Fi zenbe ge , Be nd; Kage l, Ch is ian
A icle
Labou and Compe i i eness in Ge many: Emb acing he
T ans o ma ion o Boos P oduc i i y
In e economics
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Fi zenbe ge , Be nd; Kage l, Ch is ian (2025) : Labou and Compe i i eness in
Ge many: Emb acing he T ans o ma ion o Boos P oduc i i y, In e economics, ISSN 1613-964X,
Sciendo, Wa saw, Vol. 60, Iss. 1, pp. 28-33,
h ps://doi.o g/10.2478/ie-2025-0006
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/314839
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In e economics 2025 | 1
28
Fo um
p ices in he a e ma h o he Russian in asion o Uk aine
ha e slowed down p oduc i i y g ow h, weakening ex-
po s. The isk o deglobalisa ion weighs hea ily on he
Ge man economy, pu ing p essu e on i s compe i i e-
ness in key indus ies.
Employmen and o al hou s a e abo e p e-COVID-19
le els
Employmen de elopmen con inues o be posi i e in Ge -
many. F om 2015 o he second qua e o 2024 (see Fig-
u e 1), he e has been s ong g ow h in o al dependen
employmen (+10%) and o al hou s wo ked (+7%). This
o e all upwa d end was dis up ed by he COVID-19 pan-
demic bu has esumed, especially o dependen employ-
men . Recen ly, he inc ease o dependen employmen
has been almos exclusi ely d i en by indi iduals wi h a
mig a ion backg ound, al eady illus a ing he epe cus-
sions o he inc easingly ageing Ge man popula ion.
In he case o dependen employmen , he p e-pandemic
le el was su passed in he hi d qua e o 2021. In con-
as , o hou s wo ked, he mos ecen igu es a e only
a sli e abo e 2019 le els. The pandemic-induced de-
cline in o al hou s was s onge and las ed longe han
he decline in employmen , due mos ly o he in ense use
o sho - ime wo k (Ku za bei ). Taken oge he , hese
ends imply a dec ease in he numbe o hou s wo ked
pe employee, owing o an inc ease in pa - ime wo k.
This is pa ly due o he highe labou o ce pa icipa ion
a es among women, o whom pa - ime wo k is com-
mon. While dependen employmen is s ill g owing, sel -
employmen has been alling o a while, and is well below
i s p e-pandemic le el.
P oduc i i y g ow h is slow
Figu e 2 shows agg ega e p oduc i i y g ow h since
2000, as cap u ed by GDP pe wo ke and GDP pe hou
wo ked. Apa om he c isis in 2009/2010, p oduc i i y
g ew quickly du ing he 2000s, in almos pa allel ash-
ion o bo h wo ke s and hou s. Th oughou he 2010s, a
gap be ween he wo measu es opened up, wi h hou ly
p oduc i i y inc easing a a highe clip han pe capi a
p oduc i i y. P oduc i i y pe wo ke has been s agnan
since 2017 and, hence, since well be o e he pandemic.
COVID-19 i sel egis e s as a one-yea blip. Because o
Despi e he cu en economic weakness and Ge many
being seen as he “sick man o Eu ope”, he coun y’s
labou ma ke has p o ed o be ai ly obus so a . De-
penden employmen has con inued o ise – albei a a
slow pace. A 77.4%, Ge many had one o he highes em-
ploymen a es o all OECD coun ies in he i s qua e
o 2024, a plus o 1.6 pe cen age poin s compa ed o he
ou h qua e o 2019 (OECD, 2024).
Ye , he economic weakness is now clea ly isible in he
labou ma ke . The numbe o acancies ell om a eco d
high o 2 million in he ou h qua e o 2022 o 1.3 mil-
lion in he hi d qua e o 2024. Al hough he unemploy-
men a e is much lowe han he OECD a e age, i is now
ising, oo. The combina ion o alling acancies and is-
ing unemploymen has dimmed he job p ospec s o he
long- e m unemployed ( hose unemployed o mo e han
a yea ) compa ed o p e-COVID-19 le els. This is pa icu-
la ly ue o low-skilled indi iduals ( hose wi hou a oca-
ional o uni e si y deg ee), whose unemploymen a e is
abou 20% and who make up 60% o he long- e m un-
employed. A he same ime, he e is a sho age o skilled
wo ke s and many o he acancies o jobs equi ing hei
expe ise emain un illed.
