,
engagemen s wi h o he go e nmen depa men s showed ha implemen a ion s a ed
wi h a pilo in six dis ic s, and plans a e o scale o o he dis ic s and he es o he

94 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
coun y. One o he challenges highligh ed du ing he s akeholde engagemen s is
ha he Na ional Resilience S a egy is now housed a he Depa men o Disas e
Managemen (DoDMA) wi hou much awa eness and each o s akeholde s ac oss
he coun y beyond disas e s. Wi hou awa eness and isibili y o he s a egy o o he
sec o s and s akeholde s who a e expec ed o implemen some o he p io i ies,i is
challenging o imp o e implemen a ion, moni o ing and e alua ion signi ican ly.
S akeholde s in Malawi highligh ed ha mul i‑sec o al clima e change adap a‑
ion/ esilience policies/plans should no be housed in a depa men o line minis y.
The expe ience in he coun y has been mos o his ends up being plans o ha
espec i e depa men o line minis y. The engagemen s highligh ed ha depa ‑
men s o line minis ies some imes ac as i als because each needs access o clima e
change adap a ion/ esilience esou ces. This esul s in adap a ion ac i i ies being
implemen ed piecemeal wi hou coo dina ed planning o scale up he implemen a‑
ion. S uc u es such as he O ice o he P esiden a e ideal o d i ing mul i‑sec o al
e o s such as clima e change adap a ion. Howe e , he limi a ion is ha any hing
unde he s a ehouse will li e as long as he P esiden is in powe . The e is a need
o s uc u es wi h con ening powe o b ing di e en minis ies, DPs, and NGOs
oge he o s eng hen coo dina ion and alignmen .
5.4.5 lack o na ional moni o ing and e alUa ion o adap a ion p og ess
This is linked o he limi a ions in coo dina ed planning and implemen a ion despi e
ongoing e o s in Malawi, such as de eloping a managemen in o ma ion sys em
(MIS) o moni o and ack all clima e change in es men s, ou pu s and impac s in
he coun y. When ully ope a ional, he in o ma ion sys ems being de eloped by
he Depa men o En i onmen will help he coun y moni o and ack all clima e
change‑ ela ed in es men s and p og ess. Howe e , nei he coun y could p o ide
documen ed e idence o moni o ing and e alua ion epo s on na ional clima e
change adap a ion p io i ies du ing he s akeholde engagemen s. This is despi e cli‑
ma e change adap a ion policies and amewo ks being de eloped wi h moni o ing
and e alua ion plans. The inding also highligh s he limi ed capaci y o moni o and
e alua e he implemen a ion o clima e change policies and plans in ele an ins i u‑
ions. The indi idual in es men s by di e en ac o s usually ha e moni o ing and
e alua ion o esul s o speci ic p ojec s, and he e is no eadily a ailable da a a he
na ional le el on p ojec pe o mance. Moni o ing and e alua ing clima e change
adap a ion ac i i ies a he na ional le el is impo an o ensu e ha coun ies iden i y
success s o ies o scale o o he pa s o he coun ies and lea n om he implemen a‑
ion o imp o e u u e adap a ion p og ammes.
5.4.6 ecU en clima e change shocks and esponses o eme gencies
Malawi and Mozambique ha e been hi by se e al opical cyclones, s o ms and
d ough s ha ha e inc eased in equency and in ensi y in ecen yea s. The la es
IPCC epo shows ha his end will con inue in he u u e due o clima e change and
a iabili y. The ecu en clima ic ex eme e en s ha o en hi bo h coun ies educe
he capabili ies o he espec i e go e nmen s o always espond o eme gencies
95S eng hening he na ional clima e change adap a ion plans
ha signi ican ly impac medium‑ and long‑ e m planning and implemen a ion o
p og ammes. The se e e impac s o he shocks mean ha go e nmen budge s a e
always inadequa e as a ailable esou ces a e channelled o espond o eme gencies.
5.4.7 limi ed ins i U ional capaci y
The chap e also unde ook an ins i u ional capaci y assessmen ocusing on imple‑
men ing clima e change policies in he ag icul u e sec o . S akeholde engagemen s
highligh ed ha se e al na ional and sub‑na ional go e nmen depa men s man‑
da ed o implemen clima e change adap a ion ha e inadequa e ins i u ional capaci y
o deli e on hei goals. The ins i u ional capaci y challenges epo ed include a lack
o laws, egula ions and amewo ks o ensu e he depa men ge s a budge om
he na ional easu y, limi ed human and echnical capaci ies (such as he numbe
o skilled o icials and ep esen a ion a sub‑na ional le els) and compe ing ins i u‑
ional manda es. Fo example, in Malawi, he Depa men o Clima e Change and
Me eo ological Se ices and he DoDMA highligh ed ha no legal amewo ks exis
o guide hei ope a ions. As such, hey ha e no budge o es.
Fu he mo e, expe ise is needed o ansla e he scien i ic in o ma ion in na ional
clima e change policies and clima e o ecas s in o easy‑ o‑use o ms o end‑use s a
di e en le els. Clima e change adap a ion and esilience should be mains eamed
in sub‑na ional‑le el ex ension se ices o s eng hen access o clima e in o ma‑
ion o imp o ed decision‑making ha builds adap i e capaci y and esilience o
u u e shocks. The decen alisa ion o go e nmen in Malawi and ongoing e o s in
Mozambique equi e he ins i u ional capaci y o mains eam, implemen and moni‑
o clima e change adap a ion and esilience policies and plans a sub‑na ional le els,
which o en is no he e.
5.5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Planning clima e change adap a ion and esilience is impo an ; howe e , ansla ing
he plans in o implemen a ion is c i ical o building he adap a i e capaci y o espond o
clima e change shocks. The assessmen showed ha despi e p og ess in mains eaming
clima e change conside a ions in na ional policies and s a egies, he ex en o imple‑
men a ion, moni o ing and e alua ion emains limi ed. O en, he implemen a ion ends
a he pilo p ojec s, and coun ies ha e no mains eamed he alloca ion o esou ces
in hei na ional‑ and local‑le el planning and budge ing p ocesses. The lack o e i‑
dence on clima e change adap a ion implemen a ion a ec s he abili y o unde s and
be e whe he coun ies a e e ec i ely p epa ing hei popula ions and economic sec‑
o s o be e p epa e o clima e change shocks. The s akeholde engagemen s showed
ha he challenges a ec ing he implemen a ion o clima e change adap a ion p io i‑
ies/ac ions in na ional policies included he ollowing: lack o inancial and echnical
esou ces, implemen a ion coo dina ion challenges, and lack o awa eness o he policy
amewo ks, especially a sub‑na ional le els.
The ecommenda ions o add ess some o hese challenges include he ollowing:
Design and implemen inno a i e inancing mechanisms and s eng hen ech‑
nical capaci y and esou ces: The esul s showed ha Malawi and Mozambique,
96 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
like many de eloping coun ies, lack iable inancing mechanisms o ope a ionalise
adap a ion policies and plans. The e is a need o c ea e inno a i e inancing op ions
le e aging public (especially inancial suppo om public unds in he na ional bud‑
ge ) and p i a e sec o sou ces (domes ic and in e na ional). This includes in eg a ing
adap a ion inancing in budge ed de elopmen in e en ions o ensu e ans o ma i e
adap a ion ou comes ha help he coun ies de elop and build esilience o clima e‑
ela ed isks. O he measu es include expanding and s eng hening he capaci y o
go e nmen and o he domes ic ins i u ions o help hem access in e na ional cli‑
ma e change adap a ion inances o implemen hei adap a ion plans and policies.
Coun ies should also con inuously de elop he echnical capaci y o hei s a in
ansla ing clima e change adap a ion policies in o ac ion and inno a i e inancing
op ions o ensu e he policies and plans a e ope a ionalised.
S eng hen ad ocacy and awa eness o clima e change adap a ion policy ame‑
wo ks, especially a sub‑na ional le els: The clima e change adap a ion policies
and plans mus be packaged in use ‑ iendly o ma s o dissemina ion o di e se
s akeholde s ac oss he coun ies. Delibe a e e o s mus ensu e clima e change
adap a ion policies a e widely dissemina ed beyond he na ional o ices coo dina ‑
ing hei de elopmen . Inc eased clima e change adap a ion policy ad ocacy should
be s eng hened, including inclusi e de elopmen , planning and implemen a ion
o hese policies and plans, especially a he sub‑na ional le els, o he minis ies
and depa men s and sec o ‑wide s akeholde s. Inclusi e clima e change adap a‑
ion s akeholde pa icipa ion should be beyond alida ing policy/planning docu‑
men s o ac i e engagemen in hei de elopmen , implemen a ion, moni o ing and
e alua ion.
S eng hen coo dina ion in planning and implemen a ion o adap a ion p io i‑
ies in na ional and sub‑na ional de elopmen p og ammes: The e idence om he
e iew and s akeholde engagemen s calls o an u gen need o s eng hen coo dina‑
ion in planning and implemen ing clima e change adap a ion ac i i ies a na ional
and sub‑na ional le els. This includes coo dina ion wi hin go e nmen minis ies
and depa men s and wi h sec o s akeholde s (de elopmen pa ne s, p i a e sec o ,
a me o ganisa ions, NGOs, e c.). The e is also a need o s eng hen coo dina ion
among o he s akeholde s hemsel es, such as wi hin he de elopmen pa ne s and
NGOs, o be e plan and coo dina e clima e change adap a ion in e en ions. This
would help o coo dina e clima e change adap a ion and le e age esou ces o scale
he implemen a ion o na ional p io i ies and b ing ans o ma ional change. Also,
s eng hening coo dina ion would help s eamline clima e change adap a ion and
esilience messaging and implemen a ion ac oss all le els.
Imp o e anspa ency in implemen ing na ional adap a ion policies/plans:
Delibe a e e o s a e equi ed o ensu e he isibili y o p og ess wi h clima e
change policies o sec o ‑wide s akeholde s. Implemen ing na ional clima e change
policies and plans should no be closed wi hin some depa men s bu isible o o he
depa men s, minis ies and s akeholde s. This is also impo an o ensu e accoun ‑
abili y o ac ion and esul s in clima e change adap a ion in e en ions. The e is a
need o na ional s uc u es wi h con ening powe o b ing di e en minis ies, DPs,
and NGOs oge he o s eng hen coo dina ion and alignmen .
S eng hen na ional moni o ing and e alua ion o adap a ion p og ess: The e
is an u gen need o de elop and/o s eng hen moni o ing and e alua ion sys ems
97S eng hening he na ional clima e change adap a ion plans
(and managemen in o ma ion sys ems) o clima e change adap a ion ac i i ies a he
na ional le el. This would help o ensu e ha coun ies documen hei in es men s
in clima e change adap a ion and ack he impac s, iden i y success s o ies o scale
o o he pa s o he coun ies and lea n om he implemen a ion o imp o e u u e
adap a ion p og ammes. The ins i u ional and indi idual capaci y o moni o and
e alua e he implemen a ion o clima e change adap a ion policies and plans should
be de eloped and s eng hened a na ional and sub‑na ional le els.
Build clima e change o ecas ing capaci y o imp o e planning and decision‑
making in esponding o ecu en clima e change shocks and eme gencies:
The e is an u gen need o s eng hen he capaci y o he espec i e depa men s
and minis ies wo king wi h pa ne s o p oduce close o eal‑ ime, medium‑ and
long‑ e m o ecas ing o clima e changes, including shocks such as he ecu ‑
en opical s o ms and d ough s. The in o ma ion should be eadily accessi‑
ble o sec o ‑ wide s akeholde s o in o m app op ia e planning beyond eac i e
esponses o eme gencies when he e is a shock. This would also help a oid
di e ing signi ican budge  alloca ion o o he de elopmen p og ammes o
a end o clima e change eme gencies.
NOTE
1 “Clima ic impac ‑d i e s (CIDs) a e physical clima e sys em condi ions (e.g., means,
e en s, ex emes) ha a ec an elemen o socie y o ecosys ems. Depending on sys em
ole ance, CIDs and hei changes can be de imen al, bene icial, neu al, o a mix u e
o each ac oss in e ac ing sys em elemen s and egions” (IPCC, 2021).
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(2016). Ba ie s o success ul clima e change policy implemen a ion in Tanzania. CCAFS
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104 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
Founda ion, 2013). This linea amewo k has placed many coun ies a isk o
esou ce o e exploi a ion and deple ion, po en ially dis up ing he con inuous in e ‑
na ional economic g ow h. These a e signs indica ing an impending pla eau in e ms
o economic de elopmen .
Conside ing he wide ange o challenges and limi a ions associa ed wi h LE
(Box6.1), he e is no doub ha mig a ing om LE o CE is c i ical. This mig a ion
would be a posi i e ansi ion om he cu en C adle‑ o‑G a e economic sys em
owa ds an al e na i e C adle‑ o‑C adle sys em, e u ning as many esou ces o hei
o iginal s a e as possible o eplenishing esou ces whe e possible, hus suppo ing
FIGURE6.3 Linea economy esou ce low.
FIGURE6.2 Fo ecas ed g ow h and inc ease in global esou ce ex ac ion om he yea
1980–2020.
Sou ce: Ellen Maca hu Founda ion (2013).

105P og ess owa ds he ci cula economy
sus ainable de elopmen (Bu cha d‑Dziubinska, 2017; D abe and He s a , 2016;
Özkan and Yücel, 2020). The challenges in balancing indus ial de elopmen , eco‑
nomic g ow h, and en i onmen al and human heal h ha e s eng hened he need o
suppo he CE concep . Fo ins ance, sani a ion and o ganic was e p oduc s manage‑
men ocus on en i onmen al and human heal h se ices p o ision and d i es CE;
p oduc managemen p omo es educed pollu ion and a cleane en i onmen . Clean
en i onmen s a e c i ical o human heal h. In addi ion, CE needs o mo e om a
heo e ical de elopmen phase o success ul implemen a ion ac oss mul iple sec o s
and all coun ies. This concep can be pa ially implemen ed sec o by sec o depend‑
ing on a sec o ’s po en ial o implemen CE, o wha is also called a “closed‑loop”
economy. Howe e , o a wholis ic ealisa ion o CE, egions o coun ies mus ha e
sec o al engagemen so ha none o he sec o s is le behind in playing i s pa in his
noble economic model o d i e sus ainable de elopmen (Owojo i and Oko o, 2022;
Sha ma e al., 2021).
