Fazio, And ea; Reggiani, Tommaso; San o i, Paolo
Wo king Pape
"Blessed a e he poo ": The Webe ian spi i o capi alism
unde expe imen al sc u iny
MUNI ECON Wo king Pape , No. 2024-06
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Masa yk Uni e si y, Facul y o Economics and Adminis a ion
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Fazio, And ea; Reggiani, Tommaso; San o i, Paolo (2024) : "Blessed a e he poo ":
The Webe ian spi i o capi alism unde expe imen al sc u iny, MUNI ECON Wo king Pape , No.
2024-06, Masa yk Uni e si y, Facul y o Economics and Adminis a ion, B no,
h ps://doi.o g/10.5817/WP_MUNI_ECON_2024-06
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n. 2024-06
ISSN 2571-130X
DOI: 10.5817/WP_MUNI_ECON_2024-06
‘Blessed a e he Poo ’
The Webe ian Spi i o Capi alism Unde
Expe imen al Sc u iny
And ea Fazio / Depa men o Economics and Social Sciences, Ma che Poly echnic Uni e si y,
Ancona, I aly; GLO, Essen, Ge many
Tommaso Reggiani / Ca di Business School, Ca di Uni e si y, Ca di , Uni ed Kingdom; Masa yk
Uni e si y, MUEEL lab, B no, Czechia; IZA, Bonn, Ge many
Paolo San o i / Depa men o Philosophy, Tilbu g Uni e si y, The Ne he lands
‘Blessed a e he Poo ’
The Webe ian Spi i o Capi alism
Unde Expe imen al Sc u iny
Abs ac
This pape empi ically es s Max Webe ’s hesis on how eligious na a i es, pa icula ly he P o es an E hic, in luence a i udes owa d weal h
edis ibu ion. Webe sugges ed ha he P o es an Re o ma ion, led o he belie ha economic success was a sign o di ine a o , legi imizing
weal h inequali y. Using a a ia ion o he dic a o game wi h ”blessed” aming, we measu e how pa icipan s’ edis ibu ion beha io s change when
p imed wi h his na a i e. Ou esul s show ha low-income P o es an s exposed o he ”blessed” na a i e a e less likely o edis ibu e weal h
compa ed o Ca holics, suppo ing Webe ’s idea ha P o es an s jus i y inequali y h ough di ine p o idence. Fu he mo e, a na a i e analysis
e eals ha P o es an s in e p e “blessing” as di ine elec ion, while Ca holics ocus mo e on well-being. These indings sugges ha eligious
na a i es signi ican ly shape economic beha io s and p e e ences o edis ibu ion, p o iding empi ical suppo o Webe ’s hesis.
Masa yk Uni e si y
Facul y o Economics and Adminis a ion
Au ho s:
And ea Fazio (ORCID: 0000-0003-1265-1065) / Ma che Poly echnic Uni e si y, I aly; GLO, Ge many
Tommaso Reggiani (ORCID: 0000-0002-3134-1049) / Ca di Uni e si y, Uni ed Kingdom; Masa yk Uni e si y, Czechia; IZA, Ge many
Paolo San o i (ORCID: 0000-0001-5705-0461) / Tilbu g Uni e si y, The Ne he lands
Con ac : [email p o ec ed]
C ea ion da e: 2024-11
Re ision da e:
Keywo ds: dic a o game, Max Webe , p o-social beha iou , edis ibu ion
JEL classi ica ion: J14, J15, Z12, Z1
Ci a ion:
Fazio, A., Reggiani, T., San o i, P. (2024). ‘Blessed a e he Poo ’
The Webe ian Spi i o Capi alism Unde Expe imen al Sc u iny. MUNI ECON Wo king
Pape n. 2024-06. B no: Masa yk Uni e si y. h ps://doi.o g/10.5817/WP_MUNI_ECON_2024-06
(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/)
Licensing o he inal ex published in he jou nal is in no way condi ional on his wo king pape licence.
MUNI ECON Wo king Pape n. 2024-06
ISSN 2571-130X
‘Blessed a e he Poo ’
The Webe ian Spi i o Capi alism Unde Expe imen al Sc u iny*
And ea Fazio†Tommaso Reggiani‡Paolo San o i§
Oc obe 15, 2024
Abs ac
This pape empi ically es s Max Webe ’s hesis on how eligious na a i es, pa ic-
ula ly he P o es an E hic, in luence a i udes owa d weal h edis ibu ion. Webe sug-
ges ed ha he P o es an Re o ma ion, led o he belie ha economic success was a sign
o di ine a o , legi imizing weal h inequali y. Using a a ia ion o he dic a o game wi h
"blessed" aming, we measu e how pa icipan s’ edis ibu ion beha io s change when
p imed wi h his na a i e. Ou esul s show ha low-income P o es an s exposed o he
"blessed" na a i e a e less likely o edis ibu e weal h compa ed o Ca holics, suppo ing
Webe ’s idea ha P o es an s jus i y inequali y h ough di ine p o idence. Fu he mo e,
a na a i e analysis e eals ha P o es an s in e p e “blessing” as di ine elec ion, while
Ca holics ocus mo e on well-being. These indings sugges ha eligious na a i es signi -
ican ly shape economic beha io s and p e e ences o edis ibu ion, p o iding empi ical
suppo o Webe ’s hesis.
