Timo ieie a, Liliia
A icle
P opo ionali y in coun e ing co up ion in Uk aine in he
con ex o wa
Jou nal o Illici Economies and De elopmen (JIED)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
LSE P ess, London School o Economics and Poli ical Science (LSE)
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Timo ieie a, Liliia (2024) : P opo ionali y in coun e ing co up ion in Uk aine in
he con ex o wa , Jou nal o Illici Economies and De elopmen (JIED), ISSN 2516-7227, LSE P ess,
London, Vol. 6, Iss. 2, pp. 73-88,
h ps://doi.o g/10.31389/jied.234
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
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RESEARCH
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
Liliia Timo ieie a
C iminal Law Depa men ,
Na ional Uni e si y “Odesa
Law Academy”, Uk aine
[email p o ec ed]
KEYWORDS:
aud; c iminal o ganiza ions;
eu oin eg a ion; p e en ion;
co up ion; pos -wa pe iod
TO CITE THIS ARTICLE:
Timo ieie a, L. 2025.
P opo ionali y in Coun e ing
Co up ion in Uk aine in he
Con ex o Wa . Jou nal
o Illici Economies and
De elopmen , 6(2): pp. 73–88.
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.31389/
jied.234
P opo ionali y in Coun e ing
Co up ion in Uk aine in he
Con ex o Wa
LILIIA TIMOFIEIEVA
ABSTRACT
Co up ion ad e sely a ec s all sphe es o li e, posing a signi ican h ea as an enable
o o he c imes. These include e o ism, o ganized c ime, human a icking, and
illegal mig a ion, all o which unde mine he Eu opean in eg a ion p ocess and pose
isks no only o Uk aine bu also o global secu i y.
On 23 June 2022, he Eu opean Council issued an opinion on Uk aine’s candida e
s a us. Re aining his s a us and implemen ing he Associa ion Ag eemen equi e
subs an ial changes o Uk ainian legisla ion, pa icula ly in c iminal law. Key
equi emen s include he ac ual implemen a ion o he ule o law (o which he
p inciple o p opo ionali y is a co e componen ), enhanced an i-co up ion measu es
ha a ge high-le el co up ion, g ea e go e nmen anspa ency, and adhe ence
o an i-money launde ing s anda ds as se by he Financial Ac ion Task Fo ce on
Money Launde ing (FATF). Fu he , an an i-oliga chic law mus be in oduced o cu b
he excessi e in luence o oliga chs in Uk aine’s economic, poli ical and social sphe es.
P og ess in hese a eas will be moni o ed and assessed by he Eu opean Commission.
Add essing co up ion gaps is c i ical, bu such e o s mus adhe e o c iminal law
p inciples, wi h p opo ionali y being o pa icula impo ance.
This s udy ocuses on he p inciple o p opo ionali y in coun e ing co up ion du ing he
pos -wa pe iod, using Odesa as a case s udy. As a po ci y wi h signi ican anspo
links o Moldo a and Poland, Odesa aces unique challenges. Simpli ied p ocedu es o
shipping humani a ian aid and ammuni ion, such as bulle p oo es s, ha e c ea ed
oppo uni ies o c iminals o exploi he sys em, escala ing co up ion isks.
Recen empi ical con ibu ions by Uk ainian schola s highligh se e al aspec s o co up ion.
D iomin (2018) iews co up ion as a social ins i u ion. Dudo o (2022) explo ed c iminal
o enses ela ed o public se ices, abuse o in luence, and illici en ichmen . Kolomoye s and
Kushni (2019) examined li es yle moni o ing as an an i-co up ion ool, while Melnychuk
(2023) s udied o ganized c ime in Uk aine du ing i s ansi ion pe iod. Mykhailenko (2017)
in oduced he p opo ionali y es as a ool o comba ing co up ion, and Kha oniuk
(2020) c i iqued laws on illici en ichmen (A icle 368-2 o he C iminal Code in he
p e ious e sion) and unjus judgmen s (A icle 375 o he C iminal Code) o iola ing legal
ce ain y. Tuliako (2023) discussed he p inciples o equali y, p opo ionali y, and ai ness
in co up ion- ela ed jus ice, a guing o a dis inc egime o such o enses. Despi e hese
ad ances, coun e ing co up ion in alignmen wi h he p inciple o p opo ionali y emains
a c i ical issue, pa icula ly in ligh o Uk aine’s EU candidacy.
74Timo ieie a
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Economies and
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DOI: 10.31389/jied.234
THE PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES OF THE ARTICLE
The a icle aims o con ibu e o s eng hening Uk aine’s c iminal legisla ion o ensu e he
p opo ionali y o esponses o co up ion- ela ed o enses. To achie e his, he s udy se s he
ollowing objec i es:
1. To de ine he concep o p opo ionali y in coun e ing co up ion in he Uk ainian con ex .
2. To moni o he dynamics o co up ion o enses and o ganized c ime in ol ing co up ion
componen s unde ma ial law.