Li e a u e and eme ging esea ch show CE as he bes economic model o eplace
he LE (Table6.1); howe e , i is clea ha CE is s ill in an in an s age in e ms
o implemen a ion. In he Eu opean Union, p og ammes, egula ions, and di ec‑
i es we e implemen ed in suppo o he CE model (Camille i, 2020; Eu opean
Commission, 2017, 2018; Eu opean Union, 2020; Oakdene, 2018); howe e , li le
is obse ed in o he egions, especially in he de eloping wo ld (Desmond and
Asamba, 2019). The e is li le o no clea ac ion o suppo ans o ma i e e o s and
TABLE6.1
Di e ences be ween linea and ci cula economies
Ca ego y Linea economy Ci cula economy
A i ude owa ds na u e Ex ensi e esou ce ex ac ion om
he Ea h
Decoupling economic ac i i ies
om he consump ion o
sca ce esou ces, keeping
p oduc s and ma e ials in use
A i ude owa ds
p oduc ion
Take‑make‑use‑was e 6Rs–Reduce, Reuse, Recycle,
Re hink, Repai , Reco e
Closing loops and
lows
One li e ime use o p oduc s,
ma e ials and ene gy
Ma e ials and enewable
ene gy low in ini ely in
ci cles h ough he economy
P oduc a ibu es P oduc s become obsole e while s ill
usable
P oduc li e ex ension and used
ma e ials se e as aluable
inpu s o o he p oduc s
The ecosys em se ices Bes simply on e iciency and
one‑size‑ i s‑all app oach
Many connec ing nodes and
scales show a g ea e
esis ance in he ace o
ex e nal s esses and shocks
Economic key alues Money and e iciency a e he
dominan alues in linea businesses
Highly ocused on economic,
ecological, and social aspec s
Sou ce: Adap ed om She elo (2020).
106 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
policies acili a ing he mig a ion om LE o CE in de eloping coun ies, especially
in A ica (Desmond and Asamba, 2019; Negi e al., 2021).
This chap e aces p e ious and cu en CE e o s in Sou h A ica. The ocus
is on he his o ical de elopmen o esou ce eco e y om sani a ion, pa icula ly
o ganic was e ma e ials. As highligh ed be o e, he economic and de elopmen al
sec o o indus y d i es he pe cep ion o a CE, which is di e en in mining, ag i‑
cul u e, ene gy, wa e , human se lemen , and was e managemen , o name a ew.
This chap e e alua es CE p og ess in Sou h A ica om he pe spec i e o esou ce
eclama ion om o ganic was e. Se e al echnologies and p ojec s in his ield ha
ha e been o a e unning a e desc ibed. He e, hese p ojec s a e iden i ied, and hei
s a egies elucida ed, including oppo uni ies o scaling. Challenges, as well as p oj‑
ec s ha we e hal ed, a e also discussed. This wo k also desc ibes he po en ial sus‑
ainable in eg a ion o hese app oaches in o he wide Sou h A ican economy and
emedial pa hways o such p ojec s and echnologies o succeed. In sho , we assess
he p og ess made so a in o ganic was e managemen and i s con ibu ion o accel‑
e a ing he CE model in Sou h A ica.
6.1.3 an o e iew o he soU h a ican ci cUla economy
amewo k: policies and in ol emen
Sou h A ican go e nmen and p ac i ione s ha e pu ex ensi e esou ces and e o
in o de eloping igo ous guidelines o was e euse. Risks become a c i ical ac o
whene e he CE is conside ed and was es a e e‑used. Any was e des ined o euse
mus be classi ied as sa e be o e being slo ed back in o he CE. Local guidelines
suppo his e o , making i simple o p ac i ione s o es and classi y was e as
sa e o euse. Fo ins ance, in o ganic was e managemen and euse, elegan and
clea egula ions and guidelines ha e been de eloped in Sou h A ica, mainly ocus‑
ing on municipal sewage and wa e ea men esidual sludge euse in ag icul u e
(He selman, 2013; Snyman and He selman, 2006).
Simila ly, he es ing and applica ion o gene al o ganic was e a e well‑desc ibed
unde he Na ional En i onmen Managemen : Wa e Ac o 2009 (God ey e al.,
2021). As much as his is a noble and use ul a emp o egula e he use o o ganic
was es, he cu en guidelines ocus on quali y s anda ds o sludges a ge ed o
euse in he ag icul u e sec o , p o ec ing he ecei ing en i onmen om con ami‑
nan s. This isk‑ ocused app oach can po en ially limi a he han suppo o acil‑
i a e he ansi ion o a CE. Ideally, conside ing his p oblem’s magni ude, policy
should desc ibe isk mi iga ion and c ea e di ec i es o his ansi ion. The speci ic
policies necessa y o suppo and manda e he ansi ion o CE do no cu en ly exis
in Sou h A ica. Al hough p oposals ha e been abled o conside a ion, hey a e ye
o be p omulga ed in o go e nmen policies and legisla ion (Desmond and Asamba,
2019). Cu en and his o ical e o s in s eng hening he mo e o CE, pa icula ly
ega ding o ganic was e and esou ce eco e y, a e d i en mainly h ough indi idual
sec o ial e o s, ei he by esea che s o p i a e companies.
Due o hese disin eg a ed e o s, he model has been ma ed wi h se e al chal‑
lenges hinde ing a smoo h ake‑o in o a iable and sus ainable ans o ma i e
e o om LE o CE. In ecen yea s, he Sou h A ican Depa men o Science and
107P og ess owa ds he ci cula economy
Inno a ion (DSI) launched he ‘Science, Technology, and Inno a ion o Ci cula
Economy’ ini ia i e. The depa men pledged o suppo he coun y’s ansi ion o
CE h ough hese a enues. This ini ia i e has made signi ican s ides in CE policy
o mula ions, pa ing he way o was e esea ch and de eloping an inno a ion oad‑
map owa ds a unc ional ansi ion. To align i s e o s wi h he na ional and in e ‑
na ional p io i ies o CE, he Was e Resea ch, De elopmen and Inno a ion plan
was ini ia ed, a en‑yea was e managemen plan aimed a g owing and ans o m‑
ing Sou h A ica’s was e sec o (Depa men o Science and Technology, 2014). The
go e nmen also included CE as a pa amoun op ion o sus ainable g ow h. In gen‑
e al, policy documen s like he Whi e Pape on Science, Technology and Inno a ion
(Depa men o Science and Technology, 2019), he Decadal Plan (Depa men
o Science and Inno a ion, 2021), and he Na ional Was e Managemen S a egy
(Depa men o En i onmen Fo es y and Fishe ies, 2021). Al hough hese a e noble
ini ia i es in suppo o he d i e owa ds CE, he coun y’s policy amewo k on CE
emains agmen ed ac oss a ious go e nmen ins i u ions and depa men s, like
he Depa men o Wa e and Sani a ion (DWS), he DSI, he Depa men o Science
and Technology (DST), and o he s (Nahman e al., 2021). This lack o a consolida ed
app oach does no acknowledge he u gency o he si ua ion and is one o he p ima y
ac o s inhibi ing he p og ess o he ansi ion.
Despi e limi ed na ional s a egic planning owa ds a CE, Sou h A ica is wo king
owa ds a ans o ma i e mig a ion. In he egional and in e na ional space, Sou h
A ica has assumed a leading ole in pushing he CE o wa d h ough i s cu en ole
as co‑chai o he A ican Ci cula Economy Alliance, which aims o ed ess hese
consolida ion challenges, linking up con inen al p ojec s and p og ammes, and acil‑
i a ing collabo a ion o d i e he ans o ma ion o a CE. This alliance was join ly
launched by Sou h A ica, Rwanda and Nige ia a COP23, he annual Uni ed Na ions
Clima e Change con e ence held in 2017 in Bonn, Ge many. Sou h A ica is also a
co‑ ounde o he A ican Ci cula Economy Ne wo k (ACEN), which was o med in
June 2016 by a g oup o CE p o essionals in Cape Town. This CE ne wo k en isions
s a egies o a es o a i e con inen al economy ha gene a es social cohesion and
communi y success h ough economic p oduc ion and consump ion ha suppo s
he egene a ion o en i onmen al esou ces (GRID‑A endal, 2021). I doubles as an
ac i e pa icipan in he Wo ld Ci cula Economy Fo um and a membe o he Global
Alliance on Ci cula Economy and Resou ce E iciency (Nahman e al., 2021). I s
in ol emen in hese egional and global CE o ganisa ions allows he coun y o
sha e challenges and lea n om he wo ld’s ans o ma i e ideas ha will help shape
and align he na ional s a egic policy amewo k wi h he global sus ainable de el‑
opmen goals.
6.1.4 o ganic was e managemen as a ci cUla
economy pla o m in soU h a ica
Like in any o he de eloping coun y, was e managemen in Sou h A ica is s ill a
challenge. The published s a is ics show ha app oxima ely 80% o he 108 M o 2017
was e gene a ed in Sou h A ica has been land illed (Depa men o En i onmen al
A ai s, 2018). In 2020, a no able p opo ion o was e was epo ed as mismanaged,
108 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
wi h almos 37.4% o households ha ing no access o e use emo al, necessi a ‑
ing illegal dumping (Chi aka and Schenck, 2022). This has been compounded by
he ise in popula ion, u al u ban mig a ion, and indus ialisa ion (Depa men o
En i onmen al A ai s, 2017). These demog aphic and social challenges gi e ise o
inc easing was e gene a ion, which is challenging o manage. This inc eases p essu e
on al eady‑limi ed wa e supply in as uc u e, en i onmen al heal h and sani a ion,
and many o he se ices, especially in ci ies and pe i‑u ban a eas. In Sou h A ica,
a no o ious managemen challenge is associa ed wi h wa e and was e in as uc‑
u e in mush ooming unplanned communi y se lemen s, especially in pe i‑u ban
a eas. This was e idenced by he chole a ou b eaks epo ed in Sou h A ica om
1980 o 1986 (Sidley, 2001), in 2003 and om 2008 o 2009 (Na ional Ins i u e o
Communicable Disease, 2009). Chole a ou b eaks a e a sign o public heal h sys‑
em ailu e, associa ed wi h a lack o access o unning wa e and p ope unc ional
sani a ion se ices (Ali e al., 2011; Ismail e al., 2013). This was he case wi h Sou h
A ica du ing hose ou b eaks, when abou 80% o in o mal se lemen esiden s had
no egula access o clean wa e , and close o 18million u al Sou h A ican ci izens
had no access o municipal sani a ion se ices (Sidley, 2001).
To add ess hese challenges, soon a e a aining independence in 1994, he go ‑
e nmen o Sou h A ica ini ia ed la ge‑scale sani a ion in as uc u e p og ammes.
A na ional sani a ion p og amme called he Na ional Sani a ion Policy Whi e Pape ,
was de eloped and launched in 1996, which de ined he basic sani a ion echnologies
i o households (Bhagwan e al., 2019). Many communi ies had limi ed o no access
o digni ied sani a ion se ices du ing he apa heid e a. Howe e , since wa e access
and a ailabili y ha e always been a majo challenge, especially in u al and in o mal
se lemen communi ies, and conside ing he scale o add essing his inequali y ha
needed ed essing, hese communi ies ecei ed p ima ily on‑si e sani a ion sys ems,
which a e mo e cos ‑e ec i e han lush oile s. Al hough on‑si e echnologies come
in di e en o ms, mos households we e ins alled wi h en ila ed imp o ed pi (VIP)
la ines. Since he incep ion o his sani a ion p og amme and a e 1994, o e wo
million VIPs and o he on‑si e oile s we e ins alled (Bhagwan e al., 2019).
As much as hese echnologies we e deemed adequa e, ideal in line wi h Uni ed
Na ions (UN) s anda ds, and cos ‑e ec i e o u al communi ies, hey also come
wi h challenges. The associa ed limi a ion obse ed wi h he VIPs is he high a e o
sa u a ion, which hen demands ei he decommissioning o he ull oile s o in e mi ‑
en emp ying o he aecal ma e i he same oile is o be used con inuously (Mjoli,
2010; S ill e al., 2012). Ei he o hese choices is associa ed wi h expenses. When
he o me is chosen, he household would need o ebuild ano he oile in a di e ‑
en loca ion, which demands land and space. Emp ying and eusing la ines in ol es
handling he aecal ma e and disposal cos s o he human exc e a. Gene ally, sludge
disposal in Sou h A ica om was ewa e ea men plan s (WWTPs) and on‑si e
sys ems is a challenge o municipali ies (Pillay and Bhagwan, 2021). P ope sludge
handling is undamen al o educing illegal sludge dumping and consequen en i on‑
men al con amina ion.
La ge amoun s o aecal ma e a e gene a ed om hese on‑si e sani a ion sys‑
ems in communi ies. The e o e, se e al op ions o was e handling we e p oposed
as was e managemen s a egies. Ini ially, he ocus was managing hese o ganic
109P og ess owa ds he ci cula economy
ma e ials as was e. Howe e , wi h he help o eme ging academics and indus ial
esea ch, he idea o esou ce eco e y om human exc e a ma e ial was de el‑
oped. The CE concep was bo n, gaining p ominen a en ion in he was e indus y
(Depa men o En i onmen al A ai s, 2017; S ill e al., 2012). Wi h he need o
implemen success ul s a egies o esou ce eco e y om human exc e a ma e i‑
als, di e en sani a ion echnology p o o ypes we e designed and pilo ed in Sou h
A ica by s akeholde s like esea che s, municipali ies and public‑p i a e compa‑
nies. Ideally, hese a e ad anced sani a ion echnologies, as hey should ha e he
capaci y o enhance he alue chain o esou ce eco e y mo e e ec i ely han VIP
la ines. These ad anced echnologies include u ine di e sion d y oile s (UDDTs),
decen alised was ewa e ea men sys ems (DEWATS), o ganic was e composi ‑
ing and biocha ma e ial p oduc ion. The de ails o how hese echnologies wo k
and he p oduc s p oduced o euse a e well documen ed in he li e a u e (Gu e e
e al., 2009; K a ns öm e al., 2006; Mkhize e al., 2017; Mnkeni and Aus in, 2009;
Musazu a e al., 2018; Vinne ås, 2001; Vinne ås and Jönsson, 2002).
The e is adequa e e idence ha ecycling and eusing human exc e a‑de i ed
ma e ial bene i s ag icul u e. This knowledge led o pilo p ojec s a ge ing gen‑
e a ing esou ces ou o o ganic was es (was ewa e , sludge, human aecal ma e
and u ine, ood, o g een was e). Al hough many s a egies ha e ocused on was e
disposal, he new pa adigm ocuses mo e on esou ce eco e y, de i ing e ilise
ma e ials, and ha nessing municipal e luen o ag icul u al use. This doubles as a
posi i e s a egy o sus ainable en i onmen al p o ec ion (Sha ma e al., 2022). I is
a sus ainable in e en ion because i educes he amoun o was e o be channelled
in o he en i onmen by di e ing was es om land ills in o eusable ma e ials like
o ganic e ilise s and i iga ion wa e .
6.1.5 o ganic was e–de i ed esoU ces eco e y echnologies and
inno a ions sUppo ing he ci cUla economy in soU h a ica
Like any o he coun y, Sou h A ica aces en i onmen al deg ada ion and pollu‑
ion challenges om municipal sludges, land ills and dumping si es o ood and
o he o ganic was e. In addi ion, apid esou ce ex ac ion and deple ion a e p e a‑
len ac oss he coun y. A weal h o li e a u e has shown ha CE has he po en ial o
add ess hese challenges (Sehnem e al., 2019; Tahulela and Balla d, 2020; Wijkman
and Skånbe g, 2015). Va ious echnologies a e a ailable o acili a e esou ce eco ‑
e y and euse o o ganic was e–de i ed ma e ials om was e s eams. These was e
p oduc s a e as b oad as ood was e ( ood ma ke dumping si es and household was e),
was ewa e , and municipal sludge ( om cen alised o on‑si e sani a ion acili ies)
like aecal sludge o human exc e a and u ine. U ine can be ha es ed om on‑si e
sani a ion acili ies like UDDTs, imp o ed u ine di e sion oile s and VIP la ines.
