Ka imli, Tu an; Mi zaliye , Nihal; Guliye , Has addin
A icle
The globaliza ion and ecological oo p in in eu opean
coun ies: Co ela ion o causa ion?
Resea ch in Globaliza ion
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Else ie
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ka imli, Tu an; Mi zaliye , Nihal; Guliye , Has addin (2024) : The globaliza ion
and ecological oo p in in eu opean coun ies: Co ela ion o causa ion?, Resea ch in Globaliza ion,
ISSN 2590-051X, Else ie , Ams e dam, Vol. 8, pp. 1-9,
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The Globaliza ion and Ecological Foo p in in Eu opean Coun ies:
Co ela ion o Causa ion?
Tu an Ka imli
a
,
b
,
*
, Nihal Mi zaliye
a
,
b
, Has addin Guliye
a
,
c
a
Aze baijan S a e Uni e si y o Economics, Baku, Aze baijan
b
Is anbul Uni e si y, Depa men o Economics, Is anbul, Tu key
c
Wes e n Caspian Uni e si y, Baku, Aze baijan
ARTICLE INFO
JEL Classi ica ion:
Q57
F64
C23
Keywo ds:
Globaliza ion
Ecological oo p in s
Panel g ange non-causali y es
ABSTRACT
Explo ing he in luencing ac o s o he ecological oo p in is a cu en ocus. Howe e , he impac s o glob-
aliza ion on he ecological oo p in a e inconclusi e due o he complexi y among a iables. The objec i e o his
pape is o in es iga e he e ec s o globaliza ion on he ecological oo p in in 35 Eu opean coun ies in
1970–2020. While conduc ing he esea ch, causali y, which goes beyond co ela ion, was emphasized, and he
new panel noncausali y es is employed. The esul s indica e ha globaliza ion is gene ally G ange -cause o he
ecological oo p in in Eu opean coun ies. Addi ionally, he indi idual causa ion es esul s also show a uni-
di ec ional causali y om economic globaliza ion o he ecological oo p in , bidi ec ional causali y be ween
social globaliza ion and he ecological oo p in , and no causali y exis s be ween poli ical globaliza ion and he
ecological oo p in . In conclusion, his pape no only p o ides aluable insigh s in o he complex dynamics
be ween globaliza ion and ecological oo p in s bu also o e s nuanced policy ecommenda ions ailo ed o
Eu opean coun ies. These ecommenda ions a e designed o guide hem owa d achie ing long- e m sus ain-
abili y in he ace o he in ica e ela ionships be ween globaliza ion and ecological oo p in s.
1. In oduc ion
The wo ld is cu en ly g appling wi h a con lic be ween economic
expansion and sus ainable de elopmen . Economic expansion, coupled
wi h he ad ancemen s in globaliza ion, imposes highe demands on he
ecological en i onmen . Consequen ly, he educ ion o en i onmen al
deg ada ion and he achie emen o sus ainable de elopmen ha e
become global conce ns (Chien e al., 2021; Opuala e al., 2022). The
Ecological Foo p in (EF), ecognized as a comp ehensi e indica o o
sus ainable de elopmen , encompasses all aspec s o en i onmen al
da a o a gi en egion. This me ic no only e lec s he o e all demand
o human ac i i ies o na u al esou ces bu also measu es he biolog-
ical capaci y o he a ea (Ullah e al., 2021; Yilanci and Go us, 2020).
The ecological oo p in se es as a concep quan i ying human demand
on na u al esou ces by compa ing i wi h na u e’s supply. I es ima es
he biologically p oduc i e land and wa e a ea needed o p oduce
goods and se ices consumed by a pe son o popula ion and o abso b
he was e hey gene a e (Gao e al., 2022). Fu he mo e, he ecological
oo p in is a c ucial indica o o en i onmen al sus ainabili y, signi-
ying he abili y o main ain a ce ain le el o esou ce use and was e
gene a ion wi hou comp omising he u u e a ailabili y o hese e-
sou ces and he en i onmen al quali y (Tabash e al., 2023). In his
con ex , en i onmen al deg ada ion ca ies se ious consequences o
human well-being, including inc eased ulne abili y o na u al di-
sas e s, educed ood secu i y, heigh ened heal h isks, and diminished
economic oppo uni ies in con empo a y imes. The e o e, he ecolog-
ical oo p in eme ges as a aluable ool o moni o ing ends and
pa e ns o en i onmen al deg ada ion. Addi ionally, i aids in e alu-
a ing he e ec i eness o ac ions aken o p e en , mi iga e, and adap o
he nega i e impac s o en i onmen al deg ada ion.
Globaliza ion is he p ocess o inc easing he in eg a ion and in e -
dependence o coun ies and egions in e ms o economic, poli ical,
social, and cul u al aspec s. Globaliza ion has bo h posi i e and nega i e
e ec s on he en i onmen . On one hand, i can p omo e inno a ion,
coope a ion, and e iciency in he use o na u al esou ces. On he o he
hand, i can inc ease he demand o ene gy, ma e ials, and land, and
exace ba e he en i onmen al p oblems such as clima e change, biodi-
e si y loss, and pollu ion (Hill, 2008). One o he main en i onmen al
impac s o globaliza ion is he inc eased anspo o goods, which
consumes mo e uel and p oduces mo e g eenhouse gas emissions. The
* Co esponding au ho a : Aze baijan S a e Uni e si y o Economics, Baku, Aze baijan.
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (T. Ka imli), [email p o ec ed] (N. Mi zaliye ), [email p o ec ed] (H. Guliye ).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Resea ch in Globaliza ion
jou nal homepage: www.sciencedi ec .com/jou nal/ esea ch-in-globaliza ion
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. esglo.2024.100208
Recei ed 27 No embe 2023; Recei ed in e ised o m 7 Feb ua y 2024; Accep ed 2 Ma ch 2024
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100208
2
anspo sec o accoun s o abou 20 % o he global CO
2
emissions,
and i s demand is expec ed o g ow as e han any o he sec o o he
wo ld economy (T anspo a ion Emissions Wo ldwide, 2023). Ano he
en i onmen al impac o globaliza ion is he change in consump ion
pa e ns and li es yles, which can a ec he ca bon oo p in o in-
di iduals and coun ies. Fo example, globaliza ion can inc ease he
demand o impo ed ood, which may ha e a highe ca bon oo p in
han locally p oduced ood, due o he emissions om anspo a ion,
p ocessing, and packaging (Lamla, 2009). Mo eo e , globaliza ion can
in luence he en i onmen al policies and egula ions o di e en coun-
ies, which can ha e implica ions o hei ca bon oo p in . Fo
ins ance, globaliza ion can c ea e p essu e o coun ies o adop mo e
s ingen en i onmen al s anda ds, as consume s and in es o s become
mo e awa e and conce ned abou he en i onmen al impac s o hei
choices (S e n, 2004). Al e na i ely, globaliza ion can also c ea e in-
cen i es o coun ies o lowe hei en i onmen al s anda ds, as hey
compe e o o eign ma ke s and in es men s. The ela ionship be ween
ca bon oo p in and globaliza ion is complex and dynamic, and i de-
pends on a ious ac o s, such as he le el and ype o globaliza ion, he
s uc u e and composi ion o he economy, he a ailabili y and use o
enewable ene gy sou ces, and he en i onmen al awa eness and
beha io o he socie y (An weile e al., 2001). The e o e, i is impo -
an o adop a holis ic and mul idimensional app oach o unde s and
and add ess he en i onmen al challenges posed by globaliza ion, and o
seek o solu ions ha can balance he economic, social, and en i on-
men al aspec s o de elopmen .