3. To de elop me hods o comba co up ion ha align wi h he p inciple o p opo ionali y.
4. To p opose amendmen s o he Uk ainian C iminal Code o add ess legisla i e
sho comings ela ed o co up ion.
5. To an icipa e he e olu ion o co up ion in he pos -wa pe iod while emphasizing he
p inciple o p opo ionali y.
METHODOLOGY
The me hodological basis o he a icle is buil upon bo h gene al and special me hods.
Speci ically, he dogma ic me hod cla i ies he p o isions ega ding p opo iona e
coun e measu es a bo h na ional and in e na ional le els. This app oach is complemen ed by
an explo a ion o in e na ional legal ins umen s aimed a comba ing co up ion. The analysis
o na ional and in e na ional legisla ion in his domain is acili a ed h ough he dialec ical
me hod.
The s udy u he employs dialec ical, dogma ic, and sys em- unc ional me hods o analyze
doc inal con ibu ions om Uk ainian schola s. These me hods enable a comp ehensi e
e alua ion o exis ing esea ch on coun e ing co up ion and he p opo ionali y o such
in e en ions. The a icle syn hesizes insigh s om s udies conduc ed du ing and p io o he
ull-scale wa ha began in 2022.
To deepen he examina ion o doc inal p o isions, me hods o deduc ion, analysis, and
gene aliza ion a e applied. S a is ical da a om Uk aine’s Minis y o In e nal A ai s is analyzed
and summa ized o iden i y ends in co up ion- ela ed o enses be ween 2022 and 2023,
including hose in ol ing o ganized g oups.
Using he s a is ical me hod, he au ho e alua es o icial s a is ics o co up ion o enses o
2021, 2022, and 2023. Da a om he Uni ied S a e Regis e —o indi iduals who commi ed
co up ion- ela ed o enses be ween Janua y 1, 2022, and Decembe 31, 2023—is also
analyzed. A con en analysis me hod is employed o sea ch o e dic s con aining keywo ds
such as ‘co up ion- ela ed o enses’ wi hin he Uni ied S a e Regis e o Cou Decisions in he
Odesa egion o he same pe iod.
In 2023, he Uni ied S a e Regis e eco ded 1,929 en ies o c iminal o enses, 861 o
adminis a i e o enses, 284 o disciplina y o enses, and one case wi hou a speci ic ca ego y.
In 2022, he Regis e documen ed 1,179 c iminal o enses, 1,529 adminis a i e o enses, and
113 disciplina y o enses (Uni ied S a e Regis e , 2024).
Fu he , epo s om Uk aine’s Minis y o In e nal A ai s we e examined o de e mine ends in
co up ion o enses ac oss 2021, 2022 and 2023. This analysis included an assessmen o case
closu es, he na u e o penal ies imposed, g ounds o closing c iminal p oceedings, he numbe
o comple ed c iminal p oceedings, as well as he ma e ial damage, compensa ion, and seizu e
o asse s in ela ion o co up ion- ela ed o enses. The analysis o he P osecu o Gene al’s
O ice epo ‘On he Resul s o Coun e ing O ganized C iminal G oups and O ganiza ions’ o
2021, 2022, and 2023, allowed o a e iew o he numbe o c iminal o enses commi ed
by o ganized g oups and c iminal o ganiza ions, including hose wi h co up ion ies, c iminal
p oceedings in which he in es iga ion was comple ed, as well as o de e mine he pe cen age
o hei inc ease.
Addi ionally, a con en analysis o 49 e dic s om he Uni ied S a e Regis e o Cou Decisions
in 2022 in he Odesa egion iden i ied pa e ns in public se ice- ela ed o enses. In 2023, his
numbe inc eased o 94. B oade sea ches o ‘co up ion- ela ed c iminal o enses’ e ealed
160 e dic s in 2022 and 184 e dic s in 2023.
75Timo ieie a
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DOI: 10.31389/jied.234
The a icle inco po a es indings om he I. Kuche i Democ a ic Ini ia i e Founda ion’s
su ey ‘Democ acy, Secu i y and Social Si ua ion: Public Opinion in Odesa Region in 2023’,
which highligh ed public dis us in au ho i ies and iden i ied co up ion as a majo conce n
(see Table 1, Appendix, Su ey. I. Kuche i “Democ a ic Ini ia i e” Founda ion, 2023). Field
esea ch conduc ed by he Global Ini ia i e Agains T ansna ional O ganized C ime (GI-TOC),
also in o med his s udy. I s epo , ‘Po in a s o m O ganized c ime in Odesa since he Russian
in asion’ (2023), de ails he nexus be ween o ganized c ime and co up ion in Odesa, based on
pe spec i es o law en o cemen o icials, jou nalis s, and membe s o he ‘unde wo ld’.
