Lang o d, Zannie (Ed.)
Book
Globalisa ion and Li elihood T ans o ma ions in he
Indonesian Seaweed Indus y
Ea hscan Food and Ag icul u e
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Taylo & F ancis G oup
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Lang o d, Zannie (Ed.) (2024) : Globalisa ion and Li elihood T ans o ma ions
in he Indonesian Seaweed Indus y, Ea hscan Food and Ag icul u e, ISBN 978-1-003-82343-8,
Rou ledge, London,
h ps://doi.o g/10.4324/9781003183860
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Globalisa ion and Li elihood
T ans o ma ions in he Indonesian
Seaweed Indus y
This book explo es he apidly changing seaweed indus y in Indonesia, he la ges
global p oduce o ca ageenan-bea ing seaweeds.
Seaweed p oduc ion in Indonesia has g own exponen ially o e he las wen y
yea s, and u al communi ies ac oss he coun y ha e emb aced his new li elihood
ac i i y. This book begins wi h an examina ion o he global ca ageenan seaweed
indus y, om he global ma ke o ca ageenan in p ocessed oods, o he na ional
and egional con ex s in Indonesia ac oss which i is a med, p ocessed, and aded.
I hen explo es he ways ha u al communi ies ha e eshaped hei li es a ound
seaweed p oduc ion, wi h chap e s on ag a ian ans o ma ions, nego ia ions o e
access o sea space, a me decision-making in p esence o en i onmen al, social,
and economic cons ain s, he ole o women and casual labou e s in he indus y, and
he ma ke ing o seaweed h ough social ne wo ks. Based on a mul i-disciplina y
esea ch ini ia i e, his book demons a es he in e ela edness o en i onmen al,
social, and economic dynamics on seaweed p oduc ion, p ocessing, and ade, and
a gues o key policy in e en ions o suppo he sus ainable de elopmen o he
indus y in he con ex o clima e change. I also p o ides a lens o unde s anding
and imp o ing he b oade p ocesses o sus ainable u al de elopmen in a apidly
globalising and comme cialising wo ld.
This book will be o g ea in e es o s uden s and schola s o aquacul u e, ood
sys ems, ag icul u al economics, u al s udies and sus ainable de elopmen .
Zannie Lang o d is Resea ch Fellow a he G i i h Uni e si y Asia Ins i u e and
an Hono a y Resea ch Fellow in he School o Ag icul u e and Food Sus ainabili y
a he Uni e si y o Queensland, whe e she unde ook he esea ch o his book.
He cu en esea ch explo es shi s in de elopmen inancing in Indonesia and he
Paci ic. She has also unde aken a ange o applied esea ch p ojec s ocusing on
land enu e, global alue chains, smallholde ag ibusiness and u al de elopmen
inancing in No he n Aus alia, Indonesia and he Paci ic.
Clima e Neu al and Resilien Fa ming Sys ems
P ac ical Solu ions o Clima e Mi iga ion and Adap a ion
Edi ed by Sekha Udaya Nago hu
Sus ainable Apple B eeding and Cul i a ion in Ge many
Commons-Based Ag icul u e and Social-Ecological Resilience
Hend ik Wol e
Food Policy in he Uni ed Kingdom
An In oduc ion
Ma in Ca ahe , Sinéad Fu ey and Rebecca Wells
Peasan s, Capi alism, and he Wo k o E ic R. Wol
Re i ing C i ical Ag a ian S udies
Ma k Tilzey, F ase Sugden, and Da id Seddon
Peasan s, Capi alism, and Impe ialism in an Age o Poli ico-Ecological C isis
Ma k Tilzey and F ase Sugden
Genome Edi ing and Global Food Secu i y
Molecula Enginee ing Technologies o Sus ainable Ag icul u e
Zeba Khan, Du e Shahwa , and Yasmin Heikal
Uni e si y Engagemen wi h Fa ming Communi ies in A ica
Communi y Ac ion Resea ch Pla o ms
Edi ed by An hony Ege u, Megan Lindow, and Kay Mui Le esche
Ea hscan Food and Ag icul u e
Fo mo e in o ma ion abou his se ies, please isi : www. ou ledge.com/
books/se ies/ECEFA/
Globalisa ion and Li elihood
T ans o ma ions in he
Indonesian Seaweed Indus y
Edi ed by
Zannie Lang o d
LONDON AND NEW YORK
Fi s published 2024
by Rou ledge
4 Pa k Squa e, Mil on Pa k, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Rou ledge
605 Thi d A enue, New Yo k, NY 10158
Rou ledge is an imp in o he Taylo & F ancis G oup, an in o ma business
© 2024 selec ion and edi o ial ma e , Zannie Lang o d; indi idual chap e s,
he con ibu o s
The igh o Zannie Lang o d o be iden i ied as he au ho o he edi o ial
ma e ial, and o he au ho s o hei indi idual chap e s, has been asse ed
in acco dance wi h sec ions 77 and 78 o he Copy igh , Designs and
Pa en s Ac 1988.
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com, has been made a ailable unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-Non
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T adema k no ice: P oduc o co po a e names may be adema ks o
egis e ed adema ks, and a e used only o iden i ica ion and explana ion
wi hou in en o in inge.
B i ish Lib a y Ca aloguing-in-Publica ion Da a
A ca alogue eco d o his book is a ailable om he B i ish Lib a y
Lib a y o Cong ess Ca aloging-in-Publica ion Da a
Names: Lang o d, Zannie, edi o .
Ti le: Globalisa ion and li elihood ans o ma ions in he Indonesian
seaweed indus y / edi ed by Zannie Lang o d.
Desc ip ion: New Yo k : Rou ledge, 2024. | Includes bibliog aphical
e e ences and index.
Iden i ie s: LCCN 2023035357 (p in ) | LCCN 2023035358 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032025469 (ha dback) | ISBN 9781032025490 (pape back) |
ISBN 9781003183860 (ebook)
Subjec s: LCSH: Ma ine algae indus y—Indonesia. | Ma ine algae
indus y—En i onmen al aspec s—Indonesia. | Ma ine algae indus y—
Social aspec s—Indonesia. | Ma ine algae indus y—Economic
aspec s—Indonesia.
Classi ica ion: LCC SH390.5.I5 G46 2024 (p in ) |
LCC SH390.5.I5 (ebook) | DDC 641.6/9809598—dc23/eng/20231107
LC eco d a ailable a h ps://lccn.loc.go /2023035357
LC ebook eco d a ailable a h ps://lccn.loc.go /2023035358
ISBN: 978-1-032-02546-9 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-02549-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-18386-0 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003183860
Typese in Times New Roman
by codeMan a
Lis o igu es ii
Lis o ables xi
Lis o con ibu o s xiii
P e ace: The seaweed expansion x ii
ZANNIE LANGFORD
Acknowledgemen s xxiii
Lis o abb e ia ions xx
In oduc ion 1
ZANNIE LANGFORD
PART I
Globalisa ion and he Indonesian seaweed indus y 21
1 The global ca ageenan indus y 23
JING ZHANG, ZANNIE LANGFORD, AND SCOTT WALDRON
2 The Indonesian seaweed indus y 51
SCOTT WALDRON, ZANNIE LANGFORD, SYAMSUL PASARIBU,
NUNUNG NURYARTONO, BOEDI JULIANTO, AND IRSYADI SIRADJUDDIN
3 The Sou h Sulawesi seaweed indus y 77
RADHIYAH RUHON, SCOTT WALDRON, ZANNIE LANGFORD,
ADAM KOMAREK, JING ZHANG, AND EKO RUDDY CAHYADI
PART II
Li elihood ans o ma ions 99
4 Expo commodi y on ie s and he ans o ma ion o illage li e 101
ZANNIE LANGFORD, RADHIYAH RUHON, ZULUNG ZACH WALYANDRA,
AND RISYA ARSYI ARMIS
Con en s
i Con en s
5 F om communal access o p i a e owne ship: Nego ia ing
igh s o he sea 123
ZANNIE LANGFORD, RADHIYAH RUHON, ZULUNG ZACH WALYANDRA,
RISYA ARSYI ARMIS, AND IMRAN LAPONG
6 En i onmen al and socio-economic cons ain s o ma ine
seaweed a ming 150
ZANNIE LANGFORD, RADHIYAH RUHON, ZULUNG ZACH WALYANDRA,
IMRAN LAPONG, AND RISYA ARSYI ARMIS
7 Fa me decision-making in he Indonesian seaweed indus y 177
ZANNIE LANGFORD, RADHIYAH RUHON, ZULUNG ZACH WALYANDRA,
IMRAN LAPONG, AND RISYA ARSYI ARMIS
8 Gende ed wo k and casual labou in he Indonesian seaweed
indus y 194
ZANNIE LANGFORD, RADHIYAH RUHON, ZULUNG ZACH WALYANDRA,
RISYA ARSYI ARMIS, AND IMRAN LAPONG
9 Seaweedma ke ing: illage-based ade sas inancialand
ma ke in e media ies 210
ZANNIE LANGFORD, RADHIYAH RUHON, ZULUNG ZACH WALYANDRA,
RISYA ARSYI ARMIS, AND IMRAN LAPONG
Conclusion 227
ZANNIE LANGFORD
Appendix 1 Reconciling Indonesian seaweed indus y
s a is ics om di e en sou ces 239
ZANNIE LANGFORD, RADHIYAH RUHON, AND SCOTT WALDRON
Appendix 2 Indonesian seaweed- ela ed policies 251
FIKRI FIRMANSYAH SJAHRUDDIN, YANTI N. MUFLIKH,
SCOTT WALDRON, AND RISTI PERMANI
Appendix 3 Ins i u ions in he Indonesian seaweed indus y 265
FIKRI FIRMANSYAH SJAHRUDDIN, YANTI N. MUFLIKH,
SCOTT WALDRON, AND RISTI PERMANI
Appendix 4 Companies in he Indonesian ca ageen
p ocessing sec o 268
IRSYADI SIRADJUDDIN AND BOEDI JULIANTO
Index 271
Figu es
I.1 Global seaweed p oduc ion om a ming and wild ha es ing 2
I.2 Global ma ine seaweed p oduc ion by end use 3
I.3 Global ca ageenan seaweed p oduc ion 4
I.4 Cu en and planned seaweed p oduc ion in Indonesia 5
I.5 Loca ion o Pi u Sunggu illage wi hin Indonesia 9
1.1 Majo hyd ocolloids by ma ke sha e and ma ke alue 24
1.2 P ojec ed g ow h in hyd ocolloid ma ke alue 27
1.3 Applica ions o ca ageenan (ma ke sha e by olume) 28
1.4 Changing ends in global ca ageenan applica ion by sec o ,
1999–2019 29
1.5 Top 10 ca ageenan impo e s by olume in 1990, 1995, 2000,
2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020 31
1.6 Indonesia ca ageenan seaweed expo o he wo ld by alue,
olume, and a e age p ice 41
1.7 The Philippines ca ageenan seaweed expo o he wo ld by
alue, quan i y, and a e age p ice 42
1.8 The majo global ade ne wo ks o ca ageenan seaweed in 2021 42
1.9 The majo global ade ne wo ks o ca ageenan in 2021 43
1.10 Ca ageenan seaweed impo by China in ade alue 44
1.11 Expo o ca ageenan om a ious coun ies by ade alue 45
1.12 A e age mon hly uni alues o ca ageenan expo s om
selec ed coun ies, 2017–23 45
2.1 A coun o go e nmen policies ele an o he Indonesian
seaweed indus y, 1999–2022 53
2.2 Volumes o ma ine seaweed p oduced o sale ac oss Indonesia
in 2020 58
2.3 Nominal seaweed p ices in se en loca ions in Indonesia, 2011–23 61
2.4 Loca ion o majo Indonesian ca ageenan p ocesso s 67
3.1 Annual d ied seaweed expo s 1960–1976 om ou majo po s
in Indonesia 78
3.2 Sou h Sulawesi ca ageenan seaweed supply chain 80
3.3 Seaweed p oduc ion olume, a ea, and numbe o ma ine
a ming households in Sou h Sulawesi 83
xi Con ibu o s
Im an Lapong wo ked as a Junio Scien i ic O ice on he Pa ne ship o Aus-
alia-Indonesia Resea ch Commodi ies g oup p ojec on which his esea ch is
based om Augus 2021–Decembe 2022. He holds a Bachelo o Ma ine Sci-
ence om Hasanuddin Uni e si y, Indonesia, and a Mas e ’s deg ee om James
Cook Uni e si y, Aus alia.
Yan iN.Mu likhis a Facul y Membe o he Depa men o Ag ibusiness a IPM
Uni e si y (Ins i u Pe anian Bogo ), Indonesia. She holds an unde g adua e
deg ee om Bogo Ag icul u al Uni e si y (1999), a Mas e ’s deg ee (2008)
and a PhD (2021) om he Uni e si y o Queensland. He esea ch ocuses on
analysing alue chains in ag ibusiness p oduc s, wi h a pa icula in e es in sys-
ems hinking and dynamics. She has published pape s in Ag icul u al Sys ems
and he Jou nal o Ag ibusiness in De eloping and Eme ging Economies.
Nunung Nu ya ono is ou going Dean o he Facul y o Economics and Man-
agemen a IPB Uni e si y (Ins i u Pe anian Bogo ), Indonesia, and cu en ly
Depu y o Coo dina ion o Social Wel a e Imp o emen a he Coo dina ing
Minis y o Human De elopmen and Cul u al A ai s, Indonesia. His a eas
o expe ise include de elopmen economics, and public policy. Nunung is a
Senio Fellow in he Pa ne ship o Aus alia-Indonesia Resea ch whe e he co-
leads he Commodi ies Domain.