T ea men is always aimed a imp o ing he ma e ials’ quali y ega ding physical,
chemical and biological p ope ies while main aining hei bene icial alue (e.g.,
nu ien con en ). Risk is an impo an conside a ion, and p ocessing mus ende i
sa e and pleasan o handling, ag icul u al use and consump ion o he associa ed
p oduc s (i.e., c ops g own in was e‑ e ilised soils). This sec ion de ails he s a e‑
gies and echnologies cu en ly used o esou ce eco e y om o ganic was es in

110 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
Sou h A ica. We also highligh how hese s a egies suppo he CE concep and a e
linked o sus ainable was e managemen h ough o ganic was e ea men .
6.1.6 aecal slUdge ea men echniQUes o esoU ce eco e y and eUse
In he con ex o p omo ing access o sani a ion se ices o all in Sou h A ica,
coupled wi h esou ce eco e y, echnologies ha e been de eloped and ins alled
a ound he coun y. Fo example, o e 80,000 UDDT we e ins alled in eThekwini
municipali y, Du ban (Bhagwan e al., 2019). This ype o sani a ion echnology was
an upg ade om he gene al VIP, as i sepa a es aecal ma e and u ine, acili a ing
easy d ying and making emp ying, collec ion and anspo manageable. Howe e ,
he e was some esis ance o adop ing he echnology as people we e amilia wi h
hei adi ional VIPs (Roma e al., 2013). The s udy by Roma e al. (2013) showed
ha he ejec ion was a ibu ed o easons such as smell and mal unc ioning o ped‑
es als. As a esul , he au ho s ecommended ha adop ing such echnologies can be
imp o ed by educa ing he use s on he po en ial bene i s o using such echnologies,
especially ega ding he nu ien eco e y aspec . E e e al. (2015a) epo ed ha
use accep ance was inc eased wi h adequa e educa ion, con ibu ing o inc eased
u ine collec ion om households o alo isa ion. Faecal sludge om exis ing sani a‑
ion echnologies like pi la ines in mos u al communi ies o Sou h A ica is con‑
side ed unsa ely managed. This poses bo h en i onmen al and heal h isks (Bishoge,
2021; Kalulu e al., 2020; Mame a e al., 2020), necessi a ing imp o ed ea men
and collec ion s a egies and awa eness campaigns, hence making he UDDT an
impo an echnology o conside du ing he ansi ion owa ds CE. To educe aecal
sludge’s pa hogenici y, oxici y and odou o use as soil e ilising ma e ial, sludge
mus be ea ed and s abilised be o e use. Se e al echniques a e applied o aecal
sludge ea men in Sou h A ica and globally o imp o e he sludge quali y o ag i‑
cul u al euse. The exis ing ea men echniques in Sou h A ica include he use o
compos ing and co‑compos ing, was ewa e ea men using a DEWATS, black sol‑
die ly la ae (BSFL), la ine dehyd a ion and palle isa ion (LaDePa), and py olysis.
The nex sec ion de ails hese aecal sludge ea men echniques.
6.1.6.1 Compos ing, co‑compos ing, and e micompos ing
In aecal sludge managemen (FSM), compos ing and co‑compos ing a e hea and
mic obial s abilisa ion p ocesses used o sani ise o ganic was e ma e ials, making
hem i o handling, use in ag icul u e, and lowe ing human heal h isks. Sánchez
e al. (2017) de ine compos ing as an ae obic, he mophilic mic oo ganism‑media ed
solid‑s a e e men a ion p ocess, ans o ming o ganic was e ma e ials in o mo e
s able o ganic compounds. Co‑compos ing is a simul aneous compos ing p ocess o
wo o mo e ypes o o ganic was e ma e ials, which a e sou ces o N o C o enhance
mic obial ac i i y (Das e al., 2011; Pe ic e al., 2012). The p ocesses inc ease he
po en ial o imp o ed and en iched compos quali y o ag icul u al use (Pa edes
e al., 1996). Wi h he global inc ease in he gene a ion o o ganic was e, o example,
ga den and ood was es, which a e being disposed in o land ills, leading o en i‑
onmen al pollu ion h ough g eenhouse gas emissions, i is impo an o conside
inno a i e and ecologically sus ainable was e managemen s a egies. Technologies
111P og ess owa ds he ci cula economy
such as co‑compos ing and subsequen ag icul u al use o he compos ma e ials
minimise olumes o o ganic was es en e ing land ills and en i onmen al pollu ion.
This ensu es en i onmen al sus ainabili y, as physical was e olumes o eleased
o ganic compounds om such o ganic was es a e educed, limi ing hei ans e
in o g oundwa e and su ounding ophic ood chains. Compos ing p ocesses ha e
p o en o be use ul (Kö ne e al., 2003), as hey ans o m o ganic was es in o
nu ien ‑ ich e ilising ma e ials (Scheu z e al., 2011) and a e used as soil condi ion‑
e s (Iqbal e al., 2010). Such s a egies o was e esou ce eco e y and euse in ag i‑
cul u e close he loop o an o iginally linea sys em and c ea e a CE in he sani a ion
o o ganic was e managemen sys em.
Faecal sludge and municipal sludge can be compos ed oo o co‑compos ed wi h
o he ag o‑ o g een was e o animal manu e o p oduce a compos sui able o use
as a soil condi ione o e ilising ma e ial (Iqbal e al., 2010; Pe ic e al., 2012).
Gene ally, compos ma e ials a e ypically low‑ alue p oduc s ega ding plan nu i‑
en con en and can be p ima ily used as soil condi ione s. Howe e , co‑compos ing
o o i ica ion wi h municipal sludge o human u ine can en ich compos ma e ials
and inc ease hei e ilise alue (Co ie e al., 2016). Fo i ica ion can also be done
by adding a ac ion o chemical e ilise s, usually using ni ogen o phospho us
e ilise s. In addi ion, mos compos ing echniques educe pa hogen loads in aecal
ma e (Dumon e e al., 1999; G an ina‑Ie ina and Rodze, 2020). Common compos ‑
ing o co‑compos ing is done in wind ows o piles. Howe e , some imes compos ing
can be done a he household le el, especially when communi ies a e p o ided wi h
designed compos ing oile s as on‑si e sani a ion se ices.
Ve micompos ing is one o he al e na i e me hods used o deg ading o ganic ma ‑
e . Acco ding o Singh e al. (2011), e micompos ing is he decomposi ion o solid
o ganic was e acili a ed syne gis ically by mic obes and ea hwo ms. The au ho s
s a e ha , e en hough mic obes p ima ily acili a e was e deg ada ion, ea hwo ms
a e he ue ounda ional d i e s o he decomposi ion p ocess. They agmen and
condi ion he subs a e and enhance mic obial deg ada ion. Ve micompos ing p o‑
duces a mo e nu ien ‑ ich compos ma e ial han he adi ional compos ing p ocess
(Su ha , 2009). The e is some mixed in o ma ion on he abili y o e micompos o
deac i a e pa hogens. Ndegwa and Thompson (2001) epo ed ha he e micom‑
pos ing p ocess canno deac i a e pa hogens om o ganic was es such as aecal
sludge. Howe e , his con as s wi h ea lie s udies by Eas man (1999), which indi‑
ca e ha e micompos ing can deac i a e pa hogens mo e han gene al compos ing.
Acco ding o Samal e al. (2022), e micompos ing can deac i a e pa hogens i he
p ocess is done p ope ly, and om hei e iew, i was s a ed ha pa hogen deac i a‑
ion akes 60 days unde op imal condi ions.
Sou h A ica is one o he Sub‑Saha an A ican coun ies acing ood insecu i y
due o deg aded soils esul ing om minimal use o o ganic e ilise s ( en Be ge
e al., 2019). The eco e y o nu ien s om o ganic was es o co‑compos and euse
in ag icul u al ields as a soil condi ione helps imp o e soil p ope ies by enhancing
mic obial ac i i y o nu ien ecycling, inc easing soil mois u e and nu ien e en‑
ion capaci y and inc easing soil agg ega e s abili y (Co ie e al., 2016; Fuh mann
e al., 2022; Iqbal e al., 2010). This eco e y and euse c ea e a closed‑loop ci ‑
cula sys em in a way ha in e win ood secu i y while add essing sus ainable
112 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
was e managemen in line wi h esponsible consump ion and p oduc ion (SDG 12)
(D ange e al., 2018; Ha de e al., 2020).
Al hough hese p ocesses ha e gained momen um as esou ce eco e y echnolo‑
gies om solid o ganic was e such as aecal o municipal sludges, he de elopmen
o business models o implemen a ion in Sou h A ica is s ill lacking. Howe e ,
sewage co‑compos ing is cu en ly unde way as a pilo p ojec h ough a mul idis‑
ciplina y p ojec called Ru al U ban Nexus: Es ablishing a Ci cula Economy o
Resilien ci y‑ egion ood sys ems (RUNRES) implemen ed by he Uni e si y o
KwaZulu‑Na al’s (UKZN) C op Sciences eam. I is execu ed in collabo a ion wi h
some p i a e companies and he uMngeni WWTP in he Msunduzi Municipali y,
KwaZulu‑Na al, Sou h A ica. In his case, sh edded g een was e (ga den was e) is
mixed wi h municipal sludge and co‑compos ed on wind ows o e ime. Pe iodic
sampling and analyses a e employed o con inuously moni o he compos ing p o‑
cess, ocusing on he changes in mic obial pa hogens, chemical composi ion, and
he inal compos quali y. The compos is no ye sold on he o mal ma ke due o
he una ailabili y o ce i ica ion o aecal sludge‑de i ed compos p oduc s. As a
esul , compos p oduc ion is s ill unde esea ch and no ye p oduced a a la ge, eco‑
nomically iable scale. Un il hen, ope a ed as a business en i y, his is s ill limi ed
in suppo ing he CE app oach. Howe e , wi h ele an suppo and policies in place,
he demons a ion o such compos ing case s udies could suppo his echnology o
d i e CE in sani a ion and o ganic was e ma e ials.
6.1.6.2 Decen alised was ewa e ea men sys em (DEWATS)
The DEWATS is a obus wa e bo ne package ha ea s a ious ypes o was ewa e
close o he gene a ion sou ce. The DEWATS is a low‑cos , decen alised, communi y‑
based was ewa e ea men echnology ha can be made om low‑cos , locally a ail‑
able ma e ials and ope a es on a low ene gy demand (Gu e e e al., 2009). By design,
DEWATS wo ks he same way as he con en ional sys em. The ea men ollows
he common ou p ocesses, i.e., p ima y, seconda y, e ia y (ad anced seconda y
ea men ) and pos ‑ ea men phases (Gu e e e al., 2009; Singh e al., 2019). The
DEWATS anae obically deg ade o ganic compounds om a ious was ewa e ypes
in o ino ganic compounds, p oducing e luen ha con ains mine al nu ien s and
some pa hogens. In hyb idised DEWATS, he plan ed g a el il e s (PGFs) (ho izon al
low cons uc ed we lands; HFCW and e ical low cons uc ed we lands; VFCW)
ha e sand il e s o u he polish he e luen o emo e pa hogens and o he nu i‑
en s (Singh e al., 2019). The e luen en e s he VFCW and e ically lows down
he sand il e s, and du ing seepage, he oxygen p omo es ni i ica ion p ocesses. The
di e ence be ween HFCW and VFCW is ha in he o me , e luen mo es ho izon‑
ally, bu in bo h sys ems, pa hogens a e cap u ed on o g a el pa icles, whe e hey
a e e en ually deac i a ed (Gu e e e al., 2009). The deac i a ion o pa hogens is
has ened by se e al p ocesses, including p eda ion by p o ozoa and o he bac e ia
such as Bdello ib io bac e io o us (Wand e al., 2007). The ad an ages o e con en‑
ional ea men include easy ope a ion in small communi ies (decen alised), simplic‑
i y (minimum ope a ional skills, no o low ene gy equi emen s) and eusable p oduc
gene a ion ( esou ce eco e y om ea ed was ewa e ) (Singh e al., 2019; Va ma
e al., 2022). DEWATS ha e been used widely in de eloping coun ies like India
113P og ess owa ds he ci cula economy
(Singh e al., 2019), Nepal (B igh ‑Da ies e al., 2015), B azil (Da i a and A aujo,
2021), Indonesia (Ke s ens e  al., 2012) and Sou h A ica (Reynaud and Buckley,
2015), among o he s. Howe e , in Sou h A ica, his echnology is s ill a he pilo
scale a Newlands Mashu Ecological Cen e. In 2018, he eThekwini municipali y
planned o scale he DEWATS o o he a eas such as Banana Ci y and kwaDabeka
(Tuyens e al., 2018). Howe e , he same idea has been adop ed o u al schools,
whe eby he sui abili y o DEWATS echnology is being pilo ed a iN apuka p ima y
school (H2O Sani a ion Se ices, 2022). The RUNRES p ojec ope a ing in Msunduzi
has selec ed a ious inno a ion pla o ms. One is he DEWATS plan connec ed o
u ine di e sion oile s and will be pilo ed o was ewa e ea men a a u al school in
Howick. The inno a ion will include he eco e y o was ewa e and u ine o ag icul‑
u al use; i success ul, he p ojec plans o scale ou he inno a ion. This implies ha
Sou h A ica is s ill in he ansi ional phase when i comes o he implemen a ion o
DEWATS echnologies in Ces.
Gene ally, con en ional cen alised municipal sewage sys ems a e he mos com‑
mon ea men echnologies ins alled in owns and ci ies. Al hough hei sizes may
a y in design and p e e ences, hey a e conside ed mos sui able due o he la ge
olumes o was ewa e hey can handle and ea a a ime and hei e iciency in
o ganic compound emo al. Howe e , hey a e associa ed wi h se e al challenges as
hey a e conside ed esou ce in ensi e, o example, (i) high ini ial capi al in es men
equi emen , (ii) high ope a ions & main enance (O&M) cos s, (iii) high echnical
capaci ies equi emen , and (i ) high ene gy equi emen s, among o he s (Bhagwan
e al., 2019; Gu e e e al., 2009). Thus, despi e he quali y o e luen , he men ioned
se o challenges o hese sys ems o en make hem no easible o u al communi‑
ies and unplanned pe i‑u ban and in o mal se lemen s. Designing such plan s o
undula ing and moun ainous loca ions also in ol es ex ensi e addi ional cos s.
