‘Have Your Say’ in practice: assessing citizens’ use of the EU’s public consultation platform

Neumann, Rico; Lang, Sabine; Meng, Phillip
A icle — Published Ve sion
‘Ha e You Say’ in p ac ice: assessing ci izens’ use o he
EU’s public consul a ion pla o m
Eu opean Poli ics and Socie y
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Neumann, Rico; Lang, Sabine; Meng, Phillip (2025) : ‘Ha e You Say’ in p ac ice:
assessing ci izens’ use o he EU’s public consul a ion pla o m, Eu opean Poli ics and Socie y, ISSN
2374-5126, Taylo & F ancis, London, Iss. La es A icles, pp. 1-21,
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‘Ha e You Say’ in p ac ice: assessing ci izens’ use o he EU’s
public consul a ion pla o m
Rico Neumann
a,b
, Sabine Lang
c
and Phillip Meng
c
a
F eie Uni e si ä Be lin, Depa men o Poli ical and Social Sciences, Be lin, Ge many;
b
Cen e o Ci il
Socie y Resea ch, WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e , Be lin, Ge many;
c
Uni e si y o Washing on, Hen y M.
Jackson School o In e na ional S udies, Sea le, WA, USA
ABSTRACT
A icle 11 o he T ea y on Eu opean Union s ipula es ha he
Commission shall consul ci izens and ci il socie y. The b ead h,
equency, and use - iendliness o consul a ions ha e inc eased
conside ably since he Lisbon T ea y o 2007 and Be e Regula ion
Agenda o 2015. This s udy examines he ex en o which indi idual
ci izens in membe s a es use he consul a ion p ocess; he policy
a eas in which hey a e p edominan ly ac i e; and he deg ee o
which indi idual ci izen engagemen co ela es wi h o ganiza ional
engagemen , including di e en o ganiza ional ypes. To be e
unde s and he condi ions ha help p oduce s onge o weake
ci izen is-à- is o ganiza ional esponses, we compiled a co pus o
mo e han 850 open public consul a ions (OPCs) ha closed
be ween 2014 and 2021, and andomly selec ed a subse o nea ly
400 OPCs o which app oxima ely 200 epo ed esponse da a. We
ind a he low and inconsis en pa icipa ion a es o ci izens, e en
o consul a ions in policy a eas gene ally known o ank highe on
issue salience as well as subs an ial dominance o o -p o i is-à- is
indi idual ci izen inpu . Mo e concen a ed ci izen ac i i y in Cen al
and Eas e n Eu opean (CEE) coun ies migh indica e s onge
indi idual commi men in new membe s a es o ‘ha e hei say’ in
speci ic policy a eas. Implica ions o he EU’s engagemen
a chi ec u e and democ a ic model a e discussed.
KEYWORDS
ci izen pa icipa ion;
Eu opean Union (EU); EU
legi imacy; pa icipa o y
democ acy; public
consul a ions
In oduc ion
A icle 11 o he T ea y on Eu opean Union (EU) s ipula es ha he Commission consul
ci izens and ci il socie y g oups in all a eas o Union ac ion.
1
While consul a ions a e
no new o he EU’s go e nance p ocesses, hei b ead h, equency, and use - iendliness
ha e conside ably inc eased wi h he Lisbon T ea y o 2007 and expe ienced a de ining
boos wi h he Be e Regula ion Agenda (BRA) o 2015. In 2018, he OECD anked he
EU i s among OECD coun ies in e ms o i s ‘s akeholde engagemen ’ wi h o ganized
ci il socie y and indi idual ci izens, a dis inc ion econ i med in 2021 (OECD, 2022).
© 2025 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/), which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly
ci ed. The e ms on which his a icle has been published allow he pos ing o he Accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he
au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
CONTACT Rico Neumann [email p o ec ed] F eie Uni e si ä Be lin, Depa men o Poli ical and Social
Sciences, Ins i u e o Sociology, Ga ys . 55, 14195 Be lin, Ge many @neumann_ ico_
EUROPEAN POLITICS AND SOCIETY
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23745118.2025.2471877
The EU’s ex ensi e engagemen po olio add esses longs anding c i icism o su e ing
om a democ a ic de ici (e.g. Hu elmann, 2014; Kohle -Koch & Qui ka , 2013) and
lacking a public sphe e (e.g. Ri as-de-Roca & Ga cia-Go dillo, 2022; Risse, 2010). The
g ow h o Eu oscep ic pa ies and go e nmen s c i icizing he EU’s in eg a ion p ocess
as an undemoc a ic ‘eli e-d i en p ojec going agains he will o he people’ (I aldi,
2018, p. 291; see also Csehi & Zgu , 2021) ha e u he con ibu ed o he ins i u ional
de e mina ion o engage ci izens. Ini ia i es such as he 2021–2022 Con e ence on he
Fu u e o Eu ope (CoFoE) signal he EU Commission’s and Pa liamen ’s commi men o
show b oade inclusi eness and ‘lis ening’ o ci izen oices in i s policymaking p ocesses.
