Inter-organisational collaboration structures and features to facilitate stakeholder collaboration

Ganeshu, Pa i h a; Fe nando, Te ence; The ien, Ma ie-Chi is ine; Ke aminiyage,
Kaushal
A icle
In e -o ganisa ional collabo a ion s uc u es and ea u es
o acili a e s akeholde collabo a ion
Adminis a i e Sciences
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ganeshu, Pa i h a; Fe nando, Te ence; The ien, Ma ie-Chi is ine;
Ke aminiyage, Kaushal (2024) : In e -o ganisa ional collabo a ion s uc u es and ea u es o
acili a e s akeholde collabo a ion, Adminis a i e Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 14,
Iss. 2, pp. 1-18,
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci14020025
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Ci a ion: Ganeshu, Pa i h a, Te ence
Fe nando, Ma ie-Chi is ine The ien,
and Kaushal Ke aminiyage. 2024.
In e -O ganisa ional Collabo a ion
S uc u es and Fea u es o Facili a e
S akeholde Collabo a ion.
Adminis a i e Sciences 14: 25.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
admsci14020025
Recei ed: 25 Oc obe 2023
Re ised: 3 Janua y 2024
Accep ed: 16 Janua y 2024
Published: 29 Janua y 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
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A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
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4.0/).
adminis a i e
sciences
Re iew
In e -O ganisa ional Collabo a ion S uc u es and Fea u es o
Facili a e S akeholde Collabo a ion
Pa i h a Ganeshu 1,*, Te ence Fe nando 1, Ma ie-Chi is ine The ien 2and Kaushal Ke aminiyage 1
1School o Science Enginee ing and En i onmen , Uni e si y o Sal o d, Sal o d M5 4WT, UK;
[email p o ec ed] (T.F.); [email p o ec ed] (K.K.)
2Ci é-ID Li ing Lab Go e nance o U ban Resilience, Na ional School o Public Adminis a ion (ENAP),
Québec, QC G1K 9E5, Canada; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]d.ac.uk
Abs ac : Al hough in e -o ganisa ional collabo a i e s uc u es play a i al ole in de e mining he
le el o collabo a ion among o ganisa ions, he iden i ica ion o equi ed o ganisa ional s uc u al
ypes and hei ea u es o acili a e ui ul collabo a ion is no sa is ac o ily discussed in exis ing
s udies. In addi ion, he connec ion be ween in e -o ganisa ional s uc u al ypes and ea u es, and
hei in luence on collabo a ion, is no well unde s ood. This sys ema ised li e a u e e iew s udy
explo es he a ailable in e -o ganisa ional collabo a i e s uc u al ypes, ea u es, and hei sui abili y
o acili a e collabo a ion among o ganisa ions. Ou indings unde sco e he impo ance o adop ing
a hyb id o m o hie a chy and ne wo k a angemen s o acili a e e ec i e collabo a ion among
o ganisa ions. Fu he mo e, his s udy de eloped a amewo k ha p esen s how collabo a ion
depends on in e -o ganisa ional s uc u es and hei ea u es in acili a ing e ical and ho izon al
in eg a ion. This amewo k can be used o iden i y he in e -o ganisa ional collabo a ion s uc u es
ha a e equi ed o mo e owa ds a desi ed in e -o ganisa ional collabo a ion le el.
Keywo ds: in e -o ganisa ional collabo a ion s uc u es; sys ema ised e iew; go e nance; collabo a-
ion
1. In oduc ion
O e he las decade, he impo ance o in e -o ganisa ional collabo a ion has been
p omo ed by businesses, policymake s, and esea che s since i acili a es o ganisa ions
o de elop s a egic esponses and o be compe i i e by going beyond hei adi ional
silo-based app oaches (Le Pennec and Rau le 2018;Nahapie 2009). This p omo ion o
in e -o ganisa ional collabo a ion is due o he ac ha mode n o ganisa ions a e in e -
es ed in employing a ious collabo a ion p o isions o p o icien ly handle hei cu en
business ope a ions and en u e in o no el p ocesses, s a egically upholding hei com-
pe i i e s anding in he e e -e ol ing business en i onmen (P asad e al. 2012). In e -
o ganisa ional collabo a ion is emb aced as an app oach o esponding o complex soci-
e al challenges o wicked p oblems such as sus ainable u ban de elopmen , disas e isk
managemen , clima e change adap a ion, e adica ing po e y and homelessness, global
pandemics, e c. (Ray-Benne e al. 2020;Uni ed Na ions O ice o Disas e Risk Reduc ion
2019;Lag eid and Rykkja 2015). In such a collabo a i e app oach, o ganisa ional coo dina-
ion, as a basic elemen and he p io s age o collabo a ion, and communica ion a e i al
h ough go e nance s uc u es (Xue e al. 2020;Basco-Ca e a e al. 2017). As an example,
go e nance s uc u es wi h hie a chical ea u es and op-down coo dina ion a e conside ed
a undamen al hind ance in in e -o ganisa ional collabo a ion, leading o con lic s among
s akeholde s and e en ually o po en ial ailu es (Malalgoda e al. 2013;Taylo 2016). Fu -
he mo e, he s udy by P asad e al. (2012) indica es ha o ganisa ional s uc u es s ongly
in luence in e -o ganisa ional collabo a ion. The e o e, he go e nance s uc u es ha can
acili a e collabo a ion play a key ole in in e -o ganisa ional collabo a ion o sol e wicked
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 25. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci14020025 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/admsci
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 25 2 o 18
p oblems in an inno a i e way (Lag eid and Rykkja 2015). Howe e , exis ing s udies do
no adequa ely add ess he connec ions be ween in e -o ganisa ional go e nance s uc u es
and he collabo a ion le el.