Despi e hese challenges, e e y communi y dese es o ha e a digni ied sani a ion
sys em a i s se ice. To o e come he hu dles o la ge‑scale con en ional ea men
sys ems, DEWATS can be used ins ead. DEWATs ha e been iden i ied as an al e na i e
was ewa e ea men app oach o con en ional sys ems. They can be used o was e‑
wa e ea men wi h he on‑si e sani a ion echnologies commonly employed in small
ownships and u al communi ies o Sou h A ica. This sys em is conside ed economi‑
cally easible as a Communi y‑Based Sani a ion amewo k o small, densely popu‑
la ed communi ies in u al and pe i‑u ban se lemen s (Wa e and Sani a ion P og am,
2013). Al hough his echnology is decen alised, bes sui ed o small communi ies,
and capable o ea ing low was ewa e lows anging om 1m3–1,000m3 pe uni pe
day (Gu e e e al., 2009), i can po en ially be used o complemen he con en ional
ea men sys em when needed. E idence‑based in o ma ion shows ha he DEWATS
echnology suppo s CE by allowing wa e and nu ien eco e y o ag icul u al use
(Bame, 2012; Busa i e al., 2020; Magwaza e al., 2020).
Fu he mo e, s udies by Musazu a and Odindo (2021) showed ha he use o
DEWATS e luen om bo h he anae obic il e (AF) sec ion and a e he PGFs ha e
no nega i e e ec s on soils, c ops, en i onmen and i iga ion equipmen . Howe e ,
in Sou h A ica, he e luen o igina ing om he DEWATS is no being used o ag i‑
cul u e despi e e idence ha i is sui able o he pu pose and ollowing he exis ing
Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion guidelines (Reynaud and Buckley, 2015). The pilo scale
120 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
2020a). In addi ion, s udies ha e highligh ed ha biocha has he po en ial o imp o e
soil ca bon cap u e, clima e change mi iga ion, soil pollu ion emedia ion, was ewa‑
e ea men and ene gy s o age (Ahmad e al., 2014; Chen e al., 2016; Inyang and
Dickenson, 2015; Leng e al., 2015; Yan e al., 2022).
Technical de ails like eeds ock ypes and he associa ed py olysis empe a u es
ha e been highligh ed and summa ised in a e iew by Ahmad e al. (2014). The eed‑
s ocks ange om woody ma e ial like ee plan a ion esidues, c op esidues, and
animal was e/manu e o sludge was e, g ass and saw‑dus . Biocha quali y and s abil‑
i y depend on he biochemical composi ion o he eeds ock, empe a u e le el and
ime aken o hea he eeds ock. Al hough biocha use has gained global a en ion, i s
p oduc ion om aecal sludge eeds ock has no been adop ed a a la ge scale; a he ,
i is s ill limi ed o labo a o y‑scale esea ch (K uege e al., 2020). Howe e , he e is
e idence o po en ial bene i s om aecal sludge biocha . Besides being used as a soil
condi ione , aecal sludge can be made in o biocha and be e u ned o on‑si e sani a‑
ion echnologies like VIP oile s o help educe mic obial pa hogens and leaching o
pollu an s in o unde g ound wa e s (Ahmad e al., 2014; Mame a e al., 2021, 2022)
and o he soil and sludge condi ioning (Bai e al., 2018; Deng e al., 2022).
Biocha has he po en ial o add ess sani a ion and soil e ili y challenges.
Howe e , he e is a need o a ansdisciplina y app oach o ansi ion om
expe imen al‑ based scales o iable comme cial scales. Al hough his echnology is
p omising o add ess he limi a ions, i s implemen a ion, especially ega ding aecal
sludge biocha p oduc ion, is s ill con ined o esea ch and has no been expanded o
comme cial‑scaled endea ou s.
6.1.7 challenges limi ing he sUccess o ci cUla economy
and p og ess in esoU ce eco e y echnologies
Al hough he CE app oach is bene icial ela i e o he cu en LE, i is s ill de ailed
a he in e ace be ween esea ch, design and implemen a ion. Se e al hind ances
impede he implemen a ion o CE app oaches, ei he a he sec o al o na ional le el.
Meanwhile, 193 coun ies om he Uni ed Na ions globally a ended and p oposed
a se o ac ions, including s a egies o sus ainably boos hei economies by 2030
(UNGA, 2015). Howe e , wi h eigh yea s o go o achie e hese goals, he e is lim‑
i ed e idence o achie ing 100% p og ess on se e al se goals. Unde s anding he
hu dles impeding his ansi ion is c ucial (Jensen, 2022). The au ho s ha e iden i ied
se e al challenges in implemen ing he CE app oach in he sani a ion and o ganic
was e managemen sec o in Sou h A ica.
6.1.7.1 Technological and inancial challenges
Success ul implemen a ion o he CE app oach in he o ganic was e managemen
sec o equi es a well‑planned in es men in echnology. De eloped echnological
in as uc u e is c i ical a a ious was e managemen alue chain s ages o ealise
subs an ial bene i s o was e‑de i ed ma e ials and ecycling. Fo o ‑si e cen alised
was ewa e ea men , lack o inancial suppo o O&M, upg ading and main ain‑
ing ageing in as uc u e a e some o he challenges highligh ed by he DWS’s G een
D op Na ional Repo , a egula na ional epo in es iga ing he euse o was ewa e

121P og ess owa ds he ci cula economy
in ag icul u e (Depa men o Wa e and Sani a ion, 2022). Se e al WWTPs sco ed
below 31%, based on he assessmen c i e ia pu in place, e ealing he dismal
s a e o was ewa e managemen in he coun y in mee ing he G een D op S a us
(Depa men o Wa e and Sani a ion, 2022). G een D op S a us essen ially in es i‑
ga es he na ionwide a emp s o ans o m was e in o a p oduc ha can be u ilised
in ag icul u e, much like many o he echnologies discussed in his epo . While he
upg ade and expansion o hese plan s a e impe a i e, he di icul ies WWTPs ace
include challenges in sou cing he equi ed unds, skills o access such unds, and he
ime i akes o de elop new inancing mechanisms.
Many echnologies a e a ailable o ans o m was e in o use ul and sa e ou pu s,
bu pa icula ly in de eloping coun ies, e en main aining he cu en in as uc u e
is inancially limi ing. Funding is a p ima y p oblem in implemen ing hese no el
ideas ha a e gaining in e na ional suppo . Addi ionally, cen alised was ewa e
ea men echnologies ypically ea household in luen s om lush oile s. This
app oach is no sus ainable in e ms o bo h wa e and sani a ion secu i y. Mixing
he aecal ma e ial wi h wa e in lush oile s equi es addi ional and expensi e ea ‑
men du ing esou ce eco e y. On‑si e sani a ion ea men echnologies, wi h was e
isola ion and sepa a ion capabili ies, a e a iable al e na i e, as desc ibed abo e.
Such op ions allow no o minimal use o wa e esou ces (no‑ lush oile s) ela i e o
con en ional lush oile s, which is pa icula ly c i ical in a d ough ‑ idden coun y
like Sou h A ica. Ope a ions and main enance emain one o he key challenges o
on‑si e sani a ion. The WRC o Sou h A ica has d i en some wo k in es iga ing
he easons o hese challenges, including a lack o O&M budge s, poo e enue
collec ion and limi ed capaci y o manage oile acili ies. Compe ing needs om
o he sec o s, such as e ia y educa ion, he social g an sys ems, and he coun y’s
low economic g ow h, ha e placed emendous s ain on budge s alloca ed o hese
on‑si e sani a ion echnologies (Akinse e e al., 2019).
6.1.7.2 Business‑as‑usual mindse o was e ea men
Con en ional was ewa e ea men echniques o emo ing o ganics, nu ien s,
hea y me als and pa hogens ha e a long local legacy, and he e luen is ypically
discha ged in o he ecei ing en i onmen . This is an impo an s ep o wa e eco ‑
e y, o ei he be e u ned in o he wa e cycle o la e ea ed o po able s anda ds a
wa e ea men plan s. Howe e , his is mo e common in neighbou ing Namibian
ci ies han in Sou h A ica. Al hough his me hod seeks o educe heal h isks and
p o ec he en i onmen , ea ing was ewa e o app op ia e discha ge s anda ds is an
ene gy‑in ensi e p ocess. Na u al e ilise esou ces, such as ni ogen and phospho‑
ous, quickly decline bu can be eco e ed om was ewa e o gene al human was e.
Addi ionally, ene gy can be simul aneously gene a ed om hese was es h ough he
co‑diges ion o sludge (Junio e al., 2021). This whole p ocess equi es a sys emic
shi om was ewa e ea men plan s o was e esou ce eco e y acili ies.
Howe e , a majo s umbling block is he cu en linea model o ea ing was ewa‑
e ins ead o explo ing closed‑loop o ci cula modes o ea men . Addi ionally, pe ‑
cep ions a e c i ical, and a public mindse shi is necessa y, encou aging a popula
iew o was ewa e as a esou ce ha equi es speci ic economic esou ce eco e y
managemen s a egies. This includes ca e ully assessing he a e o was e‑de i ed
122 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
p oduc s ha can be gene a ed om was ewa e ea men sys ems as pa o he
o e all decision‑making p ocesses o designing and ope a ing ele an echnologies.
I also includes comme cial s akeholde s, b idging municipal ole playe s (was e
manage s), esea che s and companies, and e alua ing economic models o ansi‑
ioning WWTPs o was e eco e y acili ies.
6.1.7.3 Social hesi ancy in accep ing he p oduc
The e has been g ea headway in conduc ing esea ch ha e alua es use accep ance
o sani a ion echnologies om VIP la ines (Gounden e al., 2006; Mkhize e al.,
2017) o low‑ lush oile s (Akinse e e al., 2019) and a ious u ine‑di e ing d y and
lush oile s (De ko a e al., 2020). Acco ding o Akinse e e al. (2019), wa e less
d y oile sys ems ha e no been accep ed. The chance o a new o inno a i e sani‑
a ion echnology being deemed accep able is highe when he e ha e been in‑ ield
expe imen s and es ing echnologies wi hin he communi ies ha would bene i
om implemen a ion. Ac ion esea ch is a p omising s a egy, b idging he in e ace
be ween science and social dimensions. This p ocess in ol es simul aneously ac ‑
ing (implemen ing a s a egy) and doing esea ch, linked by c i ical e lec ion s eps,
which ha e been shown o in luence he up ake o hese echnologies, as desc ibed
by Owojo i e al. (2022).
This acili a es eedback o he echnical eam abou he echnology’s use design
and expe ience, allowing o changes o be made ha would sui he ecei ing com‑
muni y (Kabundu e al., 2022). Howe e , due o a lack o unding, some echnol‑
ogy de elope s canno always inancially suppo he leng hy edesign p ocess and
i s ei e a ions. In e ms o pe cep ion, in p e ious s udies, al hough hesi ancy was
epo ed on accep ance o he sani a ion echnologies, he e was posi i e a i ude and
pe cep ions on he use o human was e–de i ed e ilising p oduc s (Gwa a e al.,
2021) due o pe cei ed economic bene i om hese e ilising ma e ials ela i e o
chemical e ilise s. The ‘yuck’ ac o ( o example, u ilising a e ilise de i ed om
human was e o ood c ops) is one aspec ha would need o be o e come h ough
social beha iou change, educa ion and awa eness.
6.1.7.4 S akeholde in ol emen hesi ancy
Success ul ansi ioning om an LE o a CE model in o ganic was e managemen
equi es pa icipa o y wa e and was e go e nance as an enabling mechanism.
While he e is legisla ion and s ong suppo in heo y, he implemen a ion o poli‑
cies and engagemen wi h p inciples o communi y and s akeholde pa icipa ion in
was e and wa e esou ce managemen has no been e ec i e. The in ol emen o
s akeholde s in hese CE ini ia i es emains a challenge, pa icula ly a he le el o
p io i y‑ se ing, planning, decision‑making and implemen a ion (Ho e e al., 2021).
6.1.7.5 Lack o suppo i e ins i u ional egula o y and policy amewo ks
As s a ed by Desmond and Asamba (2019), speci ic policies suppo ing he CE do
no cu en ly exis in Sou h A ica, al hough hey ha e been abled o conside a ion.
This is a challenge when a emp ing o alo ise o ganic was e o was e‑de i ed p od‑
uc s. I he e a e no policies, egula ions, o s anda ds ha de e mine he accep able
quali y o was e‑de i ed p oduc s (closely ela ed o hose made o e ilise s, soil
123P og ess owa ds he ci cula economy
condi ione ma e ials, animal eed p oduc s, and o he s), hen i becomes mo e di ‑
icul o de elop a ma ke o he CE in he coun y, pa icula ly since pe cep ion is
such a di icul hu dle. S ong quali y e alua ion sys ems and concep s simila o
“O ganic” labelling could ap in o an en i onmen ally awa e ma ke . Acco ding o
Mon wedi e al. (2021), he policies ha could suppo his ini ia i e include:
i. Pa icipa ion o all s akeholde s o p o ide clea manda es and oles.
ii. Suppo ing he p o ision o ee basic se ices o all ci izens, pa icu‑
la ly he p o ision o wa e and sani a ion se ices by local o dis ic
municipali ies.
iii. Rein oducing eco e ed was e p oduc s as sa e end‑use p oduc s h ough
implemen ing s anda ds o p o ide legal ce ain y o ma ke up ake.
i . Limi ing he discha ge o was e sludge o land ills.
. Finding e ec i e links be ween wa e , sani a ion and esou ce eco e y
h ough policies and na ional amewo ks ha ouch on en i onmen al p o‑
ec ion and heal h.
Resou ce eco e y should no be a he expense o human o en i onmen al heal h.
6.1.8 U U e di ec ion o he sUccess and g ow h o ce
in sani a ion and o ganic was e managemen
Al hough esea che s ha e demons a ed he po en ial o echnologies suppo ing CE
in o ganic was e managemen , he e is s ill a e y limi ed implemen a ion o hese
was e ma e ials eeding in o he CE, especially in de eloping coun ies (Negi e al.,
2021). Se e al “wicked” challenges ha e been highligh ed o hinde he expec ed
p og ess and implemen a ion o CE in o ganic was e ma e ials. This sec ion, in con‑
as , de ails he po en ial enabling a enues which could os e he success o a CE in
sani a ion and o ganic was es.
6.1.8.1 C ea ion o public‑p i a e pa ne ships (PPPs)
Collabo a ion is c i ical o he success ul comme cial implemen a ion o such endea ‑
ou s. Al hough independen ly un o unded business en i ies exis , he CE app oach
in o ganic was e managemen h ough esou ce eco e y and euse equi es a collab‑
o a i e business model due o he na u e o he sys em, including a municipally man‑
aged was e s eam and nume ous decen alised was e ea men op ions p oposed
he e. This is a unique business model ha la gely depends on he p ima y se ice
ype ha an en i y will o e . In he case o o ganic was e–de i ed ma e ials, se ices
may a ge esou ce eco e y and euse ( e ilising ma e ial, wa e , o ene gy sou ce),
as well as sani a ion o en i onmen al p o ec ion se ices. Planning and implemen‑
a ion equi e a b oad knowledge and skill se una ailable o a single indi idual o
sec o in he o ganic was e managemen sec o and sani a ion se ice chain. Fo
example, accessibili y and a ailabili y o quali y aw ma e ials and anspo a ion,
especially when dealing wi h aecal sludge om on‑si e sani a ion sys ems, could
be associa ed wi h high cos s ha migh no mee ini ial in es men s, especially o
young sani a ion was e managemen businesses (Mallo y e al., 2020a).
