Shauka , Rozeen; Asi Na eed, Muhammad; Asgha , Muhammad Zahee ; Jä enoja,
Hanna; Muhammad Uzai Ul Hassan
A icle
Measu ing he nexus be ween in o ma ion li e acy,
c ea i i y, and li elong lea ning in media p o essionals
Adminis a i e Sciences
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Shauka , Rozeen; Asi Na eed, Muhammad; Asgha , Muhammad Zahee ;
Jä enoja, Hanna; Muhammad Uzai Ul Hassan (2024) : Measu ing he nexus be ween in o ma ion
li e acy, c ea i i y, and li elong lea ning in media p o essionals, Adminis a i e Sciences, ISSN
2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 14, Iss. 12, pp. 1-16,
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Ci a ion: Shauka , Rozeen,
Muhammad Asi Na eed,
Muhammad Zahee Asgha , Hanna
Jä enoja, and Muhammad Uzai Ul
Hassan. 2024. Measu ing he Nexus
Be ween In o ma ion Li e acy,
C ea i i y, and Li elong Lea ning in
Media P o essionals. Adminis a i e
Sciences 14: 345. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/admsci14120345
Recei ed: 24 Sep embe 2024
Re ised: 16 Decembe 2024
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Published: 23 Decembe 2024
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A icle
Measu ing he Nexus Be ween In o ma ion Li e acy, C ea i i y,
and Li elong Lea ning in Media P o essionals
Rozeen Shauka 1, Muhammad Asi Na eed 2, Muhammad Zahee Asgha 3,4,* , Hanna Jä enoja 4
and Muhammad Uzai Ul Hassan 5
1O ice o Resea ch Inno a ion and Comme cializa ion, Uni e si y o Managemen and Technology,
Laho e 54770, Pakis an; [email p o ec ed]
2Depa men o In o ma ion Managemen , Uni e si y o Sa godha, Sa godha 40100, Pakis an;
[email p o ec ed]
3Facul y o Educa ional Sciences, Uni e si y o Helsinki, 00100 Helsinki, Finland
4Lea ning Educa ional Technologies (LET) Resea ch Lab, Facul y o Educa ion and Psychology,
Uni e si y o Oulu, 90570 Oulu, Finland; [email p o ec ed]
5Ins i u e o Educa ion, Uni e si y o Sa godha, Sa godha 40100, Pakis an; d uzai [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: zahee [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : In o ma ion li e acy (IL) plays an essen ial ole in digi al inclusion as i enables people o
make use o he in o ma ion a ailable in mul iple mediums on he In e ne h ough digi al de ices.
This s udy in ends o examine he e ec o IL on li elong lea ning (LL) h ough he media ing ole o
c ea i i y among news epo e s in Pakis an using a quan i a i e esea ch app oach. The su ey was
conduc ed using an online ques ionnai e om he egis e ed news epo e s o p ess clubs in he ou
p o inces and he ede al e i o y o Islamabad, Pakis an. A o al o 758 esponses we e ecei ed and
analyzed using PLS-SEM. The esul s indica ed ha he IL o news epo e s posi i ely in luenced
hei li elong lea ning h ough bo h di ec and indi ec pa hways. Fu he mo e, he nexus be ween IL
and LL was in luenced by he media ion o c ea i i y. These indings ha e p ac ical implica ions o
academia and he media indus y, highligh ing he in aluable ole o IL in enhancing li elong lea ning
and c ea i i y o a ain a sus ainable compe i i e ad an age. These esul s may in o m educa ional
p og ams o jou nalism s uden s and exis ing jou nalis s o impa IL skills. This esea ch con ibu es
o he a ailable li e a u e on wo kplace IL, especially in he con ex o media p o essionals.