2
CoFoE, in pa icula , p o ided bo h ace- o- ace delibe a ion in ci izen panels as well as
digi al ools aimed a enabling indi idual ci izens o communica e ideas and o ganize
o a end egional e en s add essing he u u e o Eu ope (Abels, 2023).
The mos consis en and po en ially a - eaching in es men in o gene a ing ci izen
inpu , howe e , occu ed wi h he expansion o he EU’s consul a ion egime. Whe eas
s akeholde con e ences wi h expe s in i e o ganized in e es s o pa ake in EU-le el
policy o mula ion and assessmen s, online open public consul a ions (OPCs) ha e
u ned in o he mos obus engagemen o e o bo h o ganiza ions and indi idual ci i-
zens. Thei in en o allow s akeholde s and EU publics o ‘Ha e You Say’ (gi ing he OPC
pla o m i s name) was a icula ed in he 2015 Be e Regula ion: Guidelines and Toolbox
and s eamlined in he 2021 consolida ed e ision (Eu opean Commission, 2021b). S ake-
holde s, including ‘membe s o he public,’ a e in i ed o ‘con ibu e o ini ia i es as hey
ake shape be o e and a e adop ion by he Commission’ (p. 5).
Whe eas academic li e a u e on s akeholde consul a ions o o ganized ci il socie y has
been bu geoning (e.g. A as & Beye s, 2020; A as & B aun, 2018; Binde k an z e al., 2021,
2022; Bunea, 2017; Bunea & Thomson, 2015; Joosen, 2020; Qui ka , 2013), indi idual
ci izen pa icipa ion in he consul a ion p ocess only ecen ly gained schola ly a en ion
(e.g. Alemanno, 2020a, 2020b; Bunea & Ch isp, 2023; Nø bech, 2024). E en hough he
Commission decla ed o en and u gen ly ha i needs ci izens o ha e a oice in EU
a ai s (Ha e land e al., 2018), he scope, in ensi y, and ins i u ional alo iza ion o indi-
idual ci izens’ inpu in public consul a ions emains unclea . The ocus o his a icle is
o b ing cen al dimensions o ci izen inpu in he consul a ion p ocess o ligh by, in
he b oades sense, asking who pa icipa es. We do so by in es iga ing he ole o
coun ies, policy a eas, and o ganiza ions in shaping ci izen engagemen wi h he EU.
Fi s , al hough signing on o he T ea y on Eu opean Union implies ha membe s a es
o mally sha e a ce ain se o no ms and alues, li ed expe iences o and a achmen o
EU a ai s di e (Eu opean Commission, 2024). To some ex en , he ime o accession
e lec s di e en na ional expe iences wi h he idea o democ acy, speci ically democ a ic
engagemen in a sup ana ional con ex . Howe e , his expe ience migh no jus be
oo ed in membe ship ime and na ional poli ical cul u e bu also shaped by na ional
in e es s, bo h eme ging and long-s anding. To illus a e, ci izens in a landlocked s a e
migh ind li le incen i e o pa icipa e in an OPC ocused on ma i ime managemen
while consul a ions ackling anspo a ion and logis ics issues a e likely o yield mo e el-
e ance o hem. We he e o e i s ask o which ex en ci izens in EU membe s a es pa -
icipa e in OPCs.
Second, his o ically, he Commission elied on e idence-based policymaking s a egies
in which he expe ise o ci il socie y plays a key ole. Inco po a ing s onge pa icipa o y
2 R. NEUMANN ET AL.
elemen s in o policy de elopmen , howe e , also mean apping in o a ese oi o expe i-
ence and public opinion ha migh make de ining scope and issues mo e complex and
ou pu less clea . This aises ano he se o ques ions abou pa icula issue a eas wi h
s ong indi idual ci izen inpu . Such inpu may be s onge o consul a ion oppo uni ies
wi h highe and sus ained salience on he public agenda, such as hose ela ed o
mig a ion and ene gy (bu see Nø bech, 2024), o i an OPC is loca ed a he in e sec ion
o wo policy a eas, such as ag icul u e and echnology. In con as , ci izen inpu may be
mo e modes o OPCs ocusing on niche opics o pa icula in e es o hose pe cei ed o
be highly echnical (e.g. banking egula ions) e sus hose wi h a b oade appeal o
socie al g oups, in ol ing less echnicali y o a speci ic a ea o expe ise. We hus ask
abou di e ences in ci izen engagemen wi h OPCs based on he policy a eas hey
add ess.
Thi d, li le is known abou he ole o o ganized ci il socie y in incen i izing ci i-
zens o pa icipa e in a consul a ion (Badoua d, 2013; Kies, 2021). Depending on hei
connec edness and in luence, ci il socie y o ganiza ions (CSOs)
3
can mobilize cons i-
uencies bu , a he same ime, hei iden i y hinges on ep esen ing hem. Thus,
hey migh o migh no encou age ci izen inpu . A poli ically e icacious, in e es ed
and ac i e ci izen y migh ep esen a coun e weigh complemen ing o ganiza ional
inpu ; howe e , ci izens migh also pe cei e his ype o poli ical pa icipa ion as bu -
densome, ine ec i e o hold belie s ha o ganiza ions a e be e equipped o ake
pa in consul a ions due o hei ins i u ional knowledge and esou ces. Ul ima ely,
he o ganiza ional ype is likely o bea some ele ance o unde s anding a ia ion
in ci izen esponses, wi h nonp o i s ocusing on socie al ma e s ha ing mo e in in-
sic in e es in ci izen pa icipa ion han o he s, such as p o i -o ien ed lobby g oups.
