Bo ha, Fai h; O kin, Ma k
A icle
S a egies o Sou h A ican p o essional i ms: An
empi ically g ounded ypology
Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Bo ha, Fai h; O kin, Ma k (1993) : S a egies o Sou h A ican p o essional i ms:
An empi ically g ounded ypology, Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976,
A ican Online Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 24, Iss. 4, pp. 109-117,
h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 24i4.871
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/218105
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S.A J
.Bus.Mgm
1993,24( 4)
S a egies
o
Sou h A ican p o essional i ms -
an
empi ically
g ounded ypology
Fai h
Bo ha*
&
Ma k
O kin
Facul y
o
Managemen , Uni e si y
o
he Wi wa e s and, 2 S Da id's
Place,
P.-k own,
Johannesbu g
2193
Republic
o
Sou h A ica
Recei ed
Feb ll lTJ
1992,
accep ed
l11M
1993
P o essional o ~aniza ions a e
acu_i~
a
_num~
o
en ~nmen al
challenges in Sou h A ica in he 1990s.
The
op ions
open
o hem
m.
success ul~y ~s1 1o ung heu o ganiza ions
in
he ace
o
hese
challenges
p esen ed
he
esesch
p oblem. P o essional
o gan~1ons
we e esea ched om
he
pe spec i e
o
in eg a ed .-che ypes
o
o ganiza ional
o m,
s a e~
and
he
~~pbons
and_
alues
o~
he op managemen eam. The ese.-ch
wu
conduc ed
on
56
p omi-
nen
p~ e~1onal
o gamzall_ons
oi:n
six p o essions in Sou h A ica, wi h an induc i e esea ch
app oach
being
aken.
Theo y indica ed ou possible op lons and _ h ~ ins um~n s we e de eloped
and
es ed o es
he
heo y
.-nong
he
pa ne s
and
s akehol~e s
o_
~
ums. Mul 1 a ia e echniques
o
ac o
and
clus e analysis we e applied o he esuk-
ing da a,
and
~e
indings ~~1ca ed i e b oad con igu a ions
o
adap a ion, h ee
o
which concu ed wi h he heo y,
he.
~ou h which
w~
pos~llon~ ac oss he bounda ies
o
wo
o
he heo e ical op ions,
and
he i h which
w•
pos1 1oned along a
hud
dimension o ha sugges ed by he
heo y,
namely, ha
o
he collec i e alues
o
he op
managemen eam. I appea ed ha a la ge numbe
o
p o essional o ganiza ions in Sou h A ica s ill
ope a&e
suc-
cess ully om he basis
o
hei p o essional epu a ion, bu ha equally, a numbe ha e also adop ed mo e inno a i e
app oaches.
P o essionele o ganisasies in Suid-A ilca kom in die 1990's oo
'n
hele paa omgewingsuildagings
e
s aan.
Die
moon likhede
om
hullesel e midde an die ui dagings sukses ol e posisionee , is
onbepe
en
be die na o sinp-
p obleem opgelewe . P o essionele o ganisasie
is
nage o s anui die pe spek ie an gein eg ee de
a ge ipiese
o gani-
sa o iese s uk u e, s a egiee
en
die pe sepsies
en
waa des an die opbes uu span. Die na o sing is gedoen op 56 p o-
minen e p o essionele o ganisasies in Suid-A ika en
'n
induk iewe benade ing is en opsig e an die na o sing ge-
olg. Die eo ie be ie moon like opsies ui gewys en d ie ins umen e is on wild el
en
ge oe s
en
einde die eo ie
onde enno e en belanghebbendes e oe s. Mul i e ande like egnieke, naamlik ak o egnieke en g oepsanalise is op
die da a oegepas
en
die be indinge be y
b ec!
aanpassings uk u e aangedui, waa an d ie
me
die
ieo ie oo eenge-
s em be ,
die
ie de oo die g ense an wee keuses geposisionee is en die y de wa langs
'n
de de dimensie
wal
deu
die
eo ie aangedui is, geposisionee is, naamlik die kollek iewe waa des an die opbes uu span.. Di
be
oo gekom
aso
'n
g oo aan al p o essionele o ganisasies nog s eeds sukses ol anui die basis an hulle
p o essiooele
epu uie
unl sionee , maa
da
daa eweneens ook 'n aan al was wa mee inno e ende
benade ings
oep•.
• Au ho o
whom
co espondence should be add essed.
()IJ
In oduc ion
The
g owing body
o
knowledge abou o ganiza ional
be-
ha iou
(co e ing such
a eas
as
s uc u e,
s a egy,
cul u e,
decision-making and he in e ace
be ween
o ganii.a ions
and
hei en i onmen s)
has
been
limi ed
o
indus ial
o ganiza ions abou which in onna ion
is
eadily
a ailable,
and
has
la gely neglec ed p o essional
se ice
o ganii.a ions.
The
a ious s a egic ypologies which
ha e
been
p oposed
o
indusb'ial and se ice o ganiza ions
(Miles
&
Snow,
1978;
Po e ,
1980;
Mille & F iesen,
1CJ77,
e c.)
may
no
co e
he
cha ac e is ics
o
p o essional se ice
o gani-
wions.
The
lack
o
such esea ch
is
pa ly
due
o
he
di -
icul ies
o
gaining access o o ganiza ions
which
deal
wi h
sensi i e
and
con iden ial
maue s.
o
hese
ci cums ances.
The
enqui y
epo ed
below
was
ac-
co dingly
unde aken
o de elop a
gene ic
ypOlogy
o
s a egy, o ganii.a ional
adap a ion,
and
he
pe cep ions
and
alues
o
he
op managemen eam,
ha
would
be
applic-
able
o
se ice
o ganiza ions
in
di e en
p o essions
and
ac oss
di e en indusuies.
Ye
he e
is
e iden need
o
insigh s
in o
p o essional
se ice
o ganiza ions.
In
he
1990s
hey
a e
ha ing
o
change
hei adi ional modus ope andi
unde
he
impac
o
ex e nal
socio-economic ac o s, echnology.
and
inc easing
compe i ion om non-p o essional inns.