Syamsul Pasa ibu is a Facul y Membe o he Depa men o Economics, a IPB
Uni e si y, Indonesia, whe e he is also an Execu i e Sec e a y a he In e na-
ional Cen e o Applied Finance and Economics (In e CAFE). His main a eas
o esea ch in e es a e de elopmen economics, labou economics and inancial
economics.
Ris i Pe mani is a Senio Lec u e in Ag ibusiness a he School o Ag icul u e and
Food Sus ainabili y a he Uni e si y o Queensland wi h ex ensi e esea ch ex-
pe ience in Indonesian and Aus alian ag icul u al ade, alue chains and poli-
cies. She is a co- ounde o AgLi e Indonesia and cu en ly se es as a membe
o he Boa d o Di ec o s a he Cen e o Indonesian Policy S udies (CIPS).
Radhiyah Ruhon wo ked as a Junio Scien i ic O ice on he Pa ne ship o Aus-
alia-Indonesia Resea ch Commodi ies g oup p ojec on which his esea ch is
based om Augus 2021–Decembe 2022. She holds a Bachelo o Biological
Science om Uni e si as Hasanuddin, Indonesia. He Mas e ’s deg ee, majo -
ing in Ma ine Biology, was unde aken a he Uni e si y o Wes e n Aus alia,
in which she wo ked on coas al ca bon s udy.
I syadi Si adjuddin is a Lec u e in U ban and Regional Planning a Uni e si as
Islam Nege i Alauddin, Indonesia, and pa o he JaSuDa eam. He ea ned his
Bachelo ’s deg ee om IPB Uni e si y (Ins i u Pe anian Bogo ), Indonesia,
and his Mas e ’s deg ee a Uni e si as Hasanuddin, Indonesia. He is cu en ly
pu suing a PhD in Ea h and En i onmen al Technology a Uni e si as Hasa-
nuddin. His in e es s include u al economics and ag opoli an de elopmen . He
also has expe ience in seaweed esea ch and de elopmen .
Con ibu o s x
Fik i Fi mansyah Sjah uddin is a PhD candida e a he Uni e si y o Queens-
land, ocusing on sus ainable co al ee ishe ies managemen . P io o s a ing
his cu en s udies, Fik i has been ex ensi ely in ol ed in ma ine conse a ion in
Indonesia. His ca ee in his ield began when he wo ked o he Fauna & Flo a
In e na ional Aceh P og am and he Wo ld Wide Fund o Na u eIndonesia.
Sco Wald on is an Associa e P o esso in Ag icul u al Economics a he School
o Ag icul u e and Food Sus ainabili y a he Uni e si y o Queensland. Sco
eaches on ag icul u al de elopmen , policy and ade and has conduc ed wen y-
i e ag icul u al de elopmen p ojec s in China, Sou heas Asia and he Paci ic.
Sco is a Senio Fellow in he Pa ne ship o Aus alia-Indonesia Resea ch
whe e he co-leads he Commodi ies Domain.
Zulung Zach Walyand a wo ked as a Junio Scien i ic O ice on he Pa ne -
ship o Aus alia-Indonesia Resea ch Commodi ies g oup p ojec on which
his esea ch is based om Augus 2021–Decembe 2022. He holds a Bachelo
o Fishe ies om Hasanuddin Uni e si y, Indonesia, and p e iously wo ked as
Field Resea che and P og am Facili a o o uni e si y and non-go e nmen
o ganisa ions.
Jing Zhang is an Ag icul u al Economis wi h a di e se ange o expe ise en-
compassing ag icul u al policy, na u al esou ce managemen , a ming sys ems
and he in e na ional ade. She has a Mas e ’s deg ee in inancial managemen
om No hwes A&F Uni e si y, China, and a doc o a e in ag icul u al econom-
ics om he Uni e si y o Queensland. She has de eloped ad anced skills in
s a is ical, ma ke and policy analysis, coupled wi h ex ensi e expe ience and
aluable connec ions wi hin he Chinese ag icul u al sec o .
P e ace
The seaweed expansion
On coas lines ac oss he opics, a change is aking place. Wi h g owing global de-
mand o p ocessed oods, a ma ke has g own o a ype o seaweed li le known
i y yea s ago: he eucheuma oid, o ‘ca ageenan’ seaweeds. Ea ly each mo ning,
he esiden s o Pi u Sunggu illage in Sou h Sulawesi ise and begin hei wo k o
plan ing and ha es ing seaweed. Ma ine seaweed a ming came o Pi u Sunggu
less han wen y yea s ago and has apidly changed he way ha people make
hei li ing – i is now he main li elihood in he illage, and a sou ce o income
o mo e han 62,000 people ac oss Indonesia. Seaweed a ming has d i en a m-
e s o claim la ge a eas o p e iously communal sea space o p i a e use, has
pushed incomes highe and has led o he employmen o la ge numbe s o casual
wage labou e s om su ounding illages. These apid changes ha e ans o med
coas al li elihoods d ama ically o e he pas wo decades as inc easing numbe s
o Indonesian illages ha e been inco po a ed in o global seaweed supply chains.
Howe e , o unde s and how his came o be he case, i is necessa y o look o
whe e his s o y begins: 12,000 kilome es away, in he chilly wa e s o he coas
o I eland.
A seaweed g ows he e, known as ca ageen, o I ish Moss.1 Clinging o ocky
ou c ops, wi h pu plish o eddish-g een an-shaped onds, i g ows wild ac oss
he icy coas lines (Da idson 2014, p. 146). Fo cen u ies I ish people ha e isi ed
he sho eline a low ide, and, using a small, sha p kni e, aken cu ings o he
seaweed o use a home (McMonagle and Mo ison 2020, p. 1289). In he I ish
own o Donegal, seaweed collec o s wande along ‘a ie ed ledge o ock ha
s e ch[es] igh ou in o he bay … ankle-deep in swa hes o angle weed’ picking
ou ‘da k cu ly u [s]’ o ca ageen (Connell 2015, p. 47). They ake hese home
and sp ead hem ou side o d y, lea ing i ‘ o se e al days, day and nigh , in he
ain and dew as well as he sun … [because] ca ageen ough o be bland, he la-
ou s o he sea washed away wi h he ain’ (Connell 2015, p. 49). I ish Moss is
used as a olk emedy o he common cold (McMonagle and Mo ison 2020, p.
1295, Da idson 2014, p. 146) and is an impo an ing edien in adi ional I ish
cooking, whe e i is used o make jellied milk puddings (O’Conno 2017, p. 118;
and see Allen 1977). When boiled in wa e , i eleases a gel known as ca ageenan
which hickens liquids o a smoo h and consis en ex u e. I is his gel which has
become a common ing edien in many p ocessed oods, p oduced in huge olumes
x iii P e ace
and aded a ound he wo ld, inding i s way in o he households o a as numbe
o consume s globally.
Ca ageenan de i es i s name om he I ish name o I ish Moss – ca aigı´n
(‘li le ock’) o ca aigeen (‘moss o he ock’) (Mi chell and Gui y 1983). Ca -
ageenan is a hyd ocolloid – a compound used o hicken, gel and s abilise p o-
cessed oods, as well as in o he p oduc s such as cosme ics and pha maceu icals.
Ca ageenan imp o es he ex u e and shel li e o p ocessed oods – i s ops ice
c eam om becoming g ainy, makes mea p oduc s juicie and is used in a ange o
specialis p oduc s such as glu en- ee b eads, egan mea analogues and non-dai y
milks and cheeses. Ca ageenan is now used in a huge ange o p oduc s, om Ben
and Je y’s ice c eam o Campbell’s soups.2 I is p ized o he smoo h ex u e i
adds o p ocessed oods, and as a egan al e na i e o animal de i ed gela in. I is
mos widely used in he mea and dai y indus ies (Bixle and Po se 2011; G and
View Resea ch 2023) whe e i is alued o i s abili y o mimic a ‘ a y’ eeling ha
consume s enjoy.
The uses o ca ageenan ha e been known since he 1800s, bu ini ially i was
no widely used because aga , a gel wi h simila p ope ies ex ac ed om di e en
ypes o seaweed, could be ob ained mo e cheaply om Japan (C aigie, Co nish
and De eau 2019). Aga became inc easingly popula when i s use in bac e iology
was disco e ed in 1882, and h ough he ea ly 1900s i was impo ed o Eu ope o
scien i ic pu poses, as well as o use in a g owing ange o p epa ed oods. How-
e e , he supply o aga om Japan was in e up ed du ing Wo ld Wa II. Because
o i s impo ance o bac e iology, aga was quickly designa ed a ‘c i ical wa ma e-
ial’ and i was no longe pe mi ed o be used o pu poses o he han bac e iologi-
cal cul u e (Humm 1947). Indus y and go e nmen agencies began sea ching o
new sou ces o aga o bac e iology, and o aga al e na i es o eplace i s use in
oods (Humm 1947, p. 317). Ca ageenan was a possible al e na i e, and i was dis-
co e ed ha al hough aga and ca ageenan wo k in simila ways, he gel p oduced
by ca ageenan was supe io o many applica ions.
The disco e y o many uses o ca ageenan in ood p ocessing d o e a ha es -
ing enzy ac oss Eu opean and Canadian coas lines du ing he wen ie h cen u y.
I ish Moss was ha es ed in inc easingly la ge quan i ies om he 1940s (P ingle
and Ma hieson 1987), and by he mid-1960s i had become clea ha wild s ocks
ha es ed om empe a e wa e s could no suppo he g owing global demand o
ca ageenan much longe (C aigie, Co nish and De eau 2019, p. 4). Resea che s
u ned hei a en ion o sea ching o ano he ype o ca ageenan seaweed – one
ha could be ound o a med in quan i ies la ge enough o suppo he g owing
global indus y.
The e we e se e al ea ly candida es – I idaea, o example, g ew wild on he
coas s o Chile, and Giga ina could be sou ced om Spain (Qin 2018). Howe e ,
wild ha es ing o hese empe a e-wa e species could no supply la ge olumes
o he p oduc . E en ually, in he 1960s, esea che s in he Philippines u ned hei
ocus o Kappaphycus al a ezzi (known colloquially as ‘co onii’) and Eucheuma
den icula um (known colloquially as ‘spinosum’). Thanks o he wa m wa e s,
P e ace xix
abundan sunligh and nu ien ich oceans, hese species g ew quickly in he op-
ics and could be ound g owing wild on ee s and shallow lagoons ac oss Indone-
sia and he Philippines (Imeson 2009 p. 165). In an in e iew wi h he au ho in
2023, well-known Indonesian seaweed indus y p o essional Iain Neish desc ibed
his wo k on an ea ly mission sea ching o seaweeds con aining ca ageenan in
Eas e n Indonesia:
My i s ime in Indonesia was June 1974 when I spen h ee mon hs in
Maluku U a a on a seaweed su ey ... A ha ime, comme cial a ming o
he [ca ageenan seaweeds] had no happened ye … So I spen h ee mon hs
on [a] boa ... did abou 400 di es … We we e ocused on sea ching o he
‘mo he load’ o wild seaweed.
As he mission p og essed, he eam lea ned ha hese opical seaweeds did no
g ow in la ge beds bu in small pa ches. They did no ind la ge a eas whe e he
ca ageenan seaweeds could be ha es ed a scale, ins ead hey no ed ha he sea-
weeds we e labou in ensi e o ind and ga he . I became clea ha sailing a ound
sea ching o wild seaweeds was no a p ocess ha would be able o mee he
demands o he g owing ca ageenan indus y – wha was needed was a way o
a ming seaweed on a la ge scale. E o s o a m seaweed had been unde way in
he Philippines since 1965 wi h limi ed success. Cul i a ion si es we e a ec ed by
equen yphoons, excessi e g azing by ish, and managemen issues, and se e al
si es we e abandoned (Neish e al. 2017, p. 5). Poo pe o mance o ial a ms
saw de elopmen p og ammes unde pe o ming, and many p og ammes we e in
dange o being abandoned (Neish e al. 2017, p. 6). E en ually, in he ea ly 1970s,
an ideal si e was ound in he sou h Philippines, whe e he e we e as a eas o
shallow co al ee s, clea , lowing wa e s and la ge numbe s o coas al esiden s
open o new li elihood ac i i ies. Fa ming o he opical ca ageenan seaweeds in
signi ican quan i ies was achie ed o he i s ime in his loca ion in 1974. The
success o he a m ial e e be a ed h ough he indus y and he Indonesian wild
seaweed su ey was abandoned. As Neish desc ibed:
Suddenly we could buy a med seaweed. The Philippines [had] p oduced
h ee o ou imes he annual amoun o [wild] seaweed ha we we e buy-
ing om Indonesia and he Philippines [in o al]. So basically, i swamped
he ma ke … hey p oduced his glu o seaweed [and] he ma ke collapsed
because nobody knew wha o do wi h all o [i ]. Tha ’s when i was ob ious
ha we should no bo he o keep looking o wild seaweed beds … i was
basically a u ile e o and we should ocus on a ming.
The p ice o he ca ageenan seaweeds c ashed as supply suddenly a exceeded de-
mand, and exis ing supplies we e wo h nex o no hing. Howe e , he p ice c ash
was empo a y and o e he ollowing decades he ca ageenan p ocessing indus-
y expanded, suppo ing a g owing seaweed a ming indus y in he Philippines.
xx P e ace
I ook ano he wel e yea s o seaweed a ming o succeed in Indonesia. As Neish
ela es:
The Danish guy Hans Po se, a s ubbo n guy … I hink his boss kind o old
him, ‘Hans, lay o all his seaweed a ming in Indonesia’. Bu Hans kep i
going … [and] by 1986, inally, a e 12 yea s o pe sis en e o , Hans man-
aged o ge he seaweed g owing in [Bali] … So … he sen ou a message o
he o he s … He said, ‘Come o Bali! Finally, i ’s wo king. We ha e o alk
abou whe e- o om he e.’ So we all wen down he e and well, wha can I
say? I was ma ellous o see.