Keywo ds: in o ma ion li e acy; wo kplace; c ea i i y; li elong lea ning; news epo e s;
jou nalis s; Pakis an
1. In oduc ion
In he e e -changing digi al in o ma ion landscape, he ole o he jou nalis has
become mo e complex, mul i ace ed, and demanding (Na eed and Saadia 2024). The
eme gence and p oli e a ion o digi al media pla o ms has undamen ally ans o med
he way news is p oduced, consumed, and dissemina ed. The e o e, jou nalis s ha e o
na iga e a landscape whe e he abili y o c i ically e alua e, u ilize, and dissemina e digi al
in o ma ion is pa amoun (Boss e al. 2022;MacMillan 2014). In o ma ion li e acy (IL)
e e s o me a-li e acy (Pelse and Swanepoel 2022), enabling epo e s o ecognize hei
in o ma ion equi emen s and adep ly ind, access, assess, and u ilize necessa y in o ma ion
in an e hical and legal way (ACRL 2000). I plays a pi o al ole in empowe ing indi iduals,
jou nalis s, and communi ies o na iga e he inc easingly complex digi al landscape. The
CILIP (2018) ex ended i s scope by de ining i as “ he abili y o hink c i ically and make
balanced judgemen s abou any in o ma ion we ind and use”. Fu he mo e, i enables
epo e s o engage in e ec i e u iliza ion o ICTs o add ess hei in o ma ion equi emen s,
de eloping in o med pe spec i es and ac i e pa icipa ion in a ious socie al ealms (e.g.,
he wo kplace, heal h, educa ion, ci izenship, and e e yday li e). In an e a whe e access o
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 345. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci14120345 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/admsci
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 345 2 o 16
in o ma ion is no longe a luxu y bu a necessi y, de eloping IL skills in epo e s becomes
impe a i e o os e ing inclusi e pa icipa ion in he digi al ealm (Na eed and Kam an
2022). IL b idges he di ide be ween indi iduals who simply ha e access o echnology and
hose who can e ec i ely ha ness i s ull po en ial. I also se es a powe ul ool o comba
misin o ma ion and disin o ma ion, he eby p omo ing digi al equi y and inclusion. In
essence, IL is no me ely a echnical skill; i is a undamen al igh and a co ne s one o
achie ing ue digi al inclusion (Lukiano a and O cha uk 2024).
In o ma ion li e acy empowe s jou nalis s h ough sha pening hei c i ical hinking
skills, enhancing hei in es iga i e abili ies, and opening up new a enues o c ea i e
s o y elling by le e aging di e se mul imedia pla o ms (Saadia and Na eed 2024). In ad-
di ion, i empowe s jou nalis s o na iga e he digi al landscape wi h con idence, os e ing
a cul u e o li elong lea ning (LL) and p omo ing media li e acy wi hin hei communi ies
(Na eed and Saadia 2024). Ul ima ely, in o ma ion li e acy p o ides ounda ion o digi al
inclusion among Pakis ani jou nalis s, enabling hem o ha ness he ull po en ial o digi al
echnologies o e ec i e s o y elling, audience engagemen , and p o essional de elopmen
(MacMillan 2014;Mansoo 2024).
In he o ganiza ional con ex , he ecogni ion o IL in jou nalis s as a i al se o
skills, enabling he wo k o ce o an e ec i e u iliza ion o in o ma ion asse s o a ain
a sus ainable compe i i e ad an age (Na eed and Ra ique 2018;O onica e al. 2020;
Sasikala and Kuma i 2013) and gene a e esponsible jou nalism alue (Fo s e (2017)), is
c ucial. Exis ing esea ch has demons a ed he c i ical ole o IL in in o ming epo e s on
en i onmen al scanning, decision-making, and inno a i e epo ing (Ahmad e al. 2020;
Na eed 2022;Zhang e al. 2010). The c ea ion o alue h ough IL is o ally dependen on
how much he wo k o ce in he ield o jou nalism is digi ally inclusi e and i s pe o mance
in si ua ion analysis, in o ma ion managemen , esea ch and de elopmen , and in o ma ion
ollow-up (C. S. B uce 1999). IL enables wo ke s in he news indus y o adop app op ia e
in o ma ion beha io and e ec i ely u ilize in o ma ion in decision-making and making
balanced judgmen s abou ma ke ends (Inaya illah 2018;Na eed and Shah 2023;Suo sa
e al. 2021). In conclusion, he news indus y needs o be in o ma ion-li e a e o iden i y
ma ke needs, gene a e business alue, and achie e compe i i eness (Wu 2018).