They
consequen ly
show
signs
o
eaching a ma u e
s age
o hei
e olu ion.
such
as
declining
p o ias,
and a e lhe e o e
inc easing
hei
ma ke ing
ac i i y, despi e adi ionally
ha ing
disdained
'comme cialism'
as
con a y
o
he
p o essional
e hic.
Howe e , no esea ched models exis ed o
he
s a egic
and
o ganiza ional adap a ion o p o essional o ganiza ions
Theo e ical e iew
Typologies
o
o ganiza ions
and
s a egies
The
ini ial obse a ion o
Anckews
(1971)
ha
lhe
Sl .llqy
o
an
o gani7.a ion
is
an
a ul
alignmen
o
en iauillliCOI.
~
sou ces
and
alues
was
di e en ia ed
by
Ho e 's (197S)
con ingency heo y
o
s a egy, which
suggesaoo
lha
business-le el s a egies could
be
classi ied i llo gene ic
g oups
ei he
on
a b oadly
applicable
basis (Abell, 1980;
Miles
& Snow,
1CJ78;
Pa e ,
1980),
o
o
a ious
con-
ingency
si ua ions (Ho e , 1980; Ha igan, 1983, 1985;
Woo
&
Coope ,
1981).
O ganiz.a ions
hemsel es
ha e
also
been
classi ied
in o
a che ypes
o
'ga alu'
in Falley & Al-
dag's
(1978)
ypOlogy
and lhe s udies
by
Mille & F iesen
(1977,
1980).
Howe e , nei he
o
bcsc
ypi icalions
was
done
on
se ice
o ganizalions o lhei s a1egiel.
P o essional se ice o ganiza ions di e
om
indusuiaJ
o ganii.a ions
in
a
wmbe
o
ways.
They a c
cba acac iz.cd
by
a
high
deg ee
o
sel ~
and
collegial coaaol,
110
since
only
Olhc
p o essionals a c held
IO
be
in
a posi ion
IO
e alua e
hei
pee s. The e
is
also a g ea
deal
o
pe sonal
au onomy
in
de ining p oblems and gene a ing hei solu-
ions,
wi hou p essu e
om
non-membe s o he p o ession.
P o essional o ganiza ions a e u he cha ac e ized
by
a
pa icula coupling
wi h
hei clien o ganiza ions
in
he
se ice p oduc ion p ocess, du ing
which
he
clien e ec -
i ely
becomes
a empo a y employee o
he
p o essional
i m,
since
he
in o ma ion
he
o she p o ides
is
he
ini ial
' aw ma e ial·. This highly lexible in e ace
has
been
shown
IO
be
c i ical (Mills & Ma gulies,
1980),
and he e-
o e
has
IO
be
conside ed
in
cons uc ing a
model.
The e a c
wo
opposing schools o hough
on
o ganiza-
ions
and
hei ela ionships
wi h
hei en i onmen .
In
he
de e minis ic o con ingency school, o ganiza ions a e seen
IO
be
dependen
on,
and eac i e
IO,
changes
in
he
en i on-
men
(Dill,
1958;
Eme y & T is ,
1965;
Law ence &
Lo sch.
1967;
Pe ow,
1967;
Thompson,
1967;
and Duncan,
1972).
The
in e p e i e school,
by
con as , emphasizes manage ial
choice
and
he
en i onmen
is
ega ded
as
c ea ed
by
mem-
be s
o
he
o ganiza ion (Weick,
1969;
Child,
1972;
Mon-
ana i,
1978).
Howe e ,
he
wo
schools a e alike
in
ending
IO
de ine
he
o ganiza ion
as
he
ocal
poin
and
IO
pe cei e
i s
ela ionship
o
he
en i onmen
in
e ms o esou ces and
sou ces o unce ain y (Bou geois & Singh,
1983;
Dess,
1987).
A
hi d.
mo e
in e ac i e
iew,
seeks
o
combine
he
na u al selec ion
wi h
he
s a egic choice pe spec i es,
by
emphasizing
he
adap a ion p ocess
in
o ganiza ions. I
p oposes a ypology o o ganiza ions, and also
he
s a egic
op ions
which
would
be
ound
in
each ype
as
a dynamic
equilib ium
is
auained be ween o ganiza ions and hei
en-
i onmen s (H ebiniak & Joyce,
1985).
This
is
illus a ed
in
Figu e
1.
The i s quad an o
his
model
ep esen s
high
en i on-
men al
de e mina ion wi h
low
s a egic choice, and illu-
s a es o ganiza ions wo king unde pe ec ly compe i i e
ma ke s
wi h
limi ed op ions. This
would
include small
o ganiza ions selling commodi y- ype p oduc s
and
la ge
o ganiza ions
wi h
undi e en ia ed se ices,
wi h
no
way
o
achie ing las ing compe i i e ad an age. The s a egies
s
a
H
e
g g
i h
C
0
p L
i 0
0 •
n
I
En i onmen al
De e mina ion
HI
g h
Low
Quad an
2
Quod an
3
La ge,
mul i-
High isk,
special/s
inno a o s
Quad an
1
Quad an
4
Cos leade s
No
iden i y
Flp e
I H ebiniak &
Joyce
(1985) ypology
o
o ganiza ions
S.-A
.Tydsk .Bemy sl.1993,24(4)
ound
in
his quad an co espond o
hose
o
he
cos -
leade ship ype
in
Po e 's ( 1980) ypology, o
he
de ende
ype
in
Miles & Snow's (1978) ypology.
The second quad an ep esen s high en i onmen al
de e -
mina ion wi h high s a egic choice, whe e
di e en ia ioo
has
been made wi hin en i onmen al cons ain s.
This
is
he
si ua ion o la ge o ganiza ions
in
highly egula ed
in-
dus ies. Focused niches
may
be
achie ed wi hin
he
con-
s ain s h ough ad e ising, lobbying and ma ke ing.
The
high egula ion sugges s ha p o essional o ganiza ions
may
well
be
ound
in
his quad anL I co esponds
o
he
di e -
en ia ion and ocused s a egies
o
he Po e
(1980)
ypo-
logy o he analy e s a egy
o
he Miles &
Snow
(1978)
ypology.