124 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
Gene ally, i equi es a la ge ini ial capi al in es men ha could be di icul o
inance i one is a sole p op ie o , in addi ion o he challengingly di e se socio‑
economic dynamic a ound he ac o s in ol ed along he o ganic was e alue chain.
O he han he non‑mone a y bene i s o o ganic was e managemen , like sani a ion
se ices and mi iga ing en i onmen al pollu ion, he e u n on in es men (ROI) may
no be posi i e i one is o conside he e ilise alue o o ganic was e–de i ed ma e‑
ials, which is ela i ely lowe han syn he ic e ilise s. The e o e, hese challenges
could be add essed by o ming public‑p i a e pa ne ships (PPPs) and building col‑
labo a ion a a ious le els along he alue chain. PPPs a e u ilised o gene a e syn‑
e gis ic collabo a ions be ween public and p i a e sec o s, du ing which he p i a e
sec o ’s somewha public ope a ions a e e icien ly ca ied ou , allowing co‑ inancing
and capi alising o i s inno a ions (Yescombe, 2011).
These PPPs a e c i ical in he was e managemen se ices o local au ho i ies o
any en i y hoping o en u e in o was e managemen as pa o hei business model.
P i a e companies a e belie ed o ha e he capaci y o implemen was e managemen
businesses success ully, while public ins i u ions like he local au ho i ies p ima ‑
ily lack inancial and ins i u ional capaci ies and he equi ed echnological skills
(Khaju ia and Rud a, 2016). De eloping PPPs as a pa hway o enhance he success
o CE in was e managemen business en i ies could bene i bo h he local au ho i‑
ies and p i a e companies in acili a ing be e , new and imp o ed echnologies.
Such would pu in place ele an in as uc u al de elopmen , inc eased inancial
suppo , job and p oduc ma ke c ea ion, and inc eased cos e iciencies (Khaju ia
and Rud a, 2016). The e o e, implemen ing some long‑ e m PPP con ac s could be
highly bene icial in d i ing o wa d he CE in sani a ion and o ganic was e in Sou h
A ica. The public sec o would use he p i a e sec o ’s inancial s eng h, echnolog‑
ical know‑how, lexibili y and inno a ion o imp o e se ice deli e y on sani a ion
se ices p o ision, was e managemen and o he sha ed ini ia i es (Cui e al., 2020b).
6.1.8.2 Collabo a ions, s akeholde engagemen , and
co‑designing o ci cula economy p ojec s
T ansi ioning owa ds a CE business model in sani a ion and was e‑de i ed ma e i‑
als and euse is now cen al; a e yea s o esea ch and de elopmen , we a e ipe
o implemen a ion. Howe e , al hough his business app oach and concep domi‑
na es he cu en discussions wi hin co ido s o a ious sec o s and ac o s, mos o
hese con e sa ions a e s ill being conduc ed in “silos”. The indi idualism in hese
non‑collabo a i e discussions agmen s he con idence needed o encou age he
implemen a ion o CE p ojec s amongs s akeholde s. The “silos” p e en holis ic
planning and cause duplica ion o ac i i ies be ween ins i u ions. Mul i‑s akeholde
collabo a ions and engagemen s a e s ill no unc ioning well in Sou h A ica, as con‑
e sa ions in he sani a ion and o ganic was e managemen alue chain a e indi idu‑
ally held o con e ge a bes a a local le el. Fo example, he s onges oo p in is a
esea ch ins i u ions and uni e si ies, dissemina ed as esea ch pape s o a na ional
con e ences.
In Sou h A ica, collabo a ions ha e been limi ed o uni e si ies and he WRC
p o iding unding o de eloping and es ing p o o ype echnologies ini ia ed by a ‑
ious uni e si ies. A ew indus ial ac o s like WWTPs and some local municipali ies
125P og ess owa ds he ci cula economy
a e encou agingly engaging wi h he esea ch, especially success ul collabo a ions
be ween he UKZN and he eThekwini municipali y. Al hough he e seem o be
some s ong collabo a ions, hese ini ia i es and engagemen s a e esea ch‑ ocused,
de eloping p o o ypes and pilo ing echnologies. Noble echnologies p omising o
d i e he CE in sani a ion o ganic was e managemen ha e been de eloped; how‑
e e , no single echnology has been scaled up and implemen ed as a unc ional and
e enue‑gene a ing comme cial en i y. The e is a need o s eng hen he exis ing
ini ia i es and acili a e p oduc i e collabo a ions and engagemen s among ele an
s akeholde s wi hin and ou side he sani a ion and o ganic was e managemen alue
chain o ensu e success ul dialogues ega ding ansi ioning owa ds a CE in Sou h
A ica. Engagemen o a ious s akeholde s o di e en backg ounds o a common
cause could be be ween esea ch ins i u ions, ins i u es o highe lea ning (uni e ‑
si ies and colleges), p i a e sec o s, go e nmen depa men s and local au ho i ies
(public sec o ), including ep esen a i es om he local communi ies.
Collabo a ions among ele an s akeholde s acili a e p og essi e engagemen o
s a egic p ojec design, sha ing ideas ega ding how p ojec implemen a ion could
be ini ia ed (Mish a e al., 2021). Such collabo a i e engagemen s would allow o
designing, edesigning and co‑designing p ojec s a egies (Nakakawa e al., 2010).
Collabo a ions a e in eg al o any business en i y’s success, and ole playe s mus be
ca e ully selec ed o success ul engagemen . Pa icula ly, as u e and expe ienced
comme cial ole playe s a e necessa y o igo ously conside he inancial easibili y
o hese echnologies.
To ensu e a smoo h low o o ganisa ional a angemen , planning and coo dina‑
ion among he s akeholde s, o con ene he necessa y mee ings and o acili a e
a ional dialogues, he e is a need o a lead o ganisa ion ha chai s he whole
pla o m and keeps he i ine a y and in en o y o ele an s akeholde s. Al hough
he e a e al eady ongoing ini ia i es, he discussions a e s ill unde he co ido s
o a ew ins i u ions, like esea ch ins i u es, academic ins i u ions, o municipali‑
ies, wi hou cen alising na ional ac i i ies and collabo a ions among s akeholde s.
The e is a need o mul i‑s akeholde pla o m de elopmen om now onwa ds, upon
which s akeholde engagemen s a egies can be designed o mo e owa ds he co‑
implemen a ion o CE’s sus ainable and in eg a ed de elopmen scena ios in he san‑
i a ion and o ganic was e managemen sec o . This mul i‑s akeholde pla o m can
be he ehicle o enhance s akeholde engagemen , in ol emen , and pa icipa ion
in he c ea ion o sus ainable CE in sani a ion and o ganic was e–de i ed ma e ials
and euse. Recen ly, a e becoming awa e o he wo k he UKZN (Depa men o
C op Sciences) is doing on inno a ions a ound esou ce eco e y and euse de i ed
om a ious o ganic was e s eams, he DWS di ec o a e came on boa d o gain an
unde s anding o he wo k being done by UKZN C op Science eam.
The eam also ini ia ed he dialogue on o mula ing FSM guidelines. I is also
de eloping po en ial business models on CE in sani a ion p oduc s ha will be used
as a na ional guide on how communi ies could ealise some e enue lows (lea n‑
ing new inancial echniques and imp o ed local economic bene i s) om sani a ion
and o ganic was e esou ce eco e y p og ammes. The in ol emen o go e nmen
depa men s is an encou aging s ance and he beginning o a long‑ e m planning
ajec o y in os e ing CE in he sani a ion and o ganic was e–de i ed ma e ials

126 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
and euse sec o . These go e nmen s akeholde s a e he i s ep esen a i es in he
ele an o ums o policy o mula ions needed o suppo he success o hese CE
p ojec s. We, he e o e, p opose ha as he delibe a ions and dialogues on d i ing
CE in sani a ion and o ganic was e managemen p ocedu es, he DWS should be a
he cen e as he chai o hese dialogues and acili a e s akeholde engagemen o
his cause.
The depa men is a sec o leade and shoulde s a esponsibili y o guide he sec‑
o o ake s eps owa ds ansi ioning in o he CE, unlocking po en ial sani a ion and
esou ce eco e y and euse economic oppo uni ies. This mus be done in conjunc‑
ion wi h o he sis e depa men s, which include he Depa men o Ag icul u e,
Land Re o m and Ru al De elopmen , he Depa men o En i onmen , Fo es y and
Fishe ies (Depa men o En i onmen al A ai s), among o he s. Ex ensi e esea ch
ins i u ions and scien is s a e na ionally in ol ed in his endea ou and willing o
suppo such ini ia i es wi h quali y es ing s a egies, echnology design and ac ion
esea ch b idging science and pe cep ions. The dialogues ini ia ed in KwaZulu‑Na al
a e c i ical owa ds achie ing a posi i e d i e owa ds CE in sani a ion and o ganic
was e esou ce eco e y a he na ional le el. The challenges o esou ce sho ages
and o ganic was e gene a ion a e a na ionwide conce n. I will be impo an i such
pla o ms and delibe a ions a e eplica ed ac oss all p o inces o he Republic o
Sou h A ica.
6.1.8.3 Designing policy, s anda ds, and egula ion
amewo k p omo ing ci cula economy
Sou h A ica is a membe o he ACEN, a ne wo k o 14 A ican coun ies. Like in
any o he de eloping coun y, Sou h A ica s ill has no clea CE policy amewo k
o egula e and guide companies o indi iduals o en u e in o esou ce eco e y and
euse o o ganic was e–de i ed ma e ials. Howe e , he e a e some exis ing suppo ‑
ing policies. Al hough no di ec ly ocused on he CE, hey can be used as a sp ing‑
boa d o c ea e policy amewo ks speci ically a ge ing CE in sani a ion and o ganic
was e esou ce eco e y.
The Na ional Sani a ion Policy o 2016 (Depa men o Wa e and Sani a ion,
2016) acknowledges ha sani a ion is economically aluable. I also ecognises ha
he demand o esou ces de i ed om human exc e a, such as plan nu ien s, can
c ea e sel ‑sus aining sani a ion businesses and encou age in es men in sani a ion,
he eby educing dependence on public and dono unding. Al hough no policy cu ‑
en ly speaks di ec ly o he CE pe se, as highligh ed abo e, he DWS ecen ly ini‑
ia ed consul a ions. A p ocess is unde way wi h he UKZN C op Science eam o
p oduce a p ojec documen ha will be a baseline o d a ing he FSM guidelines
owa ds CE in sani a ion and o ganic was e esou ce eco e y. The Depa men
sha es he sani a ion sec o esea ch ision ha a CE eplaces he cu en linea ood
consump ion model, ollowed by human exc e a sec e ion in o sani a ion acili ies.
The sludge would be unnelled in o sep ic anks o pi s o disposal.
The e o e, designing he FSM guide o egula e he CE in he sani a ion alue
chain would acili a e ans o ming sani a ion p oduc s, componen s, and ma e ials,
such as aecal sludge, in o p oduc s o he highes u ili y and alue possible. A his
127P og ess owa ds he ci cula economy
junc u e, aecal sludge can now be ea ed o bene icial use o esou ce eco e y,
which can be u ilised in a ious sec o s. As such, i is an u gen need and DWS’
esponsibili y o acili a e he dialogue and d a ing o guidelines ha suppo he
de elopmen o inancial mechanisms and business models o suppo he CE in he
sani a ion alue chain o ensu e economically and inancially sus ainable sani a ion
se ices ollowing he Na ional Sani a ion Policy (2016).
6.1.8.4 Technical and inancial suppo
Cu en ly, en u ing in o o ganic was e esou ce eco e y does no seem o be
a iable business model due o he low e ilise alue o mos o he p oduc s,
and hey a e o en cos ly ac i i ies along he alue chain. Fo example, a s udy by
Mallo y e al. (2020b) e ealed ha e y ew case s udies exhibi ed a alue abo e
$5/pe son/yea om municipal sludge euse, indica ing e y low e u ns on
in es men . The e o e, o success ully p omo e implemen ing he CE app oach
in o ganic was e esou ce eco e y as a iable business model, o he d i e s,
such as socio‑economic bene i s, should be highligh ed besides inancial gains.
Al hough he bene i s do no di ec ly ansla e o mone a y gains, hei e ec s a e
aluable. Fo example, eusing o ganic was e con ibu es o en i onmen al p o‑
ec ion and sani a ion se ices wi hin communi ies, which b ings human digni y
and po en ially mo i a es in es men .
Addi ionally, e ilise s will soon become a limi ed esou ce, d i ing he alue o
soil condi ione s up as demand o e ilise s con inues o ise (Bumb and Baanan e,
1996; He e and P ud’homme, 2016; Mogollón e al., 2018). As such, he was e man‑
agemen and sani a ion sec o s need some unding mechanisms o assis in e es ed
pa ies in ending o en u e in o esou ce eco e y om o ganic was e. As o now,
se e al echnological inno a ions ha e been success ully es ed o gene a e esou ces
om was e; howe e , hey ha e no been able o be scaled in o communi ies because
hey a e echnically complex o equi e he y mone a y in es men s o hei p o‑
duc ion and ope a ions a a la ge scale. Examples include he LaDePa p ocess ha
pelle ises ea ed municipal sludge and he u ine and u ine p oduc s p ocessing ech‑
nologies es ed in eThekwini municipali y, KwaZulu‑Na al, Sou h A ica. Howe e ,
hese a e s ill ye o be de eloped o la ge‑scale p oduc ion, o example, he VUNA
p ojec . In es men and inancial plans, subsidies and incen i es a e equi ed na ion‑
ally h ough go e nmen and p i a e sec o collabo a ions and in e en ions.
6.1.8.5 Educa ion, conscien isa ion and awa eness
A i ude and pe cep ions s udies demons a e hesi ancy in accep ing human
was e–de i ed e ilise s o euse in ag icul u e, which has been epo ed by se e al
scien is s globally (Chen e al., 2015; Guo e al., 2021; Gwa a e al., 2021; Msaki
e al., 2022; Nanca ow e al., 2008; Simha e al., 2017, 2020). As much as he pa ‑
icipan s in he s udied loca ions asc ibed hesi ancy o social, cul u al, o eligious
belie s, gene ally, lack o in o ma ion, awa eness, and knowledge has been cen al
ac oss all s udies (Guo e al., 2021). In hei s udy, Simha e al. (2017) showed ha he
a me s’ posi ion in socie y in luenced hesi ancy, wi h hose in high posi ions in soci‑
e y ea ing idicule o using human was e–de i ed e ilising ma e ials. A e iew by
128 Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy
Gwa a e al. (2021) highligh ed ha he le el o educa ion and lack o awa eness o
he bene i s o hese ma e ials nega i ely in luenced he decision o accep he ecy‑
cling and euse o human was e–de i ed e ilising ma e ials.