Keywo ds: dic a o game; Max Webe ; p o-social beha iou ; edis ibu ion.
JEL Codes: J14; J15; Z12; Z1.
*We a e g a e ul o he pa icipan s a he Inequali y in Rome Summe Mee ing o hei p ecious commen s
and sugges ions. Usual disclaime s apply. IRB app o al om he School Resea ch E hics Commi ee o Ca di
Business School – e : 1440. Open Science Founda ion p e- egis a ion – e : h ps://os .io/dcz7 /.
†(Co esponding Au ho ) Depa men o Economics and Social Sciences, Ma che Poly echnic Uni e si y, An-
cona, I aly. GLO, Essen, Ge many. Email: a. azio@uni pm.i .
‡Ca di Business School, Ca di Uni e si y, Ca di , Uni ed Kingdom; Masa yk Uni e si y, MUEEL lab,
B no, Czechia; IZA, Bonn, Ge many. Email: eggiani @ca di .ac.uk.
§Depa men o Philosophy, Tilbu g Uni e si y, The Ne he lands. Email: p.san o i@ ilbu guni e si y.edu.
1
In oduc ion
In his pionee ing s udy o he Economics o Religion, Iannaccone (1998) dis inguished h ee
main di ec ions o his old/new ield o s udy. Fi s , schola s can employ economic ca ego ies
o in e p e eligious beha io , o example, applying u ili y unc ions o unde s and pe sonal
ai h. Second, eligious s udies and heological ideas can be used as a e e ence poin o e alua e
and e en ually c i icize economic policies – hink abou he inqui ies on he heological no ion
o deb o os e deb elie o poo coun ies (Lysaugh , 2015). Finally, ano he line o inqui y
can be used o s udy he economic consequences o eligion. In he p esen pape , we ake
his hi d di ec ion, s udying how eligious belie s and na a i es migh a ec p e e ence o
edis ibu ion.
Like many o ou p edecesso s – see he sec ion de o ed o he li e a u e e iew – ou
s a ing poin is Max Webe ’s book The P o es an E hic and he Spi i o Capi alism. Ou
s udy aims o es one o Webe ’s co e ideas empi ically. Acco ding o Webe , an e ec o he
P o es an Re o ma ion, especially in i s Cal inis and Me hodis ami ica ions, is ha belie e s
pe cei ed o be blessed by God h ough a lou ishing economic ac i i y: “God Himsel blessed
His chosen ones h ough he success o hei labou s” (Webe , 2005a). The Re o ma ion mo ed
he ba ycen e o eligious li e om he monas ic and ex amundane li e o he in e mundane
ac i i y. P o es an ism a ached a sys em o psychological sanc ions and ewa ds – he same
ha eligions usually a ached o sac ed ac i i y – o he ul illmen o daily asks, abo e all
he du ies o a p o ession. Acco ding o Webe , he secula iza ion o his P o es an E hic is
a ached o he eme gence o he spi i o capi alism.
We a e in e es ed in es ing one o he consequences o he no ion o being ‘blessed’: “A
speci ically bou geois economic e hic had g own up [...] he consciousness o s anding in he
ullness o God’s g ace and being isibly blessed by Him [...] ga e him he com o ing assu -
ance ha he unequal dis ibu ion o he goods o his wo ld was a special dispensa ion o Di ine
P o idence which in hese di e ences as in pa icula g ace pu sued sec e ends unknown o
men” (Webe , 2005b). In o he wo ds, people who pe cei e ichness and economic success as
he ui o a ‘blessing’ a e mo e inclined o legi imize weal h inequali ies and consequen ly
2
less inclined o edis ibu e. Hence ou esea ch ques ion: Is he na a i e o ‘being chosen’ so
in luen ial on human beha io ega ding edis ibu ion ma e s? As he sec ion de o ed o he
li e a u e e iew shows, al hough we a e no he i s o answe his ques ion empi ically, ou
sample, me hods, and esul s con ibu e o he ongoing deba e.
We wan o empi ically es Webe ’s hesis h ough an expe imen , speci ically a a ia ion
o he Dic a o Game. In ou game, which we ic ionally call he ‘Blessed Game’, we modi y
he aming o he s anda d dic a o game by in oducing an en i lemen e ec . We exogenously
a y he wo ding o he s anda d dic a o game in he ins uc ions: in he ea men g oup, he
pa icipan s a e old ha one – hose who play as dic a o – will be ‘ he blessed’, whe eas in
he con ol g oup, he playe s a e named ‘playe 1’ and ‘playe 2’. In he ea men and con ol
g oups, we measu e he ecipien ’s expec a ion, i.e., how much he ecipien hinks ha he
o he pa icipan (i.e., he dic a o ) is willing o sha e and how much he dic a o sha es.