The s udy u he bene i s om he au ho ’s obse a ions du ing 15 yea s o li ing in Odesa,
including hei wo k as a lawye since 2019. These obse a ions span p e-wa and ma ial
law pe iods and p o ide i s hand insigh s in o law en o cemen , judicial pe o mance, and
co up ion- ela ed p ac ices.
PROPORTIONALITY IN COUNTERING CORRUPTION
Co up ion is a dange ous phenomenon, no only because o i s di ec e ec s bu also because
i acili a es o he c imes, such as hose con ained in A icle 83 o he Lisbon T ea y. C oss-
bo de o enses a e equen ly in e wined wi h co up ion, making i a c i ical issue o na ional
and in e na ional secu i y.
In his doc o al hesis and o he schola ly wo ks, D iomin (2018) iden i ies co up ion and
o ganized c ime as social ins i u ions. Acco ding o D iomin, hese p ac ices a e so embedded
in social s uc u es ha hey a e insepa able om b oade socie al in e ac ions. While hese
indings p eda e he ull-scale wa , hey emain undamen al o unde s anding he s uc u al
in eg a ion o co up ion in o daily li e.
The speed and scale o co up ion- ela ed o enses, compounded by a lack o public ecogni ion
o hei se e i y, pose a dual h ea o na ional and in e na ional secu i y. The c iminaliza ion o
co up ion- ela ed o enses is manda ed by in e na ional legal ins umen s, such as he Uni ed
Na ions Con en ion agains T ansna ional O ganized C ime (UNTOC) o 2000 (Pa 1 o A icle 8)
and UN Con en ion agains Co up ion (UNCAC) o 2003 (A icle 18). Bo h con en ions equi e
a i ying s a es o ake legisla i e measu es o c iminalize co up ion- ela ed ac s. Uk aine
a i ied he UNTOC and i s supplemen a y p o ocols wi h speci ic ese a ions, pa icula ly
conce ning e minology and de ini ions o se ious o enses.
The subsequen amendmen s o he Uk ainian C iminal Code e lec hese in e na ional
obliga ions. In addi ion, A icle 369-2 on ‘Abuse o In luence’ o he C iminal Code esul ed
om he implemen a ion o A icle 18 o UNCAC and A icle 12 o he Council o Eu ope C iminal
Con en ion on Co up ion.
Economic losses esul ing om co up ion and o ganized c ime in he EU a e signi ican .
Such losses ange om 218 o 282 billion eu os annually (Tuliako , 2022). I is es ima ed
ha co up ion alone cos s he EU economy 120 billion eu os annually (O hanizo ana a
ekonomichna zlochynnis ’, 2022). Al hough equi alen es ima es o Uk aine a e no a ailable,
he economic impac o co up ion in he coun y is likely subs an ial.
The ongoing wa complica es an i-co up ion e o s due o limi ed esou ces and secu i y
challenges. Co up ion unde mines mili a y e ec i eness and exace ba es public dis us in
go e nmen ins i u ions. Fu he mo e, disp opo iona e o ine ec i e esponses o co up ion
magni y he p oblem, allowing i o become mo e pe asi e. Fo ins ance, he in lux o o eign
aid and humani a ian assis ance has c ea ed new oppo uni ies o co up ion, as exis ing
co up ion schemes adap and new ones eme ge o exploi hese esou ces.
The economic con ex also plays a signi ican ole in co up ion and may unc ion as an
obs acle o p omo ing anspa en and p opo iona e an i-co up ion measu es. In he i s
h ee mon hs o he ull-scale in asion, ood p ices ose d ama ically, and in la ion ou paced
wage inc eases. In 2022, wages we e no inc eased. While o icial s a is ics o 2023 epo a
nominal wage inc ease o hi een pe cen , his ansla es o only six pe cen in eal e ms as a
esul o in la ion. U ili y p ices ha e also sky ocke ed, widening he dispa i y be ween weal hy
and poo popula ions. The pe cep ion o go e nmen ine iciency and lack o anspa ency in
he alloca ion o axes, paymen s, and in e na ional aid u he uels dis us and no malizes
o ganized c ime as an al e na i e means o inancial gain.
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DOI: 10.31389/jied.234
A he same ime, a c i ical ques ion a ises: can undamen al igh s be sac i iced in he igh
agains co up ion and o ganized c ime? Schola s, such as de Lond as and Da ies (2010),
a gue ha s a e ac ions aimed a ensu ing secu i y mus adhe e o he p inciples o necessi y
and p opo ionali y, achie ing a balance be ween secu i y needs and indi idual igh s.