This policy pape p esen s some key empi ical ac s
abou he Ge man labou ma ke and examines a ious
challenges, wi h a special ocus on skills as a key d i e o
compe i i eness. In addi ion o skill sho ages, Ge many
also aces apid demog aphic change, wi h an ageing
labou o ce, while simul aneously na iga ing he chal-
lenges o digi alisa ion and deca bonisa ion. High ene gy
Be nd Fi zenbe ge and Ch is ian Kage l
Labou and Compe i i eness in Ge many: Emb acing he
T ans o ma ion o Boos P oduc i i y
© The Au ho (s) 2025. Open Access: This a icle is dis ibu ed unde he
e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License
(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/).
Open Access unding p o ided by ZBW – Leibniz In o ma ion Cen e
o Economics.
In e economics, 2025, 60(1), 28-33
JEL: E22, E24, J11, J21, J24
DOI: 10.2478/ie-2025-0006
Be nd Fi zenbe ge , Ins i u e o Employmen Resea ch
(IAB), Nu embe g, Ge many; and F ied ich-Alexande -
Uni e si ä E langen-Nü nbe g, Ge many.
Ch is ian Kage l, Ins i u e o Employmen Resea ch
(IAB), Nu embe g, Ge many.
ZBW – Leibniz In o ma ion Cen e o Economics 29
Fo um
ion sec o s, pa s o he economy which end o exhibi
ela i ely slow p oduc i i y g ow h (Baue e al., 2024).
In con as , employmen in highe -p oduc i i y sec o s –
such as manu ac u ing, which we discuss in g ea e
de ail below – inc eased o a lesse deg ee and is now
sh inking. This ealloca ion o employmen owa ds
lowe -p oduc i i y sec o s is likely o con ibu e o weak
p oduc i i y g ow h – al hough he e is a lack o c edible
empi ical e idence on his issue.
S agna ion in manu ac u ing indus ies
Manu ac u ing indus ies ha e o med he backbone o
he Ge man economy in he pas . Ye , hese indus ies
ha e been s agna ing o some ime now. Figu e 3 illus-
a es he gene ally nega i e de elopmen s in p oduc-
ion and employmen ha ha e been happening since
abou 2018. The impo an ca indus y in pa icula
shows a ma ked downwa d end in bo h measu es, es-
pecially o p oduc ion. Simila ad e se changes can be
obse ed o he me al indus y and o machine y man-
u ac u ing.
P oduc ion and employmen inc eased du ing he COVID-19
pandemic in he chemical and pha maceu ical indus y. Em-
ploymen con inued o inc ease pe sis en ly un il 2024, while
p oduc ion has shown a nega i e end since 2022. How-
e e , his masks he he e ogenei y be ween he chemical
and pha maceu ical indus ies. The la e is s ill expanding,
whe eas p oduc ion in he chemical indus y is sh inking. In-
dus y p oduc ion o e all eco e ed in 2021 a e COVID-19
ye s ayed below i s p io le els. A e s agna ing un il ea ly
he sho - ime wo k policy educing he numbe o hou s
wo ked, p oduc i i y pe hou con inues o inc ease un-
il 2022 bu alls in 2023. O e all, he poo p oduc i i y
g ow h is a majo conce n ega ding Ge many’s compe i-
i eness. Pa icula ly in coun ies ou side o Eu ope – like
in he US, China o he es o Asia – p oduc i i y has been
g owing much mo e, e oding Ge many’s ela i e s anding
as a manu ac u ing hub.
To os e p oduc i i y g ow h, he e is a need o in es -
men , especially wi h ega ds o he digi al ans o ma-
ion. Recen esea ch has examined he impac o he
pandemic on digi al ans o ma ion. Ga hmann e al.