Ou pool is ec ui ed h ough P oli ic, and i is composed o people li ing in he Uni ed
S a es. To make he Webe ian hypo hesis salien , he pool comp ises ou g oups: Ca holics,
Cal inis s and Me hodis s, A heis s, and P o es an s. The Me hodis s and Cal inis s, and pos-
sibly P o es an s should pe cei e he ‘blessing’ o weal h as a signal o being pa o he com-
muni y o he chosen ones ( he dic a o s in ou expe imen ). This na a i e should b ing he
Cal inis , Me hodis , and P o es an dic a o s o be less disposed han Ca holics o a heis s o
sha e hei weal h wi h he non-elec ed. In pa allel, he ‘blessing’ na a i e should also b ing
Cal inis , Me hodis , and P o es an ecipien s he expec a ion o a lowe amoun om he dic-
a o . As a complemen o he Webe ian amewo k, we expec he Ca holic a i ude owa d
he ‘blessing’ o weal h o be less punchy and o ha e mo e o do wi h he logic o gi . In
Ca holicism, weal h is one o God’s gi s o humani y, so i is some hing o sha e wi h ellow
humans as God commands. The e o e, we expec Ca holic dic a o s o be no a ec ed by he
manipula ion; i any hing, hey should be mo e inclined o edis ibu e, and Ca holic ecipien s
should expec mo e om he dic a o s. The wo eligious na a i es a e di e en and comple-
men a y and should explain he di e en p e e ences and beha io s o he people a ec ed by
hem.
Ou esul s show an e ec o he ‘blessed’ p iming, i.e., people exposed o he blessed
3
na a i e end o edis ibu e less han hose no . This e ec is p esen o e all, al hough no
signi ican ly (p obably due o he sample size). Ou hypo heses a e con i med when we com-
pa e he Ca holics wi h he P o es an s. The la e end o expec less and edis ibu e less. We
also ind ha Cal ins s and Me hodis s end o expec less han Ca holics. The mos in e es ing
e ec eme ges when we include income di e ences. The low-income pa icipan s om he
P o es an g oup seem o be e y exposed o he ‘blessed’ na a i e because, when hey a e
dic a o s, hey edis ibu e less, and when hey a e ecipien s, hey expec o ecei e less han
hei Ca holic coun e pa s. This e eals ha he eligious na a i es en ailed in he P o es an
E hic legi imize inequali ies in he eyes o he ‘poo .’
The pape is o ganized as ollows: We i s e iew he li e a u e o loca e ou pape among
he cu en s udies on he opic and emphasize ou con ibu ion. Then we expose ou expe i-
men al me hodology. Consequen ly, we p esen ou esul s and discuss ou indings, emphasiz-
ing he limi a ions o ou analysis and possibili ies o u u e esea ch.
Li e a u e Re iew
Ou analysis in e sec s many b anches o li e a u e on he economic consequences o eligion.
S a ing om Webe ’s analysis, some au ho s inqui ed abou he e ec o P o es an ism on
economic pe o mance. Becke and Woessmann (2009) employed coun y-le el da a om la e
19 h-cen u y P ussia o show ha P o es an ism was associa ed wi h highe economic p ospe -
i y due o be e li e acy and educa ion han Ca holicism. Mo e ecen ly, Nunzia a and Rocco
(2016) demons a ed ha P o es an s om Swi ze land, a eligious mino i y in compa ison o
Cal inis s and Me hodis s, had mo e chance o become en ep eneu s han Ca holics. They
ound simila esul s (Nunzia a and Rocco, 2018) when hey examined he o me Holy Ro-
man Empi e egions (mainly Ge many): P o es an s had 5% mo e chances o s a a business
han Ca holics. Focusing on a sligh ly di e en opic, Spenkuch (2017) showed how P o es-
an s wo k mo e hou s han Ca holics (e en i his is no e lec ed in hei espec i e sala ies).
The a ini y o hese s udies and ou s is he willingness o compa e Ca holic and P o es an
economic beha io s.
4
Close o ou analysis a e he s udies ha ocus on he e ec o eligion on p o-social beha -
io . In wo ela ed s udies, No enzayan and Sha i (2008) and Sha i and No enzayan (2007)
inqui ed unde wha condi ions eligion inc eases p o-social beha io . They an a dic a o game
(Sha i and No enzayan, 2007) whe e he ea men g oup was implici ly exposed o he con-
cep o God. They disco e ed ha he willingness o gi e money o s ange s inc eased when
he p esence o God was implici ly ecalled. This esul was alid bo h o he wo samples
hey employed, i.e., s uden s o he B i ish Columbia Uni e si y and a Canadian communi y
in Vancou e . In e es ingly enough, hey showed ha sel - epo ed eligiosi y had li le o no
impac on p o-social beha io compa ed o he implici ecall o God, secula ins i u ions, o
social epu a ion (No enzayan and Sha i , 2008). These esul s ha e been c i ically e ised by
Gomes and McCullough (2015): hey showed ha wi h a bigge sample and a change o wo d-
ing in he p iming, he e is no ela ion be ween eligious p iming and gene osi y in he dic a o
game. While we also un a dic a o game, we ind ha sel - epo ed eligiosi y impac s he p e -
e ence o edis ibu ion be ween di e en eligious g oups. The e o e, we di e om Sha i
and No enzayan (2007) and he simila esul s ound by Ahmed and Salas (2011), who a gued
ha sel - epo ed eligiosi y is un ela ed o coope a ion in he dic a o and p isone -dilemma
games.