Hence, he e is a need o in es iga e how he bes ea u es o in e -o ganisa ional
collabo a i e s uc u es can be combined o suppo s akeholde collabo a ion ac oss
bounda ies, sec o s, and adminis a i e le els. Mo eo e , al hough exis ing s udies discuss
a ious in e -o ganisa ional collabo a ion a angemen s and hei e ec i eness in speci ic
con ex s, hey do no p o ide a gene al iew o sui able in e -o ganisa ional collabo a i e
s uc u es and ea u es o enhance collabo a ion. In addi ion, he connec ion be ween
in e -o ganisa ional s uc u al ypes and ea u es and hei in luence on collabo a ion
is no well es ablished. The e o e, his s udy in ends o answe he esea ch ques ion,
“Wha a e he ypes o in e -o ganisa ional go e nance s uc u es and ea u es necessa y o
acili a e ui ul collabo a ion among a ious s akeholde s?”. This s udy u he analyses
he indings o unde s and how hese ea u es in luence s akeholde collabo a ion.
2. Resea ch Me hod
A sys ema ised li e a u e e iew has been selec ed as he me hodology o his s udy.
This me hod p o ides a s uc u al app oach o make he li e a u e e iew p ocess ans-
pa en as much as possible and hus enhance he quali y o he s udy (Wendle 2012). The
sea ch and he selec ion p ocess adop ed in his sys emised li e a u e e iew a e p esen ed
below (Figu e 1). The da abases used o he li e a u e su ey we e Scopus and Web o
Science. The esea ch ques ion “Wha a e he sui able in e -o ganisa ional collabo a i e
s uc u es o enhance collabo a ion?” was used o o mula e he sea ch e ms in his s udy.
The basic sea ch e ms cap u ed om he esea ch ques ion we e as ollows: “ o mal” and
“in e -o ganisa ion” and “collabo a ion” and “s uc u e” and “enhance”. These e ms we e
u he expanded using ele an synonyms o he key e ms o cap u e all ele an esea ch
pape s as ollows. (“ o mal”) AND (“in e -o ganisa ional” OR “in e -ins i u ional” OR “O -
gani$a ion*” OR “Ins i u ion*” OR “go e nance”) AND (“S uc u e*” OR “A angemen *”
OR “Mechanism*” OR “Sys em*” OR “ne wo k”) AND (“S imula *” OR “enhanc*” OR
“Inc eas*” OR “Imp o *” OR “De elop*”) AND (“Collabo a ion”).
Adm.Sci.2024,14,xFORPEERREVIEW2o 20
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go e nances uc u es ha can acili a ecollabo a ionplayakey oleinin e -o ganisa-
ionalcollabo a ion osol ewickedp oblemsinaninno a i eway(Lag eidandRykkja
2015).Howe e ,exis ings udiesdono adequa elyadd ess heconnec ionsbe weenin-
e -o ganisa ionalgo e nances uc u esand hecollabo a ionle el.
Hence, he eisaneed oin es iga ehow hebes  ea u eso in e -o ganisa ionalcol-
labo a i es uc u escanbecombined osuppo s akeholde collabo a ionac ossbound-
a ies,sec o s,andadminis a i ele els.Mo eo e ,al houghexis ings udiesdiscuss a -
iousin e -o ganisa ionalcollabo a iona angemen sand hei effec i enessinspeci ic
con ex s, heydono p o ideagene al iewo sui ablein e -o ganisa ionalcollabo a i e
s uc u esand ea u es oenhancecollabo a ion.Inaddi ion, heconnec ionbe weenin-
e -o ganisa ionals uc u al ypesand ea u esand hei in luenceoncollabo a ionisno 
welles ablished.The e o e, hiss udyin ends oanswe  he esea chques ion,“Wha a e
he ypeso in e -o ganisa ionalgo e nances uc u esand ea u esnecessa y o acili a e
ui ulcollabo a ionamong a iouss akeholde s?”.Thiss udy u he analyses he ind-
ings ounde s andhow hese ea u esin luences akeholde collabo a ion.
2.Resea chMe hod
Asys ema isedli e a u e e iewhasbeenselec edas heme hodology o  hiss udy.
Thisme hodp o idesas uc u alapp oach omake heli e a u e e iewp ocess ans-
pa en asmuchaspossibleand husenhance hequali yo  hes udy(Wendle 2012).The
sea chand heselec ionp ocessadop edin hissys emisedli e a u e e iewa ep esen ed
below(Figu e1).Theda abasesused o  heli e a u esu eywe eScopusandWebo 
Science.The esea chques ion“Wha a e hesui ablein e -o ganisa ionalcollabo a i e
s uc u es oenhancecollabo a ion?”wasused o o mula e hesea ch e msin hiss udy.
Thebasicsea ch e mscap u ed om he esea chques ionwe eas ollows:“ o mal”and
“in e -o ganisa ion”and“collabo a ion”and“s uc u e”and“enhance”.These e ms
we e u he expandedusing ele an synonymso  hekey e ms ocap u eall ele an 
esea chpape sas ollows.(“ o mal”)AND(“in e -o ganisa ional”OR“in e -ins i u-
ional”OR“O gani$a ion*”OR“Ins i u ion*”OR“go e nance”)AND(“S uc u e*”OR
“A angemen *”OR“Mechanism*”OR“Sys em*”OR“ne wo k”)AND(“S imula *”OR
“enhanc*”OR“Inc eas*”OR“Imp o *”OR“De elop*”)AND(“Collabo a ion”).

Figu e1.Sc eeningp ocesso selec edli e a u esou ces.