We he e o e ask whe he mo e ci izens pa icipa e in consul a ions ha also ha e
s ong o ganiza ional pa icipa ion, and i so, which o ganiza ional ype is likely o
co ela e mo e wi h ci izen engagemen .
Taken oge he , we examine (1) he ex en o which indi idual ci izens in membe
s a es use he consul a ion p ocess; (2) he policy a eas in which hey a e p edominan ly
ac i e; and (3) he deg ee o which indi idual ci izen engagemen co ela es wi h o gan-
iza ional engagemen , including di e en o ganiza ional ypes, o be e unde s and he
condi ions ha help p oduce s onge o weake ci izen is-à- is o ganiza ional
esponses. To add ess hese ques ions, we compiled a comp ehensi e co pus o mo e
han 850 OPCs om 2014 o 2021 om he wo main a chi es o OPCs: ‘Ha e You
Say’ and i s p edecesso da abase. Analyzing digi ally a chi ed da a based on a andom
sample o nea ly 400 OPCs, we seek o explain how he consul a ion p ocess and pla -
o ms a e u ilized by indi idual ci izens.
Mo e b oadly, ou s udy con ibu es o he li e a u e on consul a ions’ e icacy in com-
munica ing ci izen p e e ences and engagemen wi h he EU. We make he case o a
di e en ia ed analysis o ci izen engagemen ia he OPC p ocess. Theo e ically, his
analysis engages wi h deba es on public pa icipa ion in EU go e nance by add essing
mac o- and meso-le el ac o s ha po en ially d i e mic o-le el ci izen engagemen . U i-
lizing he la ge a iance in esponse a es among ci izens and explo ing di e ences
be ween inpu om CSOs and indi idual ci izens ac oss policy ields, we discuss he
ole ha CSOs migh play in mobilizing indi idual ci izen esponses, hus con ibu ing
EUROPEAN POLITICS AND SOCIETY 3
o he ongoing deba e abou wha cons i u es a ‘good’ and engaged Eu opean ci izen
(Blokke , 2022; Hie lemann e al., 2022).
In he ollowing sec ions, we will i s lay ou he his o y o he public consul a ion
ins umen , discuss i s cu en b ead h, and p o ide a e iew o he li e a u e on consul-
a ions. In he subsequen analy ical sec ion, we in oduce he da a, p esen ou me hod-
ology, and discuss indings om he empi ical s udy in he con ex o he h ee esea ch
ques ions.
Consul ing wi h EU publics
The EU’s e o s o consul wi h publics a e as old as he in eg a ion p ocess i sel . B oadly
speaking, hese ini ia i es can be di ided in o ou dis inc pe iods: The i s wo consul-
a ion phases consis ed o dialogue wi h o ganized economic in e es s be ween 1960 and
1980, and o inco po a ing social pa ne s and o he non-go e nmen al s akeholde s
be ween 1980 and 2000 (Kohle -Koch & Finke, 2007; Qui ka & Kohle -Koch, 2011). A
ha ime, ci izen inpu was limi ed o he igh o submi a pe i ion o he Eu opean Pa -
liamen (Eu opean Union, 1992) o egis e o mal complain s wi h he ombudspe son
(Tosun & Schaub, 2021). This second phase culmina ed in he EC’s Whi e Pape on Eu o-
pean Go e nance in 2001, which a icula ed commi men o ‘engaging wi h s akeholde s
and ci izens h oughou he policy cycle in o de o inc ease he EU’s democ a ic legi i-
macy and accoun abili y in he EU lawmaking p ocess’ (Eu opean Cou o Audi o s
[ECA], 2019, p. 4; see also Eu opean Commission, 2001). The Commission’s DG En i on-
men conduc ed he i s online consul a ion in 2001 (Kohle -Koch & Finke, 2007).
A hi d phase, ancho ed in he Lisbon T ea y, included he Eu opean Ci izens’ Ini ia i e
and a s onge o mal commi men o p ocess-o ien ed consul a ions wi h and lis ening
o Eu opean ci izens. The ‘need o ge away om he no ion o communica ion as ‘selling’
and mo e owa ds one based on pa icipa ion‘ so ci izens e ol e om consume s o
engaged public ac o s was a icula ed by Ma go Walls öm (2008, as ci ed in Bouche ,
2009), hen Vice-P esiden o he Eu opean Commission. EU-le el ins i u ions we e
asked o expe imen wi h engaging ci izens, and consul a ion became he Commission’s
engagemen o mula (Kies & Nanz, 2016; Lang, 2020; Van B ussel, 2014).