In his con ex , he cen al a gumen o his pape e ol es a ound
he complex ela ionship be ween globaliza ion and en i onmen al
sus ainabili y, speci ically measu ed h ough he ecological oo p in .
The pape acknowledges he global conce n ega ding he con lic be-
ween economic g ow h and sus ainable de elopmen , emphasizing ha
economic expansion, ueled by globaliza ion, places inc easing demands
on he ecological en i onmen . The main ques ion o his s udy is: How
do he dimensions o globaliza ion, such as economic, social, and po-
li ical, impac he ecological oo p in , and wha a e he implica ions o
en i onmen al sus ainabili y? The e o e, his s udy con ends ha he
ecological oo p in se es as a comp ehensi e indica o o sus ainable
de elopmen , cap u ing he o e all demand o human ac i i ies on
na u al esou ces and he biological capaci y o a gi en egion.
Fu he mo e, he unique con ibu ion o his pape o he la ge deba e
lies in i s me hodological app oach and he speci ic ocus on he Eu o-
pean con ex . Unlike p e ious s udies, he esea ch di ides globaliza ion
in o i s sub-dimensions such as economic, social, and poli ical and
conduc s a comp ehensi e empi ical explo a ion using a la ge da ase
co e ing he yea s 1970–2020 o 35 Eu opean coun ies. The pape
in oduces a nuanced unde s anding o he ela ionship be ween glob-
aliza ion and he ecological oo p in by conside ing he sub-dimensions
and employs a obus es ing me hod. The e o e, conside ing he panel
speci ica ion, Juodis, Ka a ias and Sa a idis (2021) de eloped a new
me hod o es ing G ange causali y, which is obus es o slope he -
e ogenei y, c oss-sec ional dependency, and he e oskedas ici y, is used
in his s udy. The e o e, his s udy seeks o ad ance ou unde s anding
by o e ing no only a mo e nuanced pe spec i e on he mul i ace ed
ela ionship be ween globaliza ion and en i onmen al sus ainabili y bu
also by p esen ing a obus empi ical analysis g ounded in he Eu opean
con ex .
In summa y, he cen al a gumen is ha he dynamics o global-
iza ion, when dissec ed in o economic, social, and poli ical dimensions,
signi ican ly in luence he ecological oo p in , and his impac is c i ical
o unde s anding and add essing en i onmen al challenges. The pape
posi ions i sel as a aluable con ibu ion o he ongoing deba e by o -
e ing a mo e nuanced pe spec i e and obus empi ical analysis wi hin
he Eu opean coun y’s con ex .
The emainde o he manusc ip is s uc u ed as ollows: we e iew
he ela ed s udies in Sec ion 2. The me hodologies u ilized in he
analysis a e in oduced in Sec ion 3. In Sec ion 4, da ase , a iables, and
empi ical esul s a e shown. The discussion and policy implemen a ion
a e gi en in Sec ion 5.
2. Li e a u e e iew
The conce n among schola s and policymake s o e he en i on-
men al impac o human ac i i ies is due o he ecogni ion ha hu-
mani y has exceeded he Ea h’s ecological ca ying capaci y h eshold.
Ca bon dioxide (CO
2
) emissions ha e been widely used as a measu e o
assess en i onmen al deg ada ion, which is p ima ily caused by human
ac i i ies and poses a signi ican h ea o he na u al ecosys em. (Gao
e al., 2020). P ima ily, hei analysis cen e s on he examina ion o he
associa ion be ween economic g ow h and CO
2
emissions, employing
he En i onmen al Kuzne s Cu e (EKC) hypo hesis as a ounda ional
amewo k. The en i onmen al Kuzne s cu e (EKC) hypo hesis is abou
how income is ela ed o many en i onmen al ac o s. G ossman and
K uege (1995) we e he i s o igu e i ou , a e eading Kuzne s, 1955
impo an a icle abou how economic g ow h a ec s income inequali y.
Kuzne s’ heo y is based on he ac ha he ela ionship be ween in-
come inequali y and pe capi a income looks like an upside-down U. In
his di ec ion, he EKC hypo hesis indica es ha in he ea ly phases o
economic de elopmen , a ise in pe capi a income con ibu es a o ably
o en i onmen al de e io a ion up o a ce ain h eshold, a e which
poin i has he opposi e impac (Ozcan, 2013). In his ega d, he e a e
many s udies ha use CO
2
emissions o measu e en i onmen al deg a-
da ion. (Halicioglu, 2009; Adedoyin e al.,2020; Fa ooq, 2022). In
addi ion o CO
2
emissions, he ollowing indica o s ha e also been used
o measu e en i onmen al deg ada ion in di e en empi ical analyses,
such as sul u dioxide emissions pe pe son, ni ogen oxide emissions pe
pe son (Sinha, 2017; Wang e al., 2016; Zamb ano-Monse a e e al.,
2017). Recen ly, howe e , se e al au ho s ha e adop ed al e na i e
app oaches based on he ecological oo p in (Hassan e al., 2023;
Danish e al., 2019; As¸ıcı & Aca , 2016; Cha eddine & Zouhai , 2017), a
concep i s in oduced by Rees 1992 and subsequen ly e ined by
Wacke nagel and Rees (1998). The esea che s explain mul iple easons
o using EF ins ead o CO
2
o ep esen en i onmen al deg ada ion
(Behja & Ta azka , 2021). EF is one o he en i onmen al indica o s
ha p o ides a comp ehensi e assessmen o en i onmen al deg ada-
ion. EF conside s mul iple dimensions o en i onmen al impac ,
including land use, wa e consump ion, and was e gene a ion. This
mul idimensional app oach p o ides a mo e comp ehensi e iew o he
ela ionship be ween economic g ow h and en i onmen al impac han
CO
2
emissions alone (Cos anza, 2000; Jo genson & Cla k, 2012).
Fu he mo e, EF measu es he amoun o land and wa e equi ed o
sus ain human ac i i ies, which e lec s he ac ual esou ce consump ion
associa ed wi h economic g ow h. In con as , CO
2
emissions only cap-
u e one aspec o en i onmen al impac and do no di ec ly e lec
esou ce consump ion (Wacke nagel e al., 2002). Due o i s lack o
co e age o mul iple dimensions o he ecological impac o human ac-
i i y, we ega ded he u iliza ion o CO
2
in he s udy as a weakness in
he li e a u e. Consequen ly, we op ed o implemen EF as an al e na-
i e, which encompasses nume ous dimensions o ecological ac i i y. In
his di ec ion, ou esea ch ies o e eal he ela ionship be ween
ecological oo p in and globaliza ion.
Globaliza ion emains a p ominen subjec o discussion in ou
mode n wo ld, impac ing he socio-economic dimensions o people
ac oss he globe. While he e is no uni e sally ag eed-upon de ini ion,
acco ding o Jones (2010), globaliza ion can be desc ibed as he
widening, in e connec ion, and in e dependence o di e en aspec s o
socie y. On he o he hand, Rennen and Ma ens (2003) o e a
pe spec i e o globaliza ion as a mul i ace ed phenomenon encom-
passing in e ac ions ha anscend na ional bo de s, in ol ing eco-
nomics, social dynamics, cul u e, echnology, and he en i onmen .