Figu e 1. Sc eening p ocess o selec ed li e a u e sou ces.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 25 3 o 18
Selec ion C i e ia and P ocess
The li e a u e sou ces cap u ed om he key e ms we e il e ed ou using he ollowing
exclusion c i e ia: (a) a icles ha we e no in he English language; (b) a icles published
be o e he yea 2010 o a oid oo many a icles and o ocus on ecen a icles ha a e
based on mode n o ganisa ional heo ies. The selec ion c i e ia esul ed in a housand and
h ee a icles; howe e , eigh hund ed and se en y a icles we e conside ed o u he
analysis a e emo ing any duplica ions. A e e iewing he i les and abs ac s, only h ee
hund ed and i y- ou a icles ele an o in e -o ganisa ional collabo a i e a angemen s
o s uc u es we e chosen o u he analysis. A e a ull- ex sc eening, only hi y-
h ee a icles we e selec ed since he o he a icles did no meaning ully discuss he ype
o ea u es o in e -o ganisa ional collabo a i e s uc u es o go e nance a angemen s.
Fu he mo e, ou a icles ound h ough a e e ence sea ch we e added, making he o al
numbe o a icles hi y-se en. This p ocess is summa ised in Figu e 1.
The selec ed a icles we e s udied and syn hesised o unde s and he ype o in e -
o ganisa ional collabo a ion s uc u es and he adequa e ea u es equi ed in he in e -
o ganisa ional s uc u e o acili a e be e collabo a ion using he hema ic analysis me hod,
which suppo s esea che s in iden i ying epea ed pa e ns and hemes wi h espec o
he esea ch ques ion (Alhojailan 2012;Roslan e al. 2021). The indings a e discussed
in he ollowing sec ions. This s udy iden i ied h ee majo ypes o in e -o ganisa ional
collabo a i e s uc u es (see Sec ion 3.1) and he main ea u es o go e nance a angemen s
(Sec ion 3.2) o suppo collabo a ion, as discussed below.
3. Resea ch Findings
This s udy iden i ied h ee majo ypes o in e -o ganisa ional collabo a i e s uc u es
(see Sec ion 3.1) and he main ea u es o go e nance a angemen s (Sec ion 3.2) o suppo
collabo a ion, as discussed below.
3.1. Types o In e -O ganisa ional Collabo a ion S uc u es
O ganisa ional heo ies mos ly ocus on h ee ideal ypes o o ganisa ional s uc u es,
each elying on a pa icula o m o go e nance o coo dina e ac i i ies. These s uc u es
we e ound o be hie a chical ( elies on au ho i y and cen alised con ol), ma ke ( elies on
p ices and dispe sed compe i ion), and ne wo k ( elies on us ac oss a web o associa ion)
(Be i 2012). As shown in Figu e 2, o ganisa ional go e ning s uc u es ha p o ide
coo dina ion among ac o s in a ious o ms wi h hei own ea u es can be placed on a
spec um.
Adm.Sci.2024,14,xFORPEERREVIEW3o 20
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Selec ionC i e iaandP ocess
Theli e a u esou cescap u ed om hekey e mswe e il e edou using he ol-
lowingexclusionc i e ia:(a)a icles ha we eno in heEnglishlanguage;(b)a icles
publishedbe o e heyea 2010 oa oid oomanya iclesand o ocuson ecen a icles
ha a ebasedonmode no ganisa ional heo ies.Theselec ionc i e ia esul edina hou-
sandand h eea icles;howe e ,eigh hund edandse en ya icleswe econside ed o 
u he analysisa e  emo inganyduplica ions.A e  e iewing he i lesandabs ac s,
only h eehund edand i y- ou a icles ele an  oin e -o ganisa ionalcollabo a i ea -
angemen so s uc u eswe echosen o  u he analysis.A e a ull- ex sc eening,only
hi y- h eea icleswe eselec edsince heo he a iclesdidno meaning ullydiscuss he
ypeo  ea u eso in e -o ganisa ionalcollabo a i es uc u eso go e nancea ange-
men s.Fu he mo e, ou a icles ound h ougha e e encesea chwe eadded,making
he o alnumbe o a icles hi y-se en.Thisp ocessissumma isedinFigu e1.
Theselec eda icleswe es udiedandsyn hesised ounde s and he ypeo in e -
o ganisa ionalcollabo a ions uc u esand headequa e ea u es equi edin hein e -
o ganisa ionals uc u e o acili a ebe e collabo a ionusing he hema icanalysis
me hod,whichsuppo s esea che siniden i ying epea edpa e nsand hemeswi h e-
spec  o he esea chques ion(Alhojailan2012;Roslane al.2021).The indingsa edis-
cussedin he ollowingsec ions.Thiss udyiden i ied h eemajo  ypeso in e -o gani-
sa ionalcollabo a i es uc u es(seeSec ion3.1)and hemain ea u eso go e nancea -
angemen s(Sec ion3.2) osuppo collabo a ion,asdiscussedbelow.
3.Resea chFindings
Thiss udyiden i ied h eemajo  ypeso in e -o ganisa ionalcollabo a i es uc-
u es(seeSec ion3.1)and hemain ea u eso go e nancea angemen s(Sec ion3.2) o
suppo collabo a ion,asdiscussedbelow.
3.1.Typeso In e -O ganisa ionalCollabo a ionS uc u es
O ganisa ional heo iesmos ly ocuson h eeideal ypeso o ganisa ionals uc-
u es,each elyingonapa icula  o mo go e nance ocoo dina eac i i ies.Theses uc-
u eswe e ound obehie a chical( eliesonau ho i yandcen alisedcon ol),ma ke 
( eliesonp icesanddispe sedcompe i ion),andne wo k( elieson us ac ossawebo 
associa ion)(Be i 2012).AsshowninFigu e2,o ganisa ionalgo e nings uc u es ha 
p o idecoo dina ionamongac o sin a ious o mswi h hei own ea u escanbeplaced
onaspec um.

Figu e2.Spec umo p ima yo ganisa ionalgo e nings uc u es:Adop ed omBe i (2012).