Wi h he e o med BRA o 2015, a ou h phase o he public consul a ion egime
eme ged, in oducing a s onge egula o y amewo k and speci ied mechanisms o
when and how consul a ions should be u ilized o in o m policymaking (Deligiaou i &
Sui e , 2021). Whe eas be o e he Commission was asked o hold consul a ions when
‘majo policy ini ia i es’ we e on he agenda (Ma xsen, 2015, p. 262; see also Eu opean
Commission, 2002, p. 16), lea ing he in e p e a ion o he espec i e DG, he engage-
men no m shi ed o public consul a ions being ‘no malized.’ No ably, wi h BRA, he
concep o ‘s akeholde ’ shi ed om o ganized ci il socie y o include ‘membe s o he
public, scien i ic and echnical expe s’ (Eu opean Commission, 2021a, p. 13). The Com-
mission a icula ed ha i was ‘s ongly commi ed o engaging wi h ci izens’ (ECA,
2019, p. 7), consul ing as widely as possible, and making he consul a ion p ocess mo e
meaning ul o indi iduals.
4
I , howe e , he e o med consul a ion egime can e ec i ely ‘gi e oice o ci izens and
hus can a leas pa ly subs i u e o he unde de eloped ins i u ions o ep esen a i e
democ acy a he Eu opean le el’ (Ma xsen, 2015, p. 258), is s ill up o deba e. Alemanno
4 R. NEUMANN ET AL.

(2020a, 2022) a gues ha he cu en consul a ion p ocess, while opening pa icipa o y
enues, is insu icien o suppo he p inciples o poli ical equali y ensh ined in EU law
and ea ies. Resea ch sugges s ha 2015 did no ma k a wa e shed momen o EU pa -
icipa o y cul u e; ins ead, ensions be ween he p edominan EU model o e idence-
based policymaking and he inpu demands on ci il socie y and indi idual ci izens indi-
ca e ha ‘ he policy objec i es and p ac ice o pa icipa o y and e idence-based ools
may no be easy o econcile’ (Bunea & Ch isp, 2023, p. 730; see also F aussen e al.,
2020; Fumagalli, 2019). Bunea and Nø bech (2023) a gue ha he Commission migh
ace a ‘ ade-o ’ be ween i s ‘ ime- es ed, e idence-based policymaking’ and ‘adding
an ex ensi e pa icipa o y laye ’ o i s go e nance (p. 1783), wi h he la e e ec i ely
allowing o s onge poli iciza ion o EU-le el delibe a ions.
This a icle asks o wha deg ee ci izens ha e emb aced his pa icipa o y laye . By
examining how equen ly indi idual ci izens in EU membe s a es make use o OPCs
and in which policy ields hey do so, we hope o unde s and how a he Commission’s
commi men o consul ing as widely as possible and making he OPC p ocess meaning ul
has ad anced. By measu ing he deg ee o which indi idual ci izen inpu co ela es wi h
ha o di e en o ms o o ganized in e es s, we p o ide addi ional insigh in o wha
d i es ci izen ac i ism in OPCs.
Da a and indings
Da a collec ion
Using he wo main a chi es o OPCs (‘Ha e You Say’ and i s p edecesso da abase), we
i s compiled a comp ehensi e co pus o 858 OPCs whose consul a ion pe iods closed
be ween Janua y 2014 and Decembe 2021. We hen d ew a simple p obabili y sample
by andomly selec ing a subse o OPCs om his co pus (44 pe cen , N = 381). Wi hin
his sample, oughly six in en OPCs (58 pe cen , N = 220)
5
included publicly a ailable
da a on ou key a iables ia epo s and o he pos -consul a ion engagemen s. The s a -
is ics om hese consul a ions in o m ou analysis. I should be no ed, howe e , ha con-
ibu ing o an OPC is a highly sel -selec i e endea o and in e ences abou coun y
popula ions should he e o e be in e p e ed wi h cau ion. Fu he mo e, iden i ica ion
as a ci izen is based on one’s sel -iden i ica ion in he da abase. Once he egis a ion
p ocess is comple ed and a pa icula OPC is chosen, an indi idual con ibu o mus
speci y whe he hey p o ide eedback as a ci izen o o ganiza ion (choosing among
a ious ypes, such as NGO o business associa ion), including hei coun y o o igin o
ha o hei o ganiza ion.
Measu es
In o ma ion abou OPCs ( he uni o analysis) was eco ded using he da a p o ided by he
espec i e pla o m. Gi en ou ocus on ci izen engagemen , he key dependen a iable is
he o al numbe o ci izen esponses pe OPC. The ollowing se ed as key explana o y
(independen ) a iables:
(1) Coun y-speci ic inpu : In ligh o a ying na ional p io i ies, dis ibu ion channels, and
expe iences wi h democ acy and sup ana ionalism (e.g. be ween mo e ecen ly
EUROPEAN POLITICS AND SOCIETY 5
joined and long- ime membe s a es), i was eco ded whe he an OPC ecei ed inpu
om each o he 28 membe s a es.
6
As coun y-le el indica o s, we used yea s since
accession (as a me ic measu e) and belonging o Cen al and Eas e n Eu ope (as a
bina y/dummy a iable).
(2) Policy a ea: Each OPC is adminis e ed by one o nea ly o y DGs, anging om Ag i-
cul u e and Ru al De elopmen o You h, and co e ing a wide a ay o policy a eas.