The pu sui o he wo k o ce in he ield o jou nalism in lea ning new compe encies
and knowledge is a o m o li elong lea ning (Co¸skun and Demi el 2010), which is c i ical
o c ea ing posi i e a i udes and habi s in acqui ing new knowledge and applying i o
o ganiza ional de elopmen in he news indus y (Plaza and Robo ham 2021). On he o he
hand, c ea i i y e e s o he gene a ion o o iginal, no el, dis inc i e, and in aluable ideas
o achie e sus ained g ow h and compe i i eness (Leone 2020). Hence, c ea i e and li elong
lea ne s a e c ucial o achie e o ganiza ional pe o mance and e ec i eness (Ka k e al.
2018;Ki kwood 2021). In e es ingly, bo h LL and c ea i i y unde ake speci ic in o ma ion
ac i i ies and ely hea ily on he adop ion o he sui able in o ma ion beha io in he
wo kplace. Some inqui ies ha e epo ed he capabili ies o IL o enhance LL ou comes
and c ea i i y (Chang and Hsu 2015;Feng and Jih-Lian 2016;Na eed e al. 2023;Wu
2018). F om a heo iza ion iewpoin , clea and subs an ial empi ical e idence is needed
on how IL in luences LL h ough c ea i i y among epo e s. The e o e, unde s anding he
in e ela ionships be ween IL, LL, and c ea i i y wa an s u he enqui y.
Building on he p eceding a gumen , he p esen s udy aimed o empi ically examine
he in e ela ionships be ween IL, LL, and c ea i i y among news epo e s in Pakis an.
News epo e s we e selec ed as a uni o analysis due he di e se, esea ch-in ensi e, and
ime-sensi i e na u e o hei wo k, coupled wi h hei in ol emen in he business o
in o ma ion (Anwa and Asgha 2016). Thei ole equi es hem o concu en ly acqui e,
sea ch o , consume, gene a e, and dissemina e in o ma ion. Consequen ly, news epo e s
mus adop sui able in o ma ion beha io o c a c edible news s o ies and p e en misin-
o ma ion (Haide e al. 2022). Mo eo e , he e is a lack o esea ch in es iga ing IL in he
jou nalis s’ wo kplace globally (Haide e al. 2022;Na eed e al. 2023;Na eed and Saadia
2024). Unde s anding he connec ions be ween IL, LL, and c ea i i y among news epo e s
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 345 3 o 16
would assis media houses in ecognizing IL’s e icacy in he wo kplace. P ac ically, his
esea ch has he abili y o in o m conc e e ac ions ha can enhance he e ec i eness and
adap abili y o Pakis ani jou nalis s in he digi al age. By emphasizing he pi o al ole o
IL in os e ing digi al inclusion, he indings o his esea ch p o ide media o ganiza ions
wi h a oadmap o in es ing in aining p og ams ha equip jou nalis s wi h essen ial
skills o con iden na iga ion in he digi al in o ma ion landscape. Mo eo e , educa ional
ins i u ions can le e age hese insigh s o e ine jou nalism cu icula, ensu ing ha g adu-
a es a e equipped wi h he knowledge and compe encies necessa y o success in oday’s
media en i onmen . Ul ima ely, policymake s can u ilize his s udy’s indings o ad oca e
o policies and ini ia i es ha p omo e media li e acy and digi al access, he eby os e ing
a mo e in o med and engaged ci izen y. O e all, his s udy se es as a p ac ical guide o
s akeholde s ac oss he jou nalism ecosys em o collabo a e in building a mo e esilien
and inclusi e media indus y in Pakis an.
The esea ch objec i es speci ically add essed in his s udy a e as ollows:
Resea ch Objec i es (RQs):
1. To explo e how IL a ec s li elong lea ning among media p o essionals;
2. To analyze he in luence o IL on c ea i i y;
3. To assess he e ec o c ea i i y on li elong lea ning;
4.
To e alua e he media ion o c ea i i y in he ela ionship be ween IL and
li elong lea ning.
2. Resea ch Re iew and Hypo hesis Fo mula ion
2.1. Wo kplace In o ma ion Li e acy (WIL)
The e has been a phenomenal inc ease in WIL esea ch since he ealiza ion o in o -
ma ion as a d i ing o ce o gene a ing business alue in he media indus y (Ahmad
e al. 2020;Fo s e 2017;Na eed and Shah 2023;Na eed e al. 2023). The exponen ial
g ow h o in o ma ion a ailable h ough mul iple o ma s called o in o ma ion-li e a e
and lea ned epo e s o achie e a sus ainable compe i i e ad an age and inno a ion (C.