Figu e 2. Spec um o p ima y o ganisa ional go e ning s uc u es: Adop ed om Be i (2012).
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 25 4 o 18
Hie a chical s uc u es lead o s ong line minis ies wi h well-es ablished e ical
coo dina ion and weak ho izon al coo dina ion. Such e ical coo dina ion p oduces
agmen ed depa men s (depa men alism), unnel ision, and e ical silos, c ea ing
insu icien ho izon al coo dina ion; he e o e, hie a chical s uc u es end o expe ience
challenges in ho izon al coo dina ion (Lag eid and Rykkja 2015). The key cha ac e is ics
o he hie a chical go e nance model a e accoun abili y, o mal o bu eauc a ic ea u es,
dependen o au ho i a i e ela ionships, in o ma ion de ici , and ague and inconsis en
objec i es (So ensen and Gudmundsson 2010).
The ma ke s uc u e, on he o he hand, is an abs ac idea o an ideal ma ke place
whe e p ices and compe i ion ake place. He e, coo dina ion occu s o he exchange o
goods, and ac o s a e isola ed and la gely independen . As a esul , social bonds and us
a e ela i ely low in he ma ke s uc u e. Unlike hie a chy, he ma ke s uc u e p o ides a
deg ee o coo dina ion wi hou guidance, and he e, he compe i ion d i es he inno a ions.
The e o e, he ma ke s uc u e is unsui able o go e nance whe e compe i ion is absen
(Be i 2012).
Be i (2012) u he a gued ha hie a chy and ma ke a e wo ends o he spec um,
and all o he hyb id o ms o o ganisa ional s uc u es all somewhe e in be ween. O gani-
sa ional heo is s ocus on hyb id o ms o o e come he limi a ions o bo h he hie a chy
and he ma ke . As a esul , as an example, he ne wo k has eme ged as a hi d main o m
o o ganisa ional s uc u e (Be i 2012). Ne wo ks a e conside ed mo e sui able o sol ing
complex p oblems, ensu ing commi men s, and es ablishing sha ed iden i y among he
ac o s in collabo a ion (Khaya zadeh-Mahani e al. 2019;Paulsson e al. 2018;Rondelez 2018;
Van Dijk and Win e s-Van Beek 2009). The e o e, ne wo ks a e es ablished o enhance e i-
cal and ho izon al collabo a ion (Lag eid and Rykkja 2015;Paulsson e al. 2018;So ensen
and Gudmundsson 2010) and a e sugges ed as an ideal o m o go e nance o sol ing
complex p oblems collabo a i ely. Ne wo ks a e o med wi h a high le el o us among
ac o s, and ac o s a e in e dependen ins ead o being unde cen al con ol, hus ha ing
he eedom o expe imen and inno a e (Be i 2012;Klijn and Koppenjan 2016). Howe e ,
he e ec i eness and pe o mance o ne wo k go e nance a e s ill ques ionable (Rondelez
2018) due o he lack o accoun abili y (So ensen and Gudmundsson 2010), hence equi ing
p ope ne wo k managemen . As a esul , wo s yles o ne wo k go e nance managemen
ha e eme ged, sha ed and b oke ed, o ensu e he e ec i eness o collabo a ion. Wi h hese
wo managemen s yles, h ee ypes o ne wo k go e ning s uc u es a e e iden in he
li e a u e: (1) Sel -go e nance ne wo k, which does no ha e any o mal en i y o d i e
ne wo k membe s om he op. He e, he sha ed esponsibili y can be aken up by membe s,
each aking on speci ic esponsibili ies; he e o e, his s uc u e hea ily depends on he
pa icipa ion o membe s; (2) lead o ganisa ion-go e ned ne wo ks ha e e o a cen alised
o m o ne wo k go e nance wi h one leading en i y. Gene ally, his leading en i y can be
one o he collabo a i e membe s who o e a g ea e con ibu ion inancially o poli ically;
and (3) ne wo k adminis a i e o ganisa ion (NAO)-go e ned ne wo ks, whe e an ex e nal
o ganisa ion ha is no a ne wo k membe leads he ne wo k. This ex e nal leade is o en a
go e nmen o a non-p o i o ganisa ion (P o an and Kenis 2008;Rondelez 2018). Howe e ,
Be i (2012) a gued ha e en hough he e is an agency o moni o and coo dina e he
ne wo k, o he ac o s in he ne wo k will s ill y o manage i in some o m. In essence, in
e ms o managing la ge-scale collabo a i e membe s, decen alised ne wo ks ha enable
sel -go e nance ace di icul ies; as mo e people ge in ol ed, he e a e mo e oppo uni ies
o misunde s andings, and i becomes mo e challenging o achie e consensus wi hou any
cen alised con ol (B a man and Becks om 2006). The e o e, i can be a gued ha lead
o ganisa ion-go e ned ne wo ks and ne wo k adminis a i e o ganisa ion (NAO)-go e ned
ne wo ks a e mo e sui able o managing la ge-scale collabo a i e a angemen s due o hei
cen alised ea u es (P o an and Kenis 2008).

Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 25 5 o 18
3.2. Key Fea u es o In e -O ganisa ional Collabo a ion S uc u es
This sec ion analyses he impo an cha ac e is ics o go e nance s uc u es o suppo
and acili a e mul i-dimensional s akeholde collabo a ion.
3.2.1. Ve ical and Ho izon al In eg a ion
Bo h e ical and ho izon al in e connec ion and links a e essen ial o heal hy s ake-
holde collabo a ion. Whils e ical collabo a ion links oge he di e en adminis a i e
le els o go e nance in he go e nmen o non-go e nmen o ganisa ions such as na ional,
egions, zones, p o inces, dis ic s, and municipali ies, ho izon al collabo a ion in eg a es
di e en sec o s and o ganisa ions. The e o e, his e ical and ho izon al in eg a ion can
be conside ed as wo undamen al dimensions o collabo a ion.