Globaliza ion, d i en by o eign di ec in es men (FDI) and ade, en-
hances economic openness, ene gy demand, and inancial de elopmen .
I also se es as a condui o he dissemina ion o cul u al, social, and
T. Ka imli e al.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100208
3
poli ical alues. This global in e connec i i y signi ican ly impac s
human li es h ough shi s in capi al lows, echnological ans e s, and
en i onmen al consequences.
Va ious indices a e employed in schola ly discou se o gauge glob-
aliza ion. One ex ensi ely u ilized me ic is he KOF Globaliza ion Index,
in oduced by D ehe (2006). This index is a widely accep ed ool o
e alua ing globaliza ion, encompassing h ee undamen al dimensions:
economic, social, and poli ical. In he pu sui o a mo e comp ehensi e
and adap able measu e o globaliza ion, Gygli e al. (2019), inspi ed by
he wo k o Ma ens e al. (2015), conduc ed a e ision o D ehe ’s KOF
Globaliza ion Index. This p esen s udy is ecognized as a sophis ica ed
and adap able e alua ion o globaliza ion. Fu he mo e, beyond he
a o emen ioned indices, he li e a u e in oduces addi ional measu es
such as de ju e and de ac o indices o cap u e nuanced aspec s o
globaliza ion (Ma ens e al., 2015).
Ecological p ocesses a e insepa able om globaliza ion, as i ex-
pands indi idual ecological oo p in s due o a sha p ise in economic
ac i i ies. The demands o global in eg a ion, coupled wi h economic
dispa i ies, in ensi y ecological e ec s, esul ing in an unsus ainable
en i onmen al oo p in (Hoeks a & Wiedmann, 2014). Despi e i s
ans o ma i e impac on he plane ’s heal h, opinions on globaliza-
ion’s consequences emain sha ply di ided. Many s udies add essing
his issue ha e been examined in he li e a u e. Rega ding he opic o
globaliza ion, p io esea ch has explo ed i s in luence on Ecological
Foo p in , yielding di e gen indings. Ib ahiem and Hana y (2020)
employed yea ly da a spanning he pe iod om 1971 o 2014, e ealing
ha globaliza ion played a cons uc i e ole in diminishing ecological
oo p in le els wi hin he con ex o Egyp . Simila ly, Saud e al. (2020)
conduc ed a s udy examining he ela ionship be ween globaliza ion and
Ecological Foo p in and disco e ed ha globaliza ion had a posi i e
impac on en i onmen al quali y wi hin he speci ic se o coun ies hey
analyzed. Des ek and Ozsoy (2015) employed he ARDL bound es and
asymme ic causali y es s o examine he impac o globaliza ion on
en i onmen al indica o s in Tu key. Thei indings es ablished a co-
in eg a ion be ween globaliza ion and CO
2
a iables. No ably, he
asymme ic causali y es esul s indica ed a educ ion in CO
2
emissions
wi h inc eased economic globaliza ion. Addi ional empi ical s udies
echo hese indings, indica ing a posi i e ela ionship be ween global-
iza ion and he en i onmen (Phong, 2019; Bilgili e al., 2020; Shahbaz
e al., 2015).
On he con a y, esea ch by Se hi e al. (2020) sugges s ha he
in ensi ica ion o globaliza ion exace ba es he ecological implica ions
o global wa ming by con ibu ing o inc eased ca bon dioxide emis-
sions in India. In he same di ec ion, in a comp ehensi e analysis con-
duc ed by Figge e al. (2017), which included da a om 146 na ions, a
posi i e link was ound be ween globalisa ion and Ecological oo p in s.
Ça ık e al. (2024) conduc ed an in es iga ion in o he e ec s o
enewable and non enewable ene gy consump ion, income inequali y,
and globaliza ion on he ecological oo p in s o 49 coun ies om 1995
o 2018. The indings sugges ha globaliza ion ends o ha e a nega i e
impac on en i onmen al quali y, pa icula ly in he con ex o lowe
g ow h egimes. Se e al schola ly in es iga ions ha e concu ed wi h
his asse ion, co obo a ing he es ablished indings. (Fell & Manilo ,
2018; Des ek & Sa kodie, 2019; Olowu e al., 2018; Shahbaz e al., 2020;
Yilanci & Go us., 2020; Aliye and Suleymano , 2023).
Fu he mo e, conside ing mixed ou comes, a case s udy on Malaysia
by Ahmed e al. (2019) e ealed nuanced co ela ions be ween
Ecological Foo p in and globaliza ion, highligh ing bo h de imen al
and bene icial implica ions o he en i onmen . Des ek, O˘
guz and
Okumus¸ (2023) in es iga ed he impac o ade and inancial global-
iza ion on en i onmen al quali y in 11 ansi ioning economies om
1995 o 2018, u ilizing he CS-ARDL app oach. The indings sugges ha
ade globaliza ion has no signi ican impac on he en i onmen .
Howe e , an inc ease in bo h de ac o and de ju e inancial globaliza ion
indices is linked o highe ca bon emissions, wi h de ju e inancial
globaliza ion causing mo e no able en i onmen al damage. In addi ion,
in es iga ions by Haseeb e al. (2018) and Xu e al. (2022) epo ed an
insigni ican ela ionship be ween globaliza ion and en i onmen al
impac , con ibu ing o he nuanced discou se su ounding he mul i-
ace ed na u e o his associa ion. In he con ex o limi ed s udies on he
ela ionship be ween globaliza ion and en i onmen al ou comes in
Eu ope, ou no able in es iga ions o e insigh s in o his complex
in e play. Leal e al. (2019) explo ed he connec ion in 25 EU coun ies,
employing de ju e and de ac o measu es o classi ica ion. The esul s
e ealed ha , o e all, globaliza ion inc eases en i onmen al deg ada-
ion, wi h he de ju e measu e ha ing g ea e in luence on high-
globalized coun ies and he de ac o measu e ha ing g ea e in lu-
ence on low-globalized coun ies. Vlahini´
c Lenz and Fajde i´
c (2021)
u he del ed in o his ela ionship, u ilizing he A ellano–Bond es i-
ma o in a s udy co e ing 26 EU coun ies om 2000 o 2018. Thei
indings sugges ed ha , du ing his pe iod, he social and poli ical di-
mensions o globaliza ion we e linked o a educ ion in nega i e clima e
impac s, hin ing a a po en ial posi i e aspec o globaliza ion in
add essing en i onmen al conce ns.