(2024) show ha he COVID-19 pandemic led o a push in
digi al in es men s in Ge man i ms. These in es men s
we e complemen ed by i m-p o ided aining and helped
i ms o insu e employmen and o a oid sho - ime wo k.
Mos o hese digi al in es men s, howe e , we e unde -
aken by high-pe o mance i ms, sugges ing ha he c i-
sis deepened he digi al di ide be ween i ms. A n z e al.
(2024) con i m he inding on he digi al di ide and mo eo-
e show ha in es men s in on ie digi al echnologies
we e ac ually ad e sely a ec ed by he pandemic. In a
simila ein, he Ge man Council o Economic Expe s
(SVR, 2024) is conce ned abou he low in es men le el
bo h in he p i a e and he public sec o , which is likely o
be one o he main con ibu ions o he cu en subdued
s a e o he economy, in pa icula o he weak economic
de elopmen in manu ac u ing.
Fo yea s, employmen in Ge many has been g ow-
ing pa icula ly sha ply in he heal h, ca e and educa-
Figu e 1
Dependen employmen and o al hou s wo ks in
Ge many
No es: Qua e ly da a. Sel -employed a e excluded.
Sou ce: Des a is (2024a).
Figu e 2
Agg ega e p oduc i i y g ow h in Ge many
Index, 2000 = 100
No es: Annual da a. Real g oss domes ic p oduc di ided by numbe o
dependen employees and by o al hou s wo ked.
Sou ce: Compu ed based on da a om Des a is (2024a) and Des a is
(2024b).
11
12
13
14
To al hou s wo ked (billions)
38
40
42
44
46
48
Numbe o dependen employees (millions)
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
Dependen employmen
To al hou s wo ked
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
GDP pe wo ke
GDP pe hou wo ked
In e economics 2025 | 1
30
Fo um
deg ee) s ood a 42% in 2023. Labou sho ages a e
pa icula ly p onounced in smalle i ms as well as in he
cons uc ion and hospi ali y sec o . In manu ac u ing, he
sha e amoun s o one hi d, a ela i ely low igu e com-
pa ed o mos o he sec o s. La ge i ms and he public
sec o ind i easies o ill acancies o skilled wo ke s.
Figu e 3
Indus y p oduc ion and employmen in Ge many
No es: Panel (a) shows 7-mon h mo ing a e ages o he mon hly p oduc ion index; panel (b) shows annual employmen .
Sou ces: Des a is (2024c); Fede al Employmen Agency (2024).
2023, o e all indus y p oduc ion is now con ac ing as well.
Indus y employmen has been la since 2020 a e a e y
small decline be ween 2019 and 2020.
Two key immedia e easons accoun o he poo eco-
nomic pe o mance o manu ac u ing indus ies (SVR,
2024): he weakness o expo s, especially he all in ex-
po s o China, which has been ongoing o a while; and
inc eased ene gy p ices since and due o he Russian
wa o agg ession agains Uk aine. On op o ha , he
ca indus y has been hi by a de e io a ing demand o
elec ic ca s while simul aneously acing s i compe i ion
om Chinese au omake s – bo h in China and wo ldwide.
P oduc i i y is a bes inching upwa d in manu ac u ing,
a ac possibly ied o a lack o in es men s in on ie
(digi al) echnologies (A n z e al., 2024). Al oge he , key
manu ac u ing indus ies pain a pic u e o a loss o com-
pe i i eness (SVR, 2024).
Skilled labou sho ages despi e economic weakness
and low ealloca ion a es
Despi e he economic c isis, he e s ill is a sho age o
skilled labou and, as p e iously men ioned, se ice in-
dus ies such as heal h, nu sing and educa ion abso b an
e e -inc easing numbe o employees. D awing on su ey
da a om he IAB Es ablishmen Panel, Figu e 4 shows
he sha e o un illed acancies o skilled wo ke s in 2023,
he eby illus a ing he con inuing skills sho age.