We use he lead DG as a p oxy measu e o policy a ea, conside ing ha some
a eas a e mo e salien in he public sphe e (e.g. mig a ion, ene gy) han o he s (e.g.
cus oms, ishe ies). Mo e salien issues a e mo e likely o co espond o policy ini ia -
i es and p oposals ha mo e ci izens ca e abou , hus inc easing in e es and incen-
i izing ci izen pa icipa ion. Howe e , i is also plausible ha o he ea u es (such as
in e es g oup mobiliza ion o an OPC) migh esul in s onge ci izen pa icipa ion.
(3) O ganiza ional engagemen : In iew o a ying ins i u ional landscapes and ac i i y
le els, o ganiza ions migh help o hinde ci izen pa icipa ion. They may ac as ca -
alys s, p o iding he necessa y le els o awa eness and in e es in consul a ion oppo -
uni ies among ci izens (e.g. sa egua ding democ acy), o , on he con a y,
o ganiza ional in e es s may s and in con as o hose o ci izens (e.g. consume p o-
ec ion). They may also ace a less e icacious and in e es ed ci izen y and may ha e
no disce nible impac on ci izen pa icipa ion. We he e o e collec ed he numbe o
o ganiza ional esponses pe OPC, in o al and by sec o (consis ing o NGOs, business
associa ions, public-sec o ins i u ions, e c.) o illumina e such di e ences. To d aw
compa isons wi h indi idual engagemen , we also ea o ganiza ional engagemen
as a dependen a iable con ingen upon policy a ea.
Analysis
An indi idual OPC ecei ed, on a e age, 544 esponses. Gi en he highly skewed dis i-
bu ion o hese esponses,
7
he median (a dis ibu ion’s midpoin ) is conside ably lowe
(192), meaning ha oughly hal o all OPCs in he sample ecei ed ewe han 200
esponses in o al. We he e o e p oceed wi h non-pa ame ic s a is ical es s (speci ically,
Mann–Whi ney-U es s) o compa e medians ins ead o means, which end o be suscep-
ible o ex eme alues. To explain a ia ion in ci izen pa icipa ion unde mul i a ia e
condi ions, nega i e binomial eg ession analyses a e pe o med. These models a e
mo e sui able o highly o e dispe sed coun da a as he key dependen a iable demon-
s a es (wi h many OPCs in ou sample ha ing ecei ed e y ew esponses while o he s
ga ne ed se e al housand).
8
Table 1. Sample summa y s a is ics.
N%MSD Mdn
Numbe o OPCs
Wi h publicly a ailable esponses ( o al) 210 100.0 543.6 1,093.3 192
Wi h ci izen esponses 178 84.8 347.2 1,023.1 49
Wi h o ganiza ional esponses 188 89.5 215.8 243.4 136
Fo -p o i o ganiza ions 165 78.6 110.7 128.7 66
Non-p o i o ganiza ions 152 72.3 38.9 51.0 18
6 R. NEUMANN ET AL.
Ci izens’ use o open public consul a ions ac oss EU membe s a es
As he sample summa y s a is ics in Table 1 show, a o al o 178 OPCs (85 pe cen )
ecei ed inpu om indi idual ci izens (Mdn = 49) – a a he low inpu a e conside ing
he ole ha he Commission a ibu es o hei engagemen a chi ec u e. A sligh ly
highe numbe (90 pe cen , N = 188) ecei ed esponses om o ganiza ions (Mdn =
136). To wha ex en do indi idual ci izens u ilize he consul a ion p ocess ac oss he
di e en membe s a es? To in es iga e his ela ionship, we i s calcula ed he
a e age (median) numbe o indi idual esponses o each o he 28 coun ies i he e
was a leas one eco ded ci izen esponse pe OPC in which ha membe s a e pa ici-
pa ed.
9
Values ange om a minimum o 32.5 (Luxembu g) o a maximum o 160
esponses on a e age (Li huania). Al hough ci izens om coun ies wi h la ge popu-
la ions also con ibu e mo e o OPCs o e all ( = 0.65, p < .001), he co ela ion be ween
a coun y’s popula ion size and i s a e age ci izen engagemen in he consul a ion
p ocess ends o be nega i e ye ma ginally signi ican ( = −0.33, p = .09). Thus, ci izens
om smalle , less populous EU membe s a es migh expe ience he consul a ion
p ocess as mo e empowe ing han ci izens om la ge , mo e populous membe s a es.
Mo eo e , ci izens om membe s a es ha (a) mo e ecen ly joined he EU and (b) a e
loca ed in Cen al and Eas e n Eu ope (CEE) appea o be mo e selec i e in he OPCs ha
ecei ed inpu om ha coun y. Ci izens in CEE coun ies con ibu e o ewe OPCs
o e all (Mdn = 62) compa ed o non-CEE coun ies (Mdn = 109) – bu , in e es ingly,
Figu e 1. Ci izen engagemen in OPCs, by coun y.
No e: N = 28. A coun y was conside ed o analysis i i had some ep esen a ion in he OPC’s esponse da a in ou sample
(≥1).