Des ek e al. (2020) in es iga ed he impac o globaliza ion di-
mensions on en i onmen al pollu ion in Cen al and Eas e n Eu opean
Coun ies (CEECs) om 1995 o 2015. Employing second-gene a ion
panel da a me hodologies o add ess c oss-sec ional dependencies, he
s udy e ealed ha an inc ease in o e all, economic, and social glob-
aliza ion was associa ed wi h ising ca bon emissions, while an inc ease
in poli ical globaliza ion co esponded o a educ ion in en i onmen al
pollu ion. Sha i e al. (2019) ex ended his explo a ion o 15 na ions
ha unde wen globaliza ion om 1970 o 2016. Thei s udy, ocusing
on he co ela ion be ween globaliza ion and Ecological oo p in ,
e ealed a ia ions in he le els o globaliza ion and i s impac on
en i onmen al quali y among hese coun ies. No ably, Belgium, he
Ne he lands, and Sweden exhibi ed a posi i e in luence o globaliza ion
on Ecological oo p in , while F ance, Ge many, and Hunga y displayed
a nega i e impac . Collec i ely, hese s udies con ibu e o ou unde -
s anding o he nuanced and a ied e ec s o globaliza ion on en i on-
men al dynamics in Eu opean con ex s.
In he exis ing body o li e a u e, he ela ionship be ween global-
iza ion and en i onmen al deg ada ion emains inconclusi e. The
absence o de ini i e conclusions unde sco es he need o u he
schola ly in es iga ion, possibly employing e ined me hodological ap-
p oaches. F om his pe spec i e, he cu en panel da a analysis me h-
odology applied in his esea ch helps o in es iga e he ela ionship
be ween globaliza ion and ecological oo p in in a mo e eliable way.
Howe e , amids he ex ensi e body o li e a u e, a no able esea ch gap
eme ges. While nume ous s udies ha e del ed in o he in ica e ela-
ionship be ween globaliza ion and en i onmen al indica o s, he e e-
mains a pauci y o comp ehensi e in es iga ions wi hin he Eu opean
con ex , especially wi h a speci ic ocus on he nuanced dimensions o
economic, social, and poli ical globaliza ion. The need o a mo e
nuanced unde s anding o how hese dimensions in e play wi h he
ecological oo p in in he Eu opean se ing o ms he c ux o he iden-
i ied esea ch gap. The e o e, gaining a mo e nuanced unde s anding o
he di ec ion o his ela ionship holds he po en ial o p o ide addi-
ional insigh s o policymake s in o mula ing ailo ed en i onmen al
policies wi hin he con ex o a globalized wo ld.
3. Me hodology
Like o he scien is s, economis s a e in e es ed in “cause and e ec ”
ega ding he na u e o human beha io conce ning economic ac ions
(p oduc ion, consump ion, and ade) and he alloca ion o esou ces.
We know ha so ing ou causali y om co ela ion u ns ou o become
a challenge. Some imes, his would be misleading because mos eco-
nomic a iables a e ime-dependen . A common logical e o occu s
when you obse e ha e en “A” equen ly and consis en ly happens
be o e e en “B”. Simply because o his obse a ion, we should no
jump o he conclusion ha “A caused B”. Pos hoc o e go p op e hoc
T. Ka imli e al.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100208
4
allacy is a well-known philosophical pi all. I means “a e his (in
ime), he e o e because o his” (Case & Fai , 2007). We call such
alsi ied easoning spu ious causa ion. This allacy in human easoning
o en occu s simply because A and B’s co ela ion coe icien s become
close o one. Howe e , such a high co ela ion is spu ious, oo.
A i s , hings appea o be a bi simple ega ding he co ela ion
no ion. Calcula ion o co ela ion coe icien is a es agains whe he
he e is a linea mu ual bound be ween wo a iables (X and Y), i e-
spec i e o he di ec ion o causa ion. Ne e heless, he eplica ion o
obse a ions unde labo a o y condi ions mus s ill be held in such a
calcula ion. O he wise, one may calcula e “spu ious” co ela ions. I is
c ucial o unde s and ha non-linea causa ion may push he co ela ion
coe icien away om being pe ec (close o −1 o +1) and c ea e a
endency owa ds ze o co ela ion. Tha is o say ha X and Y may hold a
“ ue” non-linea causa ion while ha ing no s ong co ela ion. The e is
no such luxu y as a con olled labo a o y condi ion in economics and
social sciences. Obse a ions a e o en eco ded only once as ime passes
( ime-se ies da a). The e is no chance o eplica ions like he way ha
na u al scien is s do. The e o e, keeping ce ain a iables cons an
(ce e is pa ibus) is almos impossible while allowing o he s o change.
Thus, economis s and s a is icians ha e de eloped al e na i e me hod-
ologies o o e come his p oblem. They mus implemen a ious s a-
is ical es s agains collec ed da a o assu e ha changes in a iables a e
whi e noise, ha ing a no mal dis ibu ion wi h a cons an mean and
cons an s anda d de ia ion. O he wise, he ime-dependency o a i-
ables may lead o spu ious causa ion/co ela ion ou comes. S a is icians
ha e been a ahead o economis s wo king wi h ime-se ies da a in
scien i ic igilance. Iden i ies se en dis inc gene a ional b eak h oughs
in he e olu ion o he me hodologies used by economis s o causa ion
analyses. The bigges leap o wa d in his b eak h ough was made by
Nobel P ize winne Cli e W.J. G ange . The philosophy o he G ange
causali y es is unde s andable and simple. In he social sciences, o X
o be he cause o Y, i is necessa y o Y o be explained no only by i s
pas bu also by he pas o X, and we can speak o ue causali y a his
ime (G ange , 1969).
G ange (1969) de eloped a s a is ical concep o causali y be ween
wo o mo e ime-se ies a iables, acco ding o which a a iable x
“G ange -causes” a a iable y i he a iable y can be be e p edic ed
using pas alues o bo h x and y a he han using solely pas alues o y.
The concep o “G ange causali y” has been widely adop ed in eco-
nomics, medicine, chemis y, physics, biology, enginee ing, and beyond.
G ange causali y is also use ul when he da a consis o mul iple ime
se ies, as in he case o panel da a. Me hods o es ing o G ange cau-
sali y using panel-da a models a e e y well ci ed and widely used.
P ominen examples include he gene alized me hod o momen s
(GMM) app oach o Hol z-Eakin, Newey and Rosen (1988), which is
alid o homogeneous panels wi h a ew ime-se ies obse a ions (T),
and he me hods o Dumi escu and Hu lin (2012) and Emi mahmu oglu
and Kose (2011), sui able o he e ogeneous, la ge-T panels.