B uce 2003;Ki k 2004;Saadia and Na eed 2022). Solmaz (2017) conside ed IL as pa amoun
o in o med lea ning, enabling collabo a i e in o ma ion use in he socio- echnical sys em
o he news indus y. Fu he mo e, Ahmad e al. (2020) disco e ed ha jou nalis s in he
sphe e o he In e ne and web de elopmen pe cei ed IL as a way o s aying in o med,
sol ing p oblems, de eloping websi es, and engaging wi h lea ning communi ies. Mala i
e al. (2017) epo ed ha IL imp o es ope a ional e iciency, in o ms decision-making,
sa es ime, inc eases p o i , and imp o es cus ome se ice, mo i a ion, and in o ma ion
go e nance. A esea ch s udy by Ahmad e al. (2020) epo ed IL as a posi i e p edic o
o o ganiza ional inno a ion using he esponses o 184 CEOs om a ied en e p ises.
Haide e al. (2022) disco e ed IL’s posi i e in luence on p ac ices o pe sonal in o ma ion
managemen among elec onic media epo e s. A e iew o WIL esea ch published om
he Sou h-Asian egion by Saadia and Na eed (2022) e ealed a lack o ela ed s udies in
he media indus y.
2.2. In o ma ion Li e acy and Li elong Lea ning
IL lays he g oundwo k o epo e s’ li elong lea ning as i e e s o he skill se ela ed
o in o ma ion capabili ies, and li elong lea ning is a good habi (Ho on 2006). Fu he mo e,
Ho on (2006) a gued ha hese cons uc s appea ed o ha e a s a egical and ein o cing
in e ela ionship and a e la gely sel -mo i a ed, sel -empowe ing, sel -di ec ed, and sel -
ac ua ing o p o essional de elopmen . Al hough he ela ion be ween hese wo cons uc s
has been unde deba e since he beginning o he 21s cen u y (Ga dne 2000;Is andya i-
Moghaddam and Kashi-Nahanji 2011), ew s udies ha e p o ided empi ical e idence in he
media indus y. IL capabili ies o e come ba ie s and imp o e he li elong lea ning p ocess
(Co¸skun and Demi el 2010;Kozikoglu and Onu 2019;Solmaz 2017). Recen esea ch by
Na eed e al. (2023) also disco e ed ha he IL o jou nalis s posi i ely in luences hei LL.
In iew o his a gumen , i is in e ed ha IL capabili ies posi i ely in luence LL in a ied
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 345 4 o 16
wo kplace con ex s. No esea ch is a ailable examining he connec ion be ween hese wo
cons uc s using news epo e s as uni o analysis despi e hei p ima y engagemen wi h
he in o ma ion business. Thus, he i s hypo hesis was de eloped as gi en below:
Hypo hesis 1 (H1). IL posi i ely a ec s LL.
2.3. In o ma ion Li e acy and C ea i i y
The p ocess o c ea i i y unde akes ce ain in o ma ion- ela ed asks and is dependen
on how e ec i ely people need, seek, and make use o c edible in o ma ion in he media
indus y (Chang and Hsu 2015;Wu 2018). The e o e, c ea i i y equi es epo e s o possess
compe encies o e icien and e ec i e ecogni ion o hei in o ma ion equi emen s and
seeking (Jaussi and Randel 2014). Building on he p eceding discussion, i is qui e logical
o d aw an in e ence ha IL posi i ely in luences c ea i i y skills. Empi ical e idence
om some wo kplace s udies also suppo s his in e ence (e.g., Baghe i and Ba i an 2022;
Chang and Hsu 2015;Ghazizadeh e al. 2017;Na eed e al. 2023;Wu 2018). Howe e ,
his empi ical e idence mus be u he co obo a ed in media indus y con ex s o he
pu pose o heo iza ion. The e o e, he in e ela ionship be ween IL and c ea i i y among
epo e s jus i ies u he disco e y. Thus, he ollowing hypo hesis was p oposed:
Hypo hesis 2 (H2). IL posi i ely a ec s c ea i i y.