The eal a ge o ou analysis is he li e a u e ocused on eligion and (p e e ence o )
edis ibu ion. Indi ec ly we engage wi h s udies like he one by Manow (2004), which showed
how Re o m P o es an Mo emen s (Cal inism, Anabap ism, and so on) a e suspicious o s a e
au ho i y and wan o es ic wel a e s a e de elopmen in coun ies like B i ain, Swi ze land,
and he Ne he lands. Mo e di ec ly, ou esea ch is buil upon Bénabou and Ti ole (2006) s udy
ha shows how he P o es an wo k e hic na a i e causes eligious indi iduals o op o low ax
a es o a oid income edis ibu ion in a o o non- eligious o less- eligious ci izens. Ano he
example o a s udy ha inspi ed us is he pape by Guiso e al. (2006), whe e h ough a s udy
conduc ed ia he Gene al Social Su ey wi h a sample o Uni ed S a es ci izens, i is shown ha
eligious people (Ca holic, P o es an , Jewish) ha e a mo e nega i e a i ude o edis ibu ion
han non- eligious people. Some hing simila has been p esen ed by Neus ad (2011), who
conduc ed a Disc e e Choice expe imen in Swi ze land and ound ha non- eligious people
5
ha e a highe ma ginal willingness o pay han eligious people. Simila esul s a e p esen in
Ki chmaie e al. (2018).
Neus ad ’s analysis also compa ed di e en eligions: P o es an s and Ca holics. He ound
ha he connec ion be ween P o es an ism and he lowe willingness o pay o he P o es an s
wi h espec o he Ca holics is pa ially con i med bu no s a is ically signi ican . Ou pape
shows di e en esul s: low-income P o es an s a e less inclined o edis ibu e and o expec e-
dis ibu ion. In his sense, ou s udy con i ms he esul o Bas en and Be z (2013), who h ough
an analysis o he o es o e e enda in Swi ze land, ound ha P o es an s and Cal inis s sup-
po less edis ibu ion and go e nmen in e en ion han Ca holics. Simila esul s came om
a pape by Jo dan (2014). The e, he Eu opean social su ey ega ding wel a e s a e a i udes
o eligious people li ing in 13 Eu opean coun ies showed ha Ca holics (bo h sel -decla ed o
people li ing in coun ies whe e Ca holicism is s ill s ong in he cul u e) edis ibu e mo e han
P o es an s. E en i we do no ocus on he dis inc ion be ween he wel a e s a e and p i a e
cha i y o philan h opy, ou s udy clea ly con ibu es o his b anch o li e a u e by p o iding an
empi ically es ed explana ion o he P o es an ’s a i ude owa d edis ibu ion ia he analysis
o he ‘blessed’ na a i e.
Me hodology and Da a
Expe imen al Design
To in es iga e he ole o eligious na a i e, we conduc ed an online expe imen building on a
s anda d dic a o game (DG) wi h anonymous ecipien s (Fo sy he e al., 1994). The dic a o
game wo ks as ollows: each pa icipan is andomly pai ed wi h ano he pa icipan . The e
a e wo possible oles: he dic a o and he ecipien . The dic a o ecei es an endowmen
o 100 poin s, each poin wo h 0.01 USD, and decides how much o gi e o he ecipien .
The ecipien is asked o guess how many poin s he dic a o will keep o himsel /he sel . I
he guess is co ec , he ecipien s may ea n an addi ional 0.20 USD. The game’s ules a e
he same o bo h ea men and con ol g oups. Howe e , while he con ol g oup ecei es
he s anda d ins uc ions o he game, whe e he labels o pa icipan s a e Pa icipan 1 (who
6
Table 2: E ec o Blessing (Dic a o s)
Keep Keep Keep Keep
Panel a: All
T ea ed 2.915 2.205 2.675 2.697
(4.434) (4.587) (4.568) (4.574)
T ea ed ×A heis -0.684 -0.562 -1.330 -1.362
(6.268) (6.430) (6.403) (6.412)
T ea ed ×Cal inis -Me hodis 0.268 1.041 -0.299 -0.363
(6.529) (6.655) (6.654) (6.666)
T ea ed ×P o es an 1.559 1.604 0.185 0.204
(6.349) (6.497) (6.491) (6.499)
Obse a ions 416 416 416 416
R2 0.069 0.160 0.179 0.179
Panel b: High Income
T ea ed 5.786 4.891 4.762 4.797
(5.460) (5.818) (5.735) (5.731)
T ea ed ×A heis -2.191 -1.606 -2.748 -2.981
(8.353) (9.078) (8.980) (8.976)
T ea ed ×Cal inis -Me hodis 4.511 2.087 1.753 1.925
(8.350) (8.723) (8.622) (8.616)
T ea ed ×P o es an -8.345 -9.503 -11.098 -11.045
(7.809) (8.265) (8.143) (8.137)
Obse a ions 274 274 274 274
R2 0.072 0.168 0.210 0.215
Panel b: Low Income
T ea ed -5.254 -7.182 -7.107 -5.277
(7.656) (8.765) (8.783) (8.651)
T ea ed ×A heis 6.924 9.844 9.597 8.099