Recen ly, Juodis, Ka a ias and Sa a idis (2021) de eloped a new
me hod o es ing he null hypo hesis o no G ange causali y, which is
alid in models wi h homogeneous o he e ogeneous coe icien s. The
no el y o hei app oach lies in he ac ha unde he null hypo hesis,
he G ange -causali y pa ame e s equal ze o, and hus hey a e homo-
geneous. This allows he use o a pooled ixed e ec s- ype es ima o o
hese pa ame e s only, which gua an ees a
NT
√con e gence a e,
whe e N deno es he numbe o c oss-sec ional uni s in he panel and T
deno es he numbe o ime-se ies obse a ions in he panel. To accoun
o he so-called Nickell bias o he pooled es ima o , hei es ing p o-
cedu e makes use o he hal -panel jackkni e (HPJ) me hod o Dhaene
and Jochmans (2015). The esul ing app oach wo ks e y well unde
ci cums ances ha a e empi ically ele an : many c oss-sec ion uni s, a
mode a e ime dimension, he e ogeneous nuisance pa ame e s, and
high pe sis ence. The me hod o Juodis, Ka a ias and Sa a idis (2021)
has se e al ad an ages ela i e o exis ing app oaches. In pa icula , he
GMM app oach o Hol z-Eakin, Newey and Rosen (1988) is no
appealing when T is (e en mode a ely) la ge. This is due o he well-
known p oblem o using oo many ins umen s, which o en ende s
he usual GMM-based in e ence highly inaccu a e; see, o example, Bun
and Sa a idis (2015) and ema k in Juodis and Sa a idis (2022). Mo e-
o e , when eedback based on pas own alues is he e ogeneous ( ha is,
he au o eg essi e pa ame e s a y ac oss indi iduals), in e ences may
no be alid e en asymp o ically. On he o he hand, while he me hod
o Dumi escu and Hu lin (2012) accommoda es he e ogeneous slopes
unde bo h null and al e na i e hypo heses, hei es s a is ic is heo-
e ically jus i ied only o sequences whe e N/T2→0. This implies ha
when T is su icien ly smalle han N, ha is, T≪N, his me hod can
su e om subs an ial size dis o ions. In an ex ended Mon e Ca lo
expe imen , Juodis, Ka a ias and Sa a idis (2021) show ha hei
me hod ou pe o ms he me hod o Dumi escu and Hu lin (2012) in
e ms o powe . In his s udy, we use he new e sion o he G ange
noncausali y es o Juodis, Ka a ias and Sa a idis (2021) de eloped by
Xiao e al. (2023). The new e sion es o e s op ions o bo h manual
and au oma ic lag-leng h selec ion, using a Bayesian in o ma ion c i e-
ion (BIC), allows o c oss-sec ional dependence and c oss-sec ional
he e oskedas ici y in he e o s and es o G ange causali y in equa-
ions wi h single o mul iple ele an a iables.
4. Va iables, da ase and empi ical esul s
4.1. Va iables and da ase
This sec ion examines he a iables o de e mining he ela ionship
be ween globaliza ion and ecological oo p in in he Eu opean coun-
ies. The main a iable is he Ecological Foo p in o consump ion
(EFC). The mos epo ed ype o Ecological Foo p in , i is de ined as he
a ea used o suppo a de ined popula ion’s consump ion. The con-
sump ion Foo p in (in global hec a es - Gha) includes he a ea needed
o p oduce he ma e ials consumed and he a ea needed o abso b he
ca bon dioxide emissions. The consump ion Foo p in o a na ion is
calcula ed in he Na ional Foo p in and Biocapaci y Accoun s as a na-
ion’s p ima y p oduc ion Foo p in plus he Foo p in o impo s minus
he Foo p in o expo s, and is hus, s ic ly speaking, a Foo p in o
appa en consump ion. Da a on ecological oo p in was ob ained om
he Ecological Foo p in Ne wo k da abase (Global Foo p in Ne wo k,
2023). In his esea ch, we use he globalisa ion index, which we assume
causes he Ecological Foo p in . Since globaliza ion is a e y comp e-
hensi e exp ession, in his esea ch we analysis i by di iding i in o sub-
dimensions. We ollow D ehe (2006), who, based on Keohane and Nye
(2000), dis inguishes be ween h ee di e en dimensions o globaliza-
ion. The Economic Globalisa ion Index (EGI) cha ac e izes long dis-
ance lows o goods, capi al, and se ices as well as in o ma ion and
pe cep ions ha accompany ma ke exchanges. Social Globalisa ion
Index (SGI) exp esses he sp ead o ideas, in o ma ion, images, and
people. The Poli ical Globalisa ion Index (PGI) cha ac e izes he di u-
sion o go e nmen policies. Da a ega ding hese globaliza ion di-
mensions is ob ained om KOF Globalisa ion Index (KOF Globalisa ion
Index, 2022).
Da a pe aining o speci ied a iables we e ga he ed ac oss 35 Eu-
opean coun ies spanning he yea s 1970 o 2020. These coun ies
include Albania, Aus ia, Belgium, Bulga ia, Denma k, Finland, F ance,
Ge many, G eece, Hunga y, I eland, I aly, Luxembou g, Mal a,
Ne he lands, No way, Poland, Po ugal, Spain, Sweden, Swi ze land,
and he Uni ed Kingdom. Fu he mo e, da a o he pe iod 1992–2020
we e collec ed o Bela us, Bosnia and He zego ina, C oa ia, Czech
Republic, Es onia, La ia, Li huania, he Republic o Moldo a, he Re-
public o No h Macedonia, he Russian Fede a ion, Slo akia, Slo enia,
and Uk aine.
T. Ka imli e al.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100208
5
4.2. Desc ip i e s a is ics and co ela ion analysis
The desc ip i e s a is ics calcula ed o he a iables used in his
pape a e summa ized in Table 1.
The a iable, ecological oo p in o consump ion (EFC), shows ha
he o e all a e age in Eu opean coun ies is 5.481 Gha, wi h a minimum
o 1.030 Gha (in Albania) and a maximum o 17.280 Gha (in Luxem-
bu g) in 1970–2020. The mean economic globalisa ion index (EGI) in
Eu opean coun ies is 66.492, wi h a minimum o 18.959 (in Uk aine)
and a maximum o 93.033 (in Luxembu g) in 1970–2020. On he o he
hand, he mean social globalisa ion index (SGI) in Eu opean coun ies is
69.332, wi h a minimum o 32.817 (in Poland) and a maximum o
91.838 (in Swi ze land) in 1970–2020. In addi ion, he mean poli ical
globalisa ion index (PGI) in Eu opean coun ies is 78.214, wi h a min-
imum o 17.135 (in Bosnia and He zego ina) and a maximum o 98.144
(in F ance) in 1970–2020. The co ela ion ma ix o he a iables is
p esen ed in Table 2.
The co ela ion ma ix e eals signi ican ela ionships among he
a iables. S ong posi i e co ela ions exis be ween EGI and SGI (
s
=
0.871), and mode a e posi i e co ela ions exis be ween EGI and PGI
(
s
=0.470) as well as SGI and PGI (
s
=0.589). Addi ionally, mode a e
posi i e co ela ions a e obse ed be ween EFC and EGI (
s
=0.482),
EFC and SGI (
s
=0.415), and EFC and PGI (
s
=0.344). As discussed in
he me hodology sec ion, co ela ion does no imply causa ion. In his
con ex , o a co ela ion o be conside ed genuine, i needs o be sup-
po ed by causali y. The e o e, in he nex sec ion, we i s examine he
panel da a speci ica ion hen apply a panel causali y es .
4.3. Panel speci ica ion es s
The panel da a analysis s a ed by examining he ex en o c oss-
sec ional dependency. I is commonly assumed ha dis u bances in
panel da a models a e c oss-sec ionally independen , especially when
he c oss-sec ion dimension (N) is la ge. The e is, howe e , conside able
e idence ha c oss-sec ional dependence is o en p esen in panel
eg ession se ings. Igno ing c oss-sec ional dependence in es ima ion
can ha e se ious consequences, wi h unaccoun ed o esidual depen-
dence esul ing in es ima o e iciency loss and in alid es s a is ics
(Ta o˘
glu, 2012). The panel c oss-sec ional dependence es is epo ed in
Table 3.