The o al sha e o un illed acancies o skilled posi ions
( hose equi ing a oca ional aining deg ee o a e ia y
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
Index, 2015 = 100
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
Index, 2015 = 100
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
O he indus y
Indus y o e all Chemical and pha maceu ical indus ies Machine y manu ac u ing Ca indus y
a. P oduc ion b. Employmen
Me al indus y
Figu e 4
Sha e o un illed acancies o skilled wo ke s in
Ge many in 2023
No es: Sha e o un illed acancies among all acancies o skilled wo k-
e s a i m would like o ill. Posi ions o skilled wo ks a e hose equi ing
comple ed oca ional aining o a e ia y deg ee.
Sou ce: IAB Es ablishmen Panel.
42
62
47
37
22
61
50
47
46
42
42
41
39
36
33
33
32
21
To al
1−9 employees
10−49 employees
50−249 employees
250+ employees
Cons uc ion
Hospi ali y
Business- ela ed se ices
O he se ices
Wholesale and e ail ade
Finance and insu ance
Ag icul u e, mining, ene gy
Heal h and social se ices
T anspo and s o age
Manu ac u ing
In o ma ion and communica ion
Educa ion
Public adminis a ion
By es ablishmen size:
By sec o :
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
70
%
ZBW – Leibniz In o ma ion Cen e o Economics 31
Fo um
2013) can be eplaced by digi al echnologies, whe eas
his applies now o 36% o all asks in highly complex jobs
(an addi ional 17 pe cen age poin s).
The use o digi al echnologies can educe employmen
in occupa ions wi h high subs i u ion po en ials and can
hus posi i ely impac labou p oduc i i y. Howe e , his
has no ye happened a a la ge scale and i is unlikely
ha jobs will comple ely disappea (G ienbe ge e al.,
2024). Ra he , he use o digi al echnologies changes he
asks pe o med in an occupa ion ( he job con en ) and
expands he scope o business ac i i ies. Co esponding-
ly, employees will ha e o wo k e ec i ely wi h and adap
o (new) digi al echnologies. The e o e, aining he wo k-
o ce’s digi al skills is c ucial o apping he po en ial o
inc ease p oduc i i y and make he digi al ans o ma ion
a success.
Simila o he digi al ans o ma ion, he ecological
ans o ma ion – associa ed wi h he goal o deca bon-
ising he economy – equi es new skills, o ins ance
so-called g een skills. The g eenness-o -jobs index,
de eloped a IAB based on he Ge man occupa ion-ne
(BERUFENET), p o ides one measu e o he p e alence
o g een skills and how hey a e dis ibu ed ac oss oc-
cupa ions and indus ies. Based on his indica o , he e
is e idence ha occupa ions in ol ing g een skills ha e
been g owing disp opo iona ely o e he las decade
and ha he numbe o app en iceships in g eene oc-
A guably, he sho age o skilled labou by i sel is likely o
con ibu e o subdued economic g ow h, hampe ing in-
es men s as well as p oduc i i y g ow h.
This ela ionship could be d i en by a low a e o ealloca-
ion o new, inno a i e jobs ha a e associa ed wi h highe
p oduc i i y le els. Bennewi z e al. (2022) show how he
ealloca ion o jobs, o u no e , i.e. he sum o job sepa a-
ion a es and hi ing a es, ell du ing he pandemic. Mo e-
o e , he hi ing eezes in 2020 p omp ed a la e inc ease
in he numbe o acancies un il he end o 2022, among
which a la ge sha e could no be illed (Kubis, 2022). A a
ime when he necessi y o an economic ans o ma ion
ecei es a g ea deal o a en ion, he employmen eal-
loca ion ha would be expec ed o go hand in hand wi h
such a ans o ma ion is no appa en in he da a a all. To
he con a y, he p ocess o ans o ming he economy is
slowed down by meag e job mobili y.
The escue measu es – such as sho - ime wo k o he
labou ma ke – success ully s abilised he labou ma ke
du ing he pandemic; howe e , hey also po en ially con-
ibu ed o slowing down he ans o ma ion p ocess. Bu
as o now, he e is no empi ical e idence on whe he he
widesp ead use o sho - ime wo k ac ually nega i ely a -
ec ed ealloca ion in Ge many.
