Ndo i epi, Takawi a Munya adzi; S eyn, Renie
A icle
Un a elling he digi al h ead: How access, p o ec ion, and
adop ion d i e echnological en ep eneu ship
Adminis a i e Sciences
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ndo i epi, Takawi a Munya adzi; S eyn, Renie (2024) : Un a elling he digi al
h ead: How access, p o ec ion, and adop ion d i e echnological en ep eneu ship, Adminis a i e
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Ci a ion: Ndo i epi, Takawi a
Munya adzi, and Renie S eyn. 2024.
Un a elling he Digi al Th ead: How
Access, P o ec ion, and Adop ion
D i e Technological En ep eneu ship.
Adminis a i e Sciences 14: 185.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
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Recei ed: 26 June 2024
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adminis a i e
sciences
A icle
Un a elling he Digi al Th ead: How Access, P o ec ion, and
Adop ion D i e Technological En ep eneu ship
Takawi a Munya adzi Ndo i epi * and Renie S eyn
G adua e School o Business Leade ship, Uni e si y o Sou h A ica, Mid and 1636, Sou h A ica;
[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : This s udy explo es he ela ionship be ween digi al access, p o ec ion, and adop ion in
suppo ing echnological en ep eneu ship wi hin na ional digi al ecosys ems. The s udy u ilised
PROCESS eg ession analysis on he Global En ep eneu ship De elopmen Ins i u e (GEDI)’s Digi al
De elopmen Economy (DPE) Index 2020 da ase o examine selec ed digi al ac o s’ di ec and
indi ec e ec s on en ep eneu ial ac i i y ac oss 116 coun ies. While he ela ionship be ween
digi al access, adop ion, p o ec ion, and echnological en ep eneu ship has been es ablished in
p e ious esea ch, his s udy p o ides global e idence o ein o ce his connec ion. Howe e , digi al
p o ec ion did no signi ican ly mode a e he e ec o digi al access. No ably, digi al adop ion eme ged
as a signi ican media o , in luencing he impac s o bo h access and p o ec ion on en ep eneu ial
ou comes. This s udy emphasises he impo ance o unde s anding he complex ela ionships be ween
digi al ac o s in cul i a ing a h i ing en ep eneu ial ecosys em, o e ing aluable insigh s o
policymake s and p ac i ione s seeking o s imula e echnological inno a ion and economic g ow h.
Keywo ds: digi al access; digi al p o ec ion; digi al adop ion; echnological en ep eneu ship;
digi al ecosys em
1. In oduc ion
The ise o digi al echnologies has d as ically ans o med he en ep eneu ial land-
scape, especially in he echnology sec o (Paul e al. 2023). The p oli e a ion o digi al
pla o ms, ools, and se ices such as social media, e-comme ce pla o ms, cloud compu -
ing se ices, con en managemen sys ems, and communica ion and collabo a ion ools,
among o he s, has p o ided new oppo uni ies o echnology en ep eneu s a ound he
wo ld o inno a e, gain ma ke access, and g ow (Elia e al. 2020;Fe nandes e al. 2022;
Sa alkina and S eine 2020). Howe e , he success o echnological en ep eneu ship is de-
penden no only on he a ailabili y o digi al echnologies bu also on a suppo i e digi al
ecosys em ha p omo es inno a ion and g ow h (Fe nandes e al. 2022;Zah a e al. 2023).
The e m digi al ecosys em desc ibes a complex, in e connec ed ne wo k encompassing
ac o s, echnologies, ins i u ions, and p ocesses ha collec i ely c ea e and deli e alue
h ough digi al pla o ms and se ices (Elia e al. 2020). I includes ha dwa e, so wa e,
da a, ne wo ks, o ganisa ions, egula ions, and use communi ies (Sussan and Acs 2017).
The ex an li e a u e ( o ins ance, Bican and B em 2020;Elia e al. 2020;P oksch e al.
2024;Sahu e al. 2021;Zhao and Weng 2024) ex ensi ely explo es he link be ween digi al
ac o s and en ep eneu ship. Some s udies, such as Koomson e al. (2023) and S eininge
(2019), ocus on he alue o digi al access, emphasising how in e ne connec i i y and
ools enable en ep eneu s o launch and g ow hei en u es. O he s del e in o digi al
p o ec ion, highligh ing he need o obus cybe secu i y and in ellec ual p ope y igh s
amewo ks o os e digi al en ep eneu ship (Jiao e al. 2022;Zhao and Weng 2024). While
a consensus exis s on he signi icance o digi al ac o s, he e is no cla i y on which o hese
elemen s exe s he g ea es in luence on en ep eneu ship. Addi ionally, he op imal le el
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 185. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci14080185 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/admsci
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 185 2 o 15
o go e nmen in e en ion in p omo ing and egula ing digi al en ep eneu ship emains
a subjec o deba e, wi h some ad oca ing o minimal in e en ion and o he s calling
o mo e ac i e suppo (Jiao e al. 2022;Zhao and Weng 2024). Mo eo e , many p e i-
ous s udies ended o o e look a comp ehensi e examina ion o he ela ionship be ween
digi al access, p o ec ion, and adop ion, and hei combined e ec s on echnological en-
ep eneu ship. The lack o unde s anding ega ding he complex in e play o hese ac o s
and hei ela i e con ibu ions c ea es a signi ican esea ch gap. This is pa icula ly ue
in de eloping coun ies whe e he digi al landscape is apidly e ol ing and en ep eneu s
ace unique challenges and oppo uni ies (Soluk e al. 2021).
In es iga ing his gap is c ucial o enhancing ou unde s anding o he digi al ecosys-
em and i s impac on echnological en ep eneu ship. By un a elling he connec ions
be ween access, p o ec ion, and adop ion, his esea ch will con ibu e o a mo e nuanced
and comp ehensi e heo e ical amewo k o unde s anding he d i e s o digi al en-
ep eneu ship. Mo eo e , he indings will in o m policymake s, en ep eneu s, and
in es o s in de eloping e ec i e s a egies o os e a h i ing digi al en ep eneu ial
ecosys em.
Agains he abo e-men ioned backg ound, his s udy add esses he ollowing esea ch
ques ions:
(a) To wha ex en do digi al access, p o ec ion, and adop ion indi idually and collec i ely
in luence he le el o echnological en ep eneu ship in a coun y?
(b)
Does digi al p o ec ion mode a e he ela ionship be ween digi al access and echno-
logical en ep eneu ship, and i so, how?
(c)
Wha is he media ing ole o digi al adop ion in he ela ionships be ween digi al
access, p o ec ion, and echnological en ep eneu ship?
The emainde o he pape is o ganised as ollows: Fi s , a li e a u e e iew is p o-
ided. The esea ch design and me hodology a e hen p esen ed, ollowed by he s udy’s
esul s. The esul s a e hen discussed in de ail, and implica ions o p ac ice and heo y
a e ou lined. The pape ends wi h he conclusions and sugges ions o u u e esea ch.
2. Li e a u e Re iew and Hypo heses De elopmen
2.1. The Digi al Re olu ion and I s Impac on Technological En ep eneu ship
The p o ound impac o he digi al e olu ion on he en ep eneu ial landscape in
many pa s o he wo ld is widely ecognised (Bican and B em 2020;Elia e al. 2020;
S eininge e al. 2022). Technological en ep eneu ship, also known as digi al en ep eneu -
ship, which is cha ac e ised by he c ea ion and g ow h o en u es ha le e age digi al
echnologies o inno a i e p oduc s o se ices, has eme ged as a key d i e o economic
g ow h and socie al ad ancemen (Pe i and Zhang 2011). Some empi ical s udies in e
posi i e in e linkages be ween he obus ness o an a ea’s digi al ecosys em and he deg ee
o en ep eneu ial ac i i y he ein (Elia e al. 2020;Zah a e al. 2023). I is obse ed ha dig-
i al echnologies lowe ba ie s o en y, democ a ise access o in o ma ion and esou ces,
and enable he c ea ion o new business models (Bican and B em 2020;K aus e al. 2019;
S eininge 2019). These, in u n, play pi o al oles in os e ing inno a ion, d i ing economic
g ow h, and c ea ing employmen oppo uni ies (Zhao and Weng 2024). The p esen li e a-
u e e iew del es in o he mul i ace ed digi al ecosys em and i s impac on echnological
en ep eneu ship, examining how he key componen s o he digi al ecosys em in luence
he eme gence, g ow h, and success o echnology-d i en en u es.
2.2. Digi al Access and Technological En ep eneu ship
Digi al access, de ined as he abili y o indi iduals and businesses o u ilise digi al
echnologies such as he in e ne , mobile de ices, and compu e s (Gomes and Lopes
2022), is widely ecognised as a c i ical ac o in echnological en ep eneu ship. Exis ing
esea ch indica es a s ong co ela ion be ween digi al access and en ep eneu ial ac i i y,
pa icula ly in he ealm o digi al inno a ion (Gigau i e al. 2023;Koomson e al. 2023;
Ly h ea is e al. 2022;Nguyen e al. 2024;Reddick e al. 2020;Soluk e al. 2021).
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 185 3 o 15
Speci ically, inc eased in e ne pene a ion and b oadband a ailabili y ha e been
linked o a ise in en ep eneu ial endea ou s (Chen e al. 2018;Pipi wanichaka n and
Wong ada 2020). Digi al access p o ides en ep eneu s wi h a weal h o in o ma ion,
knowledge, and esou ces, os e ing an en i onmen conduci e o inno a ion. Addi ionally,
online pla o ms acili a e collabo a ion, knowledge sha ing, and access o open-sou ce
ools, he eby accele a ing he inno a ion p ocess (Linzalone e al. 2020).
Fu he mo e, digi al access enables en ep eneu s o each a global audience wi h mini-
mal ini ial in es men (Wa son e al. 2018). E-comme ce pla o ms, social media, and digi al
ma ke ing ools ha e democ a ised access o ma ke s, allowing en ep eneu s o connec
wi h cus ome s, supplie s, and pa ne s ac oss geog aphical bounda ies
(Pe ei a e al. 2023). This expanded ma ke each can signi ican ly boos sales, e enue, and
o e all business g ow h.
Mo eo e , digi al access unlocks a ple ho a o g ow h oppo uni ies o echnological
en ep eneu s. Cloud compu ing se ices o e scalable and cos -e ec i e in as uc u e
(Li and Yao 2021), while digi al paymen sys ems acili a e seamless ansac ions, enabling
en ep eneu s o ap in o new ma ke s and e enue s eams (Ogunmuyiwa and Amida
2022).
Howe e , ba ie s o digi al access, pa icula ly in de eloping coun ies and unde -
se ed communi ies, pe sis . These ba ie s include he high cos o in e ne access, lack
o digi al skills, and in as uc u al gaps in u al and emo e a eas (Cumming e al. 2022;
Liu e al. 2022;Mo is e al. 2022;Zhao and Weng 2024). Such challenges c ea e a digi al
di ide, excluding a signi ican po ion o po en ial en ep eneu s om he digi al economy
(Ly h ea is e al. 2022). Despi e hese obs acles, he posi i e impac o digi al access on
echnological en ep eneu ship is e iden . The e o e, he ollowing hypo hesis is p oposed:
H1. Digi al access has a posi i e in luence on echnological en ep eneu ship.
2.3. Digi al P o ec ion and Technological En ep eneu ship
Digi al p o ec ion, which includes cybe secu i y measu es and in ellec ual p ope y
igh s (IPRs) (GEDI 2020), is c i ical o c ea ing a sa e and us wo hy digi al ecosys em. By
sa egua ding digi al asse s and in ellec ual p ope y agains unau ho ised access, he , and
misuse, digi al p o ec ion p o ides a ounda ion upon which en ep eneu s can con iden ly
inno a e (Chandna and Tiwa i 2023;Pa hak e al. 2013).
Empi ical e idence sugges s ha digi al p o ec ion and echnological en ep eneu ship
a e posi i ely ela ed. Acco ding o a Eu opean Union In ellec ual P ope y O ice (EUIPO)
s udy (2021), s onge in ellec ual p ope y igh s p o ec ion in EU coun ies co ela es wi h
imp o ed i m pe o mance. Yang e al. (2014) ound ha obus IPR egimes p omo e
inno a ion, especially in high-income economies. Hasani e al. (2023) e ealed a posi i e
ela ionship be ween cybe secu i y echnology adop ion and o ganisa ional pe o mance
in UK SMEs.
Howe e , while s ong digi al p o ec ion is gene ally bene icial, o e ly s ingen
measu es can be p oblema ic. Excessi e p o ec ion may s i le inno a ion and compe i-
ion by es ic ing en ep eneu s’ abili y o expand on exis ing ideas and echnologies
(Gyedu e al. 2024). Pa hak e al. (2013) cau ion ha o e ly agg essi e IPR en o cemen can
s i le c ea i i y and echnological en ep eneu ship. Policymake s, he e o e, mus s ike
a delica e balance be ween p o ec ion and inno a ion o os e a conduci e en i onmen
o echnological en ep eneu ship, he eby d i ing economic g ow h and echnological
ad ancemen .
Gi en hese conside a ions, he ollowing hypo hesis is p oposed:
H2. Digi al p o ec ion posi i ely in luences digi al en ep eneu ship.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 185 4 o 15
2.4. Digi al Adop ion and Technological En ep eneu ship
Digi al adop ion desc ibes he complex p ocess h ough which indi iduals, busi-
nesses, and socie ies emb ace and in eg a e digi al echnologies in o hei ope a ions and
s a egies (O se e al. 2019). This concep encompasses a ious dimensions, including
echnology usage, digi al skill de elopmen , and o ganisa ional ans o ma ion (Lee e al.
2021). P e ious esea ch has consis en ly demons a ed a s ong posi i e co ela ion be-
ween digi al adop ion and echnological en ep eneu ship, wi h some s udies inding ha
en ep eneu s who e ec i ely adop digi al echnologies a e mo e likely o expe ience en-
hanced en ep eneu ial capabili ies, inc eased p oduc i i y, and imp o ed compe i i eness
(Be man e al. 2023;Holzmann and G ego i 2023;Paul e al. 2023;S eininge e al. 2022;
Zhang e al. 2023). Acco ding o Zah a e al. (2023) businesses ha adop digi al ech-
nologies a e mo e likely o in oduce inno a i e solu ions and s ay compe i i e in he
ma ke . Fu he mo e, digi al ools such as e-comme ce pla o ms, social media, and digi al
ma ke ing s a egies enable en ep eneu s o each b oade and mo e di e se ma ke s,
allowing businesses o connec wi h cus ome s globally (Pe ei a e al. 2023). Likewise,
digi al echnologies, h ough au oma ion, cloud compu ing, and da a analy ics, also en-
able businesses o op imise hei p ocesses, educing cos s and imp o ing p oduc i i y
(Choi e al. 2016;Muhammad e al. 2018).
Despi e hese bene i s, se e al ba ie s can hinde digi al adop ion. Mkansi (2022)
ound ha access o unding and a o dable echnology solu ions is c ucial o p omo ing
digi al adop ion among SMEs, who o en s uggle wi h limi ed inancial esou ces. Simila ly,
Ke g oach (2021) epo s ha a lack o digi al skills emains a majo obs acle, which indica es
he impo ance o upskilling and eskilling he wo k o ce o keep pace wi h echnological
ad ancemen s. Based on he indings om p e ious s udies, i is hypo hesised ha :
H3. Digi al adop ion has a posi i e in luence on digi al en ep eneu ship.
2.5. In e play o Digi al Access, P o ec ion, and Adop ion
Despi e ongoing esea ch, signi ican gaps exis in unde s anding he complex in e -
play o digi al access, p o ec ion, and adop ion in os e ing echnological en ep eneu ship.
While each elemen is signi ican , he e is unce ain y abou hei ela i e impo ance
and in e ac ion e ec s. Some s udies p io i ise access, claiming ha i is essen ial o
o he ac o s (e.g., Pipi wanichaka n and Wong ada 2020;Li and Yao 2021). O he s em-
phasise he impo ance o p o ec ion as a p e equisi e o aking en ep eneu ial isks
(Ma in e al. 2019;Deloi e 2013). Mo e esea ch is equi ed o disen angle hese ela-
ionships. Fu he mo e, he mechanisms by which hese ac o s a ec en ep eneu ship
a e unclea . Fo example, while digi al access b oadens ma ke s, i s p ecise impac s on
inno a ion and en ep eneu ial beha iou emains unclea . Mo e esea ch is needed o
iden i y he causal pa hways. By add essing hese gaps, a mo e nuanced unde s anding o
he digi al ecosys em and i s impac on echnological en ep eneu ship is ob ained. The
subsec ions ha ollow p opose speci ic mechanisms o how digi al access, p o ec ion, and
adop ion in e ac wi h echnological en ep eneu ship.
2.5.1. Mode a ing Role o Digi al P o ec ion
P e ious esea ch has examined he impac o digi al p o ec ion on he in e play
be ween digi al access, adop ion, and en ep eneu ship, e ealing a complex landscape.
Robus digi al p o ec ion mechanisms appea o s eng hen he link be ween digi al ac-
cess and adop ion, while also c ea ing a mo e a ou able en i onmen o echnological
en ep eneu ship (Chen and Wu 2022;Chen e al. 2023). Fo ins ance, ailo ed cybe secu-
i y solu ions ha e been iden i ied as c i ical o businesses o h i e in he digi al age by
p o ec ing hem om he nega i e e ec s o cybe h ea s (Anonymous 2022). Fu he mo e,
in ellec ual p ope y igh s play an impo an ole in ein o cing he ela ionship be ween
in o ma ion a ailabili y and echnology en ep eneu ship, emphasising he signi icance o
legal amewo ks in os e ing inno a ion (Yeganegi e al. 2021).
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 185 5 o 15
Howe e , he impac o digi al p o ec ion a ies, depending on he ac o and he
con ex . Micho a (2013) emphasises ha secu i y conce ns a e a signi ican ba ie o
emale en ep eneu s, highligh ing he need o ailo ed digi al p o ec ion s a egies ha
ake in o accoun he unique challenges ha di e en g oups ace. While websi e secu i y
and con en ha e been shown o imp o e use expe ience and us , he eby inc easing
adop ion (Na a ajan e al. 2012), he in e ac ion o digi al and ins i u ional a o dances
can be complex. Fo example, Liu e al. (2023) disco e ed ha in ellec ual p ope y
igh s p o ec ion sys ems can ha m he ela ionship be ween digi al inno a ion adop ion,
inno a ion speed, and ope a ing e iciency. To imp o e ou unde s anding o digi al
p o ec ion’s mul i ace ed ole, mo e esea ch is needed o in es iga e i s mode a ing e ec
in di e se con ex s using a a ie y o me hodologies and da a sou ces.
Based on he exis ing li e a u e and he po en ial mechanisms iden i ied, he ollowing
hypo heses a e p oposed:
H4. Digi al p o ec ion mode a es he posi i e ela ionship be ween digi al access and digi al adop ion.
H5. Digi al p o ec ion mode a es he posi i e ela ionship be ween digi al adop ion and digi al
en ep eneu ship.
2.5.2. The Media ing E ec o Digi al Adop ion
The ela ionship be ween digi al p o ec ion and en ep eneu ial ou comes is mul-
i ace ed, ex ending beyond a simple di ec co ela ion (Ma in e al. 2019). Whils a
secu e digi al en i onmen , os e ed by obus cybe secu i y measu es and da a p i acy
egula ions, is conduci e o en ep eneu ship (Chandna and Tiwa i 2023), i does no
au oma ically gua an ee success. Resea ch o en e eals a posi i e associa ion be ween
s ong digi al p o ec ion amewo ks and inc eased en ep eneu ial ac i i y, pa icula ly
in echnological sec o s (Chandna and Tiwa i 2023;Pa hak e al. 2013;Shephe d and Ma-
jch zak 2022), bu his co ela ion does no necessa ily imply causa ion. O he ac o s,
including he ease o doing business, access o alen , ma ke size, economic s abili y, edu-
ca ion le els, access o capi al, and cul u al a i udes owa ds isk- aking, play signi ican
oles in shaping en ep eneu ial ou comes (Gawe 2022;Manimala e al. 2019;She i and
Mu a o 2015;Zah a e al. 2023;Zhang e al. 2023). Fo ins ance, some Eu opean coun ies
wi h s ingen da a p o ec ion egula ions ha e no expe ienced a p opo ional su ge in
digi al en ep eneu ship compa ed o coun ies wi h mo e elaxed egula ions bu dynamic
en ep eneu ial cul u es (Deloi e 2013). This obse a ion unde sco es ha while digi al
p o ec ion is essen ial, i is no he sole de e minan . A balanced app oach o digi al p o ec-
ion ha os e s us and secu i y wi hou s i ling en ep eneu ial c ea i i y and agili y is
he e o e c ucial. Some s udies unde sco e he complemen a y oles o some elemen s o
he en ep eneu ial ecosys ems in ansla ing he bene i s o digi al p o ec ion in o angible
en ep eneu ial success (De Be na di e al. 2020;Can ne e al. 2021).
This s udy p oposes ha digi al adop ion h ough, in e alia, he use o digi al ools
and online p esence, se es as a c ucial media ing ac o in he ela ionship be ween digi al
access and digi al en ep eneu ship. I posi s ha digi al p o ec ion enhances digi al access,
which, in u n, os e s digi al adop ion. This adop ion hen enables en ep eneu s o
con iden ly engage in online ac i i ies, educing he isk o cybe a acks and da a b eaches
while simul aneously expanding ma ke each. Da a om Gomes and Lopes (2023) and
Zhang e al. (2023) indica e a posi i e co ela ion be ween coun ies wi h high digi al
adop ion a es and ib an en ep eneu ial ecosys ems, pa icula ly in he echnology
sec o . Based on his, he ollowing hypo heses a e p oposed:
H6. Digi al adop ion media es he ela ionship be ween digi al access and digi al en ep eneu ship.
H7. The media ing e ec o digi al adop ion on he ela ionship be ween digi al access and digi al
en ep eneu ship is s onge in en i onmen s wi h obus digi al p o ec ion measu es.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 185 6 o 15
3. Resea ch Design and Me hodology
This s udy uses a quan i a i e, c oss-sec ional esea ch design o examine he e-
la ionships be ween digi al access, p o ec ion, and adop ion, as well as hei e ec s on
echnological en ep eneu ship. Seconda y da a we e sou ced om he GEDI Ins i u e’s
Digi al Pla o m Economy (DPE) Index 2020 da ase , which co e s 116 coun ies and acks
he g ow h o he digi al pla o m economy. This da ase has a la ge sample size, allowing
o c oss-na ional compa isons and an in es iga ion o complex in e ac ions be ween he
a iables unde conside a ion.
3.1. Measu emen and Ope a ionalisa ion o Va iables
The s udy ocuses on ou main a iables. These a e desc ibed below.
•
Digi al access: This a iable, measu ed by he DPE Index’s digi al access sub-index,
cap u es he ex en o which indi iduals and businesses can u ilise digi al echnologies
(e.g., in e ne pene a ion, mobile phone usage, and b oadband a ailabili y).
•
Digi al p o ec ion: This a iable, ope a ionalised h ough he DPE Index’s digi al
p o ec ion sub-index, assesses he s eng h o cybe secu i y measu es and in ellec ual
p ope y igh s amewo ks (e.g., cybe secu i y eadiness and in ellec ual p ope y
p o ec ion).
•
Digi al adop ion: This a iable, measu ed by he DPE Index’s digi al adop ion sub-
index, e lec s he deg ee o which digi al echnologies a e in eg a ed in o business
ope a ions and s a egies (e.g., use o digi al ools and online p esence).
•
Technological en ep eneu ship: This a iable, calcula ed using he DPE Index’s
echnology en ep eneu ship sub-index, measu es he le el o en ep eneu ial ac i i y
in he echnology sec o (e.g., numbe o new echnology en u es and in es men in
echnology s a ups).
To accoun o po en ial con ounding ac o s, he s udy includes one con ol a i-
able, pe capi a g oss domes ic p oduc (GDP), which is known o impac bo h digi al
de elopmen and en ep eneu ial ac i i y.
3.2. S a is ical Analysis
To in es iga e he di ec and indi ec e ec s o digi al access, p o ec ion, and adop ion
on echnological en ep eneu ship, PROCESS eg ession analysis is used (Hayes 2018).
The so wa e Sma PLS 4 by Ringle e al. (2024) was used o his pu pose. PROCESS is
essen ially an ex ension o mul iple eg ession analysis bu is pa icula ly well-sui ed o
analysing mode a ing and media ing e ec s because i allows a ho ough examina ion o
he in e ac ions be ween mul iple p edic o s, media o s, and mode a o s. The analysis
en ails iden i ying he key a iable, speci ying he model, and las ly, model es ima ion. To
ensu e he obus ness o he esul s, boo s apping is used o es ima e he indi ec e ec s.
Be o e he PROCESS analysis, desc ip i e s a is ics and Spea man’s co ela ion es s a e
used o imp o e unde s anding o he a iables’ dis ibu ions and ela ionships.
3.3. E hical Conside a ions
This s udy is based on publicly a ailable seconda y da a om he GEDI Ins i u e’s
DPE Index 2020 da ase . As a esul , no p ima y da a we e collec ed, and e hical app o al
was no equi ed. None heless, igo ous esea ch e hics we e ollowed by iden i ying he
da a sou ce and ensu ing accu a e epo ing and in e p e a ion o he indings.
4. Resul s
Table 1illus a es desc ip i e s a is ics o i e key a iables associa ed wi h he digi al
ecosys em and echnological en ep eneu ship in 116 coun ies: digi al access, digi al
p o ec ion, digi al adop ion, pe capi a GDP, and echnological en ep eneu ship.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 185 7 o 15
Table 1. Desc ip i e s a is ics.
Digi al Access Digi al
P o ec ion
Digi al
Adop ion
Pe Capi a
GDP (USD)
Technological
En ep eneu ship
Valid 116 116 116 116 116
Mean 36.23 36.23 36.23 24,018.78 34.35
S anda d
De ia ion 28.82 27.49 22.37 21,229.62 19.39
Minimum 0.2 0.1 0.4 702 9.3
Maximum 100 100 100 116,936 92.3
Sou ce: Au ho s’ own wo k.
The mean sco es o digi al access, p o ec ion, and adop ion a e i ually iden ical
(36.23, 36.23, and 36.22, espec i ely). Howe e , each shows signi ican a ia ion ac oss
coun ies, wi h s anda d de ia ions anging om 22.37 (adop ion) o 28.81 (access). The
wide ange o pe capi a GDP (USD 702 o USD 116,936) e lec s subs an ial economic
dispa i ies be ween coun ies, which a e likely o in luence digi al capabili ies and en-
ep eneu ial ac i i y. Technological en ep eneu ship sco es a y mode a ely (9.3 o 92.3).
These p elimina y indings sugges po en ial in e ela ionships among digi al access,
p o ec ion, and adop ion. The b oad ange o alues o all a iables highligh s he di e si y
o he global digi al landscape. The la ge s anda d de ia ion in pe capi a GDP highligh s
he signi ican economic dispa i ies be ween coun ies, po en ially a ec ing hei digi al
capabili ies and en ep eneu ial endea ou s.
This desc ip i e analysis lays he g oundwo k o unde s anding he dis ibu ion
and a iabili y o key a iables. Fu he s a is ical analyses will examine he ela ionships
be ween hese ac o s o u he comp ehend he complex in e play wi hin he digi al
ecosys em and he e ec s on echnological en ep eneu ship.
4.1. No mali y Assessmen
The Shapi o–Wilk es o mul i a ia e no mali y was conduc ed o assess whe he
he da a me he assump ion o no mali y. The es yielded a s a is ically signi ican esul
(Shapi o–Wilk = 0.634, p< 0.001), indica ing ha he da a signi ican ly de ia ed om a
mul i a ia e no mal dis ibu ion. The esul s a e illus a ed in Table 2.
Table 2. Assump ion checks: Shapi o–Wilk es o mul i a ia e no mali y.
Shapi o–Wilk p-Value
0.634 <0.001
Sou ce: Au ho s’ own wo k.
4.2. Spea man’s Rank Co ela ion Analysis
Spea man’s ank co ela ion analysis was pe o med o assess he ela ionships be-
ween digi al echnology en ep eneu ship, digi al access, digi al p o ec ion, digi al adop-
ion, and pe capi a GDP. The ou come is p esen ed in Table 3. The esul s e ealed
signi ican posi i e co ela ions be ween all a iables.
Speci ically, echnological en ep eneu ship demons a ed e y s ong posi i e co e-
la ions wi h digi al access ( ho = 0.897, p< 0.001), digi al adop ion ( ho = 0.942, p< 0.001)
and digi al p o ec ion ( ho = 0.909, p< 0.001). This sugges s ha coun ies wi h highe
le els o digi al access, digi al adop ion, and p o ec ion end o exhibi g ea e le els o
echnological en ep eneu ship.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 185 8 o 15
Table 3. Spea man’s co ela ion es esul s.
Va iable Technological
En ep eneu ship Digi al Access Digi al P o ec ion Pe Capi a GDP
(USD) Digi al Adop ion
1. Technological
En ep eneu ship -
2. Digi al Access 0.897 *** -
3. Digi al P o ec ion 0.909 *** 0.890 *** -
4. Pe Capi a GDP 0.873 *** 0.881 *** 0.886 *** -
4. Digi al Adop ion 0.942 *** 0.885 *** 0.872 *** 0.901 ***
*** p< 0.001. Sou ce: Au ho s’ own wo k.
Simila ly, a e y s ong posi i e co ela ion was ound be ween digi al access and
digi al p o ec ion ( ho = 0.890, p< 0.001), indica ing ha coun ies wi h g ea e digi al
access also end o ha e s onge digi al p o ec ion measu es in place.
Fu he mo e, all ou a iables— echnological en ep eneu ship, digi al access, digi al
adop ion, and digi al p o ec ion—exhibi ed e y s ong posi i e co ela ions wi h pe capi a
GDP (2017) ( ho = 0.873, 0.881, 0.901 and 0.886, espec i ely, all p< 0.001). This sugges s
ha highe le els o economic g ow h a e associa ed wi h g ea e digi al access, inc eased
digi al adop ion, s onge digi al p o ec ion, and inc eased echnological en ep eneu ship.
These indings unde sco e he in e connec ed na u e o hese ac o s wi hin he digi al
ecosys em. While a co ela ion does no imply causa ion, he s ong posi i e ela ionships
sugges ha digi al access, digi al p o ec ion, and economic g ow h may play mu ually
ein o cing oles in os e ing digi al en ep eneu ship. A u he analysis was hen con-
duc ed o de e mine he explana o y ela ionships be ween hese a iables and o iden i y
po en ial media ing o mode a ing ac o s ha may in luence hese ela ionships.
4.3. PROCESS Reg ession Analysis
The compu e so wa e Sma PLS e sion 4 was used o un he PROCESS eg ession
es . Figu e 1illus a es he ela ionships be ween digi al access, digi al adop ion, digi al
p o ec ion, and echnological en ep eneu ship, wi h pe capi a GDP as a con ol a iable.
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 16
Simila ly, a e y s ong posi i e co ela ion was ound be ween digi al access and
digi al p o ec ion ( ho = 0.890, p < 0.001), indica ing ha coun ies wi h g ea e digi al ac-
cess also end o ha e s onge digi al p o ec ion measu es in place.
Fu he mo e, all ou a iables— echnological en ep eneu ship, digi al access, dig-
i al adop ion, and digi al p o ec ion—exhibi ed e y s ong posi i e co ela ions wi h pe
capi a GDP (2017) ( ho = 0.873, 0.881, 0.901 and 0.886, espec i ely, all p < 0.001). This sug-
ges s ha highe le els o economic g ow h a e associa ed wi h g ea e digi al access, in-
c eased digi al adop ion, s onge digi al p o ec ion, and inc eased echnological en e-
p eneu ship.
These indings unde sco e he in e connec ed na u e o hese ac o s wi hin he dig-
i al ecosys em. While a co ela ion does no imply causa ion, he s ong posi i e ela ion-
ships sugges ha digi al access, digi al p o ec ion, and economic g ow h may play mu-
ually ein o cing oles in os e ing digi al en ep eneu ship. A u he analysis was hen
conduc ed o de e mine he explana o y ela ionships be ween hese a iables and o
iden i y po en ial media ing o mode a ing ac o s ha may in luence hese ela ionships.
Table 3. Spea man’s co ela ion es esul s.
Va iable Technological En ep eneu ship
Digi al
Access
Digi al
P o ec ion
Pe Capi a
GDP (USD)
Digi al
Adop ion
1. Technological En ep eneu ship -
2. Digi al Access 0.897 *** -
3. Digi al P o ec ion 0.909 *** 0.890 *** -
4. Pe Capi a GDP 0.873 *** 0.881 *** 0.886 *** -
4. Digi al Adop ion 0.942 *** 0.885 *** 0.872 *** 0.901 ***
*** p < 0.001. Sou ce: Au ho s’ own wo k.
4.3. PROCESS Reg ession Analysis
The compu e so wa e Sma PLS e sion 4 was used o un he PROCESS eg ession
es . Figu e 1 illus a es he ela ionships be ween digi al access, digi al adop ion, digi al
p o ec ion, and echnological en ep eneu ship, wi h pe capi a GDP as a con ol a iable.
Figu e 1. Pa h diag am o he ela ionships be ween digi al access, digi al adop ion, digi al p o ec-
ion, and echnological en ep eneu ship. Sou ce: Au ho s’ own wo k.
The de ails o he di ec and indi ec effec s o he p edic o s on he independen a -
iable a e cap u ed in Tables 4–6. The esul s o he analysis, summa ised in Table 4, demon-
Figu e 1. Pa h diag am o he ela ionships be ween digi al access, digi al adop ion, digi al p o ec ion,
and echnological en ep eneu ship. Sou ce: Au ho s’ own wo k.
The de ails o he di ec and indi ec e ec s o he p edic o s on he independen
a iable a e cap u ed in Tables 4–6. The esul s o he analysis, summa ised in Table 4,
demons a e signi ican di ec e ec s o bo h digi al access and p o ec ion on echnological
en ep eneu ship ac oss he 116 coun ies analysed. Speci ically, digi al access posi i ely
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 185 15 o 15
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