Ve ical in eg a ion e e s o he ac o c ea ing alignmen and coo dina ion ac oss
di e en go e nance le els, le e aging each espec i e le el’s po en ial h ough collec i e
e o s and p omo ing op-down and bo om-up in o ma ion exchanges (C40 Ci ies Clima e
Leade ship G oup 2020). Fo example, he bo om-up app oach o ci y ini ia i es will
in luence na ional ac ion, and he op-down app oach o coun y-le el amewo ks will
in luence local ac ions. He e, he op imum ou come is mo e likely o be achie ed h ough
a balanced combina ion o bo h app oaches (C40 Ci ies Clima e Leade ship G oup 2020).
Howe e , he ex en o e ical in eg a ion migh di e om coun y o coun y based
on hei go e nance con ex . Ji en e al. (2018) a gued ha e ec i e e ical in eg a ion
should connec all di e en go e nance le els a he han jus in e ac ing wi h o he s a he
same le el o he le el immedia ely abo e o below. I is e iden ha e ical in eg a ion
in in e -o ganisa ional s uc u es a ies depending on he le el o in e ac ion ac oss he
le els.
A s udy by Dob e e al. (2018) a gued ha e icali y o he hie a chical a ibu es
o go e nance can be analysed based on he cen alised o decen alised ea u es o he
go e nance a angemen . The cen alised p ocess shows he hie a chical a ibu es o a
go e nance s uc u e, and he decen alised p ocess shows he la ened a ibu es o a go -
e nance s uc u e. Fo example, e en hough he ne wo k s uc u e is mean o be la ened,
i he owne ship o he cen al au ho i y p e ails, he ne wo k will no be ully la ened,
hence displaying cen alised and hie a chical s uc u al ea u es (Faul 2016). Faul (2016)
opined ha la ened ne wo k s uc u es, which p o ide equal powe s among s akeholde s,
a e essen ial o e ec i e collabo a ion in o de o a oid some ac o s ha ing cen alised
powe s and hus enjoying he bene i s o hie a chical s uc u es in in e -o ganisa ional col-
labo a ion. Ji en e al. (2018) suppo ed his iew and a gued ha al hough cen ali y helps
in eg a e di e se sec o s, i is associa ed wi h se e al disad an ages such as powe abuse,
cen alised decision-making, and he wi hholding o essen ial in o ma ion. The dominance
o powe ul ac o s could o e ule o he s akeholde s and, he e o e, collabo a ion among
s akeholde s can be a ec ed due o he b eakdown in us . The e o e, he e is a belie
among esea che s ha he cen ali y ea u e in a collabo a i e ne wo k is no sui able o
e ec i e collabo a ion, as opposed o a decen alised co-managemen go e nance sys em,
which is much mo e a ou able o s akeholde collabo a ion since i o e s a powe bal-
ance and a combina ion o op-down and bo om-up app oaches (Pe u sson e al. 2016).
Howe e , i is impo an o no e ha , as s a ed ea lie , his pu e decen alised app oach is
only sui able o a small numbe o collabo a i e membe s, o example, a sel -go e nance
ne wo k, and is no sui able o la ge collabo a i e a angemen s ha equi e sui able
go e nance mechanisms o con ol a ne wo k ha c ea es cen ali y. Acco dingly, his
s udy a gues ha e ical in eg a ion is possible in s uc u al ypes in which hie a chical
o cen alised ea u es can be seen, o example, hie a chy, lead o ganisa ion-go e ned
ne wo ks, and ne wo k adminis a i e o ganisa ion (NAO)-go e ned ne wo ks. Simila ly,
he concep o e ical in eg a ion o e icali y will no ake place in s uc u es in which
pu e decen alisa ion can be seen, o example, sel -go e nance ne wo k s uc u es.
Ho izon al in eg a ion in ol es connec ions be ween go e nmen minis ies and sec-
o al depa men s, some imes including ex e nal s akeholde s such as academia, business
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 25 6 o 18
and indus y, non-p o i o ganisa ions, and ci izen g oups (C40 Ci ies Clima e Leade ship
G oup 2020). This ho izon al in eg a ion suppo s c oss-bounda y and c oss-sec o collabo-
a ion and inc eases he e ogenei y in he collabo a ion ne wo k o enhance inno a ion.
3.2.2. Leade ship
Al hough leade ship is conside ed essen ial o s akeholde collabo a ion, a lack o
leade ship is iden i ied as a c i ical ba ie o s akeholde collabo a ion (Ui enb oek e al.
2014). This leade ship can ake di e en o ms, such as key ac o leade ship (Rouilla d
and Sp ay 2017), which can be seen in lead o ganisa ion-go e ned ne wo ks (P o an and
Kenis 2008;Rondelez 2018), bounda y-spanning o ganisa ional leade ship (Dow e al.
2013), s ee ing commi ee (Gil illan e al. 2017), o an ex e nal en i y such as a ne wo k
adminis a i e o ganisa ion (NAO) (P o an and Kenis 2008;Rondelez 2018). Among hese
leade ship modes, NAO and s ee ing commi ee leade ship a e iden i ied as success ul
in e -o ganisa ional collabo a ion leade ship a angemen s (Gil illan e al. 2017;Lag eid
and Rykkja 2015) since hey acili a e equi y and powe sha ing among he s akeholde s.
3.2.3. Need o Bounda y-Spanning Ne wo k Beha iou and B idging O ganisa ions
A bounda y o ganisa ion, which is also known as a b idging o ganisa ion o an
in e media e o ganisa ion, is essen ial, as local us ed in e media ies in collabo a i e
a angemen s, o o e come ins i u ional gaps and enhance collabo a ion (Rahman e al.