EUROPEAN POLITICS AND SOCIETY 7
when hey do, hey pa icipa e mo e ac i ely in hose consul a ions (Mdn = 80) compa ed
o ci izens in non-CEE coun ies (Mdn = 56), as shown in Figu e 1.
10
Simila ly, a membe s a e’s ime in he EU since accession is posi i ely associa ed wi h
he numbe o OPCs ha ecei ed inpu om ha coun y ( = .62, p < .001) bu nega i ely
associa ed wi h i s a e age ci izen engagemen in OPCs ( = −.55, p < .01). Fo example, as
a coun y, Li huania ook pa in 35 OPCs wi h eco ded ci izen esponses, C oa ia in 43,
and Mal a in only 28 in ou sample. Howe e , hose coun ies op he lis o median
ci izen pa icipa ion. By con as , Ge many, F ance, and I aly pa icipa ed in many mo e
(141) OPCs o e all, bu hei ci izens pa icipa ed, on a e age, less in indi idual consul-
a ions. In ac , we ind a sizable and in e se ela ionship be ween a membe s a e’s
a e age ci izen engagemen in OPCs and he numbe o OPCs in which ha coun y pa -
icipa es ( = −.47, p < .05).
To summa ize, ci izen inpu in he OPC p ocess is o e all low, ela i izing he Commis-
sion’s s a ed claim o consul as widely as possible. We see mo e concen a ed ci izen
ac i i y in smalle and newe CEE membe s a es, po en ially poin ing owa ds a mo e
eng ained o ganiza ional pa icipa ion cul u e in olde membe s a es (V-Dem, 2024)
and, on he upside, s onge indi idual empowe men expe ienced in new membe
s a es o ‘ha e hei say’.
Ci izen engagemen by policy a ea
Is ci izen engagemen s onge in some policy a eas han o he s? Ou second esea ch
ques ion ocuses on he policy domains ( ia DGs) in which indi idual ci izens a e p edo-
minan ly esponsi e o OPCs. While ou sample includes OPCs in policy a eas o po en-
ially high public salience, ci izen esponse a es a e a he low ac oss mos
consul a ions. E en in policy a eas wi h p esumably high salience, such as single
ma ke and public heal h (e.g. Nø bech, 2024; see also Rasmussen e al., 2014), ci izen
esponse a es a y widely. This could poin owa ds an o e all lack o consis en com-
munica ion in how OPCs a e con eyed o ele an publics (ECA, 2019, p. 48). The wide
a ia ion in e ms o he numbe o OPCs by DG me i s a close look a he dis ibu ion
o OPCs ha ecei ed ci izen inpu . Resul s a e p esen ed in Figu e 2, showing ha
OPCs om jus se en DGs (ou o a o al o 40) accoun o mo e han hal o all OPCs
wi h ci izen engagemen in ou sample.
11
DGs wi h he highes OPC ci izen inpu include En i onmen , T anspo , Single Ma ke ,
Banking & Financial Se ices, Clima e Ac ion, Digi al Economy & Socie y, and Jus ice &
Fundamen al Righ s. In con as , DGs wi hou any OPC ga ne ing ci izen inpu in ou
sample include Regional Policy, F aud P e en ion, and EU Enla gemen (among o he s),
and DGs wi h a s ong social issue o ien a ion ha would clea ly bene i om wide
ci izen inpu , including Spo s, You h, and Gende , LGBTQ & Di e si y. This equency dis-
ibu ion is s a is ically signi ican ,
12
indica ing ha some DGs launched OPCs wi h ci izen
inpu a mo e o en han o he s.
Ci izen is-à- is o ganiza ional engagemen by policy a ea
Once an OPC is launched, ci izen engagemen can a y conside ably. Figu e 3 p esen s
he esul s o a nega i e binomial eg ession, anked om mos o leas ac i e DG in
8 R. NEUMANN ET AL.
g oups and policymake s alike may engage in such coope a ions no only o in eg a e
insigh s om di e en policy a eas and sec o s in o mo e comp ehensi e p oposals,
bu also o ede ine issues and build b oade coali ions. Speci ically, clima e ac ion can
also ep esen (and be amed as) a public heal h issue; an OPC on LGBTQ+ igh s may
ind a s ong co-sponso by DG Employmen & Social A ai s.
Wha do hese indings mean o he u u e o public consul a ions in he EU? The
s anda ds o compliance cu en ly se ou in he Be e Regula ion Agenda a e no
li ing up o wha A icle 11 o he T ea y on Eu opean Union manda es: o consul ci i-
zens in all a eas o policymaking. In e ms o design and implemen a ion, he mos
ob ious gap be ween in en ion and eali y is low ci izen inpu o OPCs. I he Commis-
sion in ends o ul ill i s p omise o ‘p omo e Ha e You Say mo e widely’
(Eu opean Commission, 2021a, p. 5), i will need o in ensi y i s publici y abou consul-
a ion oppo uni ies. Howe e , and pe haps mo e impo an ly, i migh u ilize he ci il
socie y sec o mo e ac i ely as a condui o in i e and expand he numbe o indi idual
ci izen esponses.