We s a he panel da a analysis by examining c oss-sec ion depen-
dence in he panel da a by using he mos well-known c oss-sec ion
dependence diagnos ic is he B eusch and Pagan (1980) Lag ange
Mul iplie (LM) es s a is ic. The asymp o ic dis ibu ion o LM es is
ob ained o N ixed as Tij→∞ o all (i,j), and ollows om a no mali y
assump ion on he e o s. I is well known ha he s anda d B eusch-
Pagan LM es s a is ic is no app op ia e o es ing in la ge se ings.
To add ess his sho coming, Pesa an (2004) p oposes a s anda dized
e sion o he LM
s
s a is ic, and his es is asymp o ically s anda d
no mal as i s Tij→∞ and hen N→∞. Pesa an no es one sho coming o
he LM
S
which is ha E(Tij
ρ
2
ij −1)is no cen e ed a ze o o ini e Tij, so
ha he s a is ic is likely o exhibi size dis o ion o small Tij, and ha
he dis o ion will wo sen o la ge N. To add ess he size dis o ion o
LM and LMS, Pesa an (2004) p oposes an al e na i e s a is ic based on
he a e age o he pai wise co ela ion coe icien s o calcula e CD
s a is ics which is asymp o ically s anda d no mal o Tij→∞ and N→∞
in any o de . Fu he , Pesa an (2004) poin p o ide o a wide a ay o
panel da a models, he mean o CD is exac ly equal o ze o o all
Tij >k+1 and all N, so ha he CD es is likely o ha e good p ope ies
o bo h N and Tij small,w and he p o ides Mon e Ca lo e idence o
suppo his claim. Table 3 shows he es s a is ic alue o LM, LM
S
and
CD es . In his case, he p- alues o he es close o ze o, and we s ongly
ejec he null o no co ela ion a con en ional signi icance le els o all
a iables. The e o e, i is concluded ha he e is a c oss-sec ional
dependence o he EFC, EGI, SGI, and PGI a iables.
4.4. Panel uni oo es
The panel uni oo es s ha e been used commonly because hey
ha e mo e powe and size speci ica ions compa ed o adi ional uni
oo es s. The li e a u e on panel uni oo es s includes wo di e en
g oups/gene a ions o es s. The i s -gene a ion es s assume ha he
c oss-sec ional uni s a e independen o each o he . The i s -gene a ion
es s include he LLC (Le in, Lin, & Chu, 2002), Had i (2000), IPS (Im
e al., 2003), and Fishe -ADF es (Choi, 2001) s a iona i y panel uni
es s (Ta o˘
glu, 2017). Howe e , i he panel uni s (in his case-coun ies)
include c oss-sec ional dependency, i s -gene a ion panel uni oo es s
ha e he size and powe dis o ion Bane jee and Wagne (2009). The
second-gene a ion es s pay a en ion o c oss-sec ional dependence,
such as Bai and Ng (2004) PANIC Tes and Pesa an’s (2007) c oss-
sec ionally augmen ed IPS (CIPS) es (Ye delen Ta o˘
glu, 2017).
In Table 4, he esul s o he PANIC Tes conduc ed by Bai and Ng
(2004) and he CIPS panel uni oo es by Pesa an (2007) a e p esen ed
o each a iable, bo h a he le el and in he i s di e ence se ies. The
ADF lag selec ion, employing AIC, is u ilized o he PANIC es , wi h he
maximum ac o selec ion de e mined h ough Ahn and Ho ens ein
(2013) me hod. To enhance ac o selec ion p ocedu es, i is no ed ha
Table 1
Panel Summa y S a is ics o Va iables.
Va iable Mean S d. de . Min. Max. Obs.
EFC 5.481 2.219 1.030 17.280 1497
EGI 66.492 15.506 18.959 93.033 1497
SGI 69.332 14.127 32.817 91.838 1497
PGI 78.214 17.105 17.135 98.144 1497
Table 2
Spea man co ela ion ma ix.
Co ela ion Ma ix EFC EGI SGI PGI
EFC 1
EGI 0.482*** 1
SGI 0.415*** 0.871*** 1
PGI 0.344*** 0.470*** 0.589*** 1
No e: ***, **, and *, deno es s a is ical signi icance a he 1 %, 5 %, and 10 %
le el, espec i ely.
Table 3
C oss-sec ional dependence es esul s.
Va iables C oss-sec ional dependence es s
B eusch and Pagan
(1980) LM
Pesa an (2004) scaled
LM
S
Pesa an (2004)
CD
EFC 4990.490*** 127.419*** 22.711***
EGI 17755.580*** 497.460*** 129.795***
SGI 20911.710*** 588.952*** 143.114***
PGI 16141.991*** 450.685*** 122.911***
No e: *10 % le el, **5% le el, ***1% le el.
Table 4
Panel uni oo es esul s.
Va iables Bai and Ng (2004) PANIC Tes Pesa an (2007) CIPS es
Le el Fi s Di e ence
Le el
Fi s Di e ence
EFC −1.898 −3.563*** −0.731 −2.346***
EGI −0.483 −3.003** −0.875 −2.159**
SGI 3.610 −3.240** −0.648 −2.173**
PGI −1.702 3.207** −1.144 −2.643**
No e: ***, **, and *, deno es s a is ical signi icance a he 1 %, 5 %, and 10 %
le el, espec i ely.
T. Ka imli e al.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100208
6
signi ican imp o emen s can be achie ed by demeaning and/o s an-
da dizing he ime and/o c oss-sec ion dimensions. No ably, he Bai
and Ng (2004) PANIC Pooled ADF- es ou comes indica e ha all a i-
ables a e iden i ied as in eg a ed o o de 1. Simila ly, he Pesa an
(2007) es , which selec s o a lag selec ion o 1 in he ADF eg ession,
con i ms ha all a iables exhibi in eg a ion o o de 1. The e o e, we
use he i s di e ence panel ime se ies o panel g ange causali y es .
4.4. Model es ima ion esul s
In his sec ion, panel eg ession analysis is pe o med o suppo he
co ela ion in Table 2. Fixed e ec s (FE) and andom e ec s (RE) model
esul s used in panel da a a e summa ized in Table 5.
In Table 5 Panel A p esen s he esul s o he TWFE (Two-Way Fixed
E ec s) model es ima ion wi h h ee di e en speci ica ions: Model EGI,
Model SGI, and Model PGI. Fixed e ec s and ime e ec s a e included in
all models. Since each a iable ep esen s a dis inc dimension o glob-
aliza ion, mul icollinea i y be ween hem is expec ed. The e o e, we
include hese a iables sepa a ely in he model. Each model includes
coe icien s (β) o he espec i e economic, social, and poli ical glob-
aliza ion, along wi h hei D iscoll-K aay (1998) s anda d e o s in
b acke s. The o e all F-s a is ics and FEs F-s a is ics deno e he signi i-
cance o he o e all models’ and he wo-way ixed e ec s, espec i ely.
The esul s ob ained om he O e all F- es indica e ha he TWFE
models es ima ed o economic, social, and poli ical globaliza ion a e
gene ally signi ican , and he F- es o he signi icance o ixed e ec s
demons a es ha bo h uni e ec s and ime e ec s a e join ly signi i-
can in he model.