2017;Rouilla d and Sp ay 2017). Mo eo e , because his bounda y-spanning s uc u e
p o ides o mal and in ensi e coo dina ion ac oss o ganisa ional bounda ies (Lee e al.
2010), i is impo an o ha e a dedica ed in e -o ganisa ional collabo a ion s uc u e wi h
bounda y-spanning o ganisa ions o handle o mal ag eemen s, ini ia e collabo a ion,
pe o m in e media y unc ions, manage ela ionships wi h s akeholde s, and p omo e
e ec i e collabo a ions (Lee 2014).
Bounda y spanne s con ibu e o e ec i e decision-making policies and adap a ion
policies o achie e sus ainable ou comes (Bowen e al. 2014).
The p ima y esponsibili y o bounda y o ganisa ions is o link o ganisa ions (ac oss
ju isdic ions o bounda ies), dono agencies, academics, policymake s, communi ies, and
o he ac o s e ically and ho izon ally as a ne wo k in in eg a ed decision-making (A -
mi age e al. 2015;Hui ema and Tu nhou 2009). Fo example, NGOs a e o en iden i ied
as bounda y-spanning o ganisa ions ha ill he gap be ween s akeholde s, communi y,
and local ac o s (Fa ooqi 2016). Fo he e ec i e unc ion o bounda y o ganisa ions, hey
equi e skills, expe ience, and he in ol emen o highe and lowe le els o go e nance
(A mi age e al. 2015;Hui ema and Tu nhou 2009). Bounda y spanne s need o be spe-
cialised o cope wi h a ious bounda y needs and collabo a ion o ms o pe o m he
addi ional b idging and b oke ing ac i i ies necessa y o span ac oss closed clus e s and ill
in he s uc u al holes in in e -o ganisa ional collabo a ion (Edelenbos and an Mee ke k
2015). Mo eo e , leade ship, one o he main ea u es discussed in Sec ion 3.2.3, can be seen
as an impo an unc ion o hese bounda y o ganisa ions. These b idging o ganisa ions
can be in e -agency leade ship eams ha ha e ep esen a i es om di e en sec o s ha
can b ing mul iple agencies oge he (Dow e al. 2013). T us and bounda y-spanning lead-
e ship a e conside ed essen ial in s akeholde collabo a ion o s imula e and consolida e
coo dina ion and in e ac ion be ween di e en ac o s.
3.2.4. He e ogenei y
Acco ding o schola s, he he e ogenei y o collabo a i e ac o s acili a es he sha ing
o a ious knowledge, esou ces, and in o ma ion and in e -o ganisa ional lea ning ha can
lead o inno a i e solu ions (Powell and G odal 2006). In con as , homophily in ne wo ks
limi s he inno a i e abili y o such ne wo ks due o he exis ence o simila knowledge,
in o ma ion, esou ces, and uni o m ideas (Bodin and C ona 2009;Newman and Dale 2005).
The e o e, encou aging and es ablishing he e ogenei y in a collabo a i e ne wo k acili a es
inno a ion and expe imen s ha assis in answe ing complex p oblems (Hölsche e al.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 25 7 o 18
2019). To suppo his, The ien e al. (2019) a gued ha ha ing pe iphe al o ganisa ions
wi h enough dis ance and hema ic sub-g oups in a collabo a i e ne wo k ha can be
coo dina ed h ough bounda y o ganisa ions is essen ial o a oid he homogenisa ion o
ideas. The e o e, collabo a ion ac oss di e en sec o s, ac o s, and di e en adminis a i e
bounda ies can boos he e ogenei y in collabo a ion.
4. Analysis and Discussion
In essence, in e -o ganisa ional collabo a ion can be co e ed by wo dimensions:
e ical in eg a ion and ho izon al in eg a ion. Ve ical in eg a ion is essen ial o c oss-le el
collabo a ion, and ho izon al in eg a ion is essen ial o he c oss-sec o and c oss-bounda y
collabo a ion ha can be seen among di e en adminis a i e bounda ies. The e o e,
e ical and ho izon al in eg a ion a e he main a iables suppo ing in e -o ganisa ional
collabo a ion.
The e ical in eg a ion concep is applicable in s uc u al a angemen s whe e only
e icali y o cen ali y p e ails. The e o e, e ical in e ac ion is no applicable in la
ne wo ks and isola ed o ganisa ions whe e cen ali y is absen . Ve ical coo dina ion can
be seen among hie a chical s uc u es ha acili a e op-down o bo om-up coo dina ion,
which is conside ed in his analysis o be a “one-way in e ac ion”. Howe e , his is seen
as low e ical in eg a ion since he p ope combina ion o op-down and bo om-up
coo dina ion can lead o an op imum e ical in eg a ion ha suppo s balanced op-down
and bo om-up app oaches in decision-making (C40 Ci ies Clima e Leade ship G oup 2020).
Hie a chical s uc u es can also acili a e balanced op-down and bo om-up app oaches
wi h in e media e-le el in e ac ion in he hie a chy, and his s udy calls his ea u e a “ wo-
way in e ac ion”. On op o all he s uc u al ea u es, i he di ec in e ac ion among a ious
adminis a i e le els in he hie a chy acili a es a hie a chical s uc u e, his s udy calls his
ea u e a “uni ied e ical in eg a ion” — his ea u e can be seen in he e a chy s uc u es
(Cumming 2016)—which p omo es high e ical in eg a ion acco ding o he a gumen
o Ji en e al. (2018), who s a ed ha e ec i e e ical in eg a ion should connec all he
adminis a i e le els wi hin go e nance a he han in e ac ing wi h he le els jus abo e
and below immedia e adminis a i e le els. Addi ionally, whe e he e ical connec ion
among all adminis a i e le els is absen , he a ailabili y o bounda y o ganisa ions o
c ea e e ical connec ions can also be conside ed an impo an ac o in s eng hening
e ical in eg a ion since bounda y o ganisa ions can ul il his equi emen by connec ing
di e en adminis a i e le els. Howe e , his s udy a gues ha he e ical in eg a ion
le el in his s uc u al a angemen is equal o he wo-way hie a chy s uc u al e ical
in eg a ion le el since bo h acili a e indi ec in e ac ion among di e en le els in he
hie a chical s uc u e. Ve ical in eg a ion a ies om low o high based on he ype o
o ganisa ional s uc u e, as shown in Figu e 3.