Emb acing he ans o ma ion induced by digi alisa-
ion and deca bonisa ion
Digi alisa ion and deca bonisa ion a e d i e s o change
in he economy and he labou ma ke . They p o ide op-
po uni ies o g ow h and new jobs, while also h ea en-
ing exis ing jobs. Figu e 5 displays subs i u ion po en ials
and hei change be ween 2013 and 2022, spli by he
equi emen le el o an occupa ion. Gene ally speaking,
occupa ions in ol ing simple asks a e a g ea e isk o
being eplaced by digi al echnologies, while highly com-
plex asks a e less ulne able. This is because digi al
echnologies can pe o m p og ammable asks and his is
mos easily implemen ed o simple ou ine asks, which
make up he majo i y o wo k in un- o semi-skilled jobs.
In 2013, 46% o all asks pe o med in un- o semi-skilled
jobs could heo e ically be eplaced by digi al echnolo-
gies, while his applies o only 19% o all asks in highly
complex jobs (see Figu e 5).
Howe e , accoun ing o p og ess in digi al echnologies
o e ime, mo e complex asks can also be eplaced.
Thus, he subs i u ion po en ials a e inc easing no ice-
ably o complex specialis jobs and highly complex jobs,
while s agna ing om 2016 onwa ds o un- and semi-
skilled jobs. In 2022, 57% o all asks pe o med in un- o
semi-skilled jobs (plus 11 pe cen age poin s compa ed o
Figu e 5
Po en ial o digi al subs i u ion in a ious jobs in
Ge many
No es: The subs i u ion po en ial measu es he sha e o asks ha can
heo e ically be eplaced by compu e s and digi al echnologies. This in-
o ma ion was ex ac ed using ex mining me hods om he Ge man oc-
cupa ion-ne (BERUFENET) o he yea s 2013, 2016, 2019 and 2022. The
in o ma ion is a ailable o eigh -digi occupa ions and can be e ie ed
o indi idual occupa ions on h ps://job- u u oma .iab.de/.
Sou ce: Da a aken om G ienbe ge e al. (2024).
46
58.2
58.9
57.1
45.4
53.8
58.1
61.6
33.4
40
44.6
49.7
18.8
24.4
26.1
35.8
0
20
40
60
Subs i u ion po en ial (%)
Un-/semi-skilled
jobs Specialis
jobs Complex specialis
jobs Highly complex
jobs
2013
2016
2019
2022
2013
2016
2019
2022
2013
2016
2019
2022
2013
2016
2019
2022
In e economics 2025 | 1
32
Fo um
Second, we u n o he Ge man oca ional aining and
educa ion sys em, o en conside ed a sou ce o Ge man
compe i i eness. The app en iceship sys em also shows
signs o ailing. As Figu e 7 a es s, a e a s ong decline
in he ea ly 2010s and a pe iod o mode a e g ow h la e
in he decade, he numbe o new app en iceships ell
sha ply du ing COVID-19. Following he pandemic, he e
was a slow eco e y un il 2023 and he numbe o new
app en iceship con ac s declined again sligh ly in 2024,
s aying below hal a million e e y yea since 2020. The
numbe o new app en iceship con ac s ma ches in 2024
is mo e han 10% lowe han in 2019.
The ac ha bo h i m-le el aining and he numbe o
new app en iceship con ac s ha e no e u ned o hei
p e-COVID-19 le els poin s o a conside able lack o in-
es men in he skills o he wo k o ce. In his con ex , he
de elopmen s in schooling ou comes a e discou aging
as well: PISA es esul s ha e become wo se in Ge many
o e ime (OECD, 2023), and he e is a subs an ial numbe
o adolescen s e e y yea ha a e lea ing school wi hou
ob aining a ce i ied school deg ee.