Ha ing de eloped he abili y o a m ca ageenan seaweed in Indonesia, he Indo-
nesian esea che s wo king on he p ojec sough o es ablish ial plo s ac oss he
coun y. As Neish explained, he Philippines had enjoyed a ‘ o al monopoly’ on
ca ageenan seaweed p oduc ion o he pas decade and ‘had basically a ca el o
seaweed supplie s’. They ‘knew he middlemen we e aking a big cu ’, so h ough
he la e 1980s wo ked o es ablish ial plo s ac oss Indonesia in o de o open up
new sou ces. By 1990 hey managed o success ully a m he seaweed in a numbe
o loca ions ac oss he coun y. Th ough he ea ly 1990s his was suppo ed by ca -
ageenan companies who helped new seaweed a me s o es ablish plo s by p o id-
ing hem wi h le e s o c edi , consequen ly seaweed a me s and p ocesso s had
close supply ela ionships.
Howe e , in he mid-1990s, he indus y unde wen a shi . A new, low-cos
me hod o p ocessing he seaweed in o a ‘semi- e ined’ p oduc was de eloped,
and i suddenly became much cheape o p ocess seaweed. Ca ageenan p oces-
so s began o inc ease in numbe , boos ing demand o aw ma e ials (Zhang
e al. 2023). Wi h he iabili y o a ming es ablished, and a new, cheape me hod
o p oducing ca ageenan become a ailable, he 1990s saw an explosion in he
numbe o ca ageenan ac o ies. As Neish pu i , he indus y ‘became a zoo’ and
many o he companies who had de eloped and main ained a m plo s le he
indus y as hey we e no longe gua an eed hei supply. The quan i ies p oduced
we e s ill low, bu wi h p oo -o -concep a ms es ablished ac oss Indonesia, and a
la ge, compe i i e ma ke o he p oduc s, by he yea 2000 he s age was se o
an explosion o seaweed a ming. P oduc ion ook o , and by 2015 Indonesia was
p oducing o e en million onnes o seaweed pe yea , making i he la ges ca -
ageenan seaweed p oduce in he wo ld. Wi hin wo decades, seaweed wen om
being a hea ily suppo ed and unce ain commodi y in Indonesia o being one o i s
la ges aquacul u al indus ies, g own ac oss i s di e se coas lines and suppo ing
he li elihoods o o e 62,000 coas al households (BPS 2022). Ca ageenan sea-
weed a ming has now expanded in o opical coas al egions a ound he wo ld – o
Zanziba , Tanzania, Madagasca , Papua New Guinea, he Solomon Islands, China,
Malaysia, Cambodia and Venezuela – al hough a leas 92 pe cen o he global
supply s ill comes om Indonesia and he Philippines.3
Wi h such a apid expansion, he e has been li le ime o explo e his new phe-
nomenon, and o much o he de elopmen o he indus y ‘specula ion lowed
P e ace xxi
eely while he scien i ic es ing o heo ies and hypo heses a ac ed li le inancial
suppo ’ (Neish e al. 2017, p. 1). How did he seaweed g ow bes ? Why would i
suddenly u n whi e and die o in huge a eas? Wha was he e ec on he coas al
en i onmen ? How did coas al households adap and how did i change he wo k
ha women and men did, he oods hey a e and he way hey li ed? Who a e he
en ep eneu s who sp ang up o e nigh o nego ia e be ween a me s and seaweed
buye s? Wha d o e he apid de elopmen o seaweed ac o ies ac oss Indonesia
and wha is hei u u e? And how does he global ood ma ke oday, d i en by
consume p e e ences, hold he u u e o opical coas lines and he housands o
a me s who depend on hem o hei su i al in he balance? This book seeks
o unde s and how his p oduc mo es om seaweed a ming si es in he shallow
sho es o a small illage on he island o Sulawesi, Indonesia, h ough he sea-
weed alue chain, h ough laye s o middlemen and p ocesso s, expo e s, e ine s,
blende s, ood p ocesso s and e aile s un il i inally eaches he ki chens o con-
sume s o pe ec ly ex u ed ood p oduc s. We explo e how his global alue chain
is g ounded in local places, how i has d i en he ans o ma ion o coas al spaces
and li elihoods and how a shi in consume p e e ences could again ans o m
hese local places and he li elihoods o he people who depend on hem.
No es
1 I ish Moss e e s o he species o bo h Chondus c ispus and Mas oca pus s ella us, and
‘I ish ha es e s collec bo h seaweeds indisc imina ely as ca ageen’ (McMonagle and
Mo ison 2020, p. 1289).
2 As a Ben and Je y’s ep esen a i e explains, ‘We use ca ageenan as a s abilize in ou
p oduc . The pu pose is o bond wi h wa e molecules and he eby inhibi he g own o
ice c ys als as he ice c eam eezes. This helps o o e some p o ec ion om iciness
due o empe a u e luc ua ions du ing dis ibu ion’ (Lindsay Bumps, ci ed in DiSal o
2016, n.p.). Campbell’s (2023) explain o hei use o ca ageenan, ‘We use i o keep
ou chicken mea juicy’.
3 FAO da a (FAO 2023) sugges s ha 97 pe cen o global ma ine ca ageenan seaweed
p oduc ion occu s in Indonesia and he Philippines. Howe e , he e a e known epo ing
issues o Indonesia, he Philippines, Malaysia and China hyd ocolloid seaweed p oduc-
ion da a epo ed o he FAO (Ha ch 2023a). I FAO da a on global ca ageenan sea-
weed p oduc ion is adjus ed o Indonesia, he Philippines and Malaysia o ma ch Ha ch
indus y es ima es (Ha ch 2023b), he p opo ion o global ma ine ca ageenan seaweed
p oduc ion de i ed om Indonesia and he Philippines is 92 pe cen . See Appendix 1
o u he in o ma ion on s a is ical issues.
Re e ences
Allen, My le. 1977. The Ballymaloe Cookbook. London: Ag i-books.
Bixle , Ha is J. and Hans Po se. 2011. A decade o change in he seaweed hyd ocolloids indus-
y. Jou nal o Applied Phycology 23, 321–335. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10811-010-9529-3
BPS (Badan Pusa S a is ik). 2022. Hasil Su ei Komodi as Pe ikanan Po ensi Rumpu
Lau 2021 Se i 2. Badan Pusa S a is ic. h ps://www.bps.go.id/publica ion/2022/08/29/
269de33babc6e3d52bbae5b6/hasil-su ei-komodi as-pe ikanan-po ensi- umpu -lau -
2021-se i-2.h ml
xxii P e ace
Campbell’s. 2023. Abou ou ing edien s. h ps://www.campbellsoup.ca/abou -us/wha s- in-
ou - ood/ou -ing edien s Accessed 6 Janua y 2023.
Connell, Monica. 2015. Ga he ing Ca ageen: A Re u n o Donegal. She ield: Sands one
P ess L d.
C aigie, James S., M. Lynn Co nish and Louis E. De eau. 2019. Comme cializa ion o I ish
Moss aquacul u e: he Canadian expe ience. Bo anica Ma ina 62(5), 411–432. h ps://
doi-o g.ezp oxy.lib a y.uq.edu.au/10.1515/bo -2019-0017
Da idson, A. (2014 [1999]). The Ox o d Companion o Food, 3 d edi ion. Edi ed by Tom
Jaine. New Yo k: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
DiSal o, Da id. 2016. Dea Ben & Je y’s, Why is he e seaweed in my ice c eam? Fo bes,
31 Augus 2016. h ps://www. o bes.com/si es/da iddisal o/2016/08/31/dea -ben-je ys-
why-is- he e-seaweed-in-my-ice-c eam/?sh=143576871d6 Accessed 6 Janua y 2023.
FAO (Food and Ag icul u e O ganisa ion o he Uni ed Na ions). 2023. FishS a J (so wa d
o FAO’S Fishe ies and Aquacul u e s a is ics). h ps://www. ao.o g/ ishe y/en/s a is ics/
so wa e/ ishs a j
G and View Resea ch. 2023. Ca ageenan: ma ke es ima es and end analysis. Pu chased
om G and View Resea ch.
Ha ch (2023a). Global p oduc ion o e iew. h ps://seaweedinsigh s.com/global-p oduc ion
Accessed 6 June 2023.
Ha ch (2023b). Eucheuma oids. h ps://seaweedinsigh s.com/global-p oduc ion- eucheuma oids
Accessed 6 June 2023.
Humm, H. (1947). Aga – a p e-wa Japanese monopoly. Economic Bo any 1(3), 317–329.
h p://www.js o .com/s able/4251862
Imeson, A. O. 2009. Ca ageenan and u cella an. In Handbook o Hyd ocolloids, 2nd
edi ion. Edi ed by G. O. Phillips and P. A. Williams. 164–185. Camb idge: Woodhead
Publishing.
McMonagle, Micheal and Mo ison, Liam. (2020). The seaweed esou ces o I eland: a
wen y- i s cen u y pe spec i e. Jou nal o Applied Phycology 32, 1287–1300. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1007/s10811-020-02067-7
Mi chell, M. E. and Michael D. Gui y. 1983. Ca ageen: a local habi a ion o a name? Jou nal
o E hnopha macology 9(2), 347–351. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/0378-8741(83)90043-0
Neish, Iain C., Miguel Sepul eda, Anicia Q. Hu ado and Alan T. C i chley. 2017. Re lec ions
on he comme cial de elopmen o eucheuma oid seaweed a ming. In T opical Seaweed
Fa ming T ends, P oblems and Oppo uni ies: Focus on Eucheuma and Kappaphycus
o Comme ce. Edi ed by Anicia Q. Hu ado, Alan T. C i chley and Iain C. Neish. 1–28.
Cham, Swi ze land: Sp inge In e na ional Publishing.
O’Conno , Kao i. 2017. Seaweed: A Global His o y. London: Reak ion Books.
P ingle, J. D. and A. C. Ma hieson. 1987. Chond us c ispus S ackhouse. In Case S udy o
Se en Seaweed Resou ces. Edi ed by M. S. Do y, J. F. Cady and B. San elices. Rome:
FAO Fishe ies Technical Repo 281, pp. 49–122.
Qin, Yimin. 2018. Seaweed bio esou ces. In Bioac i e Seaweeds o Food Applica ions. Ed-
i ed by Yimin Qin. London: Academic P ess. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/C2016-0-04566-7
Zhang, Jing, Sco Wald on, Zannie Lang o d, Boedi Julian o, and Adam Ma in Koma ek.
2023. China’s g owing in luence in he global ca ageenan indus y and implica ions
o Indonesia. Jou nal o Applied Phycology June, 1–22. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/
s10811-023-03004-0
Acknowledgemen s
This book d aws on esea ch unde aken by a eam o esea che s om he Com-
modi ies Domain o he Pa ne ship o Aus alia Indonesia Resea ch (PAIR). PAIR
is an ini ia i e o he Aus alia-Indonesia Cen e (AIC), suppo ed by he Aus alian
go e nmen and un in pa ne ship wi h he Indonesian Minis y o Resea ch and
Technology, he Indonesian Minis y o T anspo , he Sou h Sulawesi p o incial
go e nmen and many o ganisa ions and indi iduals om communi ies and indus-
y. The AIC is a bila e al esea ch conso ium es ablished in 2014 o ad ance he
people- o-people and ins i u ional links be ween he wo na ions in he ields o sci-
ence, echnology, educa ion, inno a ion and cul u e (www.ausindcen e.o g). AIC
and PAIR a e comp ised o a conso ium o ele en uni e si ies in Aus alia and
Indonesia, including he Uni e si y o Queensland (UQ). The au ho s g a e ully
acknowledge he suppo and unding o PAIR, AIC and UQ o he esea ch. We
would also like o hank he e iewe s o ou published wo k o hei obse a ions
and insigh s. Finally, we would like o hank he people who pa icipa ed in ou
esea ch, including hose om go e nmen and indus y bodies, bu pa icula ly
he people o Pi u Sunggu and Laikang illages who gene ously hos ed ou o he
au ho s and sha ed hei knowledge and expe ience.
4 Zannie Lang o d
pu chased o a wo ld ma ke p ice o US$2, a a me in Indonesia can buy goods
wo h US$6.03, a a me in he Philippines goods wo h US$5.14, a a me in Ma-
laysia goods wo h US$5.20 and a a me in Tanzania goods wo h US$5.16. This
is in con as wi h o he coun ies – o example, a me s in Papua New Guinea can
pu chase goods wo h only US$3.02 wi h income ea ned om he same quan i y
o seaweed, and a me s in he Solomon Islands goods wo h only US$2.30 (Wo ld
Bank 2023). This means ha seaweed p ices may no be high enough o incen i ise
widesp ead up ake o he p oduc in a eas wi h lowe exchange a e o PPP a ios,
al hough his may change i p ices ise o e he long e m.
In Indonesia, seaweed was epo ed o be a US$2 billion indus y in 2021 (FAO
2023). This income is de i ed mos ly om ca ageenan seaweeds (79 pe cen o
na ional p oduc ion alue), as well as he aga p oducing species G acila ia (19 pe
cen o na ional p oduc ion alue), small amoun s o Sa gassum and small olumes
o Caule pa (sea g apes), which a e sold o consump ion in salads in local ma ke s.