In Table 5 Panel B, he panel c oss-sec ion He e oskedas ici y LR es
indica es he g oupwise esiduals a e he e oscedas ic in all models
because o he null hypo hesis esiduals is homoscedas ici y is ejec ed.
The DW and LBI es s a is ics show ha AR (1) au oco ela ion since he
es alues a e away om 2. We u he e ec ua ed a model base c oss-
sec ion independence Pesa an (2015) CD and Xie and Pesa an (2022)
CD* es . Al hough he Pesa an (2004, 2015) CD es is gene ally used o
es c oss-sec ional dependence in panel da a analysis, hey show ha
s anda d CD es is in ac alid o es ing e o c oss-sec ional depen-
dence in panel da a models wi h weak la en ac o s. Howe e , when he
la en ac o s a e semi-s ong o s ong he use o CD es will esul in
o e - ejec ion and will no longe be alid. Simila ly, hey epo ed ha
a e o he CD es o be alid, unless he la en ac o s a e weak, namely
unless
α
=max(aj)<0.5. Ins ead, hey ecommend using he CD* es .
F om he ou come o CD* es , we con iden ly ejec he null hypo hesis
o c oss-sec ion independence in all models, which indica es ha e o s
a e co ela ed ac oss panel g oups. In conside a ion o he he e o-
skedas ici y, au oco ela ion and c oss-sec ion dependence be ween
uni s wi hin he models, we use D iscoll-K aay (1998) obus s anda d
e o s.
In summa y, ac oss all h ee economic SGI, and PGI), he coe icien
β is s a is ically signi ican , indica ing ha he economic, social, and
poli ical globaliza ion has a s a is ically signi ican and posi i e impac
on he ecological oo p in a %1 le el. As such, a 1 % inc ease in eco-
nomic, social, and poli ical globaliza ion app oxima ely inc eases he
ecological oo p in by a ound 21 %, 27 %, and 40 %, espec i ely.
4.5. Panel causali y analysis
In his pa we use panel causali y es de eloped by Xiao e al.
(2023) and Juodis e al. (2021) o panel G ange causali y is alid o
homogeneous o he e ogeneous coe icien s and con ol o c oss-
sec ional dependency wi h boo s ap a iance. The esul s o G ange
noncausali y a e indica ed in Table 6.
This me hod in ol es unning N indi idual eg essions o ob ain N
indi idual-speci ic Wald s a is ics, which a e subsequen ly a e aged
o e he c oss-sec ion. Fo he mul i a ia e unc ions unde s udy, we
es i he selec ed co a ia es do no G ange -cause he esponse a i-
able. The esul s ob ained om he es s a e epo ed in Panel A o
Table 6. As we can see om he esul s, he null hypo hesis ha EGI, SGI
and PGI do no join ly G ange -cause EFC in he Eu opean economies is
ejec ed a he 1 % le el o signi icance. O e all, he esul s in Panel A
e eal ha globaliza ion does G ange -cause he ecological oo p in in
he Eu opean coun ies s udied. We hen conside uni a ia e equa ions
by es ing G ange noncausali y o each a iable sepa a ely. The esul s
a e gi en in Panel B o Table 6. The esul s show a unidi ec ional cau-
sali y om EGI o EFC, and bidi ec ional causali y be ween SGI and EFC.
In addi ion, he esul s also show ha no causali y exis s be ween PGI
and EFC.
5. Conclusion and policy implica ions
This s udy examines he causal ela ionship be ween globaliza ion
and he ecological oo p in in 35 Eu opean coun ies om 1970 o
2020. The main a iable unde in es iga ion is he Ecological Foo p in
o consump ion (EFC), which signi ies he a ea equi ed o suppo a
Table 5
Model Es ima ion Resul s.
Panel A. TWFE Model Es ima ion
Coe icien s Model EGI Model SGI Model PGI
β 0.206***
[0.067]
0.265**
[0.126]
0.400***
[0.058]
cons an 0.838***
[0.255]
0.583
[0.495] −0.126
[0.238]
R
2
o e all 0.287 0.302 0.2733
O e all F-s a 28.27*** 25.35*** 172.14***
FEs F-s a 4.58*** 4.75*** 5.48***
Fixed E ec s Yes Yes Yes
Time E ec s Yes Yes Yes
Panel B. Diagnos ic Tes s
He e oskedas ici y es 5229.93*** 5555.98*** 5713.57***
Au oco ela ion
DW es
0.245 0.240 0.285
Au oco ela ion
LBI es
0.359 0.346 0.392
CD es −0.12 −0.77 −3.06***
CD* es −3.32*** −4.52*** −4.14***
[] indica es D iscoll - K aay (1998) obus s anda d e o s.
*10 % le el, **5% le el, ***1% le el.
Table 6
Panel causali y es esul s.
Panel A: Mul i a ia e non-causali y es
H0:Selec ed
co a ia es do no
G ange -cause EFC
Lags HPJ Wald
es
Decision Conclusion
EGI, SGI, PGI ⇒ EFC 3 73.6223
***
H0 is ejec Globaliza ion do
G ange -cause ECF
Panel B: Uni a ia e non-causali y es
H0:x does no
G ange -cause (⇒)
y
Lags HPJ Wald
es
Decision Conclusion
EGI ⇒ EFC 1 9.008*** H0 is ejec Unidi ec ional
EGI ⇒ ECF EFC ⇒ EGI 3 5.462 H0 is no
ejec ed
SGI ⇒ EFC 1 4.008** H0 is ejec Bidi ec ional
SGI ⇔ ECF EFC ⇒ SGI 3 17.554*** H0 is ejec
PGI ⇒ EFC 1 0.237 H0 is no
ejec ed
No causali y
EFC ⇒ PGI 3 2.286 H0 is no
ejec ed
***, ** and * deno e 1 %, 5 % and 10 % signi icance le els, espec i ely; ⇔
deno es bidi ec ional causali y; ⇒ deno es unidi ec ional causali y.
T. Ka imli e al.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100208
7
popula ion’s consump ion. The EFC encompasses he a eas needed o
ma e ial p oduc ion and ca bon dioxide abso p ion. Globaliza ion,
conside ed he assumed o cause changes in EFC, is analyzed h ough
h ee dimensions: he Economic Globalisa ion Index (EGI), Social
Globalisa ion Index (SGI), and Poli ical Globalisa ion Index (PGI).
Nowadays, he discussions del e in o he limi a ions o co ela ion co-
e icien s, emphasizing ha a high co ela ion does no necessa ily
indica e a causal ela ionship, as spu ious co ela ions can a ise. In
Table 2, he co ela ion ma ix indica es signi ican ela ionships among
he a iables, wi h mode a e posi i e co ela ions a e obse ed be ween
ecological oo p in o consump ion and economic globaliza ion, social
globaliza ion, and poli ical globaliza ion. Howe e , he co ela ion does
no imply causa ion, and genuine causali y needs o be explo ed.