Consequen ly, an i-co up ion measu es mus a oid selec i e en o cemen and demons a ion
cases, especially in he condi ions o ma ial law. Ins ead, hey should p io i ize sys ema ic and
anspa en s a egies ha uphold undamen al igh s and he p inciples o p opo ionali y.
The Eu opean Cou o Human Righ s (ECHR) equen ly applies he p opo ionali y es o
assess po en ial iola ion o human igh s. This es in ol es h ee elemen s:
1. Res ic ions on igh s mus be p o ided o by na ional law.
2. Such es ic ions mus se e a legi ima e aim.
3. In e e ence wi h igh s mus adhe e o p opo ionali y equi emen s.
Legisla ion a ge ing co up ion, along wi h associa ed p osecu ions and judicial p ac ices,
mus unde go sc u iny h ough he p opo ionali y es o ensu e i s ele ance, necessi y, and
alignmen wi h public and p i a e in e es s. A p opo iona e esponse encompasses all subjec s
o c iminal law, including o ende s, ic ims, he s a e, and he socie y a la ge.
Fo he pu pose o his s udy, p opo ionali y in comba ing co up ion is de ined as ollows:
1. An i-co up ion measu es, including c iminaliza ion, mus be ensh ined in a law ha is
clea and p edic able.
2. Such measu es mus align wi h legi ima e goals, p o ec ing s a e alues and p inciples
wi hou in inging undamen al human igh s.
3. The s a e’s esponse (whe he h ough punishmen , o he c iminal law measu es, o
exemp ion om c iminal liabili y) mus co espond o he se e i y o he o ense and ake
in o conside a ion he o ende ’s iden i y and he ci cums ances su ounding he o ense.
Responses mus also espec undamen al human igh s and in e na ionally ecognized
p inciples.
In he subsequen sec ions, he p opo ionali y and disp opo ionali y o Uk aine’s esponses
o co up ion will be examined using he elemen s o he p opo ionali y es ou lined abo e.
Special conside a ion will be gi en o he challenges o comba ing co up ion du ing pe iods o
ma ial law and he implica ions o Uk aine’s Eu opean in eg a ion.
THE DYNAMICS OF CORRUPTION DURING A FULL-SCALE
INVASION
The unique cha ac e is ics o Odesa, a mul icul u al po ci y, in luence he na u e o c imes,
including co up ion- ela ed o enses. These speci ic ea u es mus be conside ed when
designing e ec i e an i-co up ion in e en ions. As highligh ed in he GI-TOC epo , ‘sol ing
p oblems’ h ough uno icial channels wi hou d awing a en ion om he public o law
en o cemen is a common p ac ice in Odesa’s c iminal unde wo ld (Global Ini ia i e Agains
T ansna ional O ganized C ime, 2023). Based on obse a ions du ing 15 yea s o li ing in
Odesa, he ci y ope a es unde a sel - egula ed c ime model ha elies on nego ia ion and
mu ual a o s. These dynamics no malize co up ion: i is no longe pe cei ed as a c ime bu as
a ool o ‘doing business’, which ex ends o illegal ope a ions.
Fo example, he smuggling o consc ip s along he bo de wi h Moldo a (in p oximi y o he
Tysa, Palanka, and o he bo de c ossings) has become a luc a i e illegal business (S a e Bo de
Gua d Se ice o Uk aine, 2023). Cases include men who we e anspo ed in he backs o
ca s, claimed o accompany pa en s o wi es wi h disabili ies, o we e alsely egis e ed as
humani a ian aid d i e s in he ‘Shlyakh’ sys em o non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions (NGOs)
and olun ee o ganiza ions (Minis y o In e nal A ai s, 2023).
High-p o ile cases, such as he misapp op ia ion o millions o h y nias om Uk ainian g ain
expo s, illus a e he scale o co up ion. O e 370 comme cial en i ies we e in ol ed in
audulen schemes o in la e cos s and siphon p o i s h ough Odesa’s po s (Zuba , 2023).
77Timo ieie a
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Simila ly, he smuggling o obacco and coun e ei goods con inues o h i e. Acco ding
o Fo bes, Uk ainians consumed app oxima ely 7 billion black-ma ke ciga e es in 2022,
cos ing he na ional budge UAH 19.1 billion in unpaid excise axes (Kalashnik and P asad,
2023). Acco ding o he P osecu o Gene al’s O ice, unde g ound caches o coun e ei
ciga e es wo h UAH 89 million we e unco e ed in he subu bs o Odesa. Du ing sea ches,
law en o cemen o ice s seized 742,208 packs o ciga e es, 990,300 loose ciga e es, 660
e-ciga e es, 75 kilog ams o hookah obacco, 328 li e s o coun e ei alcohol, and equipmen
o ciga e e p oduc ion (Volko a, 2023).