The e is a need o e idence‑based in o ma ion and ac ion esea ch o in o m
ele an s akeholde s abou he impo ance, bene i s and limi a ions associa ed wi h
ecycling and euse o sani a ion and o ganic was e ma e ials in ag icul u e. No only
he consume s o he inal p oduc seem hesi an due o a lack o knowledge abou
hese ma e ials. Some high‑p o ile s akeholde s ele an wi hin he sani a ion alue
chain, especially hose who migh no ha e been in ol ed in he ini ial phases o plan‑
ning and incep ion o hese inno a ions, a e also o en unawa e o he bene i s. This,
he e o e, shows he impo ance o c oss‑sec o al planning and co‑designing o de el‑
opmen p ojec s so ha ele an o he p ojec is in ol ed om ini ia ion, educa ed,
well‑in o med and conscien ious. This will help in impa ing knowledge and educe
misin o ma ion, pa icula ly o he mo e ulne able who migh associa e was e wi h
low s a us. Equipping he s akeholde s wi h ele an knowledge and awa eness will
help hem unde s and ha ecycling and euse o human was e–de i ed ma e ials a e
no abou s a us, bu abou he choices, alues and bene i s a ached o hese ma e i‑
als, including po en ial economic and de ini e en i onmen al bene i s.
6.2 CONCLUSION
This wo k explo ed he cu en p og ess owa ds achie ing a CE in he sani a‑
ion and o ganic was e managemen sec o in Sou h A ica. The ocus was on he
need o ansi ioning owa ds a CE and ga e a de ailed in en o y o he cu en
esou ce eco e y echnologies and associa ed oppo uni ies o ansi ioning o a
CE in sani a ion p oduc s and o ganic was e. The wo k highligh ed ha he coun y
aces my iad challenges wi h i s cu en linea economic model, which has s ained
se e al esou ces na ionally. Howe e , we iden i ied di e en echnologies cu en ly
a a ious de elopmen and implemen a ion phases and de ailed how hese po en‑
ially con ibu e o achie ing CE h ough esou ce eco e y. The iden i ied echnolo‑
gies include compos ing and co‑compos ing, using DEWATS, he LaDePa p ocess,
BSFL, biocha and u ine alo isa ion p oduc s. These we e seen as noble FSM s a ‑
egies, wi h he po en ial o eco e esou ces o ag icul u al use and po en ially
imp o e li elihoods wi hin u al and pe i‑u ban in o mal communi ies. Howe e , i
was seen ha al hough he exis ing echnologies ha e been scien i ically e alua ed
and p o en e ec i e in ea ing o ganic was es and u ning hem in o sa e‑ o‑use
e ilise s, he implemen a ion o hese echnologies as a easible business model is
s ill no e iden . These echnologies’ gene al up ake and scaling a e limi ed, limi ‑
ing hei use o local esea ch ins i u es and a ew pilo p ojec s in collabo a ion wi h
he go e nmen . I was also u he e ealed ha se e al ba ie s impede achie ing
a CE in he sani a ion and o ganic was e alue chain. The au ho s p opose s a e‑
gic pa hways o na iga e he iden i ied challenges limi ing he p og ess, pa icula ly
consolida ing collabo a ion and s a egic na ional managemen . I hese s eps a e
pu in place, and he en i onmen o do business a ound hese echnologies and hei
p oduc s is imp o ed, pa icula ly in e ms o communica ion be ween pa ies, his
129P og ess owa ds he ci cula economy
would enhance he ans o ma i e app oach and may be he nex s ep in he ansi ion
o a CE in Sou h A ica.
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Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy232
Recen epo s indica e ha wa e supply schemes wi hin he basin ha e been
unable o su icien ly dis ibu e wa e o hei espec i e demand si es due o mul iple
d i e s, including popula ion g ow h (Dlamini and Mos e , 2019; Shabalala e al.,
2020; uMgeni, 2020; uThukelaWa e (P y)L d, 2021) (uMgeni, 2020), poo esou ce
managemen (e.g., pollu ion and deg ada ion) (Wade, 2019) (Dlamini and Mos e ,
2019) (uMgeni, 2020), economic g ow h (DAEARD, 2010), and clima e change con‑
sequences ha e wo sened such wa e de ici s in his a id egion (DAEARD, 2010;
Lubega e al., 2019; Pa ick, 2021; UNU‑WIDER, 2016). Fo ins ance, he Ngagane
wa e ea men plan (WTP), which is he la ges WTP in he ca chmen , p o iding
wa e o app oxima ely 90% o he Newcas le Local Municipali y’s g owing popula‑
ion, has been in de ici , and he d ough s om 2015/2016 u he exace ba ed his
de iciency in wa e supply (uMgeni, 2020). The equi ed demand om he Ngagane
WTP is 131.2 Ml/day, exceeding i s design capaci y o 130 Ml/day. By 2050, he
Bu alo Ri e ca chmen ’s o al p ojec ed popula ion wa e demand o 304 Ml/day
is an icipa ed no o be ca e ed o as i exceeds he o al exis ing wa e supply in a‑
s uc u e’s capaci y o app oxima ely 192 Ml/day (uMgeni, 2020).
12.4.3 ene gy and ag icUl U al sec o s’ p essU es on he wa e sec o
To he bes o ou knowledge, no elec ici y p oduc ion is cu en ly aking place
wi hin he Bu alo Ri e ca chmen . Howe e , 24–27million m3 is alloca ed annu‑
ally om he ca chmen ’s Zaaihoek Wa e T ans e Scheme o he Majuba Powe
S a ion o powe plan cooling (uMgeni, 2020). The Majuba powe s a ion in he
Uppe Vaal WMA alls unde he six Sou h A ican powe s a ions managed by
Eskom, a s a e‑owned public elec ici y u ili y. This di e sion highly depends on
Eskom’s wa e demand p ojec ions and only occu s when equi ed. Su plus wa e
is ans e ed o he lowe segmen s o he ca chmen , whe e i can be u ilized o
domes ic and i iga ion pu poses (uMgeni, 2020).
The i iga ion sec o is he la ges wa e consume in he Bu alo Ri e ca chmen ,
wi h equi emen s eaching 50 million m3/annum, hus su passing wa e use by
domes ic and indus ial sec o s (Dlamini and Mos e , 2019). Unde clima e change
condi ions, acco ding o he global Ag o‑Ecological Zoning, assessmen pe o med
by he Food and Ag icul u al O ganiza ion (FAO) and a ecen clima e change s udy
conduc ed by Dlamini e  al. (2022), i iga ion wa e equi emen s (IWR) in he
Bu alo Ri e basin a e p ojec ed o inc ease due o educed land p oduc i i y and
c op sui abili y, pa icula ly o soyabean, as i s IWR is expec ed o double by he
end o he 21s cen u y. This poses a po en ial h ea o he ca chmen since i will
pu mo e s ain on he al eady‑o e bu dened wa e supply sys em and he gene al
economic de elopmen and popula ion well‑being.
12.4.4 he need o in eg a ed clima e change adap a ion measU es
Implemen ing he WEF nexus hinking is essen ial o esou ce alloca ion and u u e
esilience since he sec o s a e in ima ely dependen upon one ano he . Changes in
one sec o can p o oundly impac an adjacen sec o (Mabhaudhi e al., 2018b). In he
case o he Bu alo Ri e ca chmen case, inc eased in ensi ies in p ecipi a ion and
su ace uno p ojec ed unde clima e change a e also se o impac wa e p o isions

233Unde s anding he nexus be ween wa e , ene gy and ood
and p oduc ion ou pu s o ag icul u al and ene gy gene a ion ac i i ies (Dlamini
e al., 2022). E idence‑based decision‑making is equi ed o sus ainably manage
WEF esou ces unde clima e change.
Despi e he challenges o he in e connec ed WEF esou ces, e o s o add ess hem
a e no in eg a ed. The challenges a e highly complex in na u e and cons i u e sce‑
na ios ha can be add essed in an in eg a ed manne (Rasul and Sha ma, 2016). In he
case o he Bu alo Ri e ca chmen , each local and dis ic municipali y has de eloped
in eg a ed de elopmen plans, which add ess WEF issues in he espec i e a ea and
po en ial adap a ion s a egies o clima e change. Disjoin ed esou ce managemen can
be unsus ainable as hese egions sha e wa e esou ces (Aklilu and Makalela, 2020).
In addi ion, he uThukela WMA and uMgeni Wa e ins i u es also p oposed wa e
managemen s a egies unde clima e change. Howe e , policy s a egies add essing
wa e secu i y unde clima e change ocus p edominan ly on inc easing he wa e
sys em’s supply capaci y o mee domes ic wa e demands. No wi hs anding he
impo ance o domes ic wa e use, he ag icul u al and ene gy sec o s a e equally
pi o al o po e y and ulne abili y educ ion. They mus also be p io i ized when
de eloping in eg a ed adap a ion s a egies o cu b clima e change impac s.
12.5 SYNERGIES AND TRADE‑OFFS IN WEF NEXUS
ADAPTATION STRATEGIES
B unne e al. (2019) epo ed ha he WEF nexus app oach p o ides policymake s
wi h he op ions o :
a. “Syne gies: whe eby one in e en ion achie es mul iple objec i es,”
b. “T ade‑o s: whe eby a sec o objec i e is ende ed sub‑op imal in a ou
o ano he ha is op imized, and”
c. “Comp omise: whe eby all sec o s accep a esul ha is less han pe ec
o one o mo e s akeholde s o he sake o he common good.”
Iden i ying ade‑o s, syne gies, and comp omises in he WEF nexus migh b ing
new pe spec i es and p ospec s o minimize ade‑o s and inc ease syne gies o
he de elopmen o e ec i e adap a ion s a egies (McG ane e  al., 2019; Rasul
and Sha ma, 2016), which is undamen al o de eloping egions which a e p one
o expe iencing high ulne abili ies om clima ic changes (Dlamini e al., 2022;
Ku ian e al., 2018).
The nexus app oach’s objec i es o adap ing o clima e change a e s ongly linked
and ha e many simila i ies. Hence, e en hough sec o ‑speci ic, i.e., non‑nexus,
adap a ion measu es such as g oundwa e ex ac ion, desalina ion plan s, wa e ‑use‑
e icien i iga ion echnology, enewable ene gy, and g owing bio uels on was eland
migh ha e posi i e implica ions o wa e , ene gy, and ood esou ces, hey may also
inc ease he nexus challenge (Rasul and Sha ma, 2016). This can be bo h e y chal‑
lenging and cos ly (Bhadu i e al., 2015); he e o e, in he in ica e and unce ain cli‑
ma e change en i onmen , non‑nexus measu es should be pu in o ac ion i hey ha e
he po en ial o p oduce combina o ial win‑win ou comes o se e as complemen ing
ac ions ha p omo e esou ce‑use maximiza ion and enhance WEF nexus solu ions
(B unne e al., 2019; Diez‑Bo ge e al., 2022).
Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy234
Unde clima e change, well‑es ablished enewable ene gy sou ces allow a jus
ansi ion owa d a less ca bon‑in ensi e u u e while s ill a aining sus ainable wa e
and ood sec o de elopmen (Zhang e al., 2018). Fo example, in Siklesh Village
in Nepal, a 100 kW mic o‑hyd o plan was buil in 1994 o p o ide elec ici y o
domes ic and ag o‑p ocessing, aiming o educe ca bon emissions. The indings show
ha he mic o‑hyd o plan boos ed he es ablishmen o ag o‑p ocessing mills, hence
inc easing ag icul u al p oduc i i y (Gu a e al., 2017). In Canada’s Saska chewan
p o ince, wind ene gy expansions p oduce syne gies by o se ing he mal powe
educ ions. Tha WEF nexus s udy highligh ed ha wind ene gy dec eases g een‑
house gas emissions and wa e consump ion o cooling he mal powe plan s. I
also imp o es g oundwa e conse a ion due o educed g oundwa e demands (Wu
e al., 2021).
Imp o ing he e iciency o eshwa e usage also p o ides he po en ial o
c oss‑sec o syne gy unde clima e change (Rasul and Sha ma, 2016). Fo ins ance,
d ip i iga ion can c ea e syne gies be ween he wa e and ood sec o s in he
Zhangye ca chmen in China. The in e en ion can signi ican ly imp o e he ields’
wa e ‑use e iciency amid clima e change (Shen e al., 2022). Fu he mo e, ade‑o s
wi h he ene gy sec o we e add essed in his WEF nexus assessmen , indica ing
ha he high‑cos inpu ac o s may su pass he bene i s o inc eased c op yield and
wa e ‑sa ing measu es. Mulching wi h he plas ic ilm was sugges ed as an addi‑
ional measu e o inc ease he wa e ‑sa ing bene i s (Shen e al., 2022). I has been
e idenced ha using a piped i iga ion sys em ins ead o a canal sys em can p oduce
syne gy be ween he wa e , ene gy, and ood sec o s in he B eede Ri e ca chmen
o Sou h A ica by cu ing elec ici y cos s by 30% pe 5%–10% inc ease in i iga ed
a eas, while addi ionally imp o ing wa e quali y (Seelige e al., 2018).
Adop ing wa e managemen p ac ices o p oduce mo e ood and ene gy wi h
ewe wa e esou ces is i al o clima e change adap a ion (Mpandeli e al., 2018).
Ahmadaali e al. (2018) es ablished ha implemen ing wa e managemen s a egies,
which encompass c op pa e n changes wi h inc eased i iga ion e iciency, dec eases
wa e demands and imp o es ag icul u al and en i onmen al sus ainabili y in he
U mia Lake basin, loca ed in he no h‑wes e n egions o I an. Addi ionally, adjus ‑
ing wa e alloca ion s a egies ha encou age a balance be ween WEF sec o s and
domes ic wa e usage is ecommended o imp o ed WEF sus ainabili y in he ca ch‑
men (Ahmadaali e al., 2018).
Simila ly, su plus wa e in he Bu alo Ri e ca chmen is a ailable in he basin,
which needs o be cau iously alloca ed (Dlamini and Mos e , 2019; Dlamini e al.,
2022). F om examining he e ec s o clima e change and wa e esou ce policies
on he wa e supply‑demand ela ionship in he Bu alo Ri e ca chmen , Dlamini
(2022) ound ha exis ing wa e esou ces policy plans a e cen ed a ound ensu ‑
ing ha mo e han 70% o domes ic wa e demands a e me . Howe e , li le o no
imp o emen s we e modelled in closing he gap be ween ag icul u al wa e demands
and supply. Less han 3% o i iga ion and ene gy gene a ion wa e demands a e
p ojec ed o be me h oughou he 21s cen u y.