(9.626) (10.683) (10.796) (10.606)
T ea ed ×Cal inis -Me hodis -4.020 3.673 1.272 -2.073
(10.506) (11.630) (11.596) (11.469)
T ea ed ×P o es an 26.018** 34.435*** 38.725*** 38.618***
(11.220) (12.850) (12.841) (12.590)
Obse a ions 142 142 142 142
R2 0.137 0.337 0.382 0.412
Mean Dep. Va . 66.17 66.17 66.17 66.17
Basic Con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes
Labou Ma ke Con ols No Yes Yes Yes
Poli ical O ien a ion Con ols No No Yes Yes
Subjec i e Social S a us No No No Yes
No es: OLS Es ima es. Basic con ols a e o al app o als, gende , age, age squa ed,
e hnici y, educa ion, and ma i al s a us. Labo ma ke con ols include employmen
s a us. S anda d e o s in pa en heses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
13
Table 3: E ec o Blessing (Recipien s)
Guess Guess Guess Guess
Panel a: All
T ea ed -6.070 -7.003 -6.387 -6.322
(5.000) (5.159) (5.208) (5.227)
T ea ed ×A heis 4.184 4.338 3.385 3.319
(7.081) (7.344) (7.407) (7.427)
T ea ed ×Cal inis -Me hodis 7.288 6.449 6.342 6.202
(7.239) (7.383) (7.422) (7.473)
T ea ed ×P o es an 9.361 9.494 9.176 9.143
(7.225) (7.361) (7.384) (7.396)
Obse a ions 417 417 417 417
R2 0.042 0.138 0.143 0.144
Panel b: High Income
T ea ed -1.961 2.280 2.917 3.180
(6.336) (6.550) (6.673) (6.687)
T ea ed ×A heis -7.050 -10.896 -10.677 -11.086
(9.731) (9.993) (10.149) (10.172)
T ea ed ×Cal inis -Me hodis 2.953 -5.184 -5.606 -6.017
(8.876) (9.022) (9.096) (9.119)
T ea ed ×P o es an 0.124 -5.486 -6.389 -6.240
(9.337) (9.421) (9.565) (9.575)
Obse a ions 266 266 266 266
R2 0.044 0.250 0.254 0.256
Panel b: Low Income
T ea ed -13.638 -9.184 -6.278 -7.429
(8.319) (9.362) (9.619) (9.710)
T ea ed ×A heis 17.646 9.407 6.285 7.015
(11.124) (12.701) (12.897) (12.933)
T ea ed ×Cal inis -Me hodis 14.680 7.566 6.519 9.483
(13.110) (14.622) (14.902) (15.268)
T ea ed ×P o es an 31.505** 24.568* 22.894 23.824*
(12.541) (13.786) (13.871) (13.920)
Obse a ions 151 151 151 151
R2 0.086 0.244 0.268 0.274
Mean Dep. Va . 55.17 55.17 55.17 55.17
Basic Con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes
Labou Ma ke Con ols No Yes Yes Yes
Poli ical O ien a ion Con ols No No Yes Yes
Subjec i e Social S a us No No No Yes
No es: OLS Es ima es. Basic con ols a e o al app o als, gende , age, age
squa ed, e hnici y, educa ion, and ma i al s a us. Labo ma ke con ols include
employmen s a us. S anda d e o s in pa en heses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, *
p<0.1
14
Table 4: E ec o Blessing on Opinions
Ineq. oo la ge Ineq. oo la ge Ineq. oo la ge Ineq. oo la ge
Panel a: All
T ea ed 0.113 0.076 -0.039 -0.051
(0.134) (0.136) (0.124) (0.124)
T ea ed ×A heis -0.093 -0.058 0.063 0.078
(0.189) (0.193) (0.175) (0.175)
T ea ed ×Cal inis -Me hodis -0.014 0.025 0.110 0.131
(0.195) (0.197) (0.179) (0.179)
T ea ed ×P o es an -0.313 -0.312 -0.288 -0.276
(0.192) (0.194) (0.176) (0.176)
Obse a ions 833 833 833 833
R2 0.099 0.137 0.295 0.298
Panel b: High Income
T ea ed 0.079 0.083 -0.015 -0.036
(0.165) (0.173) (0.156) (0.156)
T ea ed ×A heis 0.105 0.079 0.195 0.224
(0.253) (0.271) (0.245) (0.245)
T ea ed ×Cal inis -Me hodis 0.016 0.005 0.094 0.116
(0.241) (0.250) (0.226) (0.225)
T ea ed ×P o es an -0.165 -0.190 -0.184 -0.178
(0.238) (0.246) (0.223) (0.222)
Obse a ions 540 540 540 540
R2 0.100 0.150 0.314 0.320
Panel b: Low Income
T ea ed 0.241 0.326 0.163 0.165
(0.228) (0.244) (0.227) (0.227)
T ea ed ×A heis -0.401 -0.369 -0.221 -0.222
(0.294) (0.312) (0.290) (0.291)
T ea ed ×Cal inis -Me hodis -0.153 -0.316 -0.257 -0.262
(0.333) (0.349) (0.324) (0.325)
T ea ed ×P o es an -0.668** -0.801** -0.770** -0.772**
(0.335) (0.353) (0.327) (0.327)
Obse a ions 293 293 293 293
R2 0.122 0.221 0.347 0.347
Mean Dep. Va . 4.071 4.071 4.071 4.071
Basic Con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes
Labou Ma ke Con ols No Yes Yes Yes
Poli ical O ien a ion Con ols No No Yes Yes
Subjec i e Social S a us No No No Yes
No es: OLS Es ima es. Basic con ols a e o al app o als, gende , age, age squa ed, e hnici y, educa ion,
and ma i al s a us. Labo ma ke con ols include employmen s a us. S anda d e o s in pa en heses.