2.4. C ea i i y and Li elong Lea ning
The p oduc ion o new, aluable, and dis inc i e ideas (Kau man 2018) is he esul
o c ea i i y. The ela ionship be ween c ea i i y and LL also appea s o be s a egic and
ein o cing. Bo h c ea i i y and LL a e ans e sal skills ha con ibu e o he de elopmen
o each o he (Lucas and Vencku
˙
e 2020;Su 2009). Media s udies ins i u ions also equi e
he in eg a ion o c ea i i y in o he cu iculum so ha a c ea i e and li elong lea ne
may be p oduced (A p and Wooda d 2004). Al hough he posi i e ela ionship be ween
c ea i i y and LL is deba ed in he exis ing li e a u e, he e is a lack o subs an ial empi ical
e idence o his in e ence in he media indus y. Fu he mo e, no such esea ch examining
he in e ela ionship be ween c ea i i y and LL skills in news epo e s has been ound as
o ye , which also wa an s u he examina ion. Hence, he hi d hypo hesis was posi ed
as ollows:
Hypo hesis 3 (H3). C ea i i y posi i ely in luences LL.
2.5. In o ma ion Li e acy and Li elong Lea ning: Media ion o C ea i i y
IL es ablishes a basis o bo h LL and c ea i i y as hey ely hea ily on in o ma ion
ac i i ies and he adop ion o sui able in o ma ion beha io o be success ul in he media
indus y (Na eed e al. 2023). Empi ical e idence sugges s ha IL skills enhance LL (Feng
and Jih-Lian 2016;Kozikoglu and Onu 2019) and c ea i i y (Chang and Hsu 2015;Na eed
e al. 2023;Wu 2018). On he o he hand, c ea i i y is a ans e sal skill con ibu ing o he
de elopmen o LL (Lucas and Vencku
˙
e 2020;Su 2009) and needs o be in eg a ed in o
educa ion and LL (A p and Wooda d 2004). The in e ela ionship be ween c ea i i y and
LL among epo e s lacks empi ical e idence. Gi en he h ee-way associa ion be ween
hese cons uc s, i is p edic ed ha c ea i i y has a media ing ole in he ela ionship
be ween IL and LL. Mo eo e , no esea ch exis s so a examining he media ing ole o
c ea i i y in he connec ion be ween IL and LL. Thus, he ou h hypo hesis is s a ed as
gi en below:
Hypo hesis 4 (H4). C ea i i y media es he ela ionship be ween IL and LL.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 345 5 o 16
3. Resea ch Design and Me hods
3.1. Resea ch Model
This s udy aimed o explo e he in e ela ionships o IL, LL, and c ea i i y among
news epo e s as gi en in he esea ch model explaining he hypo hesized connec ions
among hese esea ch cons uc s (Figu e 1).
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 17
c ea i i y in he connec ion be ween IL and LL. Thus, he ou h hypo hesis is s a ed as
gi en below:
Hypo hesis 4 (H
4
). C ea i i y media es he ela ionship be ween IL and LL.
3. Resea ch Design and Me hods
3.1. Resea ch Model
This s udy aimed o explo e he in e ela ionships o IL, LL, and c ea i i y among
news epo e s as gi en in he esea ch model explaining he hypo hesized connec ions
among hese esea ch cons uc s (Figu e 1).
Figu e 1. Hypo he ical esea ch model.
3.2. Design and Me hod
This esea ch employed a quan i a i e esea ch design along wi h a su ey me hod
o conduc he p oposed in es iga ion. A s uc u ed ques ionnai e was deployed o da a
collec ion om news epo e s. The s uc u ed ques ionnai e con ained a o al o 37 s a e-
men s associa ed wi h IL (19 i ems), LL (8 i ems), and c ea i i y (10 i ems). All o hese
s a emen s we e measu ed on a i e-poin Like - ype scale anging om s ongly ag ee
o s ongly disag ee (e.g., 5 = s ongly ag ee; 4 = ag ee; 3 = nei he ag ee no disag ee; 2 =
disag ee; and 1 = s ongly disag ee). Ques ions on demog aphic a iables such as age, sex,
wo k medium, educa ion, wo k expe ience, and egion we e also asked.