While human capi al is one o he mos impo an asse s ha
he Ge man economy has, he e is a signi ican h ea ha
his asse could de e io a e u he du ing he ans o ma ion
p ocess. This sugges s ha ela i ely high unemploymen
a es and acu e skill sho ages migh coexis in he u u e.
Gi en he p ojec ed decline in he labou o ce popula ion
due o demog aphic change, Ge many canno a o d a high
deg ee o misma ch in he labou ma ke . S ong in es -
men s in and incen i es o aining and educa ion a e hence
needed o coun e ac he cu en nega i e end. Wi h he
cupa ions has been inc easing no ably (B ixy e al.,
2023).
Labou , in pa icula human capi al, is a d i e o p oduc-
i i y. The ans o ma ions o he economy and he labou
ma ke equi e changes in he asks pe o med in exis ing
jobs and inc eased mobili y o new jobs. Fo bo h s ay-
e s and mo e s, aining and mo e e sa ile skills will be
necessa y in an e e -changing wo ld o wo k. Only by
emb acing he ans o ma ion his way and g asping i s
oppo uni ies can he s agna ion o p oduc i i y be o e -
come and g ow h p ospec s imp o ed.
The slump in ( oca ional) aining
E en hough he e is a clea need o mo e aining, meas-
u es o a ious ypes o aining sugges ha his is simply
no happening. This de ici poses a majo challenge o a
success ul ans o ma ion o he Ge man economy.
Fi s , we conside he p o ision o u he aining by i ms
o he exis ing wo k o ce ha nominally comple ed hei
job aining in he pas . Wi h apid ad ances in echnol-
ogy, li elong lea ning is becoming all he mo e impo an .
Figu e 6 displays he amoun o i m-le el aining based
on he annual IAB su ey o es ablishmen s, he Es ablish-
men Panel. Du ing he 2010s, he sha e o es ablishmen s
p o iding aining emained ela i ely cons an , while he
sha e o employees pa icipa ing in aining inc eased con-
inuously om 31% in 2011 o 36% in 2019. A e his pe-
iod o g ow h in he sha e o wo ke pa icipa ion in i m-
le el aining wi h li le ola ili y, he e was a sha p d op in
i m-le el aining du ing he pandemic and a subsequen
slow eco e y. T aining in 2023 (a dis inc ly pos -pandemic
yea ) is s ill ma kedly lowe han in 2019: bo h he sha e
o es ablishmen s p o iding aining and he sha e o em-
ployees pa icipa ing in aining is lowe , by six pe cen age
poin s and ou pe cen age poin s, espec i ely.
Figu e 6
Es ablishmen -p o ided aining in Ge many
Sou ce: IAB Es ablishmen Panel.
Figu e 7
New app en iceship con ac s in Ge many
No es: The da a a e om Fede al Ins i u e o Voca ional Educa ion and
T aining (BIBB).
Sou ce: Welle e al. (2024).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Sha e o es ablishmen s p o iding aining
Sha e o employees pa icipa ing in aining
%
450
500
550
600
Numbe o con ac s ( housands)
90
95
100
105
110
Index, 2015 = 100)
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
Index
Numbe o con ac s
ZBW – Leibniz In o ma ion Cen e o Economics 33
Fo um
Baue , A., Ga ne , H., Hellwagne , T., Hummel, M., Hu e , C., Wange ,
S., Webe , E., & Zika, G. (2024). IAB-P ognose 2024/2025: Zähe
Wi scha sschwäche beein äch ig den A bei sma k . IAB-Ku zbe -
ich , 19/2024.
Bennewi z, E., Klinge, S., Lebe , U., & Schwengle , B. (2022). Zwei Jah e
Co ona-Pandemie: Die deu sche Wi scha zwischen K isens im-
mung und E holung – Ein Ve gleich de Jah e 2019 und 2021 – E geb-
nisse des IAB-Be iebspanels. IAB-Fo schungsbe ich , 20/2022.
B ixy, U., Janse , M., & Mense, A. (2023). Ausbildungsma k und ökolo-
gische T ans o ma ion: Auszubildende en scheiden sich zunehmend
ü Be u e mi umwel eundlichen Tä igkei en. IAB-Ku zbe ich , 19.