While such p ac ices p e-da ed he ull-scale in asion, wa ime economic dispa i ies ha e
exace ba ed co up ion isks. Rising p ices o basic goods and u ili ies du ing he wa ,
combined wi h s agna ing wages, push indi iduals owa d co up p ac ices. As poin ed ou by
Kupa adze (2021), demand o cheape goods, coupled wi h weak law en o cemen capaci y
and po ous bo de s, pe pe ua es he illici obacco ade and simila c imes. These ends
a e u he ueled by a lack o poli ical will and sys emic co up ion wi hin law en o cemen
agencies, as e idenced by ongoing p o ec ion acke s and selec i e en o cemen e o s.
Fu he mo e, unequal en o cemen and double s anda ds exace ba e he p oblem, esul ing
in esponses ha a e disp opo iona e o he ac ual damage caused. Such esponses a e
pa icula ly conce ning du ing wa ime when esou ces and public us a e s e ched hin.
To add ess his issue, he chai man o he pa liamen a y inancial commi ee, D. He man se ,
p oposed holding egional Na ional Police heads pe sonally accoun able o he con inued
ope a ion o illegal ciga e e ou le s. He man se c i icized he lack o p og ess in igh ing he
illegal ciga e e ma ke , s a ing:
‘The e a e g ea epo s abou a bunch o seized ciga e es, opened cases, and “wo k” done.
Bu he illegal kiosks a e s ill he e, he Teleg am channels a e wo king. I is clea ha e e y
Teleg am channel and e e y kiosk has a name – he name o he law en o cemen o ice who
u ns a blind eye (in en ionally o no ) o he he o excise om he budge .’
He man se no ed ha pe sonal esponsibili y is a missing componen in en o cemen
(In e ax, 2023). Howe e , as o Sep embe 2024, no such accoun abili y measu es ha e been
implemen ed. While se e al aids we e ca ied ou in Odesa, signaling enhanced en o cemen ,
hese e o s we e empo a y. Se e al ou le s we e closed, while o he s aised hei p ices
o coun e ei ciga e es and con inued ope a ions. This ongoing ac i i y indi ec ly con i ms
collusion be ween law en o cemen and c iminal ne wo ks.
Co up ion and o ganized c ime a e closely linked, as e idenced by he pe sis en low o
coun e ei goods. While eco ds indica e cases whe e indi iduals we e held c iminally
esponsible, many o icials in ol ed in such schemes e ained hei posi ions. This lack o
accoun abili y poses signi ican isks, including he misuse o budge a y unds, o eign
in es men s, and humani a ian aid.
Co up p ac ices also ex end o humani a ian aid p o ided by o eign pa ne s. In Odesa, aid
has been esold, eplaced wi h expi ed p oduc s, o unneled in o o ganized c ime schemes.
Ra he han se ing hose in need, hese esou ces ha e been exploi ed o c iminal p o i s.
One con ibu ing ac o is inadequa e legisla ion, pa icula ly wi hin cus oms egula ions.
Humani a ian aid is exemp om inspec ion by cus oms o ice s, c ea ing oppo uni ies o
misuse. S udies by Melnychuk (2023) shed ligh on hese issues, pa icula ly ega ding o ganized
schemes in ol ing humani a ian aid.
To add ess he p oblem o he smuggling o goods ac oss he cus oms bo de unde he
guise o humani a ian aid, a d a esolu ion ‘Some issues o humani a ian aid clea ance and
accoun ing unde ma ial law’ was in oduced on Augus 29, 2023. Acco ding o Uk aine’s
Minis y o Social Policy, he esolu ion aims o digi ize he p ocess o impo ing and acking
humani a ian aid wi hin an au oma ed sys em. This e o m will imp o e o e sigh , enabling
au ho i ies o moni o bo h he quan i y o aid en e ing Uk aine and i s in ended ecipien s
(Minis y o Social Policy o Uk aine, 2023).
Public us in go e nmen ins i u ions emains a c i ical ac o in comba ing co up ion. A 2023
su ey conduc ed by he I. Kuche i Democ a ic Ini ia i e Founda ion ound ha 81 pe cen
o esponden s us ed he A med Fo ces o Uk aine and 66 pe cen us ed he P esiden
o Uk aine, while he numbe s we e signi ican ly lowe o e i o ial ec ui men cen e s
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(21 pe cen ) and heads o egional mili a y-ci ilian adminis a ions (30 pe cen ). Co up ion
scandals, especially hose in ol ing ec ui men cen e s and egional adminis a ions since
2022, ha e u he e oded public con idence. Fo ins ance, in May 2023, he head o he
Odesa Regional Te i o ial Rec ui men Cen e aced accusa ions o illici en ichmen . This case
unde sco es he p essing need o g ea e anspa ency and p opo ional accoun abili y in
handling co up ion- ela ed o enses.