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
15
Discussion
To app ecia e he ele ance o ou esul s, we can dis inguish wo meanings o ‘P o es an ’:
one na ow and one b oad. The la e e e s o he i le o Webe ’s book, whe e he iden i-
ies wi h P o es an s all hose eligious con essions ha ollowed he schism in he Ch is ian
wo ld. In his sense, he ‘P o es an E hic’ is opposed o a ‘Ca holic E hic,’ he la e being
mo e connec ed o wha happened be o e (Scholas icism) and a e he Re o ma ion (Coun e -
Re o ma ion and so on). This b oad unde s anding o P o es an is es i ied by Webe ’s mo e
acu e c i ics like Michael No ak who w o e ‘The Ca holic E hic and he Spi i o Capi alism’
(Fan ani, 1984,No ak, 1993). Adop ing his b oade de ini ion, ou expe imen shows ha
he US ‘P o es an ’ wo ld composed o P o es an s exposed o he p iming o blessing is less
inclined o edis ibu e han he Ca holic coun e pa . Also, when compa ed wi h Ca holics,
we ind ha P o es an s, Cal inis s and Me hodis s expec less money om he ‘blessed’. Al-
hough no signi ican , his e ec sugges s ha he na a i e ac i a es a sel -unde s anding o
being in a di ec ela ionship wi h God, o being chosen o elec ed. In u n, his b ough P o es-
an s (b oadly speaking) o in e p e wha hey ha e as some hing dese ed, i.e., hey ecei e a
alida ion o hei ha d wo k. The blessed p iming pu a eil o di ine social jus ice on weal h,
making indi iduals less inclined o edis ibu e o o expec edis ibu ion.
Unde he ligh o he b oade no ion o P o es an ism, he na ow e sion acqui es e en
mo e signi icance. The P o es an s o ou expe imen , as dis inc no only om he Ca holics
bu also om he Cal inis s and Me hodis s, a e less inclined o edis ibu e. We ind a s a-
is ically signi ican e ec when we analyze he low-income P o es an s wi h he low-income
Ca holics. The la e exposed o he blessed na a i e a e less inclined o sha e wha hey ha e
o o expec sha ing om he o he playe s in he game. While he income le el migh appea a
nuance, i has p o ound implica ions in he esea ch on how he eligious elemen impac s he
mo al psychology o poo people. In he na ow P o es an s o ou expe imen , he blessing na -
a i e ac i a es a di inely inspi ed ‘jus wo ld belie ’ (Fu nham, 2003), i.e., he idea ha weal h
inequali ies a e no simply a ac o li e bu how hings a e supposed o be because God wan s
so. The lowe willingness o edis ibu e seems o pai wi h he accep ance o inequali ies and
16
po e y as some hing ‘dese ed’ while his elemen is less e iden in he Ca holic pa icipan s.
To sum up, he na ow no ion o P o es an s s a is ically con i ms he Webe ian hypo he-
sis ha he b oade idea o P o es an s was isible bu no signi ican . Religious na a i es,
like many o he kinds o na a i es (Hillenb and and Ve ina, 2022,Shille , 2020), do play a
ole in people’s p e e ences o edis ibu ion. While desc ibing a gene al end ha de elops
h oughou cen u ies, Webe ’s hypo hesis on he economic impac o he p o es an e hic seems
o emain, o a ce ain ex en , a alid heu is ic ool o unde s and con empo a y phenomena.
The limi a ions o ou analysis eme ge mo e o less explici ly in he discussion. On he
one hand, he educed sample size o ou expe imen migh be ela ed o he s a is ical (non)
signi icance o ou esul s conce ning he b oad P o es an g oup. On he o he hand, he e-
ligious con essions ha cons i u e he US P o es an wo ld a e many mo e han he h ee we
inqui ed abou (see S eensland e al., 2000). While we ocus on P o es an s (na owly speak-
ing), Cal inis s, and Me hodis s, we lea e aside E angelicals, Bap is s, Nondenomina ional
P o es an s, Pen ecos als, Episcopalians/Anglicans, Ad en is s, Anabap is s, and so on. Mo e-
o e , Webe was e y clea in s a ing ha he spi i o capi alism is a secula ized e sion o he
p o es an e hic. This means ha he economic impac o eligious no ions such as ‘calling’ o
‘blessing’ ex ended beyond he scope o es ablished eligions. In he US, his migh also be
connec ed o he ac ha e en ce ain Ca holic sphe es we e indi ec ly impac ed by he We-
be ian spi i o capi alism as es i ied by many ca holic au ho s such as No ak (1993),G egg
(2001), and Si ico (2012) who exp ess e y p o- ee ma ke socie y doc ines.