The ho izon al in eg a ion a iables depend on he ho izon al connec ions be ween
di e en sec o s, di e en ac o s, and di e en adminis a i e bounda ies. Bounda y o -
ganisa ions play an impo an ole in helping o connec di e en ypes o o ganisa ions
ac oss sec o s and bounda ies. The e o e, he a ailabili y o bounda y o ganisa ions is
impo an in acili a ing ho izon al in eg a ion whe e di ec connec ions a e no a ailable.
The he e ogenei y o o ganisa ions in collabo a ion is seen as a c ucial ac o in b inging in-
no a i e solu ions o sol e complex p oblems h ough collabo a ion. Collabo a ion ac oss
di e en sec o s, ac o s, and di e en adminis a i e bounda ies can boos he e ogenei y in
collabo a ion. The e o e, he high he e ogenei y o collabo a i e o ganisa ions can be seen
as a i al indica o o a success ul high le el o ho izon al in eg a ion. The he e ogenei y
o a go e nance a angemen can be boos ed by keeping hema ic subg oups in an in e -
o ganisa ional collabo a i e a angemen a he han ha ing simila ypes o o ganisa ions
wi hin a collabo a i e g oup (The ien e al. 2019). In gene al, silo-based o ganisa ional a -
angemen s lack ho izon al in eg a ion (Sco and Gong 2021) and, in con as , a ne wo ked
o ganisa ional a angemen acili a es ho izon al in eg a ion by coo dina ing wi h a ious
sec o s and, addi ionally, wi h sec o s ac oss bounda ies. The e o e, his s udy concludes
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 25 8 o 18
ha he “silo” e m ep esen s no/low ho izon al in eg a ion and he “ne wo ked” e m
ep esen s high ho izon al in eg a ion.
Adm.Sci.2024,14,xFORPEERREVIEW8o 20
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Figu e3.F amewo k ode e mine hecollabo a ionle elsbasedon hes uc u al ea u es.
Theho izon alin eg a ion a iablesdependon heho izon alconnec ionsbe ween
diffe en sec o s,diffe en ac o s,anddiffe en adminis a i ebounda ies.Bounda yo -
ganisa ionsplayanimpo an  oleinhelping oconnec diffe en  ypeso o ganisa ions
ac osssec o sandbounda ies.The e o e, hea ailabili yo bounda yo ganisa ionsisim-
po an in acili a ingho izon alin eg a ionwhe edi ec connec ionsa eno a ailable.
Thehe e ogenei yo o ganisa ionsincollabo a ionisseenasac ucial ac o inb inging
Figu e 3. F amewo k o de e mine he collabo a ion le els based on he s uc u al ea u es.
The leade ship ea u e is no discussed sepa a ely unde each in eg a ion c i e ion
since leade ship can be seen as a common ac o in inc easing e ical and ho izon al
in eg a ion in go e nance a angemen s. Howe e , i is impo an o no e ha , as an
excep ion in collabo a i e a angemen s, he sel -go e nance ne wo k does no ha e any
leade ship wi hin i .
Figu e 3p esen s a amewo k ha cap u es he e ical and ho izon al in eg a ion
cha ac e is ics o an o ganisa ional s uc u e based on iden i ied s uc u al ea u es ha
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 25 15 o 18
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
a ailable o eachs udycase.Theexplana iono  he a ionale o  heplacemen o  he
casesinapa icula quad an isdiscussedbelow.

Figu e8.VI/HIcha .
Theanalysiso  heabo e h eecases udieshasallowed he esea che s odemon-
s a e heuseo  hep oposed amewo k(Figu e3) ode e minecollabo a ionle els
basedon hes uc u al ea u eso ano ganisa ionand ounde s andhow a iouso gan-
isa ionals uc u esa eusedina eal-wo ldcon ex  oachie ediffe en le elso collabo-
a ion.
Theanalysiso  hes uc u alcha ac e is icso case1ismuchinlinewi h hecha ac-
e is icso segmen 3o  he amewo kp esen edinFigu e3.Asa esul ,weakho izon al
and e icalcollabo a ionwasexpec ed,whichwascon i medbyindependen  esea ch
ca iedou byGil illane al.(2017).Simila ly,case2displays hecha ac e is icsiden i ied
insegmen 6o  he amewo kp esen edinFigu e3.Asa esul ,s ongho izon aland
e icalcollabo a ionwasexpec ed,whichwascon i medby heindependen  esea ch
ca iedou byBowene al.(2014).Fu he mo e,case3wasplacedinsegmen 4sincei 
hadahie a chywi hasupplemen a yne wo kwi hweak e icalin eg a ion.The e o e,
amediumle elo collabo a ionwasexpec ed,whichwascon i medby heindependen 
esea chca iedou byLag eidandRykkja(2015).
Figu e 8. VI/HI cha .
The analysis o he abo e h ee case s udies has allowed he esea che s o demons a e
he use o he p oposed amewo k (Figu e 3) o de e mine collabo a ion le els based on
he s uc u al ea u es o an o ganisa ion and o unde s and how a ious o ganisa ional
s uc u es a e used in a eal-wo ld con ex o achie e di e en le els o collabo a ion.