Uk aine’s Minis y o In e nal A ai s’ o icial epo on an i-co up ion e o s in 2023 e eals
ha 3,373 indi iduals commi ed co up ion- ela ed o enses—a 23.8 pe cen inc ease
compa ed o 2022 (see Table 2, Appendix, Minis y o In e nal A ai s o Uk aine o icial po al).
The pe cen age o closed cases was 6.37 pe cen in 2023, sligh ly lowe han he 6.58 pe cen
in 2022. While his end may indica e imp o ed e idence analysis du ing in es iga ions, i also
unde sco es issues o anspa ency. High-p o ile cases, o en accompanied by media co e age
o seized money o asse s, a ely include ollow-up on c iminal p oceedings. This makes i
di icul o assess he p opo ionali y o esponses o hese o enses.
Compa ing da a om 2022 and 2023, co up ion- ela ed o enses inc eased o e all, wi h mos
cases in ol ing execu i es o legal en i ies o p i a e indi iduals ecei ing unlaw ul bene i s
om hose pa ies. No cases in ol ing high- anking ci il se an s o membe s o he Pa liamen
we e o icially eco ded in ei he yea , hough his absence likely e lec s unde epo ing a he
han he absence o o enses.
Figu e 1 isualizes hese indings using s a is ical ools. I shows a slow bu s eady upwa d
end in co up ion- ela ed c imes. Addi ionally, u u e ends in co up ion- ela ed o enses
we e p ojec ed wi h app oxima ion eg ession. The o ecas p edic s 3,198 cases in 2024, 3,268
in 2025, and 3,338 in 2026, wi h a s a is ical e o ma gin o ±423.76, conside ing he limi ed
a ailabili y o o icial da a.
The mos common penal y o co up ion- ela ed o enses is ines, which a e o en iewed
nega i ely by he public. In 2023, dep i a ion o he igh o hold ce ain posi ions was imposed
as an addi ional punishmen on 67 people, bu no as a p ima y sanc ion (see Table 3, Appendix).
P oba ion was g an ed o 15 o ende s in 2023, compa ed o 17 in 2022 and 15 in 2021. The
numbe o exone a ions has inc eased om 31 in 2022 o 46 in 2023, ollowing a downwa d
end om 72 in 2021.
Analyzing g ounds o closing c iminal p oceedings e eals oubling ends (see Table 4,
Appendix). In 2023, 215 cases we e closed, 146 o which we e due o he expi a ion o he
s a u e o limi a ions. This pa e n has s eadily inc eased since 2021, when 90 cases we e
closed on simila g ounds ou o a o al o 168 cases. Bo h objec i e ac o s (such as a la ge
numbe o p oceedings and challenges in ob aining e idence) and subjec i e easons (such as
co up ion and inac ion by law en o cemen ) con ibu e o his issue.
Figu e 1 T end o co up ion
ela ed o enses, 2021–2023.
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The P osecu o Gene al’s O ice epo s an inc ease o 26.35 pe cen in comple ed
in es iga ions in 2023 compa ed o 2022 (see Table 5, Appendix, O ice o he P osecu o
Gene al). O enses commi ed as pa o an o ganized g oup o c iminal o ganiza ion saw
an e en sha pe ise o 58.35 pe cen du ing his pe iod. These s a is ics sugges p og ess in
add essing o ganized c ime, bu he lack o accoun abili y o high- anking o icials empe s
hese esul s.
Despi e e o s o p osecu e co up ion, ew cases in ol e high le el o icials (see Table 6,
Appendix). Da a om 2023 indica es a signi ican pe cen age o indi iduals we e ei he
exemp ed om c iminal liabili y o had hei cases dismissed. F equen ly, ini ial e idence
sugges ing g ounds o p osecu ion is la e e u ed. G ea e anspa ency in acking such
cases h ough he Uni ied Regis e o P e- ial In es iga ions could imp o e accoun abili y.
Sociological su eys e eal high ole ance o co up ion: o example, such pe cei ed posi i e
aspec s o co up ion as he abili y o accele a e he p o ision o legal se ices a e highligh ed,
exace ba ing he pe cep ion o co up ion as a ic imless c ime. Howe e , om a ic imology
pe spec i e, co up ion- ela ed o enses ha m socie y a la ge. E e y ci izen is a ic im o hese
c imes, ye mechanisms o compensa ing ic ims emain unde de eloped. Fo example, while
he Ci il Code o Uk aine (A icle 1177) p o ides o ic im compensa ion, no dedica ed und
exis s o his pu pose. Es ablishing such a mechanism could incen i ize p e en i e measu es
and ensu e ha eco e ed unds a e used o add ess socie al needs.