The hi d quad an ep esen s low en i onmen al
de e mi-
na ion and high s a egic choice, wi h adap a ion
by
design.
Di e en ia ed o ocused choice may
be
made,
since
inno a-
ions and p oac i e beha iou a e easie . These
o ganiza-
ions co espond again o he di e en ia ion and
ocused
s a egies
o
he
Po e (1980) ypology, bu a e
he
p o-
spec o ypes
o
he
Miles & Snow (1978) ypology.
One
may
expec some p o essional o ganiza ions
o
all
in o
his
ype
by
ha ing been p oac i e enough o sus ain a
niche
posi ion.
The ou h quad an ep esen s low en i onmen al
de e -
mina ion and
low
s a egic choice. These o ganiza ions
wo k
unde placid condi ions, and hei s a egies appea
o
co espond
o
he uns able eac o ype
in
he
Po e
(1980)
ypology, wi h
no
clea membe ship
o
any s a egic
g oup.
Some p o essional o ganiza ions may p esumably also
all
in o
his
g oup.
Top
managemen
eam
The e
is
also
an
in e play be ween he en i onmen
and
he
op managemen eams o o ganiza ions h ough
he
la e 's
pe cep ion o and in e ac ions wi h clien s, co-ope a i e
o ganiza ions and compe i o o ganiza ions. Hamb ick &
Mason
(1984), d awing on Child's (1972) s a egic choice
pa adigm, ha e p oposed
in
hei 'uppe echelons'
model
ha unde condi ions
o
bounded a ionali y selec ed
pe -
cep ions and alues will in luence he s a egic choice
decision, such
as
inno a ion, di e si ica ion, acquisi ion
and
s a egic alliances.
In
addi ion, pe cep ion
o
unce ain y
in
he
en i onmen
by
manage s
o
he o ganiza ions
will
in-
luence hei s a egic decision-making, and he e o e
need
o
be
included
in
he
esea ch model. Finally, co po a e
cul u e,
in
he b oad sense a sha ed o ganiza ional
alue
sys em, mus
be
a
key
elemen
in
he
managemen eam
componen o a heo e ical model.
In
o he wo ds, i
is
p o-
posed ha
he
pe cep ions and alues o he op
manage-
men
eam
add addi ional con ingencies o a p oposed
in eg a ed model
o
s a egy and p o essional o ganiza ion.
In eg a ed
model
o
s a egy,
p o essional
o ganiza ion
and
he
pe cep ions
and
alues
o
he op
managemen
eam
On
he s eng h
o
he li e a u e, while
being
mind ul o
he
cha ac e is ics o p o essional se ice o ganiza ions,
we
ha e a i ed a
an
in eg a ed model, depic ed
in
Figu e
2.
I
S.A
J .Bus.Mgm
1993,24(
4)
p oposes a dynamic in e ac i e sys em, whe eby he s a e-
gic
choices
o
he op managemen eam in e ac
wi h
he
o ganiza ions' s a egy, s uc u e
and
cul u e,
as
well
as
wi h
aspec s
o
he en i onmen .
o
p oduce a ious con igu a-
ions
o
o ganiz.a ional e ec i eness. The shaded a ea su -
ounding he a ious in e ac ing uni s ep esen s he in e-
g a ion
o
s a egy, o ganiz.a ion and he p o iles o
he
op
managemen eam as a whole, a imes also including
hose
componen s
o
he en i onmen
who
a e closely in ol ed
in
he
se ice p oduc ion p ocess, such
as
clien s, compe i o s
and
o he s a egic s akeholde s (see Figu e 2).
Me hodology
In
o de
o
assess he model
in
Figu e
2,
a p ima ily
induc i e app oach
o
he esea ch
was
adop ed, allowing
empi ical indings
o
in ima e he implica ions a he
han
hypo hesizing
hem
in de ail
in
ad ance.
Popula ion
de ini ion
and
sampling
p ocedu e
The choice
o
p o essions included
in
he esea ch
was
based
on he classi ica ion
by
Bennion (1969),
who
classi-
ied
he consul ing p o essions unde h ee
b oad
headings,
hose
o
heal h, igh s and p ope y. The p o essions chosen
o
he
esea ch we e
om
each o hese h ee ca ego ies:
he
physician
in
he heal h ca ego y,
he
a o ney
in
he
igh s ca ego y, he accoun an
om
he
money
ca ego y o
p ope y, and a chi ec u e, quan i y su eying and consul ing
enginee ing
in
he land and buildings ca ego y o p ope y.
The choice o i ms
was
limi ed
o
he
la ge
i ms
wi hin
hese six p o essions, since hese
we e
p esumed
o
be
mo e
likely
o
be un
in
an
explicably o mula ed business-like
manne .
In
he medical p o ession his esul ed
in
only
he
specialized a eas o pa hology
and
adiology being included
in
he esea ch, since hese specializa ions
we e
he
only
ones
whe e
i ms
o
any size we e
ound.
Consul ing engin-
ee ing i ms we e es ic ed
o
mul i-disciplina y
i ms,
which
elimina ed i ms which specialized
in
pu ely ci il,
elec ical o mechanical enginee ing.
The popula ion
in
each p o ession
was
de e mined
Quad an Z Quad an l
Top
Lo ;•, mum H/ h l•k,
Me1ne19emen
.,-1o1111
lnnow,H.-
Team O anlza lonal
:~,·=l:;:
Quad an I Quad an 4 El oc l'ienH•
Cool
.,.,,.,.
No
l<#nHly
I
Cllonls,
•lobhoi n,
oom,..1/lon I
I lol/H :ol, •oonomk,
,.,1,1ou-..
I
-,.
hnologkol on'n onmonl
Flp e 2
In eg a ed
model
o p o essional
se ice
o ganiza ions
111
duough
he
use
o
a quasi-Delphi echnique (Dalkey &
Hel-
me ,
1963),
whe eby he opinions
o
'expe s',
o
know-
ledgeable indi iduals
in
he indus ies
in
which he
p o ession
ope a ed,
we e used The aid
o
knowledgeable
indi iduals a he p o essional associa ions
was
solici ed
o
assis
in
he ini ial iden i ica ion
o
he
majo
i ms.