Des a is. (2024a). Na ional accoun s – Employmen , wages and sala ies,
hou s wo ked: Ge many, qua e s, o iginal and adjus ed da a, indus-
ies, 81000-0016.
Des a is. (2024b). Na ional accoun s – G oss alue added, g oss domes-
ic p oduc (nominal/p ice-adjus ed): Ge many, yea s, 81000-0001.
Des a is. (2024c). Index o p oduc ion in manu ac u ing: Ge many,
mon hs, o iginal and adjus ed da a, economic ac i i ies, 42153-0001
and 42153-0002.
Fede al Employmen Agency. (2024). Beschä ig e nach Wi scha szwei-
gen (WZ 2008) – Deu schland, Wes /Os und Lände (Zei eihe Qua -
alszahlen).
Fi zenbe ge , B., Lebe , U., & Schwengle , B. (2024). Wie hoch is de
An eil de unbese z en Ausbildungss ellen wi klich? Wa um un e -
schiedliche Zahlen ausgewiesen we den. IAB-Fo um, 19.
Ga hmann, C., Kage l, C., Pohlan, L., & Ro h, D. (2024). The pandemic
push: Digi al echnologies and wo k o ce adjus men s. Labou Eco-
nomics, 102541.
G ienbe ge , K., Ma hes, B., & Paulus, W. (2024). Folgen des echnolo-
gischen Wandels ü den A bei sma k : Vo allem Hochquali izie e
bekommen die Digi alisie ung e s ä k zu spü en. IAB-Ku zbe ich ,
5/2024.
Kubis, A. (2022). Pa i ä zwischen Vakanzen und A bei slosen am
deu schen A bei sma k as e eich . Wi scha sdiens , 102(9), 680–
682.
OECD. (2023). PISA Resul s 2022 (Volume I): The S a e o Lea ning and Eq-
ui y in Educa ion.
OECD. (2024). OECD Employmen Ou look 2024: The Ne -Ze o T ansi ion
and he Labou Ma ke . OECD Publishing.
SVR – Ge man Council o Economic Expe s. (2024). Jah esgu ach en
2024/25. Ve säumnisse angehen, en schlossen mode nisie en.
Welle , S. I., Ch is , A., Milde, B., G ana h, R.-O. (2024). Die En wicklung
des Ausbildungsma k es im Jah 2024.
ad ances in a i icial in elligence, he po en ially dis up i e
nex ound o labou ma ke e ec s is soon on i s way.
Conclusions
T ans o ma ion p essu es d i en by digi alisa ion and de-
ca bonisa ion a e changing he labou ma ke . Despi e he
cu en ly weak economic de elopmen o Ge many, he
sho age o skilled wo ke s is likely o wo sen due o an
ageing wo k o ce, e en wi h a high employmen a e com-
pa ed o o he coun ies. A he same ime, key manu ac u -
ing indus ies a e exhibi ing subpa economic pe o mance,
and p oduc i i y is s agna ing. To e ec i ely add ess hese
p oblems, Ge many needs o emb ace he ans o ma ion
by ac i ely os e ing he ansi ion o new business mod-
els and jobs, especially in manu ac u ing. G ea e physi-
cal in es men is needed, especially in digi alisa ion, which
needs o go along wi h g ea e employee mobili y and
u he aining o employees. This way, labou p oduc i -
i y can inc ease signi ican ly, he eby sa ing on manpowe
wi hou sac i icing p ospe i y and simul aneously secu ing
employmen in well-paid jobs. Bo h imp o emen s o and
in es men in educa ion and oca ional aining a e u gen ly
needed. O he wise, Ge many – he la ges Eu opean econ-
omy – will con inue o lose i s compe i i eness and hus no
o e come i s sluggish economic g ow h.
Re e ences
A n z, M., Böhm, M., G ae z, G., G ego y, T., Lehme , F., & Lipowski, C.
(2024). Fi m-Le el Technology Adop ion in Times o C isis. ZEW Dis-
cussion Pape , 25-057.