In 2023, he inancial impac o co up ion- ela ed o enses inc eased signi ican ly (see
Table 7, Appendix). Ma e ial damage was 35.4 pe cen highe han in 2022, 45.8 pe cen highe
han in 2023, and 65 pe cen highe han in 2021. Ma e ial damage caused by he c imes
commi ed as pa o an o ganized g oup o c iminal o ganiza ion ( ep esen ing 8.2 pe cen
o all co up ion- ela ed o enses) was 62.2 pe cen highe in 2023 han in 2022. In 2021,
losses we e 73 pe cen highe han in 2022 and by 28.7 pe cen highe han in 2023. Al hough
compensa ion o hese losses imp o ed— ising 71.3 pe cen in 2023 compa ed o 2022— he
lack o a ge ed use o eco e ed unds diminishes public us . Alloca ing hese unds owa d
educing in la ion o s abilizing u ili y p ices o p ices o essen ial goods would p o ide angible
bene i s and demons a e he p opo ionali y o he go e nmen ’s esponse o co up ion.
The absence o a compensa ion mechanism hampe s e o s o add ess he b oade socie al
impac o c iminal o enses, including co up ion. Implemen ing such a und would no only
p o ide jus ice o ic ims bu also esol e he issue o alloca ing excess budge unds e ec i ely.
This would con ibu e owa d esol ing a pa adoxical si ua ion obse ed in 2023, when, despi e
equen discussions abou budge de ici s, se e al Uk ainian ci ies, including Odesa, epo ed
su plus unds in hei local budge s. Public p o es s sough o edi ec hese unds o c i ical
wa ime needs. Ye , in 2024, he elec ici y a i nea ly doubled ( om UAH 1.68 pe 1 kWh o
UAH 2.64 pe 1 kWh, i espec i e o consump ion le els), placing addi ional inancial s ain on
ci izens. To add ess hese dispa i ies, local au ho i ies should be obliga ed o alloca e eco e ed
unds anspa en ly and esponsibly, p io i izing essen ial needs such as s abilizing u ili y cos s.
Decen aliza ion, alongside clea accoun abili y measu es, could play a c i ical ole in ensu ing
hese unds a e used e ec i ely, os e ing a sense o esponsibili y among local go e nmen s
and enhancing public us in hei adminis a ion.
CORRUPTION-RELATED CASES
As exp essed in he no e o A icle 45 o he C iminal Code o Uk aine, co up ion- ela ed
c iminal o enses encompass c imes commi ed h ough abuse o o ice unde A icles 191,
262, 308, 312, 313, 320, 357, and 410. Addi ionally, hey include o enses ou lined in A icles
210, 354, 364, 364-1, 365-2, and 368-369-2 o he C iminal Code o Uk aine.
Co up ion- ela ed o enses o en se e as a backd op o b oade c iminal ac i i y, signi ican ly
in luencing gene al and o ganized c ime ends. Fo ins ance, a e iew o he Uni ied S a e
Regis e o Cou Decisions om Feb ua y 22, 2022 o Sep embe 12, 2024, e ealed 457
e dic s associa ed wi h co up ion- ela ed o enses in he Odesa egion. O hese, 28 pe ained
o ‘c iminal o enses in he ield o public se ice and p o essional ac i i ies ela ed o he
p o ision o public se ices’. No ably, 12 o hese cases occu ed be o e 2022 (including one
case unde A icle 367, h ee sen ences unde A icle 368, h ee sen ences unde A icle 369,
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and nine sen ences unde A icle 369-2 o he C iminal Code o Uk aine, acco ding o Law No.
263-IX o 31.10.2019). Among hese cases, ines we e he mos equen ly imposed penal y (in
15 cases), wi h imp isonmen applied in only one case, unde sco ing he limi ed use o mo e
se e e sanc ions.
The en o cemen o ma ial law p o isions has seen a signi ican numbe o cases linked o
co up ion schemes in ol ing consc ip ion e asion and mobiliza ion iola ions. Fo ins ance, in
Ma ch 2022 and h oughou 2023, an inspec o o enlis men eco ds accep ed illegal bene i s,
anging om US $2,000 o $3,000, o in luence decisions by mili a y medical commissions
ega ding exemp ions om mili a y se ice. These ac ions esul ed in ines unde A icle 369-2
o he C iminal Code o Uk aine ( he e dic by he Sa a skyi Dis ic Cou o Odesa Region o
20.03.2024. Case No. 513/398/24). Simila ines we e imposed in o he cases (see he e dic by
he P ymo skyi Dis ic Cou o Odesa o 10.11.2023, Case No. 522/20913/23).