The p ocess o ob aining expe opinion was
epealed
wi h
a numbe
o
o he knowledgeable indi iduals, in-
cluding
he
membe s
o
he selec ed i ms, un il a inal lis
o
96
i ms
in
he six p o essions
was
ob ained o he e-
sea ch popula ion.
Sample
design
A p obabili y-p opo ional- o-si7.e andom sample
o
p o es-
sional
i ms
om
each p o ession
was
aken,
o
ensu e ha
cons uc s
we e
gene a ed and used which would
be
ep e-
sen a i e,
and
o
enhance gene aliz.abili y. Then w iuen
pe -
mission
was
ob ained
om
he pa icipa ing
i ms
o
ap-
p oach hei clien s
o
he pu pose
o
es ablishing s ake-
holde image o he i ms. F om hese lis s a da abase
o
clien s
was
buil
up
o
each p o ession, which
was
e-
p esen a i e o he possible clien base which he pa i-
cipa ing
i ms
could
ha e.
The
sample ame o each
p o-
ession
was
es ed
o
adequacy
o
ep esen a ion agains an
ex e nal sou ce,
o
example,
o
accoun ing i ms, he
sec o s o
he
Johannesbu g S ock Exchange, and s a e and
pa a-s a al
o ganiz.a ions
we e
used.
De elopmen
and
es ing
o
esea ch
ins umen s
Th ee esea ch ins umen s we e de eloped and used
o
measu e he di e en aspec s
o
he abo e model. The i s
wo,
combined in o a single ques ionnai e, we e di ec ed
o
pa ne s
o
he
p o essional o ganiza ions,
o
measu e he
pe cep ions
o
en i onmen al unce ain y (PEU)
which
in luence hei decision-making
in
he p o essional o gani-
z.a ions,
and
he
pe sonal alues which we e ega ded
as
impo an
o
he
pa ne s.
The hi d ins umen . co e ing image,
was
designed o
measu e
he
pe cep ions
o
s a egy and p o essional o gani-
z.a ion,
bo h
by
he
pa ne s hemsel es, and
by
hei clien s
and
o he s akeholde s
in
he en i onmen
who
become
' empo a y employees'
o
he p o essional
o ganiz.a ion
du ing he se ice p oduc ion p ocess.
In
o de o de elop he
PEU
and alue ques ions,
con-
s uc s
we e
elici ed du ing in-dep h in e iews
wi h
27
pa -
ne s
o a sample o
25
p o essional o ganiza ions. The
con-
s uc s
o
be
used
in
he
image
ques ionnai es
we e
elici ed
om
he
same
sample, bu using he Kelly epe o y g id
echnique.
A lis
o
34
en i onmen al i ems and
50
alue i ems
we e
made
om
he
cons uc s,
and
67
esponden s
om
he
sample o
25
o ganiza ions we e eques ed
o
indica e ag ee-
men o disag eemen
wi h
he i ems
on
a i e-poin scale.
Al og he
90%
o he esponden s complied
in
his
phase.
The ques ionnai es we e anonymous and dis inguished
by
he
ype
o p o ession only. To simpli y he
many
s a emen s
in o
mo e
economical scales, he ma ices
o
esponden
e-
plies
we e
hen
subjec ed
o
he p incipal componen
me hod
o
ac o analysis.
112
In
he
case o he
pe cep ions
o
en i onmen al
unce -
ain y,
a solu ion o
13
ac o s
wi h
eigen alues g ea e han
one
esul ed,
12
o
which
we e
used
o
cons uc a seman ic
di e en ial scale
which
was
subsequen ly adminis e ed.
In
he
case o
he
i ems
on
alues,
he
ini ial analysis o
he
50
i ems
dealing
wi h
alues p oduced a six een- ac o
solu ion
wi h
eigen alues g ea e
han
one. A sc ee plo o
eigen alues agains
he
numbe o componen s con i med
his
numbe ,
and also indica ed a possible nine- ac o
solu ion.
Howe e ,
examina ion o
he
loading
o
he alue a i-
ables
con ained
in
bo h
he solu ions did no sugges usable
unde lying
meaning
o
he
ac o s,
in
spi e
o
u he oblique
o a ions
o
he
ac o sco es. This
was
pe haps because
he
esponden s
a
his
es -s age
we e
no
much
mo e
nume ous
han
he
cons uc s;
o
because
o
subs an i e a ia ions
in
alue-pa e ns be ween sec o s
o
o ganiza ions. Fo
his
eason,
educ ion
in
he
numbe o alue a iables
by
ac o
analysis
was
pos poned
o
a la e s age
when
a g ea e
sample
si7.C
migh
e eal
ac o s
wi h
mo e
meaning com-
mon
o
all p o essions.
Howe e ,
so
as
no
o
exhaus
he
pa ience
o
he
esponden s, he hi y
alue
i ems
wi h
he
highes
loadings
we e
chosen, and each p esen ed
as
a six-
poin Like scale, including a ze o
o
allow
o
unce ain y
o
esponse.
These
wo
scales
hen
cons i u ed
he
i s
ques ionnai e.
A simila conse a i e p ocedu e
was
applied
o
i ems o
he
hi d
o
he
h ee scales ega ding
he
image
o
he
i ms
as
pe cei ed
by
pa ne s, clien s and o he s akeholde s o
he
p o essional o ganiza ions. O
he
62
cons uc s gene-
a ed h ough
he
Kelly
epe o y g id echnique,
he
38
con-
s uc s
wi h
he
highes coun
we e
e ained. They appea ed
o
be
ca ego ized in o
ou
a eas, namely gene al image o
he
i ms,
leade ship, ma ke ing, and cha ac e is ics o
he
pa ne s. A seman ic di e en ial scale
was
mos app op ia e
o
he
o m
o
he
i ems
in
his
ques ionnai e. A lis o
pa icipa ing
i ms
was
included
wi h
he
ins uc ions, and
esponden s
we e
eques ed
o
gi e hei pe cep ions o hei
ideal
i m,
as
well
as
hei pe cep ions o hei
own
i m
and
compe i o
i ms
(in
he
case o
he
p o essional
i ms)
and
o hei consul an
i m
(in
he
case o clien s).