3.3. Measu emen Ins umen s
3.3.1. In o ma ion Li e acy
The pe cep ions o hese news epo e s ela ed o IL we e assessed using i ems gen-
e a ed based on s anda ds o IL de eloped by ACRL o jou nalis s in 2012. Examples o
such s a emen s include “I can iden i y wha ype o in o ma ion sou ces can ul ill my
in o ma ion need”, and “I can de i e main ideas and ac s om in o ma ion sou ces o
c ea e s o ies”. The in e nal eliabili y analysis, such as he C onbach alpha (CA) and com-
posi e eliabili y (CR) o he IL measu e, indica ed highe alues, ha is, CA = 0.938 and
CR = 0.944, espec i ely. This indica ed ha he measu e used in his s udy had highe
in e nal consis ency, as he alue o CA was close o one (Ma hews e al. 2019). The CR
In o ma ion
Li e acy
Li elong
Lea ning
C ea i i y
Skills
Educa ion
Wo k
Expe ience
H
2 H3
H4
H1
Figu e 1. Hypo he ical esea ch model.
3.2. Design and Me hod
This esea ch employed a quan i a i e esea ch design along wi h a su ey me hod
o conduc he p oposed in es iga ion. A s uc u ed ques ionnai e was deployed o
da a collec ion om news epo e s. The s uc u ed ques ionnai e con ained a o al o
37 s a emen s
associa ed wi h IL (19 i ems), LL (8 i ems), and c ea i i y (10 i ems). All o
hese s a emen s we e measu ed on a i e-poin Like - ype scale anging om s ongly
ag ee o s ongly disag ee (e.g., 5 = s ongly ag ee; 4 = ag ee; 3 = nei he ag ee no disag ee;
2 = disag ee; and 1 = s ongly disag ee). Ques ions on demog aphic a iables such as age,
sex, wo k medium, educa ion, wo k expe ience, and egion we e also asked.
3.3. Measu emen Ins umen s
3.3.1. In o ma ion Li e acy
The pe cep ions o hese news epo e s ela ed o IL we e assessed using i ems
gene a ed based on s anda ds o IL de eloped by ACRL o jou nalis s in 2012. Examples
o such s a emen s include “I can iden i y wha ype o in o ma ion sou ces can ul ill
my in o ma ion need”, and “I can de i e main ideas and ac s om in o ma ion sou ces
o c ea e s o ies”. The in e nal eliabili y analysis, such as he C onbach alpha (CA) and
composi e eliabili y (CR) o he IL measu e, indica ed highe alues, ha is, CA = 0.938
and CR = 0.944, espec i ely. This indica ed ha he measu e used in his s udy had highe
in e nal consis ency, as he alue o CA was close o one (Ma hews e al. 2019). The CR
alue was ma ginally highe han ha o CA since CR is conside ed an al e na i e o
CA (Na eed e al. 2023). CA has aced c i icism o i s lowe bound alue, which may
unde es ima e ue eliabili y, while CR p o ides a ma ginally highe alue. Howe e , his
di e ence is gene ally mino and holds limi ed p ac ical signi icance (Na eed e al. 2023;
Pe e son and Kim 2013).
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 345 6 o 16
3.3.2. C ea i i y
The i ems ela ed o c ea i i y skills we e chosen om he c ea i i y scale de eloped by
Muñoz-Doyague e al. (2008) o he measu emen o he c ea i i y o hese news epo e s.
The e we e 10 s a emen s associa ed wi h c ea i i y skills. The ins ances o such s a emen s
include “I sugges new and be e ways o achie e goal o objec i es”, and “I de elop ideas,
me hods o p ocesses ha a e bo h o iginal and especially use ul o he o ganiza ion”. The
measu es also show highe in e nal consis ency o his measu e as he e we e high alues
o CA = 0.894 and CR = 0.913 based on he da a se o his s udy.
3.3.3. Li elong Lea ning
The e we e eigh s a emen ela ed o li elong lea ning de eloped by Ga dine and
Kline (2007). Ins ances o such s a emen s include “I ha e a passion o lea ning”, and “I
lea n because o achie e my ca ee goals”. This measu e was also in e nally consis en and
accep able, wi h he alues o CA = 0.868 and CR = 0.897 (Na eed e al. 2023;Pe e son and
Kim 2013).