Co up ion among mili a y pe sonnel is also widesp ead, highligh ing a sys emic ulne abili y
wi hin he a med o ces. In one case, one mili a y o ice o e ed o p olong a se iceman’s
lea e in exchange o mone a y compensa ion. The se iceman was sen enced unde Pa 1
o A icle 368 o he C iminal Code o Uk aine o ou mon hs o a es wi h de en ion in he
gua dhouse (sen ence by he Komin e ni skyi Dis ic Cou o Odesa Region o 06.02.2024.
Case No. 504/63/24).
Addi ional cases demons a e he p e alence o illici paymen s in he mili a y. Fo ins ance,
some o enses in ol ed ans e ing pe sonnel be ween uni s o a ‘ ee’ (sen ence by he
So o o skyi Dis ic Cou o Odesa. Case No. 523/13361/24). Ano he no able case in ol ed
a uni commande in luencing he Secu i y Se ice o Uk aine o bypass in-dep h e i ica ion
p ocesses o a subo dina e (sen ence by he So o o skyi Dis ic Cou o Odesa o 22.04.2024.
Case No. 523/6166/24). In bo h ins ances, ines we e imposed as penal ies. Howe e , gi en
he hie a chical and closed na u e o he mili a y sys em, he e is specula ion ha hese
o enses migh ha e been coo dina ed wi h highe - anking o icials, sugges ing a s uc u ed
ne wo k o ob aining unlaw ul bene i s.
This pa e n o leniency is u he e lec ed in cases whe e ines a e imposed b oadly o
co up ion o enses. Fo ins ance, in May 2024, he Komin e ni skyi Dis ic Cou o
Odesa Oblas con ic ed he head o a illage council in he Odesa egion o solici ing a
10 pe cen kickback om a con ac o wo king on p ojec o epai a school shel e ,
wo h UAH 985,943.86. The o icial’s ac ions we e ca ego ized as unde A icle 369-2 o
he C iminal Code o Uk aine, esul ing in a plea ag eemen and a ine ( he e dic by he
Komin e ni skyi Dis ic Cou o Odesa Region o 22.05.2024. Case No. 504/4953/23). This
inciden unde sco es he challenges businesses ace when ope a ing in a legal ye hea ily
bu eauc a ic co up ion-p one en i onmen . En ep eneu s o en encoun e demands o
b ibes a a ious s ages, om ende p ocu emen o pe mi app o als. Simpli ying and
s anda dizing hese p ocesses could alle ia e co up ion isks and bols e economic ac i i y.
Su ey da a, p esen ed in Table 8 (Appendix), unde sco es he u gency o hese measu es.
Acco ding o esponden s in he Odesa egion, co up ion is he leading obs acle o business
ac i i y. S a e suppo o businesses should be angible and a ge ed, add essing hese
sys emic ba ie s o c ea e a ai , compe i i e landscape.
Despi e he wa ime con ex , p o ec ion acke s a ge ing en ep eneu s emain pe asi e.
In some cases, mo e se e e penal ies han ecommended by p osecu ion we e imposed on
indi iduals con ic ed o ex o ing mon hly paymen s o allow unin e up ed ade and pa king
ope a ions, ci ing he o icials’ be ayal o public us and sys ema ic co up ion ( he e dic
by he Malyno skyi Dis ic Cou o Odesa o May 31, 2024. Case No. 521/4649/24). Such
examples highligh he judicia y’s occasional acknowledgmen o he socie al damage caused
by such o enses. Howe e , imp isonmen emains a e, and sen ences, such as wo yea s o
inca ce a ion o sys ema ic o enses, appea disp opo iona ely mild.
Cases in ol ing misapp op ia ion and embezzlemen o unds h ough abuse o o ice u he
e eal sys emic issues. In one case, an o icial om he Depa men o Labo and Social Policy
was con ic ed o alsi ying applica ions o social assis ance be ween 2013 and 2017, leading
o s a e budge losses o UAH 66,623.86. The I ani skyi Dis ic Cou o Odesa Region sen enced
he o icial o h ee yea s and i e mon hs imp isonmen , la e suspended wi h p oba ion
(Odesa Cou o Appeal, 2022). Such ou comes demons a e a ailu e o uphold he p inciple
o ine i abili y o c iminal liabili y, as he penal ies imposed o en ail o de e u u e o enses.
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TO CITE THIS ARTICLE:
Timo ieie a, L. 2025.
P opo ionali y in Coun e ing
Co up ion in Uk aine in he
Con ex o Wa . Jou nal
o Illici Economies and
De elopmen , 6(2): pp. 73–88.
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.31389/
jied.234
Submi ed: 26 No embe 2023
Accep ed: 03 Ap il 2025
Published: 24 June 2025
COPYRIGHT:
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