In
his
way
a
pe cep ion o each
i m
by
i sel ,
by
i s
compe i o s, and
by
i s
clien s,
as
well
as
he
ideal
o
each p o ession would
be
gene a ed.
Da a
analysis
Once
he
design and es ing had been comple ed, he
ques-
ionnai es we e sen
o
he
pa ne s and clien s o
56
p o essional o ganiza ions. Responses
we e
ecei ed
o m
432 pa ne s and
225
clien s and s akeholde s. A
ew
i ms
which
had
aken
pa
in
he
ques ionnai e's de elopmen
phase wi hd ew
om
he es o
he
esea ch p ocess, so ha
48
o
he
96
i ms
we e
inally included
in
he
analysis.
The in e nal consis ency o
he
i ems
in
he
h ee scales
was
es ed wi h co espondence analysis (G eenac e,
1984).
This indica ed ha
he
PEU
scale and image scale
i ems
we e in e nally consis en , bu ha
he e
we e
six
a iables
in
he alue se
which
we e
ou lie s and
which
could
be
e-
mo ed.
In
addi ion,
in
he
case
o
he
image ques ionnai e,
S.-A .
Tydsk .Bed y sl.1993,24(4)
K uskal-Wallis' es
o
he sco es ep esen ing
sel -image
and clien -image showed ha he e we e signi ican
di e -
ences ( p < 0.01) on only
wo
o
he
38
a iables,
so
ha
hese wo da a se s could be me ged.
Empl lcal
esuhs
Wi h he la ge samples in
hand,
ac o analysis
wi h
o a ion
was
applied o each
o
he h ee se s
o
i ems
o
iden i y he unde lying s uc u es. In deciding
how
many
ac o s o e ain, Youngman ( 1979)
has
speci ied ha
load-
ings by a leas h ee a iables, wi h a co ela ion
coe icien
o
app oxima ely 0.5 o mo e o o hogonal o a ions,
a e
necessa y
o
a ac o
o
be included. Loadings
be ween
ap-
p oxima ely 0.3 and 0.5 we e also conside ed
whe e
hese
assis ed
in
he in e p e a ion
o
he ac o .
Pa ne
ques ionnai e
Pe cep ions
o
en i onmen al
unce ain y
The p incipal componen me hod o ac o analysis
wi h
a
a imax o hogonal o a ion p oduced a h ee- ac o
solu ion
using
11
i ems o he 12-i em PEU scale, and accoun ing
o
59%
o
he a iance. A possible ou h ac o
was
ejec ed
due
o
he
low
numbe
o
a iables loading on o
his
ac o ,
and one
may
he e o e ake he o iginal scaling
as
alida ed.
In
Table 1 he loadings ha esul ed a e
shown,
and
inspec ion
o
he con ibu ing a iables sugges ed
he
co esponding ac o desc ip ions.
Values
The same ac o analysis p ocedu e
was
pe o med
on
he
26
alue a iables which emained a e emo al
o
he
ou -
lie s.
An
eigh - ac o solu ion accoun ed
o
76%
o
he
o al
a iance. Howe e , a sc ee es indica ed ha only
wo
Table
1 Fac o loadings o
h ee
ac o s o
pe cep ions
o
en i onmen al
unce ain y
Fac o
1
Known
ac o s,
including
known
compe i ion
Va iable
no.
Desc ip ion
Loading
P4
Technology
0.82
PS
Compe i ion
om
p o essional
i ms
0.85
P7
Na u e
o
compe i ion
0.70
Fac o
2 Unknown
compe i ion
Va iable
no.
Desc ip ion
Loading
P6
Compe i ion
om
non-p o essional
i ms
0.67
PS
Supply
o
s a
0.1S
P9
Quali y
o
s a
0.80
Pll
Demand o new se ices
0.35
Fac o 3 Poli ic-economic isk
Va iable
no. Desc ip ion
Loading
Pl
Socio-poli ical
ac on
0.81
P2
Go e nmen egula ions
0.71
P3
Economic ac on
0.76
Pl2
Risk
0.63

S.A J.Bus.Mgm .1993,24(4)
majo
ac o s
appea ed
o
be
esponsible
o
43%
o
he
a iance.
A comp omise
was
achie ed
using
Youngman's
(1979)
c i e ion, deli e ing in e p e able
meaning
wi hou
ui ial de ail; and he inal numbe o
ac o s
selec ed
was
i e
(see Table
2).
These
i e
ac o s p o ed
o
be
con i med
by
a
ac o
ana-
lysis
on
he
sco es
o
24
o
he
o iginal
32
a iables
which
con ibu ed
o
hese ac o s
o
each p o essional
o gani-
za ion.
Image
A simila ac o analysis
on
he me ged image
da a,
in e -
p e ed
wi h
Youngman's c i e ion,
would
ha e
yielded
se en
ac o s. Howe e ,
36
o
he
38
a iables
in
he
scale
had
loadings o mo e han 0.5 and
would
he e o e
ha e
Table
2
Fac o
loadings
o
i e
ac o s
o
alues
Fac o 1
Va iable no.
s
V6
s
Vl4
V'22
V24
V29
V30
V32
Fac o 2
Va iable no.
Vl
Vl6
V23
V28
Fac o
3
Va iable
no.
V2
V3
VlO
Fac o
4
Va iable
no.
V4
VIS
V23
Fac o 5
Va iable
no.
V9
12
VIS
V20
Se ice o ien a ion
Desc ip ion
compe en
compassiona e
co-ope a i e
imagina i e
nice people
sel -disciplined
suppo i e
ole an
unsel ish
S eng h and s abili y
Desc ip ion
ad en u ous
b oad in e es s
posi i e/op imis ic
s able home li e
s ong pe sonali y
C edibili y
Desc ip ion
ambi ious
academic
expe ienced
Leade ship
Desc ip ion
b oad ision
leade ship quali ies
posi i e
In e pe sonal skills
Desc ip ion
cou eous
good judgemen
in e pe sonal skills
me hodical
Loading
o.ss
0.36
0.81
0.79
0.80
0.61
0.73
0.62
0.79
Loading
--0.50
--0.SS
--0.52
--0.74
--0.65
Loading
0.33
0.90
0.45
Loading
--0.77
--0.78
--0.34
Loading
0.77
0.51
0.52
0.64
113
been
included
in
his
se en- ac o solu ion, de ea ing
he
aim
o
educing
he
numbe o a iables. A
mo e
s ingen
equi emen
was
he e o e se
o
ac o loadings highe
han
0.6,
which
le
22
scale
i ems.