Be ween he yea s 2000 and 2015, Indonesian ca ageenan seaweed p oduc ion g ew
om 0.2 o 10.1M , be o e declining again o 7.1M in 2021. Despi e he ecen de-
cline in p oduc ion, i suppo s he li elihoods o a ound 62,000 coas al households
(BPS 2022 and see Appendix 1 o a de ailed discussion o s a is ical issues in he
seaweed indus y). As a esul o he impo ance o seaweed a ming o coas al li eli-
hoods, he Go e nmen o Indonesia has ou lined ambi ious plans o u he inc ease
seaweed p oduc ion (P esiden ial Dec ee 33–2019), pa icula ly in he Eas e n Indo-
nesian p o inces o Wes Papua, Maluku and No h Maluku (Figu e I.4).5
2
0
4
6
8
10
1975 19801985 1990 1995200020052010201
52
020
Ca ageenan Seaweed P oduc ion (M )
Yea
Indonesia
Philippines
Malaysia
Tanzania (including Zanziba )
Res o wo ld
Figu e I.3 Global ca ageenan seaweed p oduc ion
Sou ce: Da a om FAO (2023).
In oduc ion 5
Wi h such apid expansion, coas al communi ies ac oss he coun y ha e
expe ienced d ama ic changes in he las wo decades. Ca ageenan seaweeds,
al hough ela i ely low alue, a e inc edibly shel -s able – a e being ha es ed,
hey a e sun d ied, and when d ied p ope ly can be s o ed o many mon hs be o e
being sold. This makes hese seaweeds sui able o cul i a ion in emo e a eas,
including by a me s who may only ha e spo adic access o ma ke s. As a esul ,
ca ageenan seaweed p oduc ion has been widely aken up in Indonesia, e en in
emo e a eas. Indonesia p oduces hese seaweeds ela i ely cheaply, and he cos -
compe i i eness o Indonesian a me s also a ec s i s ma ke sha e.
Many coas al ishe men and a me s ha e ansi ioned hei li elihood s a -
egy pa ially o comple ely in o seaweed a ming, and as a esul ha e been able
o build mo e elabo a e houses, send hei child en o school and pu chase ca s
and mo o bikes (Lang o d, Tu upadang, Oedjoe e al. 2022; Lang o d, Wald on,
Nu ya ono e al. 2023). In o he a eas, communi ies expe ienced a seaweed
a ming ‘boom’ ollowed by a ‘bus ’ esul ing om en i onmen al collapse (S een-
be gen e al. 2017). The a ming o ca ageenan seaweed is accompanied by a
wide ange o social, economic and en i onmen al changes, and sys ems o li eli-
hoods and communi y go e nance ha e had o change o accommoda e his new
o m o cul i a ion. Howe e , hese li elihoods do no ha e a ce ain u u e: he
ca ageenan seaweed indus y is based on consume accep ance o he ood addi-
i e ca ageenan, and demand o oods wi h he p ope ies ha ca ageenan can
impa . Unde s anding he u u e o he ca ageenan seaweed indus y, and how
he li elihoods o he a me s who depend on i may be suppo ed, elies on an
unde s anding o he ull alue chain: om global indus y o local ac i i y.
Ca ageenan alue chains: om global o local
Desc ip i e s udies o how global alue chains a e g ounded in local places can e-
eal impo an insigh s in o how social li es a e eo ganised a ound new p oduc s
(see, e.g., Dixon 2002; Tsing 2015; Weiss e al. 2016; Wes 2012). Such s udies all
Figu e I.4 Cu en and planned seaweed p oduc ion in Indonesia
Sou ce: Da a om P esiden ial Dec ee 33–2019 and FAO (2023).
6 Zannie Lang o d
examine how a aw p ojec is ans o med h ough a alue chain o each he con-
sume . Howe e , in mos cases, he inal p ojec is easily ecognisable o he con-
sume . This isibili y enables a le el o anspa ency in he supply chain, suppo ing
consume s o de elop ce ain p e e ences abou he ypes o goods hey consume
based on a ange o c i e ia. These c i e ia may include pe cep ible a ibu es such
as as e, colou and ex u e, as well as in isible cha ac e is ics (o p oduc s known
as ‘c edence goods’) which a e no immedia ely isible, such as being p oduced
acco ding o ce ain en i onmen al s anda ds (e.g. o ganic, ain o es alliance
ce i ied, biodynamic, sus ainably g own, ca bon neu al), social s anda ds (e.g.
ai - ade, ee- ange, humane) and sa e y and quali y s anda ds (e.g. BEIC 2023;
FSSC 2023). The supply chains o some goods a e ela i ely sho and me hods
o acking hese c i e ia ha e been de eloped – o example, i is possible o buy
ee- ange chicken, g ass- ed bee and ai - ade co ee. In each o hese cases, i is
ai ly clea wha he p oduc is, and he e is some unde s anding o wha p oduc ion
c i e ia a e being me . Ca ageenan seaweed is qui e di e en om hese p oduc s
as mos people do no ealise ha hey a e consuming i . Ca ageenan appea s on
ing edien lis ings as E407 and E407a in Eu ope and is ound in a wide ange o
p oduc s, bu consume s a e o en no awa e hey a e consuming hese p oduc s,
and as such he e is e y li le ansmission o consume p e e ences.
Ca ageenan is a pa icula ype o ood addi i e known as a hyd ocolloid:
hyd o- meaning wa e , and colloid meaning a dispe sion o one subs ance in ano he
subs ance – such as a gel o emulsion. A hyd ocolloid is he e o e a subs ance which,
when combined wi h wa e , ac s as a hickene , gelling agen o s abilise . Hyd ocol-
loids ha e long been used in p ocessed oods and a e no limi ed o ca ageenan –
o he common hyd ocolloids include gela in, pec in, gua gum, cellulose gum,
xan hum gum, a abic gum, aga , algina e and locus bean gum (Table I.2). These
addi i es each ha e di e en p ope ies which mean hey can gi e oods di e en
ex u es.
The mos common hyd ocolloids a e gua gum (made om gua beans), gela in
(p oduced mainly om cows and pigs), xan hum gum (p oduced by e men ing
suga s om c ops such as whea , co n and soy), cellulose gum (o en p oduced
om wood pulp o co on seeds) and a abic gum (p oduced om acacia ees).
These i e hyd ocolloids oge he make up 89 pe cen o he global hyd ocol-
loid ma ke . Ca ageenan makes up app oxima ely 3 pe cen o he hyd ocolloid
ma ke by olume and 8 pe cen by alue, and in 2022 he ma ke was wo h an
es ima ed US$872 million (G and View Resea ch 2023a). Ca ageenan is pa icu-
la ly widely used in he mea and dai y indus ies, and as a subs i u e o gela in in
ege a ian and egan oods. Because o i s speci ic gelling p ope ies i has been
g owing in popula i y, p ojec ed o become a US$1.3 billion dolla ma ke by 2030
(G and View Resea ch 2023b). Ca ageenan is used mos ly in he mea and dai y
indus ies, bu also in wa e gels (such as jellies, con ec iona y and shel -s able
desse s), oo hpas e, bee and pe ood (Campbell and Ho chkiss 2017). I is o en
used in blends wi h o he gelling agen s o achie e p ecise ex u es in p ocessed
oods (Blakemo e and Ha pell 2009; Thomas 1997).
In oduc ion 7
The demand o ca ageenan is linked o demand o hyd ocolloids in gene al
(e.g., wi h long- e m ends such as inc easing global consump ion o p ocessed
oods) as well as ela i e demand o ca ageenan o e compe ing hyd ocolloids.
The demand o ce ain ypes o hyd ocolloids o e o he s is linked o bo h he
p ope ies o speci ic hyd ocolloids and he demand o he p oduc s in which hey
a e used. Fo example, pa o he g ow h o he ca ageenan indus y is a ibu able
o he g owing demand o ege a ian and egan oods, o which animal-de i ed
gela in is no sui able. I is also linked o consume as e and ex u e p e e ences,
since di e en hyd ocolloids gi e oods di e en ex u es– o example, ca a-
geenan is able o mimic a ‘ a y’ ex u e which many consume s enjoy and as a
esul is widely used in mea and dai y p oduc s, and, as such, g owing demand
o mea and dai y p oduc s could be expec ed o bols e demand o ca ageenan.
The demand o ca ageenan is also linked o consume p e e ences agains ce -
ain p oduc s. In 2016, he US Na ional O ganics S anda ds Boa d o ed o ecom-
mend ha ca ageenan be emo ed om he Uni ed S a es Depa men o Ag icul u e
(USDA) lis o o ganic ood addi i es, as a esul o public conce n o e po en ial
heal h impac s (NOSB 2016). In he mon hs ha ollowed, Indonesian seaweed
a me and indus y g oups ad oca ed agains his ecommenda ion, on he g ounds
ha i could signi ican ly a ec he indus y (Mudassi 2018; Dwijayan o 2018).
This ecommenda ion was ul ima ely no adop ed because he e a e limi ed o he op-
ions o ca ageenan o p o ide necessa y unc ions in p ocessed oods, and he e is
a dea h o scien i ic e idence suppo ing claims o nega i e heal h impac s (USDA
2018). Howe e , i ca ageenan we e o be ejec ed by consume s on a la ge scale,
his could ha e a e e be a ing e ec on he ca ageenan seaweed alue chains and
he illages ha g ow i . No ably, he scale o his e ec would depend on how wide-
sp ead consume p e e ences a e: a ejec ion om consume s in he Uni ed S a es,
o example, would ha e impac s ha would be con ained i hese p e e ences did
no ex end o consume s in Asia. Chap e 1 explo es hese dynamics u he .
Common sou ces ~Ma ke sha e
(by olume)
Gua gum Gua beans 21%
Gela in Animal collagen, mainly om cows and pigs 20%
Xan hum gum Fe men a ion o suga s (e.g. om whea , co n, soy) 19%
Cellulose gum Wood pulp, co on seeds 17%
A abic gum Acacia ees 12%
Pec in Ci us ui peels, apples 6%
Ca ageenan Va ious seaweeds, p ima ily Eucheuma and
Kappaphycus species
3%
Algina es Va ious b own seaweeds 2%
Locus bean Ca ob ee seeds 1%
Aga Va ious seaweeds, p ima ily G acila ia species 1%
Sou ce: Da a om G and View Resea ch (2023a)
Table I.2 Common hyd ocolloids
8 Zannie Lang o d
The de elopmen o he ca ageenan indus y has in ol ed signi ican amoun s
o ‘wo k’ a all le els o he alue chain – o es ablish he physical possibili y o
seaweed a ming, o de elop me hods o p ocessing i cheaply in la ge quan i-
ies, de eloping p oduc s which use i and main aining i s social accep abili y in
p ocessed oods. O pa icula in e es o his book a e he housands o Indonesian
a me s who p oduce i – who ha e eo ganised hei social and economic li es
a ound his new commodi y, and who depend on he indus y o hei li elihoods.
This book is o ganised in wo pa s. Pa I aces he ca ageenan alue chain om
he global o he local le el. Pa II examines he illage-le el ans o ma ions
which ha e aken place o enable he la ge-scale p oduc ion o his commodi y.
The nex sec ion desc ibes he me hodological app oach aken.
Backg ound and me hods
This esea ch was unde aken as pa o a esea ch p og amme known as he
‘Pa ne ship o Aus alia Indonesia Resea ch’ (PAIR), unded by he Aus alian
Go e nmen Depa men o Fo eign A ai s and T ade (DFAT) ia he Aus alia-
Indonesia Cen e (AIC). The p og amme an om 2019 o 2023 and b ough
oge he esea che s om ou Aus alian and se en Indonesian uni e si ies, as
well as indus y and go e nmen s akeholde s including he Indonesian Minis y
o Resea ch and Technology (RISTEK-BRIN) and he Sou h Sulawesi P o incial
Go e nmen (see PAIR 2023). The esea ch was di ided in o ou s eams: his
book d aws on esea ch conduc ed by he ‘commodi ies’ esea ch eam h ough
a se ies o in e ela ed packages o wo k d awing on a ange o di e en ypes o
da a ( o published epo s on hese p ojec s see Abdul Aziz e al. 2023; Cozzolini
e al. 2023; Ho ey e al. 2023; Koma ek e al. 2023; Lang o d e al. 2021; Lang-
o d, Tu upadang e al. 2022; Lang o d Zhang e al. 2022; Lang o d , Wald on
e al. 2023; Lang o d, Tu upadang and Wald on 2023b; Lang o d e al. 2024;
Pe mani e al. 2023; S one e al. 2023; Wald on e al. 2022; Zhang e al. 2023).
This book is s uc u ed as an edi ed monog aph o acili a e con ibu ions om a
la ge coho o con ibu o s o he esea ch p og amme.
The PAIR p og amme was es ablished wi h he suppo o he Sou h Sulawesi
go e no and akes his p o ince as i s p ima y loca ion o esea ch. Sou h Sulawesi
is he la ges seaweed p oducing p o ince in Indonesia. I is home o he majo po
o Makassa , which has ecen ly been ede eloped o suppo much g ea e olumes
o ade and di ec expo o in e na ional loca ions. Wi hin Sou h Sulawesi, he
egencies o Ma os, Ba u and Pangkajene dan Kepulauan (he ea e ‘Pangkep’)
we e iden i ied as p io i y a eas o he p og amme o esea ch. The commodi ies
g oup was asked wi h in es iga ing seaweed p oduc ion in his egion and ocused
esea ch on he egency o Pangkep due o he la ge numbe o seaweed a me s in
his a ea. In his egency, he illage o Pi u Sunggu (Figu e I.6) was selec ed as he
case s udy loca ion ollowing a su ey o he seaweed p oduc ion cha ac e is ics o
illages in mainland Pangkep (see Lang o d, Wald on, Nu ya ono e al. 2023 o
ull de ails). A second si e was iden i ied o compa ison – he illage o Laikang
in Takala Regency, an es ablished seaweed g owing egion which p oduces he
In oduc ion 9
la ges quan i ies o seaweed in Sou h Sulawesi. This si e was chosen o acili a e
compa isons wi h he less subs an ial seaweed cul i a ion si e o Pi u Sunggu.