As o en happens in his kind o s udy, ou limi a ions cons i u e pa e ns o u u e esea ch.
The expe imen migh be ex ended bo h quan i a i ely (enla ging he sample) and quali a i ely
(including mo e eligious con essions o compa ing US belie e s o o he coun ies’ belie e s).
Wha is su e is ha in a wo ld o g owing inequali ies, he eligious/spi i ual componen is a
de e minan ha canno be anymo e ma ginalized o igno ed.
17
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Appendix A
21
Table A1: Summa y S a is ics
Va iable Mean S d. De . N
A heis
Kep 65.556 21.414 108
Guess 55.596 24.736 109
Inequali y Too La ge 0.912 0.283 217
Luck Mos Impo an 0.226 0.419 217
To al App o als 1557.472 1094.097 218
Female 0.5 0.501 218
Age 36.436 11.693 218
Full Time 0.472 0.5 218
Whi e 0.784 0.412 218
Te ia y Educa ion 0.505 0.501 218
Ma ied o Ci il Union 0.225 0.418 218
Republican 0.05 0.219 218
Household Income 7.037 3.875 218
Socioeconomic S a us 4.509 1.812 218
Cal inis /Me hodis
Kep 65.083 22.158 96
Guess 56.98 24.859 99
Inequali y Too La ge 0.703 0.458 195
Luck Mos Impo an 0.087 0.283 195
To al App o als 1173.308 1064.889 195
Female 0.544 0.499 195
Age 41.093 14.526 193
Full Time 0.523 0.501 195
Whi e 0.897 0.304 195
Te ia y Educa ion 0.251 0.435 195
Ma ied o Ci il Union 0.672 0.471 195
Republican 0.354 0.479 195
Household Income 8.497 3.644 195
Socioeconomic S a us 5.413 1.623 195
Ca holics
Kep 66.704 24.34 108
Guess 53.495 29.163 109
Inequali y Too La ge 0.747 0.436 217
Luck Mos Impo an 0.101 0.303 217
To al App o als 1887.028 1273.225 217
Female 0.502 0.501 217
Age 42.134 14.361 216
Full Time 0.636 0.482 217
Whi e 0.839 0.369 217
Te ia y Educa ion 0.207 0.406 217
Ma ied o Ci il Union 0.23 0.422 217
Republican 0.336 0.474 217
Household Income 8.189 3.477 217
Socioeconomic S a us 5.452 1.661 217
P o es an s
Kep 67.226 25.794 106
Guess 54.752 25.737 101
Inequali y Too La ge 0.696 0.461 207
Luck Mos Impo an 0.087 0.282 207
To al App o als 2360.546 1825.083 207
Female 0.488 0.501 207
Age 43.807 12.891 207
Full Time 0.618 0.487 207
Whi e 0.763 0.426 207
Te ia y Educa ion 0.271 0.445 207
Ma ied o Ci il Union 0.773 0.42 207
Republican 0.329 0.471 207
Household Income 8.279 3.557 207
Socioeconomic S a us 5.396 1.615 207
22
Table C1: Tobi Model
Dependen Va iables: Keep Full Sample Guess Full Sample Keep HI Guess HI Keep LI Guess LI
T ea ed 1.461 -6.763 6.759 4.678 -10.085 -10.609
(5.788) (5.785) (7.526) (7.207) (8.867) (9.158)
T ea ed ×A heis 1.043 3.610 -1.820 -14.869 14.858 10.032
(8.111) (8.172) (11.731) (10.934) (10.701) (12.286)
T ea ed ×Cal inis -Me hodis 0.761 7.343 3.968 -7.507 1.373 13.421
(8.396) (8.254) (11.223) (9.833) (11.980) (14.595)
T ea ed ×P o es an 4.327 9.047 -10.019 -9.219 43.122*** 26.409**
(8.233) (8.141) (10.748) (10.319) (13.019) (13.164)
Basic Con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Labou Ma ke Con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Poli ical O ien a ion Con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Subjec i e Social S a us Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 416 417 274 266 142 151
Uncenso ed Obse a ions 309 353 192 222 117 131
29
Appendix D
30
Table D1: E ec o Blessing HH Income In e ac ion (Dic a o s)
Keep Keep Keep Keep
T ea ed -8.690 -10.766 -8.723 -8.188
(12.251) (12.689) (12.670) (12.693)
T ea ed ×A heis ×Household Income -1.349 -1.415 -1.217 -1.169
(1.818) (1.854) (1.848) (1.850)
T ea ed ×Cal inis -Me hodis ×Household Income 1.659 0.708 0.725 0.783
(1.918) (1.960) (1.954) (1.957)
T ea ed ×P o es an ×Household Income -3.897** -4.226** -4.030** -4.022**
(1.893) (1.985) (1.981) (1.982)
Basic Con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes
Labou Ma ke Con ols No Yes Yes Yes
Poli ical O ien a ion Con ols No No Yes Yes
Subjec i e Social S a us No No No Yes
Obse a ions 416 416 416 416
R-squa ed 0.099 0.185 0.202 0.203