Fu he mo e, Dlamini (2022) p oposed long‑ e m in eg a ed wa e esou ces
s a egies o imp o e wa e alloca ions wi hin he Bu alo Ri e ca chmen o accom‑
moda e ag icul u al and ene gy wa e demands. The p oposed s a egies include:
235Unde s anding he nexus be ween wa e , ene gy and ood
(a) di e ing excess wa e in densely popula ed municipali ies like Newcas le and
Dannhause o mo e ag icul u e‑in ensi e a eas such as Nqu hu and U ech local
municipali ies, (b) upg ading exis ing WTPs, such as he Ngagane WTP, so ha hey
ope a e a op imum capaci y, (c) cons uc ing dams in he Ncandu and Ngxobongo
i e s o inc eased wa e supply, and (d) inc easing wa e abs ac ions o ese oi s
du ing peak ain all yea s.
As much as he p oposed s a egies’ wa e alloca ion changes dec ease wa e
esou ces’ eliabili y o p o ide domes ic wa e demands, his ade‑o was mod‑
elled o signi ican ly imp o e he o e all wa e p o isions and equali y in wa e dis‑
ibu ion among he WEF sec o s (Dlamini, 2022). To cu b his an icipa ed decline
in eliabili y in mee ing domes ic wa e demands, Dlamini (2022) s ongly ad o‑
ca ed o he use o mul i‑pu pose dams o educe he p essu e on wa e supplies by
inc easing i iga ion di e sions and gene a ing hyd opowe , as well as wo king wi h
he communi ies in he ca chmen o u he es ablish wa e demand managemen
s a egies in ligh o he ca chmen ’s limi ed land esou ces, clima e change, and
ecosys em deg ada ion.
In ligh o he WEF nexus hinking, discussions a ound he syne gies and
ade‑o s eme ging om hese s a egies should in ol e esea che s, policymake s
and decision‑make s in de eloping he Bu alo Ri e ca chmen ’s WEF esou ces
(Dlamini, 2022). The e o e, i is ecommended ha mul iple s akeholde pla o ms
be es ablished in he Bu alo Ri e basin o add ess be e synch oniza ion and in e‑
g a ion o WEF de elopmen plans, policies, and p ocedu es o imp o ed se ice
deli e y.
Ins ead o he cu en agmen ed managemen o wa e by local municipali ies,
he es ablishmen o he Phongola‑Umzimkulu Ca chmen Managemen Agency
(CMA), which is pa o he nine CMAs planned by Sou h A ica’s Depa men
o Wa e and Sani a ion o execu e wa e esou ce managemen a he ca chmen
le el (Munnik, 2020), and ha co e s he Bu alo Ri e ca chmen , is encou aged
(Munnik, 2020). The eason is ha CMAs a e be e equipped o cope wi h wa e
alloca ions in ligh o d ough s, cu en unp edic abili y, and clima e change chal‑
lenges. They p o ide a be e oppo uni y o hos mul iple s akeholde s when aming
in eg a ed adap i e managemen s a egies (Munnik, 2020).
12.6 CONCLUSIONS
Clima e change has signi ican ly impac ed de eloping egions due o hei low
adap i e capaci y and, mo e impo an ly, he lack o in eg a ion o clima e change
adap a ion in he espec i e egions’ de elopmen plans. Due o clima e change’s
complexi y, unp edic abili y, and u gency, de eloping adap a ion s a egies sus ain‑
ably should no only ocus solely on mi iga ing i s e ec s. S ill, i should also con‑
side he b oade social ame o e e ence in which hese changes a e aking place
and he consequen ial impac on he secu i y o wa e , ene gy, and ood. This chap e ,
he e o e, elabo a ed on he WEF nexus app oach, which encou ages he in eg a ion
o WEF esou ce sus ainabili y unde clima e change.
F om a basin pe spec i e, be e knowledge and unde s anding o he WEF
nexus unde clima e change p o ides a p ac ical possibili y o coo dina e nexus
Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy236
solu ions o balance he sus ainable use o esou ces and build esilience. In he case
o he Bu alo Ri e ca chmen case, di e en go e nmen al bodies manage wa e
esou ces o mee hei domes ic needs, which ende s hei esou ce managemen
s a egies unsus ainable as he wa e supply sys em has p o en un eliable o p o id‑
ing wa e o ene gy and ood sec o s. In such cases, coo dina ing policies o he
sus ainabili y o he WEF nexus h ough esea ch, de elopmen , and p ac ices a e
ad oca ed o boos ing sus ainable li elihoods and clima e esilience in ca chmen
communi ies.
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Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy248
inju y, among o he isks (Comunian e al., 2020; Mille , 2020). In Sou h A ica,
hese heal h challenges a e p e alen in u ban a eas (Ma ooane e al., 2004).
13.3.2 changes in ae osols pollU ion le els
The p esence o ae osols o e Sou h A ica has become a se e e human heal h and
clima e change conce n, as e idenced by he deg ada ion o ai quali y, coupled
wi h challenges ela ed o isibili y impai men on he oads as well as he esul an
inc ease in he in ensi y and equency o ex eme wea he e en s (Kwon e al., 2020;
Manisalidis e al., 2020).
A mosphe ic ae osols (sulpha e, ni a e, ammonium, o ganic ca bon, elemen al ca ‑
bon, and mine al elemen s) abso b and di use sola and longwa e adia ions emi ed
om he Ea h’s su ace. This p ocess al e s he su ace’s a mosphe ic adia ion budge
(Thandlam and Rahaman, 2019). Due o he c i ical unc ion o ae osols in cloud con‑
densa ion, changes in hei composi ion can al e clouds’ mac o and mic o cha ac e is‑
ics, causing nega i e adia i e impac s ha esul in he g eenhouse e ec (Ch is ensen
e al., 2020; Ren‑Jian e al., 2012). Ae osol pa icle concen a ions educed d as ically
du ing he COVID‑19‑induced lockdown (Figu e 13.3). Howe e , KwaZulu‑Na al
P o ince emained he mos ae osol‑con ibu ing p o ince in Sou h A ica.
The spide g aph (Figu e 13.4) demons a es sulphu dioxide (SO2) changes
pe p o ince du ing he 2020 COVID‑19 economic lockdown. The ends indica e
educed SO2 du ing Ma ch and Ap il as he e we e educed ehicula olumes,
FIGURE13.3 Va ia ion in ae osols (mol/m2) p esence in he a mosphe e in Sou h A ica
be o e, du ing and a e he COVID‑19lockdown. Ae osol p esence d as ically d opped du ‑
ing he COVID‑19lockdown, pa icula ly be ween Ma ch and May 2020.

249Ca alysing cleane p oduc ion sys ems
con i ming he con ibu ion o ehicles o a mosphe ic pollu ion. Howe e , he
Gau eng and Wes e n Cape emained he cen al SO2 con ibu ing p o inces in
Sou h A ica. The analysis showed ha he p o ince emi ing he mos pollu an s is
Mpumalanga, wi h an a e age o 199.03 µmol/m2, ollowed by Gau eng wi h 187.70
µmol/m2, hen Limpopo wi h an a e age o 92.91 µmol/m2. The emaining p o inces
ha e an a e age below 75, excep o F ee S a e, KwaZulu‑Na al, and Wes e n Cape,
wi h 78.42, 87.58, and 81.75 µmol/m2, espec i ely.
13.4 IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION ON HUMAN
AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
Ai pollu ion has become a majo heal h isk as i is he cause o se ious oxicological
impac s a ec ing bo h human and en i onmen al heal h (Gho ani‑Azam e al., 2016).
I has been he majo sou ce o acid ain, deg ading e es ial and aqua ic ecosys ems
since he ad en o he indus ial e olu ion (Manisalidis e al., 2020). The isk posed
by ai pollu ion on human heal h is so huge ha i is a ibu ed o o e 5million dea hs
each yea wo ldwide, ep esen ing 9% o dea hs globally (IHME, 2018). In Sou h
A ica alone, ai pollu ion and espi a o y‑ ela ed diseases (hea disease, s oke,
lowe espi a o y in ec ions, lung cance , diabe es, and ch onic obs uc i e pulmo‑
na y disease) killed o e 23,000 people in 2017 alone (IHME, 2018). Figu e13.5 is
a map indica ing he dea h a es om ai pollu ion‑ ela ed illnesses ac oss he globe
measu ed as he numbe o dea hs pe 100,000 people pe coun y. The highes ai
pollu ion dea h a es a e expe ienced in Sub‑Saha an A ica and Sou h Asia.
F ee S a e
No h Wes
Wes e n Cape
Gau eng
Jun-20
May-2
0
Ap -20
Ma -20
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
0
KwaZulu-Na al
Limpopo
Eas e n Cape
No he n Cape
Mpumalanga
FIGURE13.4 Va ia ions in SO2 o e Sou h A ica by p o ince du ing he 2020lockdown.
SO2 educed signi ican ly du ing Ma ch and Ap il 2020 due o educed ehicula p esence.
Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy250
I is now well‑acknowledged ha ai pollu ion and clima e change a e closely
linked, as pollu ion is jus he o he side o he same coin deg ading Ea h’s quali y o
li e (Manisalidis e al., 2020). Black ca bon, me hane, oposphe ic ozone, ae osols,
and o he pollu an s hea ily a ec incoming sunligh , causing some a mosphe ic
changes, empe a u e inc eases and hea wa es (Fio e e al., 2015). The a mosphe ic
changes caused by ai pollu ion esul in he incidence and p e alence o in ec ious
diseases (Manisalidis e al., 2020). P e ious s udies ha e indica ed ha disease ou ‑
b eaks’ du a ion, iming, and in ensi y s ongly co ela e wi h clima ic and en i on‑
men al changes (Caminade e al., 2019; Manisalidis e al., 2020; Wu e al., 2016).
In Sou h A ica, he e has been an inc ease in ai pollu ion‑ ela ed disas e s and
in ec ious diseases (Nhamo and Ndlela, 2021), as shown in Table13.1 (Guha‑Sapi
e al., 2020). Sou h A ica has seen an inc ease in clima e‑ ela ed disas e s since2000,
a ec ing o e 18.5million since2000 (Table13.1) (Guha‑Sapi e al., 2020). Mala ia
FIGURE13.5 Global dea h a es om ai pollu ion in 2017, measu ed as he numbe o
dea hs pe 100,000 popula ion.
Sou ce: Ins i u e o Heal h Me ics and E alua ion (IHME).
TABLE13.1
To al numbe o a ec ed people by pollu ion‑ ela ed
disas e s in Sou h A ica (2000–2020)
Disas e ype No. o a ec ed people
Flash lood 4,100
Bac e ial and o he i al diseases 111,960
D ough 18,450,000
To al 18,566,060
Sou ce : EM‑DAT (Guha‑Sapi e al., 2021).
251Ca alysing cleane p oduc ion sys ems
and o he i al diseases ha e esu gen ecen ly as hese pa hogens a e clima e‑
sensi i e (Abiodun e al., 2020). Inc easing empe a u es educe he pa hogen incu‑
ba ion pe iod o pa asi es and i uses and con ibu e o he ec o ’s geog aphic
dis ibu ion changes (Caminade e al., 2019). The inc easing sp ead, in ensi y, and
equency o epidemics a e associa ed wi h ai pollu ion and clima e change.
13.5 STRATEGIC PATHWAYS TOWARDS REDUCED
AIR POLLUTION
A e iden i ying and assessing di e en pollu an s in Sou h A ica and he associ‑
a ed heal h isks, a concep ual amewo k was de eloped o p o ide pa hways and
sma solu ions ha lead o accep able pollu ion le els wi hou impac ing indus ial
p oduc ion. The concep ual amewo k (Figu e13.6) is de eloped a ound i e he‑
ma ic a eas ha include (i) d i e s o change, (ii) pollu ion isks, (iii) esponses and
eco e y, (i ) inancing, and ( ) adop ion o sma solu ions. The hema ic a eas
we e iden i ied om he li e a u e, pa icula ly om esea ch p ojec s ha add ess
pollu ion‑ ela ed challenges (Li e al., 2019; Pa k e al., 2020; Rao e al., 2017; Reis
e al., 2022). Each heme is composed o ac ionable pa hways o d i e he ans o ma‑
ional change owa ds Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs), pa icula ly Goals 3
(good heal h and well‑being), 6 (clean wa e and sani a ion), 7 (a o dable and clean
ene gy), 11 (sus ainable ci ies and communi ies), and 13 (clima e ac ion) wi h syne ‑
gies wi h he o he emaining goals.
Ai pollu ion and clima e change a e in ica ely in e linked and a e associa ed
wi h he sec o s ha con ibu e he mos GHGs. These sec o s include anspo ,
ag icul u e, ene gy, indus y, and was e managemen . These a e he same sec o s
ha emi ine pa icula e ma e (PM2.5) and he o he main pollu an s ound in he
a mosphe e (Ba wise and Kuma , 2020). O he majo a mosphe ic pollu an s include
SLCPs such as black ca bon and g ound‑le el ozone ha pose isks o human heal h
(Yamine a and Liu, 2019). The same an h opogenic ac i i ies dis u bing he Ea h’s
FIGURE13.6 T ans o ma ional pa hways owa ds cleane en i onmen s, educed ai pollu‑
ion, a ainmen o a ci cula economy and sus ainable de elopmen .
Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy252
clima e also p oduce he mos pollu an s in o he a mosphe e, becoming he g ea es
h ea o en i onmen al and human heal h (Rhind, 2009).
Clima e change and ai pollu ion a e he g ea es h ea s o human heal h and li e‑
lihoods h ough hea wa es, en i onmen al deg ada ion ( he majo cause o he eme ‑
gence o no el in ec ious diseases), and d ough s and inc easing empe a u es ha
a ou he eme gence o pes s and diseases (Manisalidis e al., 2020). We, he e o e,
es ablish he in e linkages be ween ai pollu ion, clima e change, human heal h and
ex eme wea he e en s and p o ide he pa hways o sma solu ions ha lead o sus‑
ainable de elopmen (Figu e13.6). Closely linking clima e change and ai pollu ion
in policy and decision‑making allows he o mula ion o c oss‑sec o al s a egies ha
simul aneously mi iga e in e linked challenges in a holis ic manne (Nhamo e al.,
2020). A he same ime, ine icien , pollu ing, and ene gy‑in ensi e p ac ices d i e
bo h c ises; hence, s a egies aimed a educing ai pollu ion ha c ea e co‑bene i s
o bo h clima e and heal h a e equi ed. Likewise, measu es o educe emissions
ypically lead o educ ions in co‑emi ed pollu an s such as pa icula e ma e .
The concep ual amewo k (Figu e13.6) is based on in ica ely in e connec ed
d i e s o change and p ocesses. Any in e en ion o mi iga e any d i e s, like ai
pollu ion, should conside all he con ibu ing elemen s d i ing he inc easing pol‑
lu an s and clima e change. Mi iga o y in e en ions equi e in eg a ed and ans‑
o ma i e app oaches ha include he ci cula economy and one heal h, o he han
pu suing linea models ha ha e now eached hei h eshold and a e no longe
app op ia e o add essing oday’s in ica ely connec ed p oblems (Alcayaga e al.,
2019; Naidoo e al., 2021). In his digi al wo ld domina ed by globalisa ion, he ci ‑
cula economy app oach is powe ed by digi al echnologies (DTs), including he
IoT, Big Da a, and Da a Analy ics. These ci cula economy enable s acili a e ack‑
ing he low o p oduc s, componen s, and ma e ials, a ailing he esul an da a o
imp o ed esou ce managemen and decision‑making ac oss di e en s ages o he
p oduc ion cycle (K is o e sen e al., 2020). Powe ed by DTs, he ci cula economy
p o ides pa hways owa ds sus ainable g ow h, e icien esou ce use, good heal h
and employmen oppo uni ies while sa ing he en i onmen and na u al esou ces
(Kalmyko a e al., 2018).