This book d aws p ima ily on esea ch collec ed h ough he main p ojec asso-
cia ed wi h his p og amme o esea ch (see Lang o d, Wald on, Nu ya ono e al.
2023), wi h me hods including a s uc u ed household su ey, 215 semi-s uc u ed
in e iews and 16 mon hs each o e hnog aphic esea ch by ou ield esea ch-
e s. The book also d aws on esea ch unde aken h ough h ee sho e p ojec s on
policy (see Pe mani e al. 2023), alue chain ma gins (see Koma ek e al. 2023)
and on a me esilience in NTT (see Lang o d, Wald on e al. 2022; Lang o d,
Tu upadang, and Wald on 2023). Full de ails o he me hodological app oach and
indings o hese p ojec s can be ound in he published epo s om hese p ojec s,
and a e summa ised in Table I.3.
This app oach o long- e m, in-dep h, quali a i e social esea ch o e s a ew
key me hodological ad an ages:
1. Long- e m social esea ch p oduces a holis ic unde s anding o seaweed a me
li elihoods
Much social esea ch wi h seaweed a me s is based on sho pe iods o
ieldwo k, and as such elies on a me s’ epo s o hei mo i a ions, pe cep-
ions and goals. These epo s a e snapsho s in ime and a y conside ably as
he ci cums ances change. Ou esea ch has he bene i o p o iding a mo e
long- e m iew o he li elihoods o seaweed a me s o e he cou se o mo e
Figu e I.5 Loca ion o Pi u Sunggu illage wi hin Indonesia
Sou ce: Map c ea ed by Alexand a Lang o d using ARCGis P o.
10 Zannie Lang o d
Table I.3 Resea ch me hods
P ojec componen De ails Timeline
Pilo p ojec Desk op esea ch p o iding a baseline
unde s anding o he indus y (see Nu ya ono
e al. 2020 o esul s).
July–Decembe
2020
Village su ey Su ey o illage cha ac e is ics in coas al illages
o Pangkep, and assessmen o communi y
willingness o pa icipa e in he esea ch (in e nal
epo s on each egion p oduced).
Augus 2021
S uc u ed
household
su ey
Ex ended s uc u ed su ey o 273 seaweed a ming
households in Pi u Sunggu and Laikang (see
Lang o d e al. 2024 o me hod and esul s).
Oc obe –
Decembe 2021
E hnog aphic
esea ch
16 mon hs o e hnog aphic esea ch by ou o
he con ibu o s o his book, wo based in each
illage (R. Ruhon and Z. Z. Wulyand a in Pi u
Sunggu, R.A. A mis and I. Lapong in Laikang).
They obse ed and pa icipa ed in he daily li e o
seaweed a ming communi ies and eco ded hei
obse a ions in de ailed ieldno es.
Augus 2021–
Decembe 2022
Semi-s uc u ed
in e iews
215 semi-s uc u ed in e iews (in Pi u Sunggu
(n = 89), Laikang (n = 82) and NTT (n = 44)),
wi h seaweed a me s, illage esiden s and local
go e nmen wo ke s. In e iews we e unde aken
in ei he Indonesian o local language acco ding
o in e iewee p e e ence, we e ansc ibed in
Indonesian and analysed hema ically.
Janua y–
Decembe 2022
Sa elli e image y
analysis
Sa elli e image y o Pi u Sunggu in 2022 was
analysed manually (see Lang o d e al. 2021 o
me hod).
Janua y–
Decembe 2022
Indus y pe sonal
communica ions
Ex ended pe sonal communica ions wi h indus y
s akeholde s including collec ion o in o ma ion
on seaweed sou cing and p ocessing.
Janua y 2021–
June 2023
Policy documen
analysis and
in e iews wi h
go e nmen
o icials
A comp ehensi e in es iga ion in o 67 policy
documen s sou ced om bo h desk op esea ch
and in e iews wi h key in o man s (see Pe mani
e al. 2023 o ull me hods).
Ap il–Oc obe
2022
Value chain
analysis
34 ace- o- ace in e iews wi h ac o s in he
alue chain, including 5 seedling supplie s, 15
a me s, 12 ade s (including 10 illage ade s,
1 Takala -le el ade and 1 Makassa -based
expo e ) and 2 p ocesso s (see Koma ek e al.
2023 o ull me hod). Da a om hese in e iews
was assessed using desc ip i e s a is ics.
June–Augus
2022
han a yea , which allowed obse a ion o changing seasons, as well as a me s’
esponses o wea he and p ice e en s, and a ia ions h ough di e en cul u al
and eligious pe iods. This allowed us o obse e he a ia ions in li elihoods
ha occu s o e ime – h ough he we season o high wa es and equen oc-
cu ence o diseases, he ansi ion season in which one by one, a me s s opped
In oduc ion 11
cul i a ing one species and s a ed cul i a ing ano he , h ough he d y season in
which high wa e empe a u es led o ou b eaks o epiphy es and poo g ow h o
seaweed and hen back o he we season, when a me s again mo ed hei plo s
o adjus o he changing wea he . This long- e m obse a ion mean ha ield
esea che s gained a de ailed unde s anding o seaweed a ming li elihoods and
he s a egies ha seaweed a me s employ o p oduce seaweed yea - ound, de-
spi e d as ically changing oceanic condi ions. I also means ha we gained a
g ea e unde s anding o how seaweed p oduc ion echniques changed h ough-
ou he yea , and he in e connec ed ways ha biophysical, social and economic
phenomena a ec a me decision-making.
2. G ounded in he echnicali ies o seaweed p oduc ion
All ou o he ield esea che s hold quali ica ions in ma ine sciences, and as
such a e a en i e o he echnical de ails o seaweed p oduc ion, including he
cha ac e is ics o he species being g own, he diseases and epiphy es a me s
expe ience, he di e ences in p oduc i e s a egies hey employ (such as a m
plo loca ions, plan ing spacings, seedling sizes, yields). This has allowed hem
o c i ically engage wi h a me s’ choices in o de o unde s and how social
ac o s – such as he managemen o sea space – lead o di e en p oduc ion
choices (such as ope spacing) and gene a e di e en esul s (such as mo e in-
ensi e use o labou and lowe yields by newe en an s o he indus y). These
insigh s a e in aluable in unde s anding he ac o s which con ibu e o di e en
expe iences o seaweed a ming li elihoods. Ou mul i-disciplina y app oach
allows a mo e holis ic analysis o he in e ac ions be ween social, economic and
en i onmen al dynamics in he illages. The ocus on seaweed a me s, a he
han mo e gene ally on li elihoods, allows a a ge ed analysis o how his c op
is expe ienced by he people who g ow i .
3. T iangula ion o mul iple pe spec i es
By unde aking esea ch wi h no only a me s, bu also he people hey sell
o (local ade s), he people hey employ (seaweed binde s, who ie seaweed
p opagules o opes) and p o essionals in ol ed in seaweed indus y go e nance
(such as illage and p o incial go e nmen p o essionals), his s udy is able o
con ibu e a balanced unde s anding o he oles o di e en illage ac o s in he
Indonesian seaweed indus y. Pe sonal communica ions we e unde aken wi h a
ange o indus y ac o s o gain g ea e insigh s in o he s uc u e o he indus y,
and ocus g oups in conjunc ion wi h go e nmen p o ided insigh s in o chal-
lenges and p io i ies in he go e nance o he indus y. This p o ides an in-dep h
unde s anding o he a ious ac o s in ol ed in nego ia ing he s uc u e o he
Indonesian seaweed indus y.
T ansla ions and use o gende ed language
All quo es a e ansla ions by he au ho s om ei he Indonesian o he local lan-
guage o he esponden (Makasa ese o Buginese). We ha e endea ou ed o e lec
he s yle o speech, emphasis and meaning o he speake in hese ansla ions.
In he quo es and discussion o he book, whe e gende ed language e lec s he
12 Zannie Lang o d
gende ed na u e o wo k in ol ed, his language is used in he ansla ions – o
example, all c ab ne e s in Pi u Sunggu a e men, so when esponden s desc ibe he
ac i i ies o ce ain men in c ab ne ing, gende ed language is used in he ansla-
ions. In he chap e explo ing he wo k o local ade s, which includes male and
emale pa icipan s, gende ed language is a oided o p o ec he anonymi y o he
ade s in ol ed. Whe e names o a me s a e used, hese a e pseudonyms.
No es on s a is ics
Indonesian seaweed da a is epo ed by a ange o agencies (including he Minis y
o Ma ine A ai s and Fishe ies, he Cen al Bu eau o S a is ics and he Minis y
o Indus y) o se e al p oduc ion indica o s (p oduc ion olume, expo olume,
p ocessing olumes, a ea unde p oduc ion, numbe o households engaged in p o-
duc ion, and numbe o a me s engaged in p oduc ion). A emp s o econcile da a
om hese di e en sou ces demons a e ha hey ely on e y di e en assump-
ions and he e o e gene a e as ly di e en es ima es o he size o he seaweed
indus y. Appendix 1 p o ides a ull ou line o da a p oduced by di e en sou ces
ha was consul ed in he p ocess o esea ching his book and demons a es he
inconsis encies be ween hem.
This chap e has ou lined he ea u es o he global seaweed indus y using FAO
da a. Fo Indonesia, we ha e sugges ed ha hese a e p obably o e es ima ed by
a ound 4.8x (see Appendix 1). Indonesia is no he only coun y o inaccu a ely e-
po seaweed p oduc ion s a is ics o he FAO. Ha ch (2023a; 2023b) ecen ly com-
pa ed indus y and p oduc ion es ima es o majo seaweed epo ing coun ies and
ound ha da a epo ed by China, Indonesia, he Philippines, and Malaysia we e
inconsis en .6 They es ima ed ha in 2021, Indonesian ca ageenan seaweed p oduc-
ion s a is ics we e o e es ima ed by 5.1x, Philippines ca ageenan seaweed p o-
duc ion s a is ics by 2.6x and Malaysian seaweed p oduc ion s a is ics by 6 imes.
Un o una ely, hey did no es ima e he o e es ima ion o Chinese seaweed p oduc-
ion. This makes i di icul o econcile inaccu acies ac oss coun ies. As such, FAO
s a is ics a e used in his chap e despi e known inaccu acies, because hey high-
ligh he dominance o Indonesia and he Philippines in he ca ageenan seaweed
indus y. Thei dominance is so g ea ha e en i hey we e e ised down using he
o e es ima ion ac o s p o ided by Ha ch, hey would s ill ep esen 92 pe cen o
he global ca ageenan indus y. As such, he igu es p o ided in his chap e p o ide
a ealis ic insigh in o he concen a ion o ca ageenan seaweed p oduc ion in hese
wo coun ies. Fo he emainde o he book, da a is used selec i ely as ollows.
Chap e 2 elies only on Badan Pusa S a is ik (BPS) (Cen al Bu eau o S a-
is ics, Indonesia) (2022) su ey da a, which as Appendix 1 desc ibes, is ealis ic.
Chap e 3 examines he Sou h Sulawesi seaweed indus y and he e o e uses da a
om he Sou h Sulawesi Minis y o Ma ine A ai s and Fishe ies (Kemen e ian
Kelau an dan Pe ikanan (KKP)), eminding he eade ha o his da a, household
pa icipa ion da a is likely o be ealis ic, while p oduc ion olumes and cul i a ion
a eas a e no (bu s ill demons a e he geog aphic dis ibu ion o p oduc ion a ound
he p o ince). Pa II o he book ocuses mainly on illage-le el li elihoods and
uses BPS (2022) su ey da a o con ex ualise hese whe e app op ia e.
In oduc ion 13
S uc u e o he book
This book is s uc u ed in wo pa s. Pa I p o ides an o e iew o he de elop-
men o he global alue chains ha ha e eme ged o d i e he global ca ageenan
seaweed indus y, while Pa II explo es he nego ia ion o hese changes a he
illage le el. Reade s p ima ily in e es ed in he global dynamics o ca ageenan
use and p oduc ion a e ad ised o s a wi h Pa I. Reade s who would like o ocus
mo e pa icula ly on he illage-le el changes d i en by he indus y a e ad ised
o ead Pa II.
Pa I: The global ca ageenan seaweed alue chain
The i s pa o he book elescopes down om he global o he p o incial le el
o explo e how global ca ageenan seaweed alue chains a e o ganised a di e en
scales.
Chap e 1: The global ca ageenan ma ke
Chap e 1 explo es he long- e m d i e s o ca ageenan demand, p oduc ion and
ade a he in e na ional le el, demons a ing how he indus y has been ans-
o med by decades o sus ained g ow h and de elopmen , and he dominance o
Indonesia, China and he Philippines wi hin i .
Chap e 2: The Indonesian seaweed indus y
Gi en he global con ex and ade pa e ns ou lined in Chap e 1, his chap e ex-
amines de elopmen s in he Indonesian seaweed indus y a he na ional le el. I
p o ides indus y-wide con ex , examines he sec o s o p oduc ion, ma ke ing and
p ocessing and hen desc ibes some o he c oss-cu ing issues in zoning, in es -
men , p oduc de elopmen and ood sa e y.
Chap e 3: The Sou h Sulawesi seaweed indus y
Chap e 2 explo ed how Indonesia has wo ked o suppo he de elopmen o he
seaweed indus y h ough in es men s in p oduc ion, ma ke ing, p ocessing and e-
sea ch na ionally. This chap e looks in mo e de ail a he p o incial le el, ocusing
on Sou h Sulawesi P o ince, ou lining key ea u es o he Sou h Sulawesi seaweed
indus y, including p oduc ion, ade, p ocessing and expo .
Pa II: Li elihood ans o ma ions
The second pa o he book ocuses on one seaweed a ming illage: Pi u Sunggu,
in Sou h Sulawesi, Indonesia, and explo es in de ail he en i onmen al, social and
economic ans o ma ions which ha e aken place o enable he p oduc ion o his
commodi y, beginning in he sea, whe e he seaweed is g own, and mo ing up o
examine changes in social and economic o ganisa ion esul ing om he indus y
and sys ems o ma ke ing he p oduc o he ade s and p ocesso s who use i .
Pa I
Globalisa ion and he
Indonesian seaweed indus y
DOI: 10.4324/9781003183860-3
1 The global ca ageenan indus y
Jing Zhang, Zannie Lang o d, and Sco Wald on
In oduc ion
Local-le el ac i i y is impac ed di ec ly and indi ec ly by de elopmen s a na ional
and global le els. This chap e explo es he long- e m d i e s o ca ageenan de-
mand, including he p ope ies o he p oduc , ma ke dynamics, compe i ion and
subs i u ion wi h o he hyd ocolloids, e ol ing p ocessing me hods, shi ing con-
sump ion ends, and ade pa e ns. As a highly globalised indus y, he chap e
ocuses on indus y de elopmen s a an in e na ional le el by iangula ing de ailed
ade, indus y, and policy da a h ough o ensic open-sou ce esea ch in mul iple
languages, and hen elescopes down o na ional and p o incial le els in subse-
quen chap e s.
Ma ke demand
Ma ke demand o ca ageenan and o he hyd ocolloids is di icul o es ima e.
This sec ion desc ibes he global hyd ocolloid ma ke and d aws on ma ke e-
sea ch epo s by G and View Resea ch1 (2023a; 2023b).
Majo hyd ocolloids
Seaweeds cul i a ed o he manu ac u ing o hyd ocolloids such as ca ageenan
and aga make up a signi ican p opo ion o o e all global seaweed p oduc ion,
as desc ibed in he In oduc ion. Seaweed inpu s, alongside a ange o o he plan ,
animal, and mic obial sou ces, a e he basis o he b oade hyd ocolloids ma ke .
Di e en ypes o hyd ocolloids ha e di e en p ope ies and p ices pa e ns ha
make hem pa ial subs i u es and compe i o s in he global hyd ochlo ides ma ke .
Da a showing he p ice and ma ke sha e o selec ed hyd ochlo ides a e p esen ed
in Figu e 1.1. Fo mo e de ailed analysis o ca ageenan p ices paid o di e en
alue chain ac o s in Indonesia, see Lang o d e al. 2022 and Koma ek e al. 2023.
Ma ke sha e and speci ic gelling, hickening, and s abilising applica ions o he
hyd ochlo ides a e shown in Table 1.1.
The i e mos widely used hyd ocolloids – gua gum, gela in, xan han gum, cel-
lulose gum, and a abic gum accoun o 89 pe cen o he global ma ke olume
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license
24 Zhang, Lang o d & Wald on
21%
20%19%
17%
12%
6%
3% 2% 1% 1%
6%
33%
9%
14%
8%
14%
8%
3%
1% 3%
$1.14
$6.77
$1.95
$3.34$2.77
$9.82
$11.27
$8.96 $8.56
$21.04
$0
$5
$10
$15
$20
$25
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
Ma ke alue ($/kg)
Ma ke Sha e (%)
Ma ke sha e by olume (le axis)Ma ke sha e by alue (le axis)Ma ke Value (USD) ( igh axis)
Figu e 1.1 Majo hyd ocolloids by ma ke sha e and ma ke alue
Sou ce: Da a om G and View Resea ch (2023a).
and on a e age sell o $3.20/kg (Figu e 1.1). The o he i e majo hyd ocolloids
ep esen only 11 pe cen o he global ma ke sha e by olume, bu 29 pe cen by
alue, selling o an a e age p ice o $10.50/kg. Ca ageenan alls in o he ca ego y
o a highe -p ice, lowe - olume hyd ocolloid, wi h a ma ke sha e by olume o
jus 2.8 pe cen , bu a much highe ma ke sha e by alue o 8 pe cen . The hy-
d ocolloids ex ac ed om seaweeds, ca ageenan, algina es, and aga a e some
o he mos expensi e comme cially impo an majo hyd ocolloids, selling o an
a e age p ice pe kilog am o $11.27, $8.96, and $21.04 espec i ely.
In some applica ions, hese hyd ocolloids a e used as subs i u es o each o he ,
while o he s a e used in blends as complemen a y goods. As subs i u es, gua gum
and locus bean gum exhibi simila hickening beha iou s (highly shea hin-
ning, high o low shea iscosi y) bu gua gum is lowe -p iced and he e o e can
eplace locus bean gum in many applica ions. Some hyd ocolloids a e pa ial
subs i u es o each o he . Fo example, xan hum gum, locus bean gum, and gua
gum a e all highly shea hinning, howe e xan hum gum main ains iscosi y a
high empe a u es and a wide pH anges, whe e gua gum and locus bean gum do
no . Simila ly, aga and ca ageenan bo h o m he mo e e sible gels on cooling,
which means hey may beha e simila ly in some (bu no all) applica ions. Cel-
lulose gum and ca ageenan a e bo h used as s abilise s in shampoos, and a ange
o hyd ocolloids a e used in lo ions. Xan hum gum, cellulose gum, and gua gum
a e all used in d illing luids in oil and gas applica ions, uelling demand o hese
p oduc s.
Many hyd ocolloids a e complimen a y goods in ce ain applica ions and a e
combined in ailo ed blends o achie e speci ic hickening, gelling, and s abilising
The global ca ageenan indus y 25
Table 1.1 Common hyd ocolloids by sou ce, main uses, ma ke sha e, a e age p ice, and p ojec ed g ow h
Common sou ces Main uses Ma ke
sha e by
alue
Ma ke
sha e by
olume
A e age
p ice
(US$)
P ojec ed
olume
g ow h
Gela in Animal collagen,
mainly om
cows and pigs
Gelling agen in ood and be e ages, nu aceu icals, heal hca e,
pe sonal ca e, pho og aphy.
Pha maceu icals such as wound d essings, blood olume subs i u es,
homeos a ic sponges.
33% 20% $6.77 4.8%
Cellulose
gum
Wood pulp,
co on seeds
Food and be e ages, especially low- a and ozen oods (e.g. salad
d essings, g a ies, dai y p oduc s, puddings, ice c eams, c eams,
peanu bu e , chocola e, ozen desse s, ma ga ine, ke chup).
Pha maceu icals ( able coa ings)
Oil d illing
Cosme ics and pe sonal ca e (e.g. oo hpas e, shampoo, hai gels,
body lo ions, showe gels, ace c eams, oin men s).
14% 17% $3.34 3.8%
Pec in Ci us ui peels,
apples
Food and be e ages – hickene in ui -based p oduc s (e.g. jams,
ui illings, jellies), glazes, milk-based desse s, and s abilise in
ui juices, acidic p o ein be e ages, dai y p oduc s, con ec iona y.
Pe sonal ca e and cosme ics (e.g. lo ions, a e sha e c eams, and
gels).
14% 6% $9.82 8%
Xan han
gum
Fe men a ion o
suga s (e.g.
om whea ,
co n, soy)
Food and be e ages (e.g. oppings, sauces, non- a milk, dai y, ice
c eam, soups, g a ies, ins an be e ages, ke chup), o en used
alongside locus bean gum.
Oil and gas indus ies (e.g. d illing luids, ac u ing luids,
displacemen agen s).
Pe sonal ca e p oduc s (c eams, oo hpas e, lo ions, shampoos,
sunsc een, masca a, body washes).
O he applica ions (pain s, adhesi es).
9% 19% $1.95 6.1%
26 Zhang, Lang o d & Wald on
A abic gum Acacia ees Food and be e ages (e.g. candy coa ings, bake y oppings o p e en
suga c ys allisa ion, so d inks, oaming alcoholic be e ages).
Pha maceu icals (e.g. d ug suspensions, cough sy ups, able s).
8% 12% $2.77 5.4%
Ca ageenan Va ious seaweeds,
p ima ily
Eucheuma and
Kappaphycus
species
Food and be e ages (especially wi h dai y) (e.g. ice c eam, dai y
desse s, dai y be e ages, cheeses, dips, sauces, puddings) bu also
mea s, jams, b ead, be e ages, powde ed oods and be e ages,
o u, and pe ood). Pe sonal ca e and cosme ics (e.g. oo hpas e,
lo ions, sha ing gels, shampoos).
Pha maceu icals o con ol d ug elease in mic osphe es and
mic ocapsules.
8% 3% $11.27 3.8%
Gua gum Gua beans Food and be e ages (e.g. dai y p oduc s, ke chup, ui juices, cake
ba e s, and pudding powde s).
Shale and gas indus ies o hyd aulic ac u ing.
Pha maceu icals.
6% 21% $1.14 4%
Algina es Va ious b own
seaweeds
Food and be e ages (e.g. ins an noodles, ice c eams, acid milk
d inks, jellies, d essings, bee s).
Pha maceu icals (e.g. wound d essings, d ug able s).
Cosme ics (e.g. lips ick).
O he applica ions (e.g. animal eed, ex ile p in ing, was ewa e
ea men ).
3% 2% $8.96 3.0%
Aga Va ious seaweeds,
p ima ily
G acila ia
and Gelidium
species
Bac e iology
Food and be e ages (e.g. ice c eams, baked desse s, pie illings,
me ingues)
3% 1% $21.04 3.7%
Locus bean
gum
Ca ob ee seeds Food and be e ages (e.g. ice c eam (p e en s o ma ion o ice
c ys als), baked goods, milk p oduc s, ozen dai y desse s,
so cheeses, ui s and juices, alcoholic be e ages), o en used
alongside xan hum gum, also used alongside aga and ca ageenan.
1% 1% $8.56 3.9%
Sou ce: Da a om G and View Resea ch (2023a).
Table 1.1 (Con inued)
Common sou ces Main uses Ma ke
sha e by
alue
Ma ke
sha e by
olume
A e age
p ice
(US$)
P ojec ed
olume
g ow h
The global ca ageenan indus y 27
p ope ies. Fo example, locus bean and xan hum gum a e o en combined in gels,
while ca ageenan can be blended wi h a wide ange o o he hyd ocolloids o use
in di e en applica ions. Fo example, i can be used wi h gela in o imp o e ood
ex u e and s abili y (Wang e al. 2015), wi h aga in ood packaging and wound
d essings (Rhim 2013; Rhim and Wang 2013), wi h xan hum gum in jellies (B en-
ne e al. 2015), and wi h pec in o o m biodeg adable composi e ilms (Al es e al.
2010). Xan hum gum can also be used in combina ion wi h s a ch, pa icula ly as
a a eplace and in dai y p oduc s (Huc e al. 2014; Ma ignon, Ba ey e al. 2014;
Ma ignon, Moulin e al. 2014).
The global hyd ocolloids ma ke is la ge and con inues o g ow. In 2022, G and
View Resea ch (2023a) alued he indus y a US$ 11.2 billion and ha e o ecas
g ow h o 4.9 pe cen in olume and 6 pe cen in alue om 2023 o 2030 (Figu e
1.2). This g ow h is d i en by a ange o ac o s, including g owing demand o
p ocessed oods and oil and gas applica ions. The as es p ojec ed annual g ow h
a e is o pec in (8 pe cen CAGR) and xan han gum (6.1 pe cen CAGR). Ca -
ageenan is expec ed o g ow by 3.8 pe cen in olume and 5.4 pe cen in alue,
sugges ing possible imp o emen s in he g ade o quali y o ca ageenan being
p oduced. Mos hyd ocolloids (73.5 pe cen ) a e used in he ood and be e age
indus ies, wi h 12.5 pe cen used in pha maceu icals, 7.8 pe cen in pe sonal ca e
and cosme ics, and 6.3 pe cen in o he applica ions such as oil and gas, ex ile
p in ing, and cons uc ion coa ings. This composi ion is no expec ed o change
d ama ically be o e 2030, wi h simila g ow h a es o 4.7–5.7 pe cen p ojec ed
o each o hese applica ions. Al hough his appea s o be a simple and linea ma -
ke o ecas (Figu e 1.2).
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
20000
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030
Ma ke Value (USD)
Gela in (7.1% CAGR)
Cellulose gum (6.5% CAGR)
Pec in (6.5% CAGR)
Xan han Gum (5.8% CAGR)
A abic gum (5.6% CAGR)
Ca ageenan (5.4% CAGR)
Gua gum (4.1% CAGR)
Algina es (4.2% CAGR)
Aga (4.8% CAGR)
Locus Bean Gum (4.1% CAGR)
Figu e 1.2 P ojec ed g ow h in hyd ocolloid ma ke alue
Sou ce: Da a om G and View Resea ch (2023a).
28 Zhang, Lang o d & Wald on
Applica ions o ca ageenan
Ca ageenan is he six h la ges hyd ocolloid by olume and an indus y wo h
an es ima ed $872 million in alue. The main uses o ca ageenan a e in he ood
and be e age indus y, which abso bs 77 pe cen o global supply (Figu e 1.3).
O his, 29 pe cen o ca ageenan is used in mea p oduc s, whe e i is added as a
binding agen o inc ease wa e e en ion and imp o e ex u e. Ano he 18 pe cen
is used in he dai y indus y o bind milk p o eins and o m a gel a low concen a-
ions. In mea and dai y applica ions, ca ageenan p oduces a ‘mou h eel’ which
simula es a ‘ a y’ eel (Weenen e al. 2005). As a esul , i is o en a subs i u e o
a s and is used o hicken low a dai y p oduc s and dai y eplacemen p oduc s.
Ca ageenan is also used in con ec iona y p oduc ion o imp o e he heological
p ope ies and s abili y o hese p oduc s and ep esen s 7 pe cen o ma ke use.
In addi ion o uses in oods and be e ages, demand o ca ageenan is bols e ed
by he g owing demand o heal h p oduc s such as con ec iona y using al e na-
i e swee ene s, which o en equi e special o mula ions o main ain ex u e and
mou h eel. A u he 10 pe cen o global supply en e s he pha maceu ical indus-
y whe e ca ageenan is used o a ange o unc ions including he con ol o d ug
elease a e. A u he 10 pe cen is used in pe sonal ca e and cosme ics, such as
oo hpas e, lo ions, sha ing gels, and shampoos, including many ‘na u al’ p oduc s
as a eplacemen o syn he ic subs ances.
29%, Mea p oduc
s
18%, Dai y p oduc s
7%, Con ec ione y
7%, Be e ages
6%, Bake y
4%, Sauces and
d essings
5%,
O he ood and
be e age
10%, Pe sonal ca e
and cosme ics
10%, Pha maceu ical
3%, O he
Figu e 1.3 Applica ions o ca ageenan (ma ke sha e by olume)
Sou ce: Da a om G and View Resea ch (2023b).
The global ca ageenan indus y 29
This snapsho o ca ageenan usages may be subjec o signi ican change (Fig-
u e 1.4). The p opo ion o ca ageenan used in he ood and be e age indus y in-
c eased om 88pe cen in 1999 o 91 pe cen in 2009 and declined o 74 pe cen
in 2019. Fo example, he use o ca ageenan in p ocessed mea s inc eased om
34 pe cen in 1999 o 41 pe cen in 2009 bu declined o 28 pe cen in 2019. The
absolu e olume inc eased by 85 pe cen be ween 1999 and 2009 and pla eaued
in 2019 a 18,706 onnes. The use o ca ageenan in dai y p oduc s declined om
40 pe cen o 31 pe cen and hen o 17 pe cen o o al ca ageenan use in 2019,
while absolu e olumes pla eaued be ween 2009 and 2019. The use o ca ageenan
in ood and be e ages, including bake y, con ec ione y, sauces and d essings, and
be e ages, inc eased om 14 pe cen in 1999 o 19 pe cen in 2009 and hen 29
pe cen o he o al ca ageenan applica ion in 2019, wi h absolu e olume usage
almos doubling e e y decade. This is a ibu ed o ad ancemen s in echnology
and esea ch on he use o ca ageenan in ood and be e age applica ions as emul-
sions, gels, and s abilise s. The g ow h in he use o ca ageenan o pe sonal ca e
and cosme ics and pha maceu icals (i.e., pill coa ings and d ug capsules) has been
pa icula ly p onounced in he las decade and accoun ed o 12 pe cen and 11 pe
cen espec i ely o he o al ca ageenan use in 2019.
Types and g ades o ca ageenan
Th ee ypes o ca ageenan a e widely used in comme cial applica ions: kappa-
ca ageenan (κ-ca ageenan), io a-ca ageenan (ι-ca ageenan), and lambda-
ca ageenan (λ-ca ageenan). These a ious ypes o ca ageenan ha e qui e
di e en p ope ies and a e used in di e se applica ions (Table 1.2). The mos
10000
1850018706
12000
1400011188
4500
8500 19779
1500
2000
8147
7131
2000
2000
2267
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
910290029991
Tons
Mea Dai yO he oodand be e age Pe sonal ca e andcosme ics Pha maceu ical O he s
Figu e 1.4 Changing ends in global ca ageenan applica ion by sec o , 1999–2019
Sou ce: Da a om ICF (2011) and G and View Resea ch (2023b).
36 Zhang, Lang o d & Wald on
Table 1.3 Majo ca ageenan manu ac u es in China
Company name Loca ion Yea
es ablished
Regis e ed capi al Company ype Main p oduc s Annual p oduc ion
capaci y o
ca ageenan
BLG (B illian ) Shanghai 1996 20,000,000 CNY L d. (P i a e Chinese) Ca ageenan, konjac
gum, aga and blend
p oduc s o a ious
applica ions
23,000 onnes SRC/RC
G een F esh/G een
Fu u e
Fujian 2007 US$24,490,000 Public limi ed company
(In es ed by Hong
Kong company)
Ca ageenan, aga ,
konjac gum, and hei
compound p oduc s
10,355 onnes SRC/RC
(2022 ac ual ou pu )
Long un-News a Guangxi 2014 100,000,000 CNY Join -s ock L d. (unlis ed,
p i a e Chinese)
Konjac powde , konjac
gum, and ca ageenan
4,000 onnes RC
6,000 onnes SRC
Ga he G ea Ocean Shandong 2000 52,940,000 CNY L d. (P i a e Chinese) Sodium algina e,
ca ageenan, aga , e c.
4,000 onnes SRC/RC
Zhenpai Fujian 1985 30,000,000 CNY L d. (P i a e Chinese) Ca ageenan and aga 3,800 onnes SRC/RC
Global Ocean Fujian 2010 68,880,000 CNY Join en u e (Mainland
China-Hongkong)
Aga and ca ageenan 1,000 onnes SRC/RC
Xieli/Sheli
Hyd ocolloids
Shandong
(Yan ai)
2005 40,420,000 CNY L d. (In es ed by Hong
Kong Sheli L d.)
Aga , ca ageenan,
konjac gum, algina e
3,000 onnes SRC/RC
L li Bio echnology
(G een One)
Fujian 2007 36,000,000 CNY L d. (In es ed in by Hong
Kong company)
Ca ageenan 5,000 onnes RC
1,500 onnes SRC
Huixiang Haizao Guangdong 1991 119,344,479 CNY L d. (p i a e Chinese) Ca ageenan, aga 720 onnes RC
1,000 onnes SRC
Sou ce: Da a om he websi es o he headqua e s and b anches o each company, documen ed by he au ho s.
The global ca ageenan indus y 37
Indonesia, h ough subsidised suppo o domes ic s a e-owned companies, and
mo e ecen ly, domes ic ade es ic ions (Lang o d, Tu upadang e al. 2023).
Howe e , his has been la gely unsuccess ul. Indonesia has, howe e , a ac ed o -
eign in es men in o he sec o h ough six Chinese companies (Zhang e al. 2023).
A p esen , ca ageenan p ocessing in Indonesia in ol es 26 domes ic companies
and 7 o eign-in es ed companies as o 2022 (JaSuDa 2022). The o eign-in es ed
companies ha e la ge p oduc ion capaci ies (up o 8,000 onnes/yea ) compa ed o
local manu ac u e s (no mo e han 1,500 onnes/yea ). The a e age capaci y u ilisa-
ion o he companies cu en ly anges om 50– 60 pe cen (Table 1.4). While ou
domes ically owned plan s p ocess RC, hei p oduc ion capaci y is smalle han
o eign in es o s. O he local manu ac u e s p ima ily p oduce indus ial g ades
o ca ageenan o pe ood and ATC. In compa ison o China and he Philippines,
Indonesia has a la ge numbe o companies ( en p ocesso s) ocused on ATC p o-
duc ion. Indonesian ca ageenan manu ac u ing is discussed u he in Chap e 2
and a lis o Indonesian ca ageenan p ocesso s is p o ided in Appendix 4.
As is common in many sec o s, ca ageenan p ocesso s in all h ee coun ies
end no o ope a e a maximum capaci y. This can be a ibu ed o ac o s such as
ma ke demand, seasonal a ia ions, p oduc ion capabili ies, business s a egies,
and in es men conside a ions. In bo h he Philippines and Indonesia, mul ina-
ional companies ep esen a subs an ial po ion o hei ca ageenan p ocessing
indus y. The o eign in es men in he Philippines p ima ily o igina es om he
Uni ed S a es and Eu ope. Wi hin Indonesia, in es men is p edominan ly China
based. Ca ageenan p oduc ion in China is mainly owned by Chinese in es o s
om mainland China and Hong Kong. In addi ion, he main ocus o he ca a-
geenan p ocessing indus y in he Philippines and Indonesia is on he p oduc ion o
ATC and SRC. Howe e , he e is a no able di e ence be ween he wo coun ies in
e ms o hei p oduc specialisa ion wi h he Philippines ha ing a la ge numbe o
Table 1.4 Majo ca ageenan manu ac u e s in he Philippines
P ocesso P oduc s P oduc ion capaci y
(Tonnes/yea )
Shembe g SRC/RC 3,600/2,600
Ma cel Food Sciences Inc. SRC/RC 5,400/1,800
W Hyd ocolloids (PBI) SRC/RC 2,400/1,500
Ceamsia Asia, Inc. SRC 1,800
Accel Ca ageenan Co po a ion SRC 1,500
MCPI Co po a ion SRC 1800
Mioka Biosys ems Co po a ion (Ma cel) SRC 1,800
TBK Manu ac u ing Co po a ion SRC 2500
Mega Pollygums Co po a ion SRC 3,600
LM Zamboanga Ca ageenan Manu ac u ing
Co po a ion
ATC/SRC 600/1800
F oilan T ading Co po a ion ATC/SRC 1,200/1,800
Cebu Ca ageenan Co po a ion ATC/SRC 1,600/800
Sou ce: Da a om BFAR (2022).
38 Zhang, Lang o d & Wald on
companies engaged in he p ocessing o SRC compa ed o Indonesia. In con as ,
China has a highe concen a ion o companies in ol ed in he p ocessing o RC
compa ed o he Philippines and Indonesia.
Compe i i e dynamics
While he e is conside able di e en ia ion and segmen a ion, companies in China,
Indonesia, and he Philippines compe e o global ma ke sha e on he basis o
p oduc quali y, p oduc ion capabili ies, cos e iciency, and ma ke access. The e
is conside able p essu e o de elop echnologies, achie e e iciency, and mee
quali y and en i onmen al s anda ds. Global compe i i e ends a e now discussed.
Rising p ominence o Chinese p ocesse s
The ca ageenan p ocessing sec o has his o ically been domina ed by mul ina-
ional co po a ions om wes e n coun ies, pa icula ly he Uni ed S a es and
Eu ope, wi h signi ican di ec o eign in es men s in he Philippines (Richa ds-
Rajadu ai 1990; Blanche i-Re elli 1997; Neish e al. 2017; Palanca-Tan 2018).
P ocesso s om China ha e eme ged om a modes s a ing poin and a e now
playing an inc easingly in luen ial ole in he sec o as p ocesso s, ade s, ma ke
pa icipan s, and sou ces o ou wa d in es men (Zhang e al. 2023; Bixle and
Po se 2011; Campbell and Ho chkiss 2017; Hu ado e al. 2019).
The inc easing p ominence o Chinese p ocesso s in he downs eam sec o s
o he global ca ageenan indus y has signi ican implica ions. Fi s ly, China’s
eme gence as he wo ld’s la ges ca ageenan p ocesso , coupled wi h he esul ing
s uc u al changes in he indus y and pa e ns o ou wa d in es men , has he po-
en ial o signi ican ly impac he demand o aw seaweed and he p ices ecei ed
by small coas al seaweed a me s (Blanche i-Re elli 1997; Po se and Rudolph
2017). Secondly, Chinese ou wa d in es men p esen s bo h oppo uni ies and
challenges o policy make s in coun ies seeking indus y de elopmen , employ-
men gene a ion, and ax e enue, while also acing p essu e om domes ic indus-
y in e es s. Thi dly, he ise o Chinese ca ageenan p ocesso s has a ac ed he
a en ion o la ge co po a e in e es s in wes e n coun ies, who iew hem as ei he
compe i o s o po en ial pa ne s. Finally, China’s inc easing in luence in global
ade go e nance, ood sa e y, and en i onmen al p o ec ion has signi ican and
wide- anging implica ions o he en i e ca ageenan indus y (Chan e al. 2011;
Liu e al.2019; Lang o d, Wald on e al. 2023; Coenen e al. 2021; Dong and Li
2021; Wald on e al. 2023).
T end owa ds p ocessing in coun ies o o igin
The p ocessing o seaweed ex ac s in coun ies o o igin has inc eased in ecen
yea s, which has he po en ial o al e he s uc u e and dynamics o he supply
chain. In pa icula , Indonesia and he Philippines ha e adi ionally been majo
seaweed p oduce s and expo e s o aw d ied seaweed. Howe e , hese coun ies
The global ca ageenan indus y 39
a e building capaci y in he ca ageenan p ocessing sec o in a bid o cap u e mo e
alue domes ically. I his can be achie ed a scale, i may impose limi s on he sup-
ply o aw d ied seaweed o coun ies ha p e iously sou ced aw ma e ials om
Indonesia and he Philippines. Chinese in es men in Indonesia can be seen as a
means o secu ing supply. A he same ime, Chinese ca ageenan p ocesso s a e
unde p essu e om inc easing labou cos s and en i onmen al s anda ds, which
ac as d i e s o ou wa d-bound in es men in Indonesia and o he coun ies.
This mo emen wi hin he supply chain equi es majo in es men and upg ade
capaci y. This includes signi ican in es men in echnology and esea ch and de-
elopmen om public in es men and echnology ans e om o eign-in es ed
companies. I would equi e adhe ence o s anda ds (e.g. In e na ional O ganiza-
ion 22000:2018 and 9001 ce i ica ion, Food Sa e y Sys ems Ce i ica ion FSSC,
22000) and he u ilisa ion o mechanisms o acili a e access o ma ke s such as he
Eu opean Union (EU) (CBI 2019).
Shi owa ds RC
Ano he o m o chain ad ancemen is a shi owa ds he p oduc ion o highe -
alue RC, a s a ed goal o all h ee majo ca ageenan-p oducing coun ies. This
shi is p obably d i en by a ange o ac o s, including he ising demand o RC
in ood and be e age, pha maceu icals, and pe sonal-ca e p oduc s due o i s highe
pu i y, enhanced unc ional p ope ies, and a b oade ange o applica ions. This
con as s wi h s agnan demand o SRC om he p ocessed mea and dai y p i-
ma y sec o s (Figu e 1.4), whe e isual cla i y is no a c ucial ac o (Ho chkiss
e al. 2016). Recognising hese ma ke dynamics and he changing demand land-
scape, majo ca ageenan p ocesso s a e in es ing o upg ade hei p ocessing ca-
pabili ies and in as uc u e o enable he p oduc ion o RC. O cou se, his poses
en y ba ie s and addi ional cos s. I he addi ional e enues om he p oduc ion
o highe -p iced RC ou weigh he cos s, companies may ha e an incen i e o e-
main in he lowe - alue SRC ma ke .
The shi owa ds RC signi ies a s a egic mo e by majo p ocesso s o inc ease
he alue-added and compe i i eness o hei ca ageenan indus ies. They all u i-
lise alkaline mix u es in he p ocessing o SRC. Howe e , he p oduc ion o RC
h ough alcohol p ecipi a ion, is p edominan ly unde aken by Chinese p ocesso s
and Shembe g Bio ech in he Philippines. Compa ed o Indonesia and he Philip-
pines, China has aken he lead in his speci ic p ocess.
E luen managemen
Ca ageenan ex ac ion equi es he inpu o alkali, acids, sal s, wa e , and ene gy
o hea ing and subsequen pu i ica ion o ca ageenan om seaweed biomass
(Ola unji 2020). The p ocess gene a es signi ican amoun s o oxic was e, includ-
ing was ewa e , exhaus gas, solid was e, and noise. Zhang e al. (2023) highligh s
ha was ewa e is p ima ily p oduced du ing he washing, dehyd a ion, and hea ing
s ages. Exhaus gas is emi ed du ing he c ushing and g inding o aw ma e ials, as
40 Zhang, Lang o d & Wald on
well as du ing he alkali and was ewa e ea men , leading o odo ous emissions.
Solid was e consis s o sedimen washed om seaweed, il e esidue om he
il e p ess, ecycled dus , aw ma e ial packaging (ba els and bags), and was e-
wa e ea men sludge, which can po en ially be epu posed as ag icul u al c op
subs a es o soil amendmen s. Mo eo e , he mechanical ope a ion o p oduc ion
equipmen , such as pul e ise s, colloid mills, and cen i uges, gene a es noise le -
els measu ed a app oxima ely 80 dB when assessed a a one-me e dis ance om
noise le el de ices.
The managemen o was e disposal poses pe sis en challenges and ep esen s
a signi ican cos o ca ageenan p ocesso s i hey comply wi h en i onmen al
egula ions. Compliance may include he cons uc ion o was ewa e ea men a-
cili ies, he ins alla ion o dus collec o s, he implemen a ion o an i-seepage and
ha dening measu es in ac o y a eas and wo kshop g ounds, and he es ablishmen
o gene al and haza dous was e empo a y s o age acili ies.
Compe i ion in he ca ageenan p oduc ion sec o will o ce manu ac u e s
o inc ease compe i i eness by imp o ing p oduc quali y, p oduc di e si i-
ca ion, and explo ing new applica ions o ca ageenan. This will encou age
in es men in esea ch and de elopmen , in as uc u e, and echnology, lead-
ing o ad ancemen s wi hin he indus y, p ocessing acili ies, and imp o ed
indus y capabili y. Mo eo e , companies could s i e o cap u e la ge ma ke
sha e by explo ing new ma ke s and expanding dis ibu ion ne wo ks, making
ca ageenan p oduc s mo e accessible globally. These could bene i s akehold-
e s h oughou he supply chain and he global ca ageenan ma ke by d i ing
e iciency, os e ing collabo a ion, and ensu ing a wide ange o ca ageenan
p oduc s o mee consume demands. Changing en i onmen al egula ions may
a ec he p o i abili y o ca ageenan p ocessing di e en ly in di e en coun-
ies (Zhang e al. 2023).
The sec o will also ace oppo uni ies and challenges a ising om changing
egula ions, sus ainabili y conce ns, and e ol ing cus ome expec a ions. The e
a e oppo uni ies o demons a e compliance wi h egula o y s anda ds, which can
enhance epu a ion and secu e a compe i i e edge by mee ing egula o y equi e-
men s. Fu he mo e, changing cus ome expec a ions equi e p oduc e o mula-
ion, inno a ion, and esponsi eness o eme ging ends. Howe e , manu ac u e s
mus s a egically na iga e hese oppo uni ies and challenges o balance economic
iabili y and ensu e long- e m success.
T ade
Global p oduc ion o ca ageenan seaweed is mainly concen a ed in Indonesia
and he Philippines which is e lec ed in hei expo s. A ailable da a om he UN
Com ade da abase e eals ha he in e na ional ade olumes, alues, and p ices
o ca ageenan seaweed and ca ageenan ha e luc ua ed subs an ially o e he las
h ee decades. This is due o ac o s including ma ke dynamics, en i onmen al
condi ions, and ade policies. Unde s anding hese ac o s aids in o eseeing and
managing u u e ends in he indus y.
The global ca ageenan indus y 41
Ca ageenan seaweeds
O e he cou se o h ee decades, bo h he olume and alue o ca ageenan sea-
weed expo s om Indonesia ha e unde gone subs an ial inc eases (Figu e 1.6),
ising om a ound 12,085 onnes and US$5.9 million in 1989 o 187,662 onnes
and US$219 million in 2021. This ep esen s a compound annual g ow h a e o
a ound 44 pe cen in olume and 110 pe cen in alue o e he pas 33 yea s. The
impac o he COVID-19 pandemic on expo s was sho -li ed (declining 7.3 pe
cen in 2020) and was ollowed by a ebound he ollowing yea (see Lang o d,
Wald on e al. 2021; Lang o d e al. 2022).
The olume and alue o ca ageenan seaweed expo s om he Philippines a e
much smalle han Indonesian expo s. The expo o seaweed om he Philippines
has inc eased slowly o mo e han wo decades, wi h conside able luc ua ions
(Figu e 1.7). Acco ding o he a ailable da a, he i s peak in seaweed expo s was
eco ded in 2000, wi h a o al olume o 49,080 onnes and a alue o US$46.5 mil-
lion. Expo olumes hen dec eased, hi ing a low o 10,823 onnes in 2009, be o e
expe iencing a esu gence in he ea ly 2010s. This was hen ollowed by ano he
decline o app oxima ely 3,100 onnes in 2017. Expo olumes emained below
15,000 onnes om 2017 h ough o he end o 2022.
Acco ding o UN Com ade s a is ics, he a e age ade p ice o seaweed p od-
uc s has been highly uns able in bo h coun ies, especially in ecen yea s (Figu es
1.6 and 1.7). The p icing o seaweed p oduc s a ies depending on a ange o ac-
o s agg ega ed in he s a is ics (p oduc o m, quali y, na u al disas e s, clima e
a iabili y, and changes in ma ke condi ions). No ably, he in e na ional p ice o
0.00
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50
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150
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000 ons
T ade alueT ade olume A e age p ice ( igh axis)
Figu e 1.6 Indonesia ca ageenan seaweed expo o he wo ld by alue, olume, and a e -
age p ice
Sou ce: Da a om UN Com ade (2023).
42 Zhang, Lang o d & Wald on
aw d ied ca ageenan seaweed om he Philippines has consis en ly been highe
han ha om Indonesia, luc ua ing be ween US$0.77 and US$2.33 pe kilog am
om 2010 o 2022, compa ed o Indonesia’s ange o US$0.7–1.17/kg.
The highe p ices o seaweed p oduc s om he Philippines compa ed o In-
donesia could be due o a di e en mix o species p oduced (as spinosum is sig-
ni ican ly lowe p iced han co onii), lowe mois u e and di con en , o di e en
cha ac e is ics o he seaweed due o di e en g owing condi ions. The des ina ions
o ca ageenan seaweed expo s a y as shown in Figu e 1.8. Indonesia is he
la ges expo e o ca ageenan seaweed, wi h he o e whelming majo i y o ex-
po s going o China (84 pe cen ), ollowed by Vie nam (5 pe cen ), he Republic
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US$/kg
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000 ones
T ade alue T ade olumeA e agep ice ( igh axis)
Figu e 1.7 The Philippines ca ageenan seaweed expo o he wo ld by alue, quan i y, and
a e age p ice
Sou ce: Da a om UN Com ade (2023).
Figu e 1.8 The majo global ade ne wo ks o ca ageenan seaweed in 2021
Sou ce: Da a om UN Com ade (2023) and China Cus oms (2023).
The global ca ageenan indus y 43
o Ko ea (3 pe cen ), he Uni ed S a es (2 pe cen ), and Chile (2 pe cen ). The
Philippines is he second la ges expo e o ca ageenan seaweed, expo s going
o he Uni ed S a es (26 pe cen ) and China (24 pe cen ). O he signi ican expo
des ina ions include F ance (17 pe cen ), A gen ina (16 pe cen ), and B azil (6 pe
cen ). O e all, China is he la ges impo e o global ca ageenan seaweed. China’s
demand o ca ageenan seaweed is d i en by i s use in ca ageenan p oduc ion.
Ca ageenan
Despi e he absence o p ecise da a ega ding he p oduc ion olume o ca ageenan
in indi idual coun ies, p e ious indus y es ima es sugges ha he global p oduc-
ion capaci y o ca ageenan anges be ween app oxima ely 80,000 million onnes
(MT)/yea (Po se and Ladenbu g 2015) and 110,000 MT/yea (Neish 2015). A mo e
ecen es ima e om G and View Resea ch (2023b) sugges s a alue o US$ 924.7
million o he ca ageenan indus y wi h a p ojec ed compound annual g ow h a e
o 5.4 pe cen om 2023 o 2030. Asia has become a signi ican p oduce o ca -
ageenan, wi h China, Indonesia, and he Philippines anking among he la ges
p oduce s. Figu e 1.9 p o ides an illus a ion o he ade ne wo ks o ca ageenan
among key indus y playe s and hei co esponding expo des ina ions in 2021.
This inding is suppo ed by G and View Resea ch (2023b), which highligh s Eu-
ope as he wo ld’s la ges consume ma ke , accoun ing o 33 pe cen o global
consump ion olume, ollowed by he Asia Paci ic egion (30 pe cen ), and No h
Ame ica (23 pe cen ). China expo ed 20,849 onnes o ca ageenan in 2021, wi h
a ade alue o US$186 million, shipped o 82 coun ies and egions. Howe e ,
69 coun ies impo ed less han 2 pe cen o Chinese expo s (< 400 onnes). The
majo i y o China’s ca ageenan expo s (44 pe cen ) wen o he EU, ollowed
by o he Asian coun ies (25 pe cen ), and Russia and he Uk aine (15 pe cen ),
wi h e y li le impo ed in o he Uni ed S a es. Despi e he down end in seaweed
expo s, he Philippines emains he leading expo e o ca ageenan o he Uni ed
S a es (31 pe cen o expo s) and he EU-27 (27 pe cen ), wi h a la ge sha e
Figu e 1.9 The majo global ade ne wo ks o ca ageenan in 2021
Sou ce: Da a om UN Com ade (2023) and China Cus oms (2023).
44 Zhang, Lang o d & Wald on
han China in hese ma ke s. Indonesia’s ca ageenan expo s we e mainly wi hin
he Asian ma ke , wi h mo e han hal going o China. Ini ia i es o build he do-
mes ic ca ageenan p ocessing sec o ha e seen a en old inc ease in Indonesia’s
ca ageenan expo alue and a nine old inc ease in expo olume du ing he pas
decade. Values inc eased om US$9 million in 2010 o 87 million in 2020. Volumes
inc eased om 1,382 onnes in 2010 o 13,973 onnes in 2020.
China elies hea ily on impo ed aw ma e ials o ca ageenan p ocessing.
While mos aw d ied seaweed was impo ed om he Philippines be o e 2000,
Indonesia now comple ely domina es expo s o China (Figu e 1.10). O he sou ces
such as Chile, he Republic o Ko ea, and Japan a e supplemen a y sou ces.
The Uni ed S a es and he EU ha e signi ican and longs anding ca ageenan
p ocessing indus ies. As shown in Figu e 1.11, he ma ke sha e o he Uni ed
S a es, F ance, and Chile has s eadily declined, while se e al EU coun ies (Spain,
Ge many, and he Uni ed Kingdom) ha e main ained a s able ma ke sha e. One
o he challenges acing he US and EU ca ageenan indus y is compe i ion om
low-cos p oduce s, pa icula ly in Asia. This has led o consolida ion wi hin he
indus y, as smalle p oduce s ha e been acqui ed by la ge companies wi h he
esou ces o compe e on he global ma ke (Bixle 1996, p. 37).
Changes in a e age expo ca ageenan p ice le els in China, he Philippines, and
Indonesia a e shown in Figu e 1.12 and e eal wo key dynamics. Fi s , he p ice o
ca ageenan in he in e na ional ma ke was gene ally s able in he i s hal o he
2000s bu has inc eased apidly since he mid-2000s. Second, ca ageenan expo
p ices in China ha e been consis en ly highe han Indonesia and he Philippines,
e lec ing a di e en mix o high- and low- alue ca ageenan p oduc s (e.g. SRC and
RC) and con adic o y pe cep ions