Table D2: E ec o Blessing HH Income In e ac ion (Recipien s)
Guess Guess Guess Guess
T ea ed -19.007 -23.334* -22.761* -22.292*
(12.038) (12.749) (12.909) (12.956)
T ea ed ×A heis ×Household Income -3.437* -3.586* -3.472* -3.433*
(1.910) (2.015) (2.043) (2.046)
T ea ed ×Cal inis -Me hodis ×Household Income -1.171 -1.809 -1.812 -1.694
(1.989) (2.064) (2.085) (2.100)
T ea ed ×P o es an ×Household Income -5.045** -5.891*** -5.836*** -5.764***
(2.023) (2.111) (2.125) (2.132)
Basic Con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes
Labou Ma ke Con ols No Yes Yes Yes
Poli ical O ien a ion Con ols No No Yes Yes
Subjec i e Social S a us No No No Yes
Obse a ions 417 417 417 417
R-squa ed 0.065 0.164 0.168 0.169
31
Table D3: E ec o Blessing HH Income In e ac ion
Ineq. Too La ge Ineq. Too La ge Ineq. Too La ge Ineq. Too La ge
T ea ed 0.314 0.226 -0.037 -0.040
(0.342) (0.352) (0.321) (0.321)
T ea ed ×A heis ×Household Income 0.064 0.042 0.024 0.024
(0.052) (0.054) (0.049) (0.049)
T ea ed ×Cal inis -Me hodis ×Household Income 0.028 0.022 0.011 0.010
(0.055) (0.056) (0.051) (0.051)
T ea ed ×P o es an ×Household Income 0.092* 0.093* 0.077 0.077
(0.055) (0.056) (0.051) (0.051)
Basic Con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes
Labou Ma ke Con ols No Yes Yes Yes
Poli ical O ien a ion Con ols No No Yes Yes
Subjec i e Social S a us No No No Yes
Obse a ions 833 833 833 833
R-squa ed 0.116 0.160 0.309 0.310
32
Appendix E
33
Figu e E1: Di e ences in Na a i es (High Income)
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
Fo une and Luck Gene al Well-being Good Fo une and Luck Li e Sa is ac ion and Posi i i y Spi i ual Blessings
Dominan Topic (High Income)
Con ols
A heis Cal -Me
Ca holic P o es an
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
Fo une and Luck Gene al Well-being Good Fo une and Luck Li e Sa is ac ion and Posi i i y Spi i ual Blessings
Dominan Topic (High Income)
T ea ed
A heis Cal -Me
Ca holic P o es an
No es: The Figu e shows di e ences in dominan opic by eligious g oup.
Figu e E2: Di e ences in Na a i es (Low Income)
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
Fo une and Luck Gene al Well-being Good Fo une and Luck Li e Sa is ac ion and Posi i i y Spi i ual Blessings
Dominan Topic (Low Income)
Con ols
A heis Cal -Me
Ca holic P o es an
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
Fo une and Luck Gene al Well-being Good Fo une and Luck Li e Sa is ac ion and Posi i i y Spi i ual Blessings
Dominan Topic (Low Income)
T ea ed
A heis Cal -Me
Ca holic P o es an
No es: The Figu e shows di e ences in dominan opic by eligious g oup.
34
MUNI Econ Wo king Pape Se ies (since 2018)
2024-06 Fazio, A., Reggiani, T., San o i, P. (2024). ‘Blessed a e he Poo ’
The Webe ian Spi i o Capi alism Unde Expe imen al Sc u iny. MUNI ECON Wo king
Pape n. 2024-06. B no: Masa yk Uni e si y. h ps://doi.o g/10.5817/WP_MUNI_ECON_2024-06
2024-05 Pulina, M., Salis, A. (2024). Dynamics and ends o d ug dealing: a local labou
sys em pe spec i e. MUNI ECON Wo king Pape n. 2024-05. B no: Masa yk Uni e si y.
h ps://doi.o g/10.5817/WP_MUNI_ECON_2024-06
2024-04 Cou alo á, L., Kecskéso á, M., Mikula, Š., Še čík, M. (2024). Does Democ acy Flou ish in he Da k?
Regional De elopmen and Democ acy Building. MUNI ECON Wo king Pape n. 2024-04. B no:
Masa yk Uni e si y. h ps://doi.o g/10.5817/WP_MUNI_ECON_2024-04
2024-03 Cou alo á, L., Dellinge , F. H., Hube , P., Mikula, Š. (2024). Bo de s and Popula ion
G ow h: E idence om a Cen u y o Bo de Regime Changes on he Aus ian-Czech
Bo de . MUNI ECON Wo king Pape n. 2024-03. B no: Masa yk Uni e si y.
h ps://doi.o g/10.5817/WP_MUNI_ECON_2024-03
2024-02 P ochazka, J., Pandey, S., Cas ek, O., Fi ouzjaeiangalougah, M. (2024). Replica ion o
Changing Hea s and Minds? Why Media Messages Designed o Fos e Empa hy O en Fail
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