3.3.4. Popula ion and Sampling
All he news epo e s who we e egis e ed wi h he p ess clubs in each o he ou
p o inces (e.g., Baluchis an, Khybe Pakh unkhwa Sindh, and Punjab) and Islamabad
( ede al capi al) we e conside ed as he popula ion o he p oposed esea ch. The sample
size was 371, calcula ed based on he 95% con idence in e al and 5% ma gin o e o .
3.3.5. Da a Collec ion and Analysis
The egis e ed news epo e s in each p ess club we e app oached using a link, con-
aining he ques ionnai e and co e ing le e , c ea ed in Google Fo ms o da a collec ion
wi h w i en pe mission om hei espec i e adminis a ion. The link was sha ed h ough
he adminis a ion o each p ess club in hei lis ed se e s and Wha sApp g oups. The
news epo e s we e asked o hei olun a y pa icipa ion in he su ey. These news
epo e s we e also ensu ed abou he p i acy and anonymi y o hei da a. Th ee ollow-up
eminde s we e also sen o he news epo e s o inc ease he esponse a e. The esea che s
ecei ed a o al o 758 su ey esponses om he news epo e s in app oxima ely wo–
h ee mon hs. The ecei ed esponses we e ca e ully sc eened o da a comple eness and
accu acy p io o da a analysis.
The connec ions, bo h di ec and indi ec , be ween IL, LL, and c ea i i y we e mea-
su ed h ough calcula ing PLS-SEM in Sma PLS e sion 3.3.3. Fi s o all, he eliabili y
and alidi y o he e lec i e measu es used in his esea ch we e analyzed h ough mea-
su emen modeling. A e wa ds, SEM (s uc u al equa ion modeling) was pe o med o
measu emen o he di ec and indi ec ela ions be ween IL, LL, and c ea i i y.
4. Resul s
4.1. Demog aphic Cha ac e is ics
O he 758 esponden s, abou hal o hese news epo e s (n= 387, 51.05%) belonged o
he age g oup o 25–35 yea s, ollowed by hose who we e in he age b acke o
36–45 yea s
(n = 149, 19.66%). The e we e 131 (17.28%) pa icipan s aged mo e han 45 yea s. Only
91 (12.01%) pa icipan s we e aged up o 25 yea s. The e we e 441 (58.18%) males and
317 (42.82%) emales. Abou wo- hi ds o hese news epo e s (n = 499, 65.83%) we e
associa ed wi h elec onic media, whe eas he es o hese news epo e s belonged o
p in media (n = 259, 34.17%). Conce ning hei educa ional le els, a li le mo e han
wo- hi ds o hese news epo e s we e g adua es (n = 491, 64.77%). This was ollowed by
hose ha ing pos g adua e (n = 151, 19.92%) and unde g adua e (n = 116, 16.31%) le els o
educa ion. Mo eo e , mos o hese news epo e s had 11–15 yea s o wo k expe ience
(n = 321, 42.34%), ollowed by hose who had wo k expe ience be ween 6 and 10 yea s
(
n = 217
, 28.63%) and 15+ yea s (n = 121, 15.96%). The e we e only 99 (13.06%) pa icipan s
who had up o i e yea s o wo k expe ience. Mo e han one- hi d o hese news epo e s
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 345 7 o 16
belonged o Laho e (n = 271, 35.75%), Islamabad (n = 258, 34.03%), and Ka achi (n = 191,
25.20%). Only 21 (2.77%) and 17 (2.24%) su ey pa icipan s belonged o Peshawa and
Que a, espec i ely as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Demog aphic cha ac e is ics he su ey esponden s (N = 758).