The e o e, his s udy employs he upda ed G ange noncausali y es
de eloped by Xiao e al. (2023), based on he wo k o Juodis, Ka a ias
and Sa a idis (2021). This new e sion o he es inco po a es ea u es
such as manual and au oma ic lag-leng h selec ion, u ilizing a Bayesian
in o ma ion c i e ion (BIC). I also accommoda es c oss-sec ional
dependence and c oss-sec ional he e oskedas ici y in he e o s. The
es is designed o assess G ange causali y in equa ions in ol ing ei he
single o mul iple ele an a iables. This app oach enhances he p e-
cision and lexibili y o he analysis, allowing o a mo e nuanced
explo a ion o causali y ela ionships in he con ex o he s udy. The es
esul s show a unidi ec ional causali y om economic globaliza ion o
ecological oo p in , and bidi ec ional causali y be ween social global-
iza ion and ecological oo p in . In addi ion, he esul s also show ha
no causali y exis s be ween poli ical globaliza ion and ecological
oo p in .
Economic globaliza ion is cha ac e ized by he low o goods, capi al,
se ices, and in o ma ion ac oss na ional bo de s. This in e connec ed-
ness can in luence a ious aspec s, including p oduc ion and ade,
esou ce ex ac ion, supply chain e ec s, echnological inno a ion,
policy in e ac ions, income and consump ion pa e ns, and global
en i onmen al go e nance. The globalized economy may lead o
inc eased ex ac ion o na u al esou ces, changes in supply chain
s uc u es, and he ans e o echnology, all o which can ha e e ec s
on ecological oo p in s in Eu opean coun ies. Empi ical s udies, such
as causali y es s, play a c ucial ole in unco e ing he dynamics and
nuances o his ela ionship wi hin speci ic egions and ime ames. In
his con ex , he ad anced panel causali y es used in his s udy shows
ha economic globaliza ion is he main ac o o he ecological oo p in
in Eu opean coun ies. Reducing he ecological oo p in associa ed wi h
economic globaliza ion in Eu opean coun ies equi es a comp ehensi e
s a egy encompassing sus ainable p ac ices, esponsible consump ion,
and e ec i e policies. Key ini ia i es include os e ing sus ainable sup-
ply chains wi h en i onmen ally iendly sou cing and p oduc ion,
encou aging a global ansi ion o enewable ene gy, and p omo ing he
de elopmen and implemen a ion o g een echnologies. In eg a ing
en i onmen al conside a ions in o ade policies, implemen ing ca bon
p icing mechanisms, and en o cing egula ions ha add ess en i on-
men al conce ns a e c ucial s eps. Fu he mo e, os e ing esea ch and
de elopmen o inno a i e solu ions and balancing economic g ow h
wi h ecological p ese a ion a e in eg al componen s o a holis ic
app oach owa d dec easing he ecological oo p in associa ed wi h
economic globaliza ion in Eu opean coun ies.
The ela ionship be ween social globaliza ion and he ecological
oo p in in Eu opean coun ies in ol es unde s anding how in e -
connec ed socie ies, he exchange o ideas, in o ma ion, and cul u al
in luences ac oss bo de s may impac he en i onmen al oo p in o
hese na ions. Social globaliza ion, encompassing he sp ead o ideas,
images, and people, can in luence ecological oo p in in se e al ways.
Inc eased awa eness and sha ed alues ega ding en i onmen al con-
se a ion may lead o changes in indi idual and collec i e beha io s,
po en ially educing ecological oo p in s. Cul u al exchange acili a ed
by social globaliza ion may con ibu e o he adop ion o sus ainable
p ac ices and li es yles. Howe e , i ’s c ucial o conside po en ial
challenges, such as inc eased consump ion associa ed wi h global cul-
u al in luences. In his con ex , analyzing empi ical da a can help un eil
he dynamics and nuances o he ela ionship be ween social global-
iza ion and he ecological oo p in in Eu opean coun ies. Ou indings
e eal bidi ec ional causali y be ween social globaliza ion and he
ecological oo p in , indica ing ha hey mu ually a ec each o he . In
gene al, social globaliza ion is mo e s ongly linked o he ecological
oo p in han economic globaliza ion. In o he wo ds, inc easing social
globaliza ion is necessa y o educe he ecological oo p in in Eu opean
coun ies; on he o he hand, educing he ecological oo p in expands
social globaliza ion. To inc ease social globaliza ion in Eu ope, ini ia-
i es should include p omo ing cul u al exchange p og ams, suppo ing
mul ilingual educa ion, and o ganizing cul u al es i als o showcase
and app ecia e he di e si y o Eu opean cul u es. Le e aging digi al
connec i i y h ough social media and online pla o ms acili a es c oss-
cul u al dialogue and collabo a ion. Educa ional pa ne ships be ween
ins i u ions, policies p omo ing ole ance and inclusi i y, and
communi y-le el ini ia i es u he con ibu e o c ea ing an en i on-
men o accep ance and sha ed unde s anding. Collabo a ions in a s,
en e ainmen , and media, as well as os e ing you h engagemen and
c oss-bo de pa ne ships among businesses and o ganiza ions, play
pi o al oles in s eng hening social ies and p omo ing a sha ed Eu o-
pean iden i y. Collec i ely, hese measu es con ibu e o enhancing so-
cial globaliza ion, os e ing a mo e in e connec ed and cul u ally ich
Eu opean socie y, and all o hem con ibu e o inc easing awa eness o
en i onmen al deg ada ion and dec easing ecological oo p in .
In gene al, ou indings unde sco e ha he in luence o economic
and social globaliza ion on he ecological oo p in is mo e signi ican
han ha o poli ical globaliza ion, he eby making a meaning ul sci-
en i ic con ibu ion owa ds os e ing a cleane en i onmen . Howe e ,
like any esea ch endea o , ou s udy aces ce ain limi a ions. Eu ope’s
di e si y in oduces a laye o complexi y o he causali y dynamics
explo ed in ou s udy. The in e connec edness o di e en coun ies
wi h a ying socio-economic and cul u al cha ac e is ics may esul in
di e se esponses o globaliza ion, leading o a ied ecological oo -
p in s. To add ess his, we a e commended o p o ide a mo e de ailed
discussion in u u e esea ch on how he iden i ied causali y ela ion-
ships a e in luenced by di e si y wi hin Eu ope. Fu he mo e, we
acknowledge he limi a ions associa ed wi h he exclusion o ce ain
Eu opean coun ies om he panel due o da a cons ain s. This exclu-
sion may in oduce po en ial bias in o he analysis, pa icula ly i he
omi ed coun ies possess unique cha ac e is ics ha could impac he
s udy’s indings. The e o e, o ensu e comp ehensi e and obus con-
clusions, u u e esea ch should endea o o inco po a e a b oade ange
o coun ies, including hose ini ially excluded due o da a limi a ions.
Mo eo e , applying he same me hodological pa adigm o di e se
coun y g oups is essen ial o enhance he gene alizabili y and alidi y
o he indings ac oss di e en geog aphical con ex s and economic
condi ions.
Funding
This s udy was no unded.
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
Tu an Ka imli: W i ing – e iew & edi ing, W i ing – o iginal d a ,
Supe ision, Fo mal analysis, Da a cu a ion, Concep ualiza ion. Nihal
Mi zaliye : W i ing – e iew & edi ing, W i ing – o iginal d a , Fo mal
analysis, Da a cu a ion. Has addin Guliye : W i ing – e iew & edi -
ing, W i ing – o iginal d a , Visualiza ion, Me hodology, Da a cu a ion,
Concep ualiza ion.
Decla a ion o compe ing in e es
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial
T. Ka imli e al.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100208
8
in e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence
he wo k epo ed in his pape .
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