13.6 CATALYSING CLEANER PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Pollu ion le els educed d as ically du ing he COVID‑19lockdowns, bu he le els
picked up again as soon as he lockdown egula ions we e elaxed. The COVID‑19
pandemic e ealed how pollu ion le els could go down when he e is limi ed indus‑
ial p oduc ion, which is p esen ly linea . Howe e , while he e is an u gen need o
educe pollu ion le els, p oducing esou ces and p oduc s should p oceed o mee
human needs. The e is, he e o e, an u gen need o implemen and ope a ionalise
ci cula p oduc ion sys ems ha emb ace sma echnologies and enhance cleane
en i onmen s. These ini ia i es a e ca alysed by adop ing en i onmen ally iendly
ene gy sou ces and emb acing ci cula s a egies ha include educing, eusing,
epai ing, ecycling, es o ing and indus ial symbiosis (K is o e sen e al., 2020)
(Velen u and Pu nell, 2021). Sma sys ems and echnologies ha include p od‑
uc se ice sys ems (PSS) and pe o mance models could p o ide he pa hways o
253Ca alysing cleane p oduc ion sys ems
as ‑ ack he linkages be ween he ci cula economy and he IoT, speed he needed
ans o ma ional change and a ain he g een economy (Ingema sdo e e al., 2019;
Naidoo e al., 2021). PSS o e a ious en i onmen al bene i s by capi alising on DTs
and ela ed connec i i y o enhance esou ce use e iciency, ex end p oduc li espan
and close ma e ial loops (Alcayaga e al., 2019; Chauhan e al., 2022). By op imising
p oduc use and alue p ese a ion o e ime, indus ialis s can maximise p o i s
om all alue c ea ion oppo uni ies p o ided by PSS and spu a long‑las ing e ‑
enue s eam (Chauhan e al., 2022).
Thus, esea ch on educing ai pollu ion should conside c oss‑sec o al analysis
ha includes socio‑economic ac o s ( he d i ing o ces), human ac i i ies ( he p es‑
su es), en i onmen al and human heal h, he impac , and he esponses (Figu e13.6).
Such a ans o ma ional app oach esul s in sma solu ions and ci cula modelling
h ough in es men in enewable ene gy, imp o ed was e managemen and ecycling,
ans o ma ion o g een ci ies, and he educ ion o ag icul u al was e owa ds sus‑
ainable ag icul u al sys ems. The concep ual amewo k, based on ou hema ic
a eas (d i e s o change, he isks, esponses and eco e y, inancing, and sma solu‑
ions), p o ides in eg a ed solu ions o mi iga e exis ing challenges and p o ide he
pa hways owa ds achie ing SDGs.
13.7 STRATEGIES TO REDUCE AIR POLLUTION
As al eady alluded, in e en ional s a egies o mi iga e ai pollu ion equi e in eg a ed
and ans o ma i e app oaches o add ess challenges ac oss sec o s and p o ide sma
solu ions owa ds a ci cula economy and cleane p oduc ion sys ems. C oss‑sec o al
coope a ion a di e en le els (ci y, egional, na ional, and in e na ional) is c i ical o
add essing ai pollu ion and i s challenges in an e ec i e manne . The e is a need
o socie al changes o shi owa ds cohe en and sma policies and in es men s ha
suppo cleane p oduc ion, anspo modes, and powe gene a ion, as well as ene gy‑
e icien housing and municipal was e managemen o educe ai pollu ion. Besides he
po en ial o hese ans o ma ional in e en ions in imp o ing human heal h, hey also
educe GHGs. Sma in e en ions ansla e in o sus ainable de elopmen , ca alyse
economic de elopmen , and u n u ban a eas in o cen es o human de elopmen and
clima e change adap a ion. Table13.2 p o ides p oposed s a egies ha can be adop ed
o mi iga e and educe ai pollu ion.
13.8 CONCLUSIONS
The COVID‑19‑induced lockdowns ha e highligh ed he con ibu ion o an h o‑
pogenic ac i i ies o a mosphe ic pollu ion, GHG emissions and, ul ima ely, global
wa ming. Pollu ion le els we e d as ically educed du ing he lockdown as indus‑
ial p oduc ion and ehicula emissions we e educed. T ans o ma ional change
is u gen ly needed o expedi e he ci cula economy concep o achie e sus ain‑
able de elopmen by 2030. This is pa icula ly u gen as ai pollu ion has become a
majo heal h isk a ec ing millions wo ldwide. This chap e has p oduced a guiding
amewo k o s a egic and cohe en policy o mula ions o enhance he maximum
co‑bene i s o human heal h and clima e. The challenge equi es c oss‑sec o al

Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy254
TABLE13.2
Sec o ‑speci ic s a egies ha can be adop ed o educe and mi iga e
ai pollu ion
Sec o Mi iga o y s a egies
Ag icul u e • P omo e he use o enewable sou ces o ene gy o i iga ion.
• Ins alla ion o he mal sc eens o mush oom p oduc ion o inc ease ene gy use
e iciency.
• Applica ion o manu es o educe he need o ino ganic e ilise (u ilising
ag icul u al was e o p oduce manu e o e ilising soils).
• Use o excess ag icul u al was e o p oduce biogas o ene gy pu poses wi hin he
sec o ( educes demand o elec ici y, whe e coal is being used).
• A oid bu ning ag icul u al ields.
• P omo e heal hy die s ha a e low in ed and p ocessed mea bu ich in
plan ‑based oods.
• Cap u e o me hane gas emi ed om was e si es as an al e na i e o incine a ion.
T anspo • In oduce sola ‑powe ed ca s.
• Subsidy on pu chases o elec ic ehicles.
• Implemen oughe ehicle emissions and e iciency s anda ds.
• P omo e he use o public anspo o p omo e ca pooling.
• Imp o e he e iciency o u ban public anspo .
• P omo e walking and cycling ne wo ks in ci ies.
• In oduc ion o public anspo powe ed using g een ene gy.
• Shi ing o mo e e icien and cleane hea y‑du y diesel ehicles and
low‑emissions ehicles and uels.
• P omo e he use o uels wi h educed sulphu con en .
• Using elec ic ail sys ems o anspo aw ma e ials om ex ac ion plan s o
manu ac u ing plan s and inal p oduc s o wholesale s.
Ci ies • P omo e walking and cycling o and om wo k.
• P omo e he concep o compac ci ies, which a e ene gy e icien .
• P omo e he use o public anspo and in es in bus apid ansi and ligh ail.
• C ea e g een spaces ha emo e pa icula e ma e and educe he hea island
e ec .
• Imp o e was e managemen and he cap u e o me hane gas emi ed om was e
si es as an op ion o incine a ion.
• Imp o ing social housing deli e y o minimise in o mal se lemen s.
• Use o enewable ene gy o powe ing public in as uc u e.
• Plan ing mo e ees o lowe a e age empe a u es.
• Plan ing ca bon seques a ing ege a ion.
• P omo ing sma s ee ligh ing ini ia i es.
Housing • P omo e he use o enewable sou ces o ene gy o ligh ing, hea ing, and cooking.
• Replace he use o ke osene o household use wi h al e na i e, cleane sou ces o
ene gy.
• Use o ene gy‑e icien ligh bulbs and appliances.
• Imp o e household and comme cial ene gy e iciency h ough insula ion and
passi e design p inciples such as na u al en ila ion and ligh ing.
• P omo e g een oo ops.
• P omo e he applica ion o a i icial in elligence o e icien ene gy use.
(Con inued)
255Ca alysing cleane p oduc ion sys ems
coo dina ion o di e en bu in e linked sec o s and s akeholde s o de elop and
ope a ionalise e ec i e and in eg a ed ac ions ha imp o e public heal h h ough
was e and pollu ion educ ion. The p oposed amewo k p o ides mi iga o y pa h‑
ways owa ds clima e change esilience and adap a ion. The mos c i ical pa hway is
a uni ied go e nance and policy amewo k ha p omo es he educ ion o ai pollu‑
ion and he p omo ion o he igh o clean ai . This is possible h ough ans o ma‑
ional change, adop ing sma echnologies, and emb acing ci cula models ins ead
o linea app oaches ha ocus on single sec o s and o ge he in e connec edness
TABLE13.2
(Con inued)
Sec o Mi iga o y s a egies
Was e
managemen
• D i e u ban a eas owa ds he u ban ci cula economy.
• Reduce was e h ough was e sepa a ion, ecycling, and euse.
• P omo e biological was e managemen such as anae obic was e diges ion o
p oduce biogas.
• Adop combus ion echnologies and o mula e s ic emission con ols whe e
incine a ion is una oidable.
• Use was e as ene gy sou ces in some indus ies such as cemen p oduc ion
(land ills can be g ea ly educed, also imp o ing ai quali y).
Indus y • Adop ing cleane p oduc ion echnologies o educe indus ial emissions.
• Swi ch o a o dable and cleane ene gy sou ces.
• Encou age he eco e y and use o gas eleased du ing ossil uel p oduc ion.
• P omo e he use o egene a i e he mal oxidise s o des oy pollu an s be o e hey
a e eleased in o he en i onmen .
• P o ision o incen i es by he go e nmen o mo i a e he implemen a ion o
cleane p oduc ion echnology in di e en economic sec o s.
• P omo e sus ainable disposal o indus ial was e.
• Reuse o indus ial was e ha can be used in he combus ion p ocess, such as
was e plas ic and oil.
• Aligning en i onmen al managemen plans o he na ional en i onmen al
objec i es.
• Reques ing sec o s o epo on hei cu en emissions and a ge educ ions as
p esc ibed by he Clima e Change Bill o Sou h A ica.
Ene gy
gene a ion
• Discou age he use o en i onmen ally un iendly sou ces o ene gy like oil and
coal o la ge‑scale ene gy p oduc ion.
• P omo e he use o low‑emission uels and enewable combus ion‑ ee powe
sou ces such as sola and wind.
• P omo ing in es men in he g een ene gy sec o .
• On‑g id in eg a ion o elec ici y om enewable ene gy o ms o supplemen he
load gene a ion om powe plan s.
Policy • To design he en i onmen al legisla ion and ensu e en o cemen .
• To design con ols on emissions and ensu e adhe ence by sec o s.
• To en o ce emission ceilings pe sec o .
• To ensu e pollu ing sec o s con ibu e o en i onmen al ehabili a ion.
Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy256
o sys ems. The ecommended in eg a ed and ans o ma i e app oaches equi e
public‑p i a e engagemen s and indi idual ac ions o educe he e ec s o pollu ‑
an s on human heal h and accele a e clima e change. In e en ions equi e communi‑
ies o shi om he ‘no m’ owa ds a ci cula economy and use enewable ene gy
sou ces. The changes include enginee ing solu ions d as ically educing emissions
om cooking s o es and ehicles. The inc eased equency and in ensi y o he eme ‑
gence o no el in ec ious diseases such as COVID‑19 equi es u gen and p oac i e
in e en ions o educe he isk o ai pollu ion o human and en i onmen al heal h.
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Ci cula and T ans o ma i e Economy264
Con empo a y discussions a e eme ging ac oss he ield o li e acy, gende equali y,
and ci izenship educa ion, which shi a discou se owa ds sus ainable de elopmen .
This has been wi nessed o accele a e in ol emen in clima e change educa ion,
unde s anding poli ical un es , and sol ing socie al con lic s (Face , 2021).
14.4 UNDERSTANDING THE REPARATIVE FUTURE
Sus ainabili y in a highe educa ion con ex comp ises ou ields, namely, each‑
ing, esea ch, ins i u ional se ice, and communi y engagemen . Sus ainabili y as he
main d i e owa d a epa a i e u u e in de eloping coun ies is spa sely esea ched
(Filho e al., 2019; Ulme & Wyd a, 2020).
The concep o ‘ u u e’ is in ima ely and ubiqui ously associa ed wi h educa‑
ion, ye his ela ionship emains poo ly concep ualised in mains eam educa ional
hough . Cons uc ing a esilien , inclusi e, and democ a ic cul u e by o ecas ing,
imagining, planning, and building oge he is he way o go. This could be ailo ‑
made o cons uc u u es ha dis inguish and hun o mending his o ical p ejudices.
Immedia e in e en ions ha e as oppo uni ies o isks, bu p epa edness and ho ‑
ough ocus widen he scope o in e en ion wi h in elligence.
Scena io planning, combined wi h sys ems hinking, enables one o plan o e e y
possibili y while emaining agile o espond o e e y need and i s ou comes (Sinno ,
2020).
Unde s anding con empo a y challenges, policies, and changes di ec s o a epa ‑
a i e u u e (Gungo du e al., 2017; Lo z‑sisi ka e al., 2021). I has been highligh ed
ha u al a eas, pa icula ly in he Global Sou h, emain he cen es o land g ab‑
bing, inc easing “de‑ag a ianisa ion”, ood insecu i y, cul u al loss, ex eme po ‑
e y, and clima e change insensi i i y (Chigbu, 2015, p.1068). A es ing o Maz ui
(2001), in‑se ice eache s will be wha hey ha e been aised o become because
o wha lec u e s hink hey a e. Ac ions like sel ‑ la e ing and sel ‑p omo ion ha e
e oded, whe ein A icans we e known o hei sel ‑p aises which na a ed hei
achie emen s and down alls. Ne e heless, he new one o u alisa ion needs o
be emphasised o unde s and he epa a i e u u e. As a means o ans o ma ion,
he ision needs o be d a ed and mo e o e being communica ed. Hence, hough
is no hough unless i is also w i en (Maz ui, 2001, p.99). Howe e , he chap e
claims ha going back o he oo s o communica ing he ision among he commu‑
ni y membe s in an A ocen ic mode will sus ain he ision. The e o e, hough s
a e wo hless when no communica ed and sha ed. The e a o shi ing he ocus
om esea ching he gaps o exis ing ac i i ies is now (Ulme & Wyd a, 2020).
Mo eo e , A ican Highe Educa ion Ins i u ions ha e been iden i ied as d agging
in imp o ing hei sus ainabili y (ibid). HEI cu iculum should in o m p axis o
unlike u banisa ion; u alisa ion is po ayed as he solu ion p o ide whe e among
lec u e s and in‑se ice eache s, he e is “he i ageisa ion” o u al ways o li ing
(Chigbu, 2015).
In highe educa ion, sus ainabili y comp ises ou ields: eaching, esea ch, ins i‑
u ional ope a ions, and communi y ou each (Ulme & Wyd a, 2020). Li e a u e
con i med he alue o ans o ma ion; hence, i o e s an oppo uni y o esea ch‑
ing and e hinking how sui able and e ec i e educa ional p ac ices may be.

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