The analysis o he s uc u al cha ac e is ics o case 1 is much in line wi h he cha ac-
e is ics o segmen 3 o he amewo k p esen ed in Figu e 3. As a esul , weak ho izon al
and e ical collabo a ion was expec ed, which was con i med by independen esea ch
ca ied ou by Gil illan e al. (2017). Simila ly, case 2 displays he cha ac e is ics iden i ied
in segmen 6 o he amewo k p esen ed in Figu e 3. As a esul , s ong ho izon al and
e ical collabo a ion was expec ed, which was con i med by he independen esea ch
ca ied ou by Bowen e al. (2014). Fu he mo e, case 3 was placed in segmen 4 since i
had a hie a chy wi h a supplemen a y ne wo k wi h weak e ical in eg a ion. The e o e,
a medium le el o collabo a ion was expec ed, which was con i med by he independen
esea ch ca ied ou by Lag eid and Rykkja (2015).
The case s udy analysis con i med ha hie a chical go e nance a angemen s gene -
ally hinde ho izon al in eg a ion and a e, he e o e, unsui able o c oss-sec o al, c oss-
adminis a i e bounda y collabo a ions. The pu e decen alised ne wo k a angemen is
no sui able o he si ua ions in which cen ali y akes place. Fu he mo e, i i is a pu e
decen alised ne wo k wi h equal powe , he adminis a ion o go e nance o he ne wo k
is ques ionable (Rondelez 2018). The e o e, he hyb id o ms o hie a chy and ne wo k

Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 25 16 o 18
go e nance a angemen s a e sui able o acili a ing high collabo a ion since hey a e ca-
pable o allowing high e ical and ho izon al in eg a ion among mul iple ac o s wi h high
he e ogenei y. Ne e heless, acco ding o s udies by Gil illan e al. (2017), Khaya zadeh-
Mahani e al. (2019), and Lag eid and Rykkja (2015), coun ies ha ollow bu eauc a ic
cul u es can adop hie a chical and supplemen a y ne wo k go e nance a angemen s
o collabo a ion pu poses since hese s uc u al o ms allow e ical managemen and
ho izon al collabo a ion o a ce ain ex en . Fu he mo e, he he e a chy s uc u al ype is
ideal and acili a es collabo a ion a an op imum le el.
6. Conclusions
This s udy ound hie a chy, ne wo k, and hyb id o ms o hie a chy and ne wo k
a e he key s uc u al a angemen s ha a e commonly adop ed o in e -o ganisa ional
collabo a ion as hey acili a e e ical coo dina ion o ho izon al coo dina ion o bo h
e ical and ho izon al coo dina ion. Howe e , his s udy ound ha he hyb id o ms o
hie a chy and ne wo ks a e sui able o acili a ing bo h e ical and ho izon al collabo-
a ion di ec ly o indi ec ly. In addi ion, his s udy’s indings unde sco e ha coun ies
wi h a deeply oo ed bu eauc a ic cul u e can po en ially adop hyb id go e nance o
o e come ba ie s in hie a chical go e nance s uc u es and mee hei c oss-le el and
c oss-bounda y collabo a i e needs a a sa is ac o y le el.
By analysing he cha ac e is ics o a ious in e -o ganisa ional s uc u es, his s udy
p oposes a amewo k ha p esen s how he in e -o ganisa ional go e nance s uc u es
de e mine e ical and ho izon al in eg a ion, which e lec s on he e ec i eness o he
o e all collabo a ion. Hence, his s udy p o ides a oadmap o mo e o he desi ed
le el o collabo a ion by implemen ing he equi ed s uc u al ea u es. I is hoped ha
u u e esea che s can u ilise his amewo k o analyse and p opose sui able go e nance
s uc u es o di e en applica ion con ex s.
I is essen ial o no e ha hese indings a e limi ed o he li e a u e sou ces selec ed
based on he selec ion c i e ia o he s udy, and he case s udy e alua ion was based on he
da a a ailabili y wi hin he espec i e s udies. Howe e , despi e his limi a ion, his s udy
s uc u ed and p esen ed a basic unde s anding o he sui able ypes o in e -o ganisa ional
go e nance s uc u es and he adequa e ea u es equi ed o s eng hen collabo a ion.
Mo eo e , hese indings con ibu e o heo y and p ac ice o assessing he adequacy o an
in e -o ganisa ional collabo a i e s uc u e o acili a e e ec i e collabo a ion.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualisa ion, P.G.; me hodology, P.G.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a-
ion, P.G.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, T.F., P.G., M.-C.T. and K.K.; isualisa ion, P.G., T.F., M.-C.T.
and K.K.; supe ision, T.F., M.-C.T. and K.K.; unding acquisi ion, T.F. All au ho s ha e ead and
ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch was unded by he Global Challenges Resea ch Fund (GCRF) and he
Economic and Social Resea ch Council (ESRC), g an numbe ES/T003219/1, en i led “Technology
Enhanced S akeholde Collabo a ion o Suppo ing Risk-Sensi i e Sus ainable U ban De elopmen ”.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : The s udy was conduc ed unde he Uni e si y o Sal o d’s
e hics code equi emen s and he UK Resea ch Regis y O ice egula ions o s udies in ol ing
humans and was app o ed by he Science and Technology Resea ch E hics Panel o he Uni e si y o
Sal o d wi h applica ion ID 3154 and da e o app o al: 1 Oc obe 2021.
In o med Consen S a emen : As his s udy in ol es a li e a u e e iew, an in o med consen
s a emen is no applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : No new da a we e gene a ed o analysed du ing his s udy.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es . The unde s had no ole in he design
o he s udy; in he collec ion, analyses, o in e p e a ion o da a; in he w i ing o he manusc ip ; o
in he decision o publish he esul s.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 25 17 o 18
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Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual
au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .