Wenng en, Johan; Rizk, Aya
A icle
P o o yping o digi al inno a ion: In es iga ing he
impac o digi al echnology on p o o yping elemen s
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In es iga ing he impac o digi al echnology on p o o yping elemen s, Adminis a i e Sciences,
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Ci a ion: Wenng en, Johan, and Aya
Rizk. 2024. P o o yping o Digi al
Inno a ion: In es iga ing he Impac
o Digi al Technology on P o o yping
Elemen s. Adminis a i e Sciences 14:
142. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
admsci14070142
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adminis a i e
sciences
A icle
P o o yping o Digi al Inno a ion: In es iga ing he Impac o
Digi al Technology on P o o yping Elemen s
Johan Wenng en 1,* and Aya Rizk 2
1Depa men o Compu e Science, Elec ical and Space Enginee ing, Luleå Uni e si y o Technology,
971 87 Luleå, Sweden
2Depa men o Managemen and Enginee ing, Linköping Uni e si y, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden;
[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: johan.wenng [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : P o o yping is an impo an pa o any de elopmen ac i i y since i suppo s commu-
nica ion and knowledge c ea ion among he membe s o he de eloping o ganiza ion. Al hough
p o o yping is well es ablished in he de elopmen o physical p oduc s, less is known abou i s
use and e ec on digi al se ice inno a ion and de elopmen . Since digi al echnologies oday a e
embedded in almos e e y le el o an o ganiza ion, om i s p ocesses o i s o e ings, i can be a gued
ha i is c ucial o an o ganiza ion o be able o handle no only digi al aspec s o p o o yping, bu
also physical and digi al aspec s simul aneously. This s udy add esses his need by explo ing he
impac o digi al echnology on p o o yping, answe ing he esea ch ques ion “How does digi al
echnology a ec he di e en elemen s o p o o yping?” By aking a comp ehensi e iew on p o o-
ypes, implica ions o de elopmen a e analyzed and de eloped based on he complex na u e and
on ology o digi al echnology. The esul encompasses a se o nine di e en p oposi ions o digi al
p o o yping which con ibu es o bo h academia and he wo k o p ac i ione s.
Keywo ds: digi al ans o ma ion; digi al echnology; p o o yping; p o o ype; agency; semio ic
binding; on ology
1. In oduc ion
Digi al echnologies a e ans o ming o ganiza ions and socie ies. In ecen yea s,
especially wi h a pandemic ca apul ing i s accele a ed di usion, hese echnologies changed
how we wo k, collabo a e, and socialize (Uni ed Na ions 2021). The my iad o digi al
echnologies is he e o e changing how o ganiza ions de elop and inno a e, wi h inc easing
p essu e o use digi al echnology o compe e and su i e in he global ma ke place
(Mandal 2020;Ma ion and Fixson 2021). As mo e p oduc s and se ices a e embedded wi h
such echnologies, we u n o he digi al inno a ion discipline o unde s and he complex
ou comes and p ocesses ha ake ad an age o hese echnologies (Nambisan e al. 2020).
Digi al inno a ion can be desc ibed as “ he c ea ion o (and consequen change in)
ma ke o e ings, business p ocesses, o models ha esul om he use o digi al ech-
nology” (Nambisan e al. 2017, p. 224). Such a iew encompasses bo h he disco e y o
new oppo uni ies and he de elopmen o p oduc s and se ices as pa o he digi al
inno a ion p ocess (Fichman e al. 2014). And while i may be a gued ha a change in
o m does no necessa ily mean a change in ype, schola s ha e epea edly poin ed ou he
unique na u e o digi al echnology and how he on ology o he digi al is undamen ally
changing he dynamics o digi al inno a ion (Baske ille e al. 2020;Kallinikos e al. 2013;
Lyy inen e al. 2020). They also ha e p o ound e ec s on inno a ion managemen and he
a ious s ages o he inno a ion p ocess. The ea ly s ages, especially, a e suscep ible o
unce ain y abou bo h he use and he u u e solu ion (Pa ida e al. 2017). One such s age
ha we ocus on is p o o yping.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 142. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci14070142 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/admsci
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 142 2 o 22
P o o yping, as a undamen al app oach o de elopmen and inno a ion, has a posi-
i e in luence on he ul illmen o he o ganiza ion’s goals and objec i es (Thomke 2003),
he e iciency o he eam (Exne e al. 2015), and he lead ime o de elopmen (Kleinsmann
and en Bhöme 2020). Ye , de eloping concep s and p o o ypes o new digi al solu ions is
di e en om doing ha o adi ional (non-digi al) ones since digi al echnology b ings
addi ional dimensions and new aspec s o be aken in o accoun (Ramsgaa d Thomsen and
Tamke 2016). Recen ly, schola s began ackling he ole o p o o yping in de eloping digi al
solu ions o add ess his gap in he li e a u e, ocusing p ima ily on physical p oduc s, and
he p ac ice domina ed by pe asi e digi aliza ion (Kleinsmann and en Bhöme 2020).
Consequen ly, while p o o yping is widely used in ma u e a eas, like he de elopmen
o non-digi al goods and se ices (Passe a e al. 2012;Razek e al. 2018b), i is s ill unde -
explo ed o digi al solu ions (Blomk is 2014;Blomk is and Holmlid 2010;Winby and
Moh man 2018) and hei con ex s (Cambu n e al. 2017).
To his end, he pu pose o his pape is o explo e he impac o digi al echnology on
p o o yping in o de o ill he iden i ied esea ch gap and answe he esea ch ques ion
“How does digi al echnology a ec he di e en elemen s o p o o yping?” We answe his
esea ch ques ion by employing a quali a i e case s udy esea ch design. Ou empi ical
analysis e eals a ious implica ions ha digi al echnology has on he ep esen a ion,
communica ion, and mo i a ion, among he ac o s in ol ed in p o o yping. On he con-
cep ual le el, his pape ad ances ou unde s anding o p o o yping o digi al inno a ion
by un a eling he key cha ac e is ics o digi al echnology and undamen al elemen s o
p o o yping. When in eg a ed, a ious p oposi ions a e de eloped on he impac o such
echnologies on p o o yping.
The pape is o ganized as ollows. Sec ion 2 e iews ela ed wo k on p o o yping o
digi al and hyb id solu ions, as well as digi al p o o yping. Sec ion 3lays he concep ual
ounda ions o he analysis wi h emphasis on wo main dimensions: (a) cha ac e is ics o
digi al echnology, and (b) p o o yping elemen s. Sec ion 4p esen s he esea ch me hod
and analy ical amewo k de i ed om he abo e dimensions. A case analysis ha illus-
a es ou empi ical indings is p esen ed in Sec ion 5. Sec ion 6 hen discusses he indings
owa ds ou se o p oposi ions and he s udy’s implica ions o esea ch and p ac ice.
Conclusions, limi a ions, and u u e esea ch a e p o ided in Sec ion 7.
2. Rela ed Wo k
Iden i ying business oppo uni ies has been shown o be one o he mos impo -
an abili ies o en ep eneu s and companies o become success ul in he long- e m
(
Nicholas e al. 2013
). Digi al echnology has a laye ed a chi ec u e ha blu s he con en-
ional bounda ies o cons i u ing elemen s, compa ed o adi ional p oduc s and se ices
(Yoo e al. 2010). This leads o an o ganiza ional need o being be e equipped a iden i y-
ing oppo uni ies ha could a ise du ing he de elopmen o digi al echnology, speci ically
ac oss hese elemen s (Yoo e al. 2010). Oppo uni ies may be ecognized ins an aneously
bu a e o emos a de elopmen p ocess o hei own whe e ideas and needs a e consciously
ans o med in o oppo uni ies (A dich ili e al. 2003). Whe he his is a sys ema ic p o-
cess o happens by acciden , i includes ac o s ha link social componen s o echnical
p ocesses, such as ecognizing socio- echnical pa e ns o exploi ing casual acquain ances
(A dich ili e al. 2003).
T adi ionally, wha used o be di e en ia ed as ei he goods o se ices (Va go and
Lusch 2004) a e oday o en a mix, consis ing o di e en ypes o ma e ial and nonma e ial
componen s combined in an o e ing o a solu ion (Anna elli e al. 2016;Faulkne and
Runde 2019). Fundamen al app oaches o de eloping and designing solu ions om
open-ended p oblem s a emen s (i.e., inno a ion) ha e a s ong connec ion o aspec s such
as c ea i i y, aci knowledge, and in e ac ion (B own and Ka z 2011) and e en i such
app oaches ake on di e en exp essions depending on he con ex (i.e., non-digi al o
digi al o e s) hey ha e common ea u es and s uc u es. Communica ing using analogies
o de eloping by means o p e- ypes a e s uc u es ha a e e iden ial o mos design
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 142 3 o 22
con ex s and can be b ough oge he in he ac i i y o p o o yping, o simply pu , o c ea e
p o o ypes (Sch age 1996).
P o o yping o p oduc de elopmen is adi ionally and inna ely mo e ocused on
physical equi emen s and p inciples o how o achie e a speci ic solu ion (C oss 1997), i.e.,
ske ches, unc ional p o o ypes, p oo -o -concep s, demons a ions, mock-ups, e c. Se ice
p o o yping is, in con as , mo e ocused on achie ing a speci ic alue o app ehending
he use expe ience (Blomk is and Holmlid 2010), i.e., “expe ience p o o yping”, se ice
bluep in s, se ice jou neys, bodys o ming, se ice walk h oughs, e c. P o o yping o
digi al inno a ion would he e o e inhe i all he abo e-men ioned classes o echniques as
well as ca ing ou i s own unique needs. Ye , i is no ully known wha hese needs a e o
hei implica ions o p o o yping.
Recen s udies ha e examined how eme ging digi al echnologies such as i ual and
augmen ed eali y can be used o imp o e he se ice de elopmen p ocess (Bae and Leem
2014;Bole sis 2018;Razek e al. 2018a), suppo he adop ion o new digi al co-c ea ion
p ac ices (Kos is and Ri ala 2020), and suppo expe ien ial lea ning (San os e al. 2013).
O he s udies ha e ocused mo e on a mixed app oach whe e being able o quickly mo e
be ween digi al and mo e adi ional p o o yping echnologies in a lab en i onmen has
been shown o be p omising o he abili y o each a mo e comp ehensi e unde s anding
o speci ic se ice si ua ions (Mei en and Bu ge 2010;Ron i e al. 2012). Ne e heless,
se ing up such en i onmen s is cumbe some and mos ly ocuses on high ideli y and high
esolu ion o se ice p o o ypes (Razek e al. 2018b). Also, an impo an implica ion o
p o o yping in a i ual en i onmen is ha he de elopmen eam mus pay a en ion o
he ac ha he alidi y o he esul depends upon he accu acy o he digi al eali y ha
is c ea ed, i.e., he eali y in he lab is s ill a i icial (Mei en and Bu ge 2010).
While such empi ical s udies con ibu e o he discou se o digi al p o o yping and
hei implica ions o digi al inno a ion, empi ical accoun s o how he speci ic cha ac-
e is ics o digi al echnology a ec he a ious aspec s o p o o yping beyond he lab
en i onmen a e s ill limi ed. This s udy a ge s his gap in he li e a u e and in he ollow-
ing sec ion, we desc ibe he heo e ical ounda ions o digi al echnology’s cha ac e is ics
and p o o yping; he wo dimensions in o ming ou analy ical amewo k.
3. Concep ual Backg ound
3.1. Digi al Technology
Digi al inno a ion may e e o he use o digi al echnology in he p ocess o inno a-
ion, o o he ou come o inno a ion (i.e., a p oduc /se ice, p ocess, e c.) ha a e digi ally
ing ained. Kallinikos e al. (2013) de ine digi al objec s as edi able, in e ac i e, ep o-
g ammable, and dis ibu able. Such objec s a e embedded wi h capabili ies such as commu-
nica ion and memo y (Yoo e al. 2010). Digi al objec s can also be de ined in e ms o hei
ma e ial and nonma e ial p ope ies, and he subsequen hyb ids when hei componen s
possess bo h p ope ies (Faulkne and Runde 2019). Toge he , hese p ope ies make digi al
solu ions dis inc om ea lie gene a ions o IT-d i en ones as hey ha e been obse ed
o be open-ended o incomple e upon hei elease
(Mon ei o and Pa miggiani 2019
). To
be e unde s and digi al solu ions in he con ex o digi al inno a ion, we ake a s ep back
and examine he cha ac e is ics o digi al echnology. Nambisan e al. (2020) de ine h ee
cha ac e is ics ha con ibu e o (and challenge) ou assump ions o digi al inno a ion in
gene al and p o o yping speci ically.
Fi s , hey a gue ha digi al echnology has an agen ial co e due o i s highly mu able
and ecombinable componen s, as well as he lux o eme ging a o dances, which change
he ole o echnology in social con ex s, leading o new o ms o join socio- echnical
agency (Tilson e al. 2010). This ype o au onomy and agency may be ob ious in new
o ms o knowledge p oduc ion sys ems elying on echnologies such as AI and au oma ion
( an den B oek e al. 2021
), bu hey a e also obse ed in s udies o o he digi al echnolo-
gies (e.g., see F eude e al. 2020 on agency in VR en i onmen s). Join socio echnical agency
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 142 4 o 22
impac s bo h he scope and ange o he ole o echnology in ex an heo ies ha emain
unaccoun ed o (Nambisan e al. 2020).
Second, digi al echnology pa es he way o a laye ed modula a chi ec u e, whe e
he e is sepa a ion be ween physical de ices, ne wo ks, se ices, and con en laye s
(
Yoo e al. 2010
). This sepa a ion leads o no el semio ic bindings be ween he a ious
con en o da a ep esen a ions and hei con ex ualized meanings o he a ge ac o s who
use hem. Mon ei o and Pa miggiani (2019) e e o his sepa a ion quali y as he lique-
ac ion o ma e ial digi al objec s, and acco dingly sugges ha i undamen ally changes
he pe cep ions o su ounding phenomena—a key no ion in p o o yping. Such semio ic
bindings, unlike hei physical coun e pa s, a e only “socially app oxima e” (p. 6), which
leads o ac o s in di e en con ex s inding di e en ways o binding he da a/con en o
hei social con ex in di e en and in e media e ways (Hukal and Hen idsson 2017).
Thi d, objec s a e inc easingly i s c ea ed as digi al objec s and hen physically mani-
es ed, whe eby he pe asi eness o digi al echnology is leading o a new “digi al de aul ”.
This is known as he on ological e e sal o digi al echnology (
Baske ille e al. 2020
). On-
ological e e sal challenges he common assump ion in classical echnology and inno a ion
heo y ha digi al ep esen a ions e lec physical objec s and ela ionships ha exis in
eali y (Baske ille e al. 2020). On he con a y, i is o en ha “physical objec s a e he
ou come o ‘p in ing’ digi al objec s on o physical bea e s” (p. 21), such as in he cases o
3D p in ing o p in ing a booked ligh icke . On ological e e sal also challenges wha we
know abou physical p o o ypes and p o o yping ac i i ies, as we de ail in he ollowing
sec ion. Toge he , hese h ee cha ac e is ics a e assumed o change he na u e, p ocesses,
and ou comes o digi al inno a ion as well as how we concep ualize and heo ize digi al
p o o yping (Lyy inen e al. 2020;Nambisan e al. 2020).
3.2. P o o yping and P o o ypes
P o o yping is he p ocess ha includes design ac i i ies “cha ac e ized as a goal o i-
en ed cons ained, decision-making explo a ion, and lea ning ac i i y” (
Ge o 1990, p. 28
).
A la ge po ion o he li e a u e sugges s ha he p ocess o c ea ing p o o ypes is equally
impo an as he p o o ype i sel , especially o inno a i e design (C oss 1997;Do s 2011;
Cambu n e al. 2017). Fo inno a i e design, p o o yping can explain how he eam makes
sense o new knowledge and c ea e new solu ions ou o open-ended p oblems (Klein e al.
2006a,2006b). This ac i i y ypically has explo a i e o alida ing pu poses
(C oss 1997
),
o simila ly di e gen o con e gen abili ies (
Kleinsmann and en Bhöme 2020
), meaning
ha i can be used o bo h unde s and he p oblem and i s con ex , bu also o c ea e possible
solu ions, i.e., p oblem se ing e sus p oblem sol ing. In he con ex o digi al inno a ion,
his dicho omy also ela es o accoun ing o un apped oppo uni ies in asynch onous
de elopmen (i.e., when digi al aces a e collec ed bu he a iables a e ye o be known)
as opposed o de eloping solu ions synch onously wi h known a iables and ele an da a
(Rizk e al. 2020). I he eam can in es iga e a phenomenon ha hey ha e decided upon
(known a iables) bu a he same ime can be open and make oom o new pe cep ions o
he same phenomenon (unknown a iables) hey a e mo e likely o ind a i ing solu ion
(Jensen e al. 2017).
As o p o o ypes, Mahe e al. (2011) illus a e ha h ee undamen al elemen s o a
design si ua ion a e (a) a ep esen a ion o (pa s o ) a p oblem, solu ion, o bo h; (b) he
communica ion be ween ac o s ha a ec s he ep esen a ion; and (c) he mo i a ion o
why ac o s engage wi h, communica e a ound, and a ec he ep esen a ion.
P o o ypes a e ypically physical isualiza ions bu may also be abs ac concep s such
as na a i es. They a e embodimen s o ep esen a ions ha de elopmen eams c ea e o
speci ic pu poses, i.e., o e alua e he look o eel, communica e, es , e c. (
Exne e al. 2015)
.
I can be a gued ha an impo an ea u e o a p o o ype is he balance be ween he esou ce
ha he eam spends and he knowledge hey gain, implying ha he pu poses mus be
aligned wi h he e o (Passe a e al. 2012). Hence, he c ea ion o p imi i e o ms o
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 142 5 o 22
en isioned ideas may be a na u al ac i i y o designe s bu should be aligned wi h o he
design p inciples, e.g., se ing up goals o lea ning (Lei e and S eine 2011).
A p o o ype also emphasizes he con ex , since he p o o ype i sel can ha e many
di e en pu poses depending on how i is used (A e sa e al. 2018). As con ex gi es us a
e e ence o how o in e p e he p o o ype, so does also he s a ing poin o he p ocess,
since “ he in o ma ion needed o unde s and he p oblem depends upon one’s idea o
sol ing i ” (Ri el and Webbe 1973, p. 161). This mindse has e en ually imp o ed ou
way o looking a how o de ine p oblems and how o sol e hem, as a sequen ial p ocess
om p oblem o solu ion, o a co-exis ence o p oblem and solu ion in an i e a i e p ocess
(Do s 2019). On he o he hand, e e y eam membe has hei own in e p e a ion o he
p o o ype, adding o i s con ex ual di e si y (B e e on and McGa y 2000). E en ually,
in e ac ion wi h use s o o he ac o s igge s new insigh s and he ep esen a ion changes
acco dingly. To make sense o a p o o ype, Ruecke (2015) emphasizes he impo ance o
a de ined pu pose o he p o o ype, e.g., esea ch, p oduc ion, o p o oca ion. The use
o sys ema ic p ocesses is he e o e a necessi y o balance ou e o s and help us come
o conclusions (Jacoby and Rod iguez 2007), and likewise selec ing a sui able me hod by
being able o e lec upon wha is o be lea n om he p o o ype (Real e al. 2021).
In addi ion o his sys ema ic p ocess, eams ha u ilize p o o yping de elop a “lan-
guage” wi hin he eam which enhances communica ion and makes i possible o align
expec a ions, belie s and pe spec i es (B e e on and McGa y 2000;Sch age 1996). The
ep esen a ion ha he p o o ype makes ou enables he eam membe s o no only commu-
nica e wi h each o he , bu also o in e ac wi h he p o o ype i sel . A i s , he in e ac ion
is only indi ec , h ough e bal communica ion be ween eam membe s and he men al
ep esen a ion ha hey sha e, bu la e i also occu s h ough di ec physical in e ac ion.
Ano he way o explaining he communica ion o in e ac ion in he eam and a ound
he p o o ype is h ough he c ea ion o ames (Do s 2011). F ames a e c ea ed by eam
membe s o d aw a en ion o speci ic pa s o he p oblem–solu ion space (Do s 2011). Ac-
co dingly, assump ions play an essen ial ole in he c ea ion o a ame which is hen shaped
by easoning in he eam un il i is ag eed upon (o disca ded). Fo p oduc s, unc ions and
physical cha ac e is ics a e ypical subjec s o be es ed, bu o se ices i may be easie
o look o alues, o he expe ience ha he se ice p o isions (Blomk is and Holmlid
2010;Kleinsmann and en Bhöme 2020). To de elop new knowledge, and subsequen
inno a ion, i is impo an o he eam o bo h ame a si ua ion bu also o do his in
se e al se s o i e a ions, i.e., o e ame, al hough s udies show ha his p og ession is no
always he case (Wenng en e al. 2016). O en ames a e poo ly unde s ood, challenged, o
ques ioned, which could lead o inaccu a e ames ha pe sis oo long, o he opposi e,
whe e he eam misses ou on impo an oppo uni ies by es ing a ame oo ea ly, i.e., a
goal o ien a ion.
As men ioned p e iously, he p o o yping p ocess assumes a speci ic pu pose, in he
o m o p oblem se ing o p oblem sol ing, se by he design eam. Howe e , he choice
o engage wi h he p o o ype and he eam is bounded by he s akeholde s’ mo i a ion
o do so. In a p o o yping si ua ion he chosen a iables a e o en connec ed o he social
p ope ies o he si ua ion ha a e o be imp o ed and may be di icul o come ac oss by
o he me hods (Houde and Hill 1997), and, hence, he expe ience o using he p o o ype
play an impo an ole in use -cen e ed de elopmen (Buchenau and Su i 2000). In his
in e play wi h di e en s akeholde s, he p o o ype becomes an impo an bounda y objec
be ween di e en social wo lds (S a and G ieseme 1989). Bounda y objec s “a e non-
human ac o s ha enable g oups wi hou sha ed knowledge o goals o wo k oge he
owa ds an end, enabled by di e ences and simila i ies in ac o s’ unde s anding o he
objec ” (Thompson 2016, p. 2). The use o bounda y objec s in digi al inno a ion enables
s akeholde s’ iews o be in eg a ed and s abilized in o he ou come o digi al inno a ion
(c . Rizk 2020) se ing hei mo i a ion o engage.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 142 6 o 22
4. Resea ch Me hod
To answe he abo emen ioned esea ch ques ion, a quali a i e explo a i e case s udy
esea ch app oach is adop ed. Empi ical s udies in es iga ing digi al p o o yping a e
limi ed, and he phenomenon i sel is one o a con empo a y na u e, which mo i a es he
quali a i e and explo a i e o ien a ion. In addi ion, he bounda ies be ween he p o o yp-
ing ac i i ies, he p o o ype i sel , he digi al echnology, and he con ex a e no easy o
sepa a e in p ac ice, which a e ideal condi ions o case s udy esea ch (Yin 2018). The
ollowing sec ions de ail he case con ex , da a collec ion, and analysis.
4.1. Case Con ex
This s udy uses empi ical da a collec ed wi hin he ame o a sma ci y p ojec
called O ganiCi y, which is a concluded EUR 7.2 million p ojec unded by he Eu opean
Commission’s Resea ch and Inno a ion amewo k p og am. The scope o he p ojec was
o build an Expe imen a ion-as-a-Se ice (EaaS) pla o m whe e hi d-pa y eams inno a e
using In e ne o Things (IoT), u ban da a, and digi al co-c ea ion ools in h ee Eu opean
ci ies: London, San ande , and Aa hus. The p ojec p o ided he pla o m and cascaded
unds o eams ha a e in e es ed in p o o yping in one o hese ci ies. The unding was
cascaded in wo ounds o open calls. A o al o 37 eams (made up o 2–7 membe s each)
ha e been unded by he p ojec wi h up o EUR 60,000 each. The eams execu ed hei
expe imen s o e a pe iod o up o 6 mon hs: he i s ound was om Oc obe 2016 o
Ap il 2017, and he second ound was om Oc obe 2017 o Ap il 2018.
4.2. Da a Collec ion
The p ima y da a collec ed o his s udy come om semi-s uc u ed in-dep h in-
e iews conduc ed wi h he eam leads one mon h be o e inalizing hei espec i e
expe imen . In e iews a e used o collec ich da a abou a phenomenon in i s na u al
con ex (K ale 2008). Semi-s uc u ed in e iews a e guided by a se o ques ions ha a e
designed be o ehand in o de o add ess ele an in o ma ion, in addi ion o open-ended
ques ions o accoun o unexpec ed in o ma ion (Ho e and Anda 2005). A o al o 24 eams
ag eed o be in e iewed: 13 om he i s ound and 11 om he second. The selec ion o
he esponden s was based on pu pose ul sampling (Pa on 2005), whe e he esponden s
we e knowledgeable abou bo h he echnology and p o o yping p ocess, which makes i
sui able o s udy he a ge phenomenon and uni o analysis (Coyne 1997). Acco dingly,
ini ially, he in e iews we e scheduled wi h he eam lead, and hey in i ed o he eam
membe (s) who we e needed o p o ide de ails abou he a eas ha he eam lead was no
amilia wi h. Responden s om all h ee ci ies a e ep esen ed in he sample.
All in e iews we e conduc ed online h ough Skype o Google Hangou s, and we e
oice eco ded and la e ansc ibed. An in e iew p o ocol con aining open-ended ques-
ions was used, add essing di e en hemes a ound he p ocesses, ac i i ies, and ools and
echnologies used h oughou hei 6-mon h expe imen a ion pe iod. Follow-up ques ions
we e asked when needed o cla i y and/o expand on a ce ain echnology o ac i i y.
In e iews las ed be ween 45 and 115 min. All in e iews we e conduc ed in English,
ansc ibed, and sen o he eam leads o con i m accu acy.
In addi ion o he in e iews, we collec ed seconda y da a om he eams o be e
unde s and hei p o o ypes. The seconda y da a sou ces include hei ini ial p oposals,
planning documen s and p og ess epo s, and public communica ions such as blogs. The
seconda y da a was pa icula ly impo an because hey used hese sou ces o documen
hei co-c ea ion jou neys wi h hei espec i e end-use s in almos eal- ime, which is
ele an o p o o yping. In addi ion, some eams chose o sha e o he ma e ials such as
hei de eloped p o o ypes o use engagemen wo kshop ma e ials.
4.3. Da a Analysis
The in e iew ansc ip s we e analyzed i e a i ely ollowing an abduc i e easoning
app oach (S ensson 2011). This means using he exis ing li e a u e o in o m ou ope a-
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 142 7 o 22
ionaliza ion o he chosen concep s bu gene a ing heo e ical p oposi ions induc i ely ha
illus a e he ela ionship be ween hese concep s. To answe he esea ch ques ion, ou end
goal is o de elop ela ional p oposi ions ha elabo a e he e ec s o digi al echnology on
p o o yping. Leshem and T a o d (2007) emphasize he impo ance o he in e p e a ion
o concep s, bu also he analysis o he ela ionship be ween hem. By pe o ming hese
s eps, esea che s can demons a e a “uni y wi hin app op ia e heo ies, di ec ion o esea ch
design and accompanying ieldwo k, and a cohe ence be ween empi ical obse a ions and concep ual
conclusions” (Leshem and T a o d 2007, p. 101). To achie e his pu pose, we conduc ed ou
analysis as ollows.
Fi s , he h ee cha ac e is ics o digi al echnology we e used o guide he i s ound
o analysis, i.e., e e y exce p ele an o one o he h ee cha ac e is ics was highligh ed o
u he analysis. Second, each o hese exce p s was coded wi h open codes, wi h he aim o
iden i y eme ging concep s unde each cha ac e is ic. The guiding ques ion in his analysis
was how ha speci ic cha ac e is ic (e.g., he desc ibed agen ial co e o he echnology)
impac s he p o o ype and he ac i i ies shaping i . These concep s we e u he examined,
compa ed, and discussed be ween bo h co-au ho s o ind induc i e pa e ns be ween
hem and he o e a ching cha ac e is ics. The so-called in e media y concep s om he
analysis can be seen in Appendix A. A his s age, pa e ns pe aining o he p o o ype’s
ep esen a ion, communica ion, and mo i a ion eme ged, and acco dingly he exce p s
we e eo ganized o be classi ied along hese h ee clus e s, leading o a 3
×
3 analy ical
amewo k used o e ine he analysis, explained as ollows.
4.4. Concep Ope a ionaliza ion
The exis ing li e a u e sugges s ha p o o yping is a means o de elop knowledge by
design. In his pape , we use he ollowing ope a ionaliza ions in ou analy ical amewo k
ha me ges he cha ac e is ics o digi al echnology and elemen s o p o o yping. P o o yp-
ing is he ac i i y, ocused by a mo i a ion (pu pose), which le s he de elopmen eam,
based on i s own p e ious expe ience, communica e wi h o he ac o s in a speci ic ealm
(con ex ) using a (se o ) ep esen a ion o he en isioned design. Cen al o he ac i i y
is he c ea ion o ep esen a ional ames, which he eam can la e es in a eal-wo ld
se ing ( e aming), and consequen ly de elop knowledge. I is impo an o no e ha
hese elemen s, such as communica ion, mainly conce n he p o o yping ac i i y and i s
co esponding design se ing, a he han he inal solu ion he eam is aiming o achie e.
By in es iga ing he cha ac e is ics o digi al echnology and elemen s o p o o yping, we
o mally de ine and ope a ionalize each o hese dimensions in Table 1.
Table 1. The analy ical amewo k o his s udy.
Cha ac e is ics o Digi al Technology Desc ip ion
Agen ial co e
Fo ms o (join ) socio- echnical agency in he social con ex o p o o yping ha
mani es as a esul o digi al echnology.
Semio ic binding Di e en ac o s inding new and no el ways o con ex ual sensemaking and
alue ealiza ion, a o ded by digi al echnology.
On ological e e sal Objec s a e i s c ea ed in he digi al ealm hen, i needed, hey a e
physically eplica ed.
Elemen s o P o o yping Desc ip ion
Rep esen a ion Rep esen a ion includes all elemen s ha ela e o he ac o s’ common
unde s anding o he p oblem and solu ion.
Communica ion Communica ion conce ns aspec s o in e ac ion be ween ac o s, and/o he
ep esen a ion, which ul ima ely a ec s and changes he ep esen a ion o he
ac o s’ own men al model.
Mo i a ion
Mo i a ion conce ns aspec s o he ac o s’ willingness/abili y o communica e
and in luence ep esen a ion and/o change hei own men al model.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 142 8 o 22
5. Analysis
This analysis is o ganized by he analy ical amewo k: h ee sec ions co e ing cha ac-
e is ics o digi al echnology, unde which subsec ions desc ibe how hese cha ac e is ics
a ec he elemen s o p o o yping.
5.1. Agen ial Co e
Ou empi ical analysis sugges s ha digi al echnology exhibi s new con igu a ions
o join social and echnical agency ha a ec he h ee elemen s o p o o yping: ep e-
sen a ion, communica ion, and mo i a ion. The ollowing subsec ions de ail examples o
hese obse a ions.
5.1.1. Agency and Rep esen a ion
One o he key elemen s ueling he ede ined no ion o agency in digi al echnology is
da a. Ou in e iewees poin ed ou di e en ways in which ac ions in o ming ep esen a-
ion choices we e da a-d i en. Fo example, one eam desc ibes how hei digi al se ice
is d i en by a classi ica ion algo i hm whe e, depending on i s p edic ed class, di e en
in o ma ion ge s ex ac ed om use s’ wee s o show in hei s eam-o -e en s con en .
“We encapsula e he wee and classi y i in o 4 di e en ca ego ies: Socce , baske ball,
news o gene al/o he spo s e en . Depending on hese ca ego ies an ac ion is aken.
Fo example, i i ’s news- ela ed, we ex ac loca ion and con en . I i ’s abou socce , we
ex ac mo e in o ma ion; he wo eams, ime o he e en , wea he condi ions, a ic,
loca ion, sco e, and ime o he wee ” (Responden 4)
Fu he , ano he eam shows how i is he machine lea ning algo i hms ha a e he
“agen s” c ea ing mo e accu a e es ima es o hei p o o ypes when aced wi h noisy da a:
“So he da a is ac ually e y noisy, and we ha e o use machine lea ning algo i hms o
y o clus e he da a o wo k ou whe e you eally a e in ha da a. So we ha e he
algo i hms ha analyse he da a o y o make i cleane and wo k ou s a and end
poin s, as well as di e en ou es” (Responden 8)
In bo h examples, he design eam mainly designs he ame o he digi al p o o ype,
bu ac i i ies such as he design o he con en and in e encing a e delega ed o a da a-d i en
agen ha is pa o he p o o ype and e en ual se ice. Wi h da a powe ing algo i hms,
we obse e a special ype o agency, “da a-d i en agency”. This no ion desc ibes how he
eams design hei p o o ypes in ways ha make hem un inished ep esen a ions un il he
da a s a s being gene a ed and ills in such ep esen a ional ames o he p o o ypes.
5.1.2. Agency and Communica ion
A key oppo uni y ha ollows om such da a-d i en agency and a ec s communi-
ca ion is he abili y o he expe imen ing eams o communica e speci ic alues ela ed o
hei p o o ypes, such as allowing use s o ake con ol o hei own da a. Indeed, hese
alues di e ed based on he ype o s akeholde in ol ed in he p o o yping phase, as
well as he ype o da a. Bu he common alues obse ed ela e o owning one’s da a,
anspa ency, and openness. As one eam pu s i when asked abou he aim o hei
expe imen /p o o ype:
“
. . .
o ind ways o people who own his da a—ci izens— o hemsel es o ind ways o
ep esen ha da a. So i ’s abou showing i o o he s, bu also o inding ways o show i o
hemsel es o he p ocess o isualising is also insigh ul o hemsel es” (Responden 9)
Howe e , he e is also an ac o balance ha needs o be main ained in gi ing con ol
o he use s wi h da a-d i en agency in place. Especially wi h use -gene a ed subjec i e
da a, eams need o main ain he in eg i y o hei se ices (e.g., by ensu ing he da a is
ac ually accu a e); hus, some o m o mode a ion is needed. This ac o balance be ween
openness and in eg i y is elabo a ed by he ollowing esponden :
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 142 15 o 22
ha acili a e his p ocess and documen i s impac on he p o o ype’s ep esen a ion need
o ake in o accoun hese wo ealms and hei pa icula di e ences.
P oposi ion 1C. Digi al echnology enhances ce ain aspec s o eali y based on, e.g., senso s and
da a laye ing, which c ea e mul iple and new e e ences o de elope s o manage du ing p o o yping.
6.2. Communica ion in Digi al P o o yping
An impo an ac ion in p o o yping is o sus ain and suppo communica ion be ween
he di e en ac o s in ol ed since communica ion changes and de elops he ep esen a ion
in o i s desi ed s a e, and esul s bo h in new knowledge and a new o e (Mahe e al. 2011).
Al hough, he agen ial co e o digi al echnology challenges his explana ion. When use s’
become a co-c ea o and when hei inpu becomes pa o he ep esen a ion and alue
ealiza ion i sel , hings mus change in he way he in e nal eam allows communica ion.
Fi s ly, his means ha he p o o ype can be seen as bo h a bounda y objec and an ac o
wi h a ying deg ees o agency (Thompson 2016). Communica ion is bidi ec ional be ween
wo pa ies, o mo e, and ou analysis shows he impo ance o bo h di ec ions when
de eloping digi al p o o ypes. Secondly, use s eel owne ship and wan o be able o a ec
he ep esen a ion and see hei own con ibu ion. I is impo an o acknowledge ha use s
ha e di e en pu poses o why hey gi e inpu , compa ed o he in e nal de elopmen
eam. They wan o see how hei da a is used and who is using i , which, in u n, needs
some le el o anspa ency o usage and openness om he in e nal de elopmen eam.
P oposi ion 2A. Digi al p o o ypes change he way we communica e because he p o o ype i sel
can be seen as an ac o in i s de elopmen . When he use becomes a co-c ea o , he p o o ype needs
o be able o con ey how he use ’s inpu is used and wi hin wha limi s.
Jus as he po en ial agency o digi al echnology may in luence design conside a ions
in he p o o ype, i also in luences he p ocess o collabo a ion and knowledge sha ing
du ing p o o yping. As a gued abo e, digi al p o o ypes (and se ices) necessi a e com-
munica ion wi h he use on a di e en le el compa ed o adi ional o e s. Use s a e
co-c ea o s in he echnology’s de elopmen , hey p oduce con en o he ep esen a ion,
and hey a e ecipien s o he alue c ea ed. The mos impo an aspec o p o o yping
is ha i should be ounded upon sha ed unde s anding and e ec i e communica ion
(Wenng en e al. 2016). Insu icien in e ac ion will lead o abs ac o indi idual ep esen a-
ions which e en ually will lead o misunde s anding and ine icien p o o yping. Ha ing
he same ep esen a ion, bu ha ing di e en pe spec i es, is c ucial o he p o o ype
as a bounda y objec and o he possibili ies o digi al inno a ion (Rizk 2020;S a and
G ieseme 1989). Hence, di e en pe spec i es mus be elabo a ed h ough sha ed con-
nec ed ep esen a ions and he e mus be a way o suppo bi-di ec ional communica ion
in e e y le el o p o o yping, since he alue is p oduced when he use ac s upon he
ep esen a ion.
P oposi ion 2B. Digi al echnology ex ends he meaning o in e ac ion be ween ac o s and digi al
p o o yping should suppo wo-way communica ion.
The on ological e e sal o he digi al idea inna ely calls o communica ion ia he
digi al ep esen a ion. Relying only on he (un inished) digi al ep esen a ion migh c ea e
misunde s anding since he e a e ewe possibili ies o unde s and di e en indi idual
ep esen a ions, i.e., he digi al ep esen a ion does no communica e all he aspec s o
wha he eam wan s o ep esen o he eam does no unde s and he use ’s con ex
enough, e c. In his s udy, de elope s became awa e o his and handled i by conside ing
al e na i e in e ac ion op ions, i.e., wo kshops, educa ing he use , eedback o ms, e c. To
no miss ou on any pe spec i es, i is p oposed ha de elope s conside communica ion
ia all ou a eas, synch onous, asynch onous, digi ally, and physically. Focusing only on
he digi al communica ion pa h, ano he aspec o he on ological e e sal is ha abs ac
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 142 16 o 22
indi idual sensemaking models can be mo e di icul o communica e o o he s. This
may no igge new ideas o o he eam membe s. Acco dingly, he e is a need o be
able o some imes use simple means o communica e in a p o o yping session han hose
in ended (
Exne e al. 2015
), o example, being able o make a simple ske ch in an o he wise
ad anced simula ion in a VR- ool. These p o o ypes c ea ed in he i ual space mus be
aligned wi h how he eam c ea es ames. Re lec ing on such digi al de aul s is c ucial
in he eams’ communica ion o assump ions (Sch age 1996) and ame c ea ion. Missing
ou on pa o his p ocess may lead o s aleness whe e he eam does no c ea e new
knowledge (Wenng en e al. 2016) o make oo quick decisions (Lei e and S eine 2011).
The e o e, how and whe e ha p o o yping session akes place has implica ions o he
p ocess, i.e., he use o a co-loca ed eam in he same physical en i onmen in e ac ing wi h
he same digi al echnology, o a sepa a ed eam only connec ed h ough digi al echnology.
Hyb id en i onmen s o hese wo b ing o he challenges, as we a e wi nessing in he
pos -pandemic wo kplace.
P oposi ion 2C. De elope s o digi al p o o ypes need a seconda y communica ion pa h o he use
o bo h pa ies o communica e hei indi idual ep esen a ions.
6.3. Mo i a ion in Digi al P o o yping
The cha ac e is ics o digi al echnology c ea e oppo uni ies in p o o yping by na -
owing knowledge gaps, which b ings in di e en social ac o s (i.e., people) wi h di e se
knowledge backg ounds. Such unp eceden ed he e ogenei y, in addi ion o he echnol-
ogy’s agen ial cha ac e is ics, leads o social and cogni i e p ocesses ha may ha e a new
meaning in his ype o “ eamwo k”. The e may be a need o go h ough oles, pu poses,
goals, e c., mo e ca e ully o emb ace his he e ogenei y while ensu ing app op ia e ac-
coun abili y among pa icipa ing ac o s. In his s udy, he ole o he de elope became
mo e o a acili a o du ing he p o o yping sessions, implying ha adi ional oles may
change when he con ex changes, also known as e-con ex ualisa ion (Thompson 2016).
This may no be p oblema ic in cases whe e he e a e de ined asks and clea alida ion pu -
poses. Howe e , i becomes p oblema ic o how he join socio- echnical agency enabled
by digi al echnology may play ou when he objec i e is explo a i e o seeking di e gence
o inno a ion, o when algo i hmic design becomes mo e pe asi e. Since eamwo k is a
highly social ac i i y, i is impo an o sus ain cul u e and social se ings while a he same
ime p omo ing and encou aging mo e di e se oles o join in (C oss 1997). The agen ial
cha ac e is ic may, howe e , p oblema ize he concep o mo i a ion in his con ex . Since
i is essen ial o he p o o ype ha social ac o s exp ess hei opinions and assump ions, as
well as build on each o he ’s ideas and igge each o he , he mo i a ion o communica e
may a y depending on he modali y o he espec i e ac o , such as an AI, an (human)
employee, o an use .
P oposi ion 3A. Digi al p o o ypes a e p omo ed by he e ogeneous ac o s’ collabo a ion bu need
suppo in he o m o acili a ion and o e all goals and objec i es.
P o o ypes de elop knowledge by es ing assump ions o hypo heses. T adi ionally,
he ou come o a p o o ype mus be obse able, i.e., he e is e idence ha he assump ion
is igh o w ong. Fo digi al p o o ypes, he change in he na u e and iming o alue eal-
iza ion due o he semio ic binding leads o he need o new alue cap u ing mechanisms
ha a e compa ible wi h di e en dimensions o he digi al p o o yping (i.e., hose ha
a e physical, digi al, li e, synch onous, e c.) in a seamless manne (Rizk e al. 2020). In
his s udy, in o ma ion was o en eco ded in li e sessions, bu i may be mo e di icul o
cap u e such in o ma ion in o he cases wi hou delibe a ely media ing and accoun ing o
i . While mos ele an o he p o o ype use , i is he de eloping o ganiza ion ha needs o
de ise such a mechanism i hey wan o cap u e i (Houde and Hill 1997). A compa ison
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 142 17 o 22
o bounda y objec s (Thompson 2016) in ol es he “insc ip ion” o needs and alues in he
p o o ype i sel o he ac i i y.
P oposi ion 3B. Digi al p o o yping u ns he ocus om ul illing needs and equi emen s o
alue ealiza ion when es ing, and de elope s mus he e o e u n he ocus o a alue-cap u ing
mechanism du ing p o o yping.