S udy limi a ions and di ec ions o u u e esea ch
These indings mus be in e p e ed in iew o s udy-speci ic conside a ions and limi -
a ions. Fi s , he a he low and inconsis en engagemen pa e ns o ci izens by policy
a ea can ha e di e en easons whose examina ion is beyond he scope o his s udy.
Wi h ega d o consul a ion s a egies, he 2019 Eu opean Cou o Audi o s
Special Repo al eady made clea ha ‘ he choice and ex en o communica ion
me hods and channels used (including social media) di e ed conside ably be ween
DGs and public consul a ions’ (ECA, 2019, p. 48). Fu u e esea ch may he e o e include
measu es on dis ibu ion in hei designs o be e unde s and which se o ou each
ac i i ies, including social media pla o ms and messaging, seems mos e ec i e a ga -
ne ing ci izen inpu in OPCs.
Second, in ligh o he s ong sel -selec ion bias in he da a, ne wo k analyses may be
pa icula ly ui ul endea o s o be e unde s and communica ion lows wi hin he Eu o-
pean public sphe e and iden i y key mul iplica o s in ci il socie y, media, and poli ics ha
shape he consul a ion p ocess and incen i ize indi idual ci izen pa icipa ion (P e sch &
He , 2015). Quali a i e in e iews may p o ide addi ional insigh s in o he unde lying
mo i a ions o hese s akeholde s. Rela edly, a he le el o con en , u u e s udies a e
encou aged o zoom in on he ac ual inpu p o ided by hese s akeholde s o be e
unde s and he na u e and subs ance o hei con ibu ions, including, o example, he
ype o p oblems hey iden i y, use o e idence, and a gumen a i e s a egies ha
shape hese esponses. Such endea o s would also allow o a use ul compa ison
be ween ci izen and o ganiza ional con ibu ions, and possible impac s ia mass cam-
paigns (Ma xsen, 2015).
Thi d, some indings p esen ed seem a i s coun e in ui i e. Fo example, why would
OPCs om DG Banking and Financial Se ices ecei e mo e ci izen inpu han, o
ins ance, OPCs om DGs Spo s o You h? Capaci y- ela ed explana ions (e.g. di e ences
in s a size and o he esou ce cons ain s) may be asce ainable wi h a chi al esea ch
and in o ma ion eques s, bu mo e dynamic, consul a ion- o DG-speci ic in icacies
may only be unde s ood wi h bo h in-dep h expe in e iews in ol ing s a egis s and
EUROPEAN POLITICS AND SOCIETY 15

decisionmake s wi hin he DGs and de ailed examina ions o he subs an i e inpu ha
ci izens b ing o pa icula consul a ions.
Fou h, as a mo e s eamlined public consul a ion pla o m a guably has p o ided he
EU wi h some added inpu legi imacy, schola s ha e wa ned abou a lack o esponsi e-
ness o he Commission, pa icula ly o indi idual ci izen inpu , making consul a ions
appea as ‘me e symbolic e o s o c ea e he image o esponsi e policymaking’
(Bunea & Nø bech, 2023, p. 1783). While he Commission has s ong incen i es o ake
ci izen submissions se iously (Nø bech, 2024, p. 134) as i d aws ex ensi ely on his legi i-
macy sou ce, a close examina ion o he EU’s h oughpu legi imacy is needed o be e
unde s and he accoun abili y mechanisms, inclusi eness s anda ds and anspa ency
measu es ha go e n he ela ions be ween ci izens, ci il socie y, and EU ins i u ions
(S e ek, 2019, p. 792; see also Ho mann & Leino-Sandbe g, 2019).
Finally, li le is known abou ou pu legi imacy conce ned wi h he p oblem-sol ing
quali y o policies, laws and ules, including hei ins i u ional mechanisms (Scha p ,
1999). Fu u e schola ship should he e o e ocus on how DGs p ocess he
in o ma ion ga he ed ia consul a ions, he ex en o which his in o ma ion e en ually
in o ms policies, and he deg ee o which hose policies esona e wi h ci izens’ alues
and Eu opean iden i y (Schmid , 2013). Such a holis ic empi ical assessmen would
equi e ollowing en i e policy pa hs leading o legisla ion. Add essing hese u u e
esea ch ajec o ies migh help lead o wha Albe o Alemanno (2022) calls an ‘in eg a ed
pa icipa o y and delibe a i e sys em’ (p. 67), in e ec helping he EU o build a be e
a chi ec u e o public consul a ions so ci izens can indeed ‘ha e hei say.’
No es
1. See h ps://eu -lex.eu opa.eu/eli/ ea y/ eu_2016/a _11/oj/eng
2. Se e al o he engagemen ini ia i es p o ide e idence o EU ins i u ions’ commi men o
expe imen ing wi h pa icipa o y and delibe a i e o ma s. The delibe a i e-polling p ojec
Eu opolis con ened a andom sample o EU ci izens o deba e clima e change and immig a-
ion be o e he 2009 Eu opean Pa liamen elec ions (Fishkin e al., 2014). Mo e ecen ly, he
‘new gene a ion’ Eu opean Ci izens’ Panels, modeled a e he CoFoE Ci izen Panels, andomly
con ened a ound 150 Eu opean ci izens, one hi d o hem younge han 26, o deba e h ee
‘ho ’ opics in Eu opean a ai s, namely ood was e, i ual wo lds, and lea ning mobili y
(Gjaldbæk-S e d up e al., 2023).
3. Following Sanchez Salgado (2021), we de ine ci il socie y o ganiza ions as nonp o i s ha
p omo e public-spi i ed no ms. In cases whe e we use he e ms nongo e nmen al o ganiz-
a ions (NGOs) o lobbyis s in his a icle, hey ha e been p e-classi ied as such in he consul-
a ion da abases. Whe eas Schoene eld (2021) highligh s ha he in e es g oup ame is s ill
he mos ele an in EU ci il socie y li e a u e, his a icle u ilizes he CSO ame ha signals
conce n wi h democ acy, legi imacy, and ci izen pa icipa ion (p. 593).
4. To enhance h oughpu legi imacy, he Commission unde ook a ho ough e iew o i s con-
sul a ion pla o m and, be ween 2017 and 2018, upg aded he o me ‘Con ibu e o law-
making’ websi e and s eamlined he ‘Ha e you Say’ po al o include mo e anspa ency
and use - iendly unc ions.
5. The emaining uni s in ou sample (42%, N = 161) p o ided no in o ma ion abou he numbe
o esponses, we e duplica es o had dys unc ional hype links. We he e o e decided o adop
a use pe spec i e (as opposed o, o example, eques ing da a om he Commission o
speci ic DGs) and p oceed wi h he publicly a ailable da a p o ided by he wo pla o ms.
Addi ionally, OPCs wi h mo e han 10,000 esponses in ou sample (N = 10) we e conside ed
16 R. NEUMANN ET AL.
ou lie s (abo e he 97 h pe cen ile) and excluded om subsequen analysis. Fo ins ance,
hese include consul a ions on opics like summe ime a angemen s and i o y ade.
6. Including UK.
7. The dis ibu ion shows a s ong skew ( = 4.7, SE = 0.2) and ku osis (k = 27.7, SE = 0.3), e en
a e excluding ou lie s.
8. Da a a e o e dispe sed when he a iance exceeds he mean, which is ypical o da a
demons a ing a wide ange and ex eme a ia ion. Compa ed o simila app oaches also
used o modeling coun da a (e.g., Quasi-Poisson eg ession), nega i e binomial eg ession
appea s o be he mo e sui able op ion as i ends o p o ide a be e i , mo e lexibili y in
modeling o e dispe sion, and a p obabilis ic ounda ion o in e ence.
9. Gi en he limi ed numbe o cases when wo king wi h agg ega e da a a he membe s a e
le el (N = 28), we p oceed wi h bi a ia e co ela ions o his pa o he analysis. This is
in o med by a s a is ical powe analysis using G*Powe (Faul e al., 2009), conse a i ely
assuming a mode a e e ec size (0.15), a s anda d signi icance le el (0.05), and a con en ional
powe (0.80), wi h a minimum o wo p edic o a iables. Fo la e analysis wi h mo e cases (a
he OPC le el), mul i a ia e analyses will be applied.
10. These di e ences a e s a is ically signi ican based on a Mann-Whi ney-U es : U = 39.50, p
= .011, and U = 40, p = .012, espec i ely.
11. No e ha he composi ion o DGs changes wi h di e en Commissions and he denomina ion
is based on sel -iden i ica ion on he consul a ion si e.
12. Based on a chi-squa e es , χ
2
(39) = 194.00, p < .001.
13. Based on a s anda dized nega i e binomial eg ession.
14. Including co po a ions, business associa ions, public-sec o o ganiza ions, academic ins i-
u ions, among o he s.
15. Based on a s anda dized nega i e binomial eg ession.
Acknowledgmen s
The au ho s would like o hank Anna G a es and Johanna Soleil o hei in aluable con ibu ions o
his esea ch p ojec as well as Ma eo Zana a-Kline, Maddie S oeh , Rahma Ra iq and Vi ienne Losh-
ka io a o hei assis ance wi h da a collec ion. Ea lie e sions o his manusc ip we e p esen ed a
he 18 h biennial con e ence o he Eu opean Union S udies Associa ion (EUSA) in Pi sbu gh, PA
(USA) and he 29 h in e na ional con e ence o Eu opeanis s (Council o Eu opean S udies) in Reykja-
ík (Iceland). The au ho s hank he session pa icipan s a hese con en ions as well as he edi o ial
eam and he anonymous e iewe s o hei help ul commen s and sugges ions.
Disclosu e s a emen
No po en ial con lic o in e es was epo ed by he au ho (s).
Funding
Resea ch o his pape was sponso ed by he Eu opean Union EACEA P ojec 101047487 – CIDEU.
Views and opinions exp essed a e, howe e , hose o he au ho s only and do no necessa ily e lec
hose o he Eu opean Union. Nei he he EU no he g an ing au ho i y can be held esponsible o
hem.
ORCID
Rico Neumann h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-2043-432X
Sabine Lang h p://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5734-8639
Phillip Meng h p://o cid.o g/0009-0009-1611-8373
EUROPEAN POLITICS AND SOCIETY 17
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