This si ing p ocedu e
was
equi alen
o
scale cons uc ion.
A ac o analysis
o
hese
22
scale i ems, again using
he
Youngman
c i e ion, sugges ed ha he e
we e
ou ac o s
which
summa iud
he
unde lying
22
a iables meaning ul-
ly.
These
a e desc ibed
in
Table
3,
wi h he ac o labels
sugges ed
by
he
con ibu ing a iables.
An
inJeg a ed
con igu a ion
comp ising
p o essional
o galli-
za ion,
s a egy,
and
he
pe cep ions
and
alues
o
he
op
managemen
eam
The
ac o
sco es
o
each esponden
om
he
h ee
ana-
lyzes
comp ised he
educed
da a
se
Based
on
he
app oach
sugges ed
by
Ha igan
(1985), a clus e analysis
o
he
wel e- ac o
sco es
was
pe o med, wi h a ious possible
clus e solu ions being examined,
om
ou clus e s o
se en.
I
was
emp ing
o
choose a ou -pa axonomy
as
Table
3
Fac o
loadings
o
ou
image
ac o s
Fac o 1 Quali y se ice
Va iable
no.
Desc ip ion
Loading
116
good
leade ship 0.69
121
good
connec ions
wilh
c1icn l
0.74
129
good
se ice 0.80
132
dep h
o
expenise 0.83
133
echnical knowledge 0.86
Fac o 2 B oad, mul i-specialis
Va iable
no.
Desc ip ion
Loadina
117
au oc a ic leade ship 0.52
130
many
specialis se ices 0.80
134
high mo ale 0.85
15
elhical 0.62
125
wide
ange
o
se ices 0.76
19
speci ic language/cul u al idedi y
o.so
16
s able 0.89
112
uni o m
iden i y 0.73
Fac o 3 Repu able p o essionals
Va iable
no.
Desc ip ion
Loading
17
g owing 0.64
14
good
epu a ioo
0.1S
124
agg essi e ma ke e s 0.34
123
in ol ed
in
he p o essions 0.80
138
well-known s a s 0.72
Fac o 4 Inno a i e specialis s
Va iable no. Desc ip ia
Loadina
13
imo a i e
0.81
114
p og essi e 0.45
128
s oog
in
ce ain ma ke s
o.so
115
specialis s 0.46
114
S.-A .Tydsk .Bedly sl.1993,24(4)
Table 4
PEU,
alue,
and
image
ac o
sco es,
and
means,
o
he
i e-clus e
solu ion
Fac o G oup 1 G oup 2
G oup
3
G oup
4
G oups
Pe cep ions
o
en i onmen al
unce ain y
Known ac o s -1.07
0.21
-0.02
1.33
0.17
Compe i ion -0.65 0.26 0.06 0.66 -0.SS
Poli ico-econ. ac o s -0.82 0.37 -0.32
0.21
-1.70
MeOII
..(),30
0.28 ..().()9 0.73 ..(),61)
Values
Se ice o ien a ion -0.14 0.00 0.07
1.18
-1.22
ln e penonal skills
0.61
-0.93
o.so
-0.lS
-0.04
Leade ship -1.06 0.07 0.17 0.60
o.so
C~ibili y
-O.S6
0.38 0.17 -0.4S
-O.S4
S eng h
0.4S
0.20 0.16 -0.10 -2.24
MeOII
..().14
..(),06
0.21
0.22
..().71
Im•aes
Se ice quali y -0.14 0.42 0.23 -2.28 -0.0S
Mul i-speciali y
0.04
0.41
-0.04 -0.90 -0.39
Repu able -0.27 -0.64 0.76 0.18 -0.80
Jmo a i e -0.19
MeOII
..(),14
sugges ed
by
he
heo y.
Howe e ,
inspec ion
o
he
s ep-
wise
g ouping o
he
i ms,
o
he dec easing numbe
o
clus e s p o ided
by
he s a is ical echnique, indica ed a
coun e -in ui i e ea angemen o
i ms
i one
d opped
below
i e
clus e s. A i e-clus e solu ion
was
he e o e
adop ed
as
easonably close o
wha
he
heo y
had
o
o e ,
ye
p o iding
he
mos
sa is ac o y i
wi h
he
da a.
This
i e-clus e solu ion, based
on
he
h ee
PEU,
i e
alue
and
ou
image
ac o s,
was
aken
as
he
ounda ion o
he
in eg a ed
ypology.
The wel e ac o sco es unde each
ype a e illus a ed
in
Table
4.
A h ee-dimensional plo o
he
means
o hese ac o
sco es
is
p esen ed
in
Figu e 3
in
o de
o
acili a e
he
discussion
below.
This
plo ,
ead
in
conjunc ion wi h
he
ac o
sco es
o
each ype, sugges ed summa y labels o
each
o
he
i e
ypes; sen ien , capable, epu able, une en
and
amo phous, espec i ely.
Shown
in
Figu e 4 a e he
i e
g oups
supe posed on
he
ou -cell heo e ical model o Figu e
1.
Discussion
By
in e p e ing
he
ela i e
mean
ac o sco es o
he
ypes,
he
ollowing o e all desc ip ions we e achie ed
o
each
g oup and
i s
membe ship.
G oup
1 :
Sen ien
This
g oup consis s
o
h ee
o ganiza ions
om
he
medical
p o ession, h ee
om
he
legal
p o ession and one each
om
he
a chi ec u al
and
accoun ing p o essions. One sees
ha hei pe cep ion
o
he
en i onmen
as
unce ain a e
limi ed o poli ico-economic ac o s; unce ain y
is
low
on
known ac o s and
on
compe i ion.
They
a e com o able
wi h hei compe i i e en i onmen
0.41
0.15
-0.28
0.17
IMAGE
0.17
0.00
~-'
~-
~.51
0.30 -0.0S
..(),68
..().32
3
-------------
2
---
..
----------
-
--
------
------
------
--1---.
-------------------- ----------------
)-.,j
4
,--,--+--- -H --..[7"'"-- ----"'70.22
~-----,,L--~L+-7''---7': -""7'1F----- ---7-<:..o.01
~-~---."----,''---'J"-+--- -- ---- --7-:..0.14
VALUES
~.&«L _
_L.._-L,_
_
_,e___,:_____.'-----'---:-:-"
n
~
-M
-~
-M
PERCEPTIONS
o
ENVIRONMENTAL
UNCERTAINTY
Figu e
3 Means
o
PEU, alue
and
image
ac o sco es o
he
i e-clus e solu ion
Thei alues e lec he impo ance
o
in e pe sonal
skills
and s eng h. Tha hese o ganiza ions do no exhibi
any
pa icula ly s ongly de ined image can
be
in e p e ed o
mean
ha hey ha e
low
s a egic choice. They a e no
di -
e en ia ed, and can he e o e
be
posi ioned
in
he
ou h
quad an
o
he heo e ical model.
H ebiniak & Joyce (1985) ha e desc ibed
his
posi ion
as
a ela i ely placid si ua ion whe e o ganiza ions ha e
no
cohe en s a egy, likening hei s a egies o 'muddling
h ough'.
They
u he sugges ha hese o ganiza ions
could
ha e
an
a ay
o
in e nal compe encies and s eng hs
which
a e inapp op ia e
o
ex e nal oppo uni ies and condi ions.
They ep esen he eac o s o he Miles & Snow
(1978)
ypology.
S.A J.Bus.Mgm .1993,24(4)
s
I
a
I H
e /
g
IJ
i h
C
0
p L
i 0
0
..
n
$
En i onmen ol
De e mina ion
HI
g h
Low
Quad an .....,2,........__~Q-uad an
3
G oup 3
Repu able
La ge,
mul
-
1gh
1,1 ,
1p«lol/1I
lnno 10lo ,
G oup 2
Copobl•
Quad an
1
G oup 4
Une en
Quad an
4
G oup
1
S.n len
G oup 5
..._
___
.....1,---JAmo phoua
Figu e
4 Fi e-g oup classi ica ion
o
p o essional se ice
o gani-
za ions compa ed o he H ebinial & Joyce (1985) ypology
G oup
2:
Capable
O ganiza ions in his g oup a e uni o mly capable, mul i-
specialis , di e si ied and inno a i e. They ha e a ai ly
high pe cep ion
o
unce ain y
o
all en i onmen al
aclO s.
They espouse he alue
o
c edibili y, and a e ai ly high on
all image ac o s, pa icula ly se ice quali y, mul i-special-
iza ion and inno a ion, ela i e o hose in o he g oups.
The g oup includes i e a chi ec u al, wo quan i y su -
eying, wo enginee ing, one accoun ing, wo legal, and wo
medical o ganiza ions. Since hese o ganiza ions exhibi a
high pe cep ion
o
unce ain y
o
all he en i onmen al
ac o s, i appea s ha he e is a high
deg ee
o
en i on-
men al de e mina ion. Howe e , he clea ly de ined and
mixed s a egic choices mani es ed
in
he s ong image
p~
ile indica e high s a egic choice by he op managemen
eam. O ganiza ions in his g oup alue c edibili y, bu hey
do no ega d in e pe sonal skills as impo an as do he
o he g oups.
Acco ding o H ebiniak & Joyce (1985), o ganiza ions
in
his quad an , in con as o hose in he ou h quad an ,
ope a e in u bulen condi ions. Al hough ce ain en i on-
men al cons ain s, such as high egula ion in enns
o
legal
cons ain s
o
ways
o
conduc ing business, may se e ely a -
ec o ganiza ional adap a ion unde hese condi ions,
s a egic choice emains high due o he abili y
o
hese
o ganiza ions o choose single
o
mul iple ma ke niches,
o en h ough ex ensi e ad e ising, lobbying and ma ke ing
ac i i y.
Nine ou
o
he ou een o ganiza ions
in
his g oup
a e
om
he
building and cons uc ion indus y, mo e han he
p opo ion om his indus y
in
he o e all sample. I may
be
ha ea u es
o
his indus y a e ope a ing as a de e -
minan , and o he o ganiza ions
in
he g oup exhibi some
o
he cha ac e is ics
o
his indus y.
G oup
3:
Repu able
G oup 3 consis s
o
se en accoun ing, i e legal and i e
enginee ing o ganiza ions. Since hei pe cep ions
o
en-
i onmen al unce ain y a e ai ly neu al
o
nega i e, hey
expe ience sligh ly low en i onmen al de e mina ion. They
11.5
exhibi a s ong
image
o
being
epu able, bu do no ha e
?'11e
s~ngly
de ined image a ibu es. Thei o e all image
as
h~
highes
o
all he g oups, which is in e p e ed as
meaning ha hey exhibi he highes s a egic choice. Mos
o
~
p o ~sional o ganiza ions
in
he sample,
18
o
48,
ell . in o
has
g oup, indica ing ha eliance
on
hei
p o-
essional epu a ion emains he dominan choice
o
hese
o ganiza ions.
G oup
4:
Une en
The.
o ganiza ions
in
G oup 4 ha e
he
highes pe cep ion
o
en ~nmen al. unce ain y, and
a e
cha ac e ized by
ha ing
an
amage
o
inno a ion which is suppo ed by he highes
amoun
o
di e si ied se ices. Bu hey a e he leas b oadly
based, which in all e lec s a ocused s a egy in Po e 's
(1980) sense.
~
al_ues
o~
his g oup
o
o ganiza ions e lec a s ong
~ace
onen auon and leade ship. Because
o
hei high en-
a onmen al de e mina ion, o e all low s a egic choice and
image
o
inno a ion, his g oup could be placed
in
he i s
quad an - hose ep esen ing he de ende s
o
he Miles &
Snow (1978) ypology. The g oup consis s
o
h ee o gani-
za ions om he a chi ec u al p o ession, which is
no
su p ising
in
e ms
o
he image
o
inno a ion, and one om
he medical p o ession.
The cha ac e is ics
o
his quad an include small o gani-
za ions in impe ec ly compe i i e niches, wi h limi ed man-
age ial choice, al hough indi iduals may a emp o exe cise
op ions which mi iga e agains en i onmen al demands, and
echnological inno a ions may al e hei abili y o compe e
and a ec hei compe i i e ad an age (H ebiniak & Joyce,
1985). The image
o
inno a ion exhibi ed by his g oup
o
o ganiza ions may e lec hei a emp
a
changing hei
domain,
o
i may be he consequence
o
he ac ha
h ee
o
he ou o ganiza ions
a e
om he a chi ec u al p o es-
sion, wi h highly inno a i e alues.
G oup
5:
Amo phous
The ou o ganiza ions in G oup 5 ha e
he
lowes pe -
cep ion
o
en i onmen al unce ain y and no clea ly de ined
sua egic choice which may be iden i ied in i s image, excep
ha hey a e pe cei ed o be less epu able and less b oadly
based han hose in o he g oups. The alue
o
leade ship is
ega ded as impo an . These o ganiza ions can hus be ca e-
go ized as belonging
o
he ou h quad an
o
he heo e ical
model which ep esen s low s a egic choice and low en-
i onmen al de e mina ion as a icula ed
in
he pe cep ions
o
en i onmen al unce ain y by he membe s
o
he op
managemen eam. The e is a simila i y be ween he o gani-
za ions
in
his g oup and o ganiza ions in
he
i s g oup,
excep o he di e ences in hei pe cep ions
o
he un-
ce ain y
o
he poli ico-economic ac o and hei alue
p o ile. Two
o
he i ms in his g oup we e om he medic-
al p o ession and wo om he enginee ing p o ession.
Concluslon
In summa y, he empi ical enqui y ound i e
b oad
con-
igu a ions, h ee
o
which could be associa ed wi h h ee
o
he ou quad an s
o
he heo e ical ypology
o
H ebiniak
& Joyce (1985), de ined by en i onmen al de e mina ion
116
and
s a egic
choice.
A ounh con igu a ion o e lapped
wo
o
he
quad an s;
and
a
i h
mo ed
abo e a pa icula quad-
an
in o
a
hi d
dimension,
ha o
he
collec i e
alues
o
he
op
managemen
eam
o
he
p o essional o ganiza ions.
I
appea s
ha
o
a
la ge
numbe
o p o essional o gani-
za ions,
one
o
he
s a egic
bases
om
which
o
ope a e
is
hei
p o essional
epu a ion,
pa icula ly
in
he
comme cial
indus y,
and
in
he
unce ain
Sou h
A ican
en i onmen
whe e
clien s
look
o
hei
p o essional consul an s
o
help
educe
hei
isk
and
unce ain y.
Con ained
among
he
mo e
inno a i e
o ganiza ions
in
he
capable
g oup
(wi h
high
s a egic choice),
and
he
un-
e en
g oup
(wi h
low
s a egic
choice),
we e
eigh o
he
nine
o ganiza ions
om
he
a chi ec u al p o ession. This
inding
is
in e es ing
in
iew
o
he
'a an -ga de' na u e o
his
p o ession.
I
is
also
no ewo hy
ha
mos
o
he
o ganiza ions
in
he
medical
p o ession
ope a e
om
a
posi ion
o
low
s a egic
choice.
This
is
p obably
a e lec ion o
he
in luence o
com-
me cial
conside a ions
o e
adiology
and
pa hology
specializa ions,
which
equen ly
unc ion
wi hin
p i a e
hospi al
g oups,
and
unde
a
mo e
es ablished
ee
s uc u e.
No
g oup
was
posi ioned
in
he
hi d
quad an o
he
heo e ical
model,
whe e
maximum
choice
and
low
en i on-
men al
de e mina ion
occu ,
esou ces
a e
lacking,
en y and
exi
ba ie s
a e
low,
and
o ganiza ions
may
de ine
and
en-
ac
hei
own
en i onmen s.
Howe e ,
i
was
poin ed ou
ha
o ganiza ions
in
G oup
3 exhibi ed
some
a ibu es o
his
quad an I
is
likely
ha
some
o
he
o ganiza ions
con ained
wi hin
his
clus e
ha e
poised
hemsel es
o
ake
ad an age
o
his
posi ion,
bu
a e
s ill oo cons ained
by
such
en i onmen al de e minan s
as
egula ion,
lack
o
e-
sou ces,
and
lack
o
au onomy
and
con ol o e
o he s
in
he
en i onmen ,
o
ully
exploi
he
ad an ages
which
his
posi ion
o e s.
I
may
also
be
ha
comme cial compe i o s
( he
p o essional
o ganiza ions
in
his
sample),
o
ha e
an
ad an age
in
his
espec ,
would
be
ound
o
occupy
his
quad an
This
esea ch
has
shown
ha
many
o
he
heo e ical
p o-
posi ions
ega ding
s a egy, o ganiza ional adap a ion
and
he
e ec o
he
op
managemen
eam,
which
had
been
sug-
ges ed
o
indus ial o ganiza ions, a e likely
o
be
ue
o
p o essional
o ganiza ions.
In
pa icula ,
he
ypologies o
Po e
(1980),
Miles
&
Snow
(1978),
H ebiniak
& Joyce
(1985),
and
he
models
o Child
(1972)
and
Hamb ick
&
Mason
(1984)
discussed
a
he
ou se ,
ha e
p o ed
o
be
en-
ligh ening
in
a emp ing
o
a i e
a
a che ypes o
p o es-
sional
se ice o ganiza ions, p o ided ha
hey
a e
sui ably
e ined
on
he
basis
o empi ical e idence o
he
p o ile o
op
managemen
eams
in
he
ace
o
Sou h
A ican
en i on-
men al
ci cums ances.
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he
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The
s a ing
poin
o
s a egic planning. Englewood Cli s: P en ice Hall.
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concep
o
co po a e
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New
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Dow
Jones,
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Bennion,
F.A.R.
1969. P o essional
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S.-A .Tydsk .Bed y sl.1993,24(4)
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J.
1983. 'O ganiza ional slack
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