The digi al p o o ype’s compliance wi h he eal wo ld is essen ial o ac o s’ us and
mo i a ion. Fac o s such as echnical de e minism, he physical and social en i onmen ,
con ex , malicious beha io , noise and e o s, e c., play a i al oles in compliance. In
his s udy, h ee a eas we e iden i ied as being impo an o digi al p o o yping. Fi s ly,
policies and ag eemen s managing igh s and esponsibili ies a e p oblema ic, o example,
when collec ing da a o collabo a ing wi h ano he o ganiza ion. Secondly, inding a
balance be ween he p i acy o he indi idual and he openness o da a is di icul . Thi dly,
he calib a ion o senso s and collec ed da a is a esou ce-in ensi e ac i i y. In he cases
we analyzed, di e en kinds o calib a ion we e obse ed. Calib a ion in he adi ional
sense ela es o using new senso s o using senso s in new en i onmen s hey we e no
designed o .
P oposi ion 3C. P o o yping is a s ep along he way, and while he digi al ealm a ac s high p eci-
sion and compliance, digi al p o o yping bene i s om a g adual build-up o accu acy and esolu ion.
7. Conclusions
Wi h he g owing p essu e o inno a e and he pe asi e use o digi al echnologies,
o ganiza ions a e aced wi h changing p ac ices in ela ion o hei p o o yping and de elop-
men . This s udy se o o answe he esea ch ques ion: How does digi al echnology a ec he
di e en elemen s o p o o yping? Th ough ou analysis, we conclude ha he cha ac e is ics
o digi al echnology ha e a p o ound impac on p o o yping. Ou nine p oposi ions de ail
how he “digi al i s ” p ac ice o digi aliza ion, he inc easing o agency, and he semio ic
binding ha digi aliza ion allows impac he h ee co e aspec s o p o o yping: ep esen-
a ion, communica ion, and mo i a ion. Ou analysis p o ides a ounda ional o e iew
o he s udy o digi al p o o yping, bu does no di e deep in o all nine ela ionships.
Ins ead, his s udy shows, by heo izing p e ious esea ch and compa ing i o empi ical
indings, eme gen aspec s ha need o be conside ed when c ea ing digi al p o o ypes.
Ou p oposi ions ocus on how digi al p o o ypes should be de eloped o c ea e a o able
condi ions o success. The p oposi ions help us see a di e ence compa ed o a adi ional
p ocedu e as well as an unde s anding o he inc eased deg ee o complexi y and abs ac-
ion compa ed o pu e p oduc s o se ices. Ou aim by doing his is i s ly a heo e ical
con ibu ion o e ol e heo e ical knowledge so ha esea ch can build on and expand
his unde s anding. These p oposi ions can be la e used as analy ical ins umen s in o he
cases in di e en con ex s, as well as being es ed using quan i a i e esea ch designs.
Secondly, he con ibu ion o his s udy also has p ac ical implica ions wi h ega d o
managing he de elopmen o digi al solu ions, especially in he ea ly s ages o p o o yping.
Digi al p o o yping is shown o ha e dynamic and eme gen p ope ies and i s de elopmen
should he e o e ocus on socially si ua ed and da a-d i en aming. I also b ings o wa d
he impo ance o s a ing om he use s’ eali y and con ex ual expe ience. Based on he
nine p oposi ions, we also p o ide ecommenda ions o p ac ices, as shown in Table 2. The
ecommenda ions con ibu e o he ongoing discou se on holis ic digi al ans o ma ion
in h ee ways. Fi s , i suppo s p ac i ione s wi h an unde s anding o objec i es when
conduc ing digi al p o o yping ac i i ies. Secondly, i p o ides p ac i ione s wi h a conc e e
analy ical ool o empi ically in es iga e cases, ei he holis ically o mo e in-dep h by
u ilizing he included se o guiding s a emen s. Thi d, i may be used o analyze and
explain phenomena ela ed o p o o yping ac i i ies in ela ion o eme ging echnologies.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 142 18 o 22
Table 2. P oposi ions based on p ac ical ecommenda ions.
Rep esen a ion Communica ion Mo i a ion
Agen ial co e Design o agency Allow owne ship Facili a e
he e ogenei y
Semio ic binding Co-e ol e wi h use s Aim o in e ac ion Tes o alue
On ological e e sal Find he e e ence
o in e p e a ion Handle i ual ideas Balance accu acy
and esolu ion
The s udy also has some limi a ions. The na u e o he s udy con ex and he di e si y
o he in e iewed eams may accoun o some a ia ions in he p oposi ions. Fu he , he
con ex o he esponden s indica es ha i is mos likely ha hese p oposi ions a e mos
applicable o en ep eneu s, in ap eneu s, s a -ups, e c., ha a e aiming o de elop new
digi al se ices wi hou he limi a ions o a la ge o ganiza ional s uc u e. A con inua ion o
es hese p oposi ions is necessa y o e i y hei c oss-con ex ual alidi y. As men ioned
p e iously, i also ackles nine di e en ela ionships simul aneously, c ea ing a comp omise
be ween he s udy’s dep h and b ead h. Ou u u e esea ch aims o execu e an in-dep h
in es iga ion o hese ela ionships h ough bo h quan i a i e and quali a i e s udies by,
o example, es ing he impac o inno a ion s uc u es in la ge o ganiza ions.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, J.W. and A.R.; me hodology J.W. and A.R.; so wa e,
J.W. and A.R.; alida ion, J.W. and A.R.; o mal analysis, J.W. and A.R.; in es iga ion J.W. and A.R.;
esou ces, J.W. and A.R.; da a cu a ion, J.W. and A.R.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, J.W. and
A.R.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, J.W.; isualiza ion, J.W. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he
published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: The empi ical da a used in his pape was collec ed du ing he p ojec “O ganiCi y” unded
by he Eu opean Commission’s Ho izon 2020 p og amme unde g an numbe 645198.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable. An e hical e iew was no equi ed when
he esea ch s udy was conduc ed. The esea ch p ojec al hough ollowed e hical esea ch p ac ices.
In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The e a e no publicly a chi ed da ase s a ailable.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 142 19 o 22
Appendix A. In e media y Concep s om Analysis
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 o 22
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The e a e no publicly a chi ed da ase s a ailable.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
Appendix A. In e media y Concep s om Analysis
Agen ial co e
Semio ic binding
On ological e e sal
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