Cha ac e is ics Ca ego ies F equency (n) Pe cen age (%)
Age (Yea s)
Up o 25 91 12.01
25–35 387 51.05
36–45 149 19.66
45+ 131 17.28
Sex Male 441 58.18
Female 317 42.82
Medium Elec onic 499 65.83
P in 259 34.17
Educa ion
Unde g adua e 116 16.31
G adua e 491 64.77
Pos g adua e 151 19.92
Wo k Expe ience (Yea s)
Up o 5 99 13.06
6–10 217 28.63
11–15 321 42.34
15+ 121 15.96
Region
Laho e 271 35.75
Ka achi 191 25.20
Peshawa 21 2.77
Que a 17 2.24
Islamabad 258 34.03
4.2. The Measu emen Model
This s udy aimed o examine he in e ela ionships be ween IL, LL, and c ea i i y
among he news epo e s using pa ial leas squa e s uc u al equa ion modeling (PLS-
SEM). PLS-SEM was use ul in his esea ch due o h ee easons. Fi s , i helped us o ind
he complex cause–e ec and media ing ela ions among cons uc s. Second, i helped us o
de elop heo ies om a small da a se . Thi d, i p o ided a obus model e iciency (286) in
e ms o ou e model es ing and inne model es ing. P io o examining he connec ions
among hese cons uc s, he eliabili y and alidi y o measu es we e me iculously e i ied
by applying measu emen model analysis in Sma PLS ( e sion 3.3.9). Table 2indica es he
eliabili y and alidi y o he measu es used in his esea ch. Fac o loading, C onbach’s
alpha, ho_A, and composi e eliabili y we e used as he eliabili y indica o s. The loading
s eng h o each ac o was 0.62 o abo e, which indica ed he app op ia eness o hese
i ems as he h eshold alue o ac o loading is 0.60 (Hai e al. 2019). Likewise, he alues
o he C onbach’s alpha, ho_A, and composi e eliabili y indica o s we e 0.86 and abo e,
which we e also highe han he h eshold alue o 0.70 (Iqbal e al. 2021). These igu es
indica ed ha hese measu es me he eliabili y equi emen s. The con e gen alidi y
o hese measu es was ensu ed h ough he applica ion o an a e age a iance ex ac ed
(AVE). Acco ding o Sa s ed e al. (2017), he h eshold alue o AVE is 0.50. Table 2
indica es ha he alues o AVE o all hese cons uc s we e ei he equal o o highe
han 0.50. Thus, hese measu es ul illed he eliabili y and alidi y equi emen s o da a
collec ion (see also Figu e 2).
The measu emen o disc iminan alidi y in PLS-SEM was pe o med h ough he
he e o ai –mono ai (HTMT) app oach as sugges ed by Hensele e al. (2014) because i
is mo e app op ia e han he app oach ecommended by Fo nell and La cke (1981) due
i s unsui abili y and un eliabili y o he measu emen o disc iminan alidi y (Hensele
e al. 2014). The HTMT me hod is desc ibed as he co ela ion be ween i ems ac oss
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 345 8 o 16
di e en cons uc s compa ed o he co ela ions among i ems wi hin he same cons uc .
The h eshold alue o HTMT o disc iminan alidi y is less han 0.90 acco ding o he
c i e ion sugges ed by Hensele e al. (2014). Table 3shows ha hese cons uc s me he
c i e ion o disc iminan alidi y.
Table 2. Reliabili y and alidi y analysis.
Scales Fac o Loading C onbach’s Alpha ho_A Composi e
Reliabili y
A e age Va iance
Ex ac ed (AVE)
In o ma ion Li e acy
(IL)
0.938 0.938 0.944 0.500
IL1 0.658
IL2 0.693
IL3 0.663
IL4 0.715
IL5 0.678
IL6 0.730
IL7 0.721
IL8 0.668
IL9 0.670
IL10 0.685
IL11 0.713
IL12 0.665
IL13 0.670
IL14 0.651
IL15 0.697
IL16 0.653
IL17 0.726
IL18 0.701
IL19 0.687
C ea i i y (C)
0.894 0.897 0.913 0.513
C1 0.745
C2 0.761
C3 0.775
C4 0.715
C5 0.735
C6 0.709
C7 0.692
C8 0.62
C9 0.681
C10 0.72
Li elong Lea ning (LL)
0.868 0.869 0.897 0.521
LL1 0.715
LL2 0.731
LL3 0.784
LL4 0.676
LL5 0.684
LL6 0.734
LL7 0.736
LL8 0.708
Table 3. Disc iminan alidi y.
Cons uc s C ea i i y In o ma ion Li e acy Li elong Lea ning
C ea i i y (C) 0.716
In o ma ion Li e acy (IL) 0.688 0.687
Li elong Lea ning (LL) 0.68 0.691 0.722
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 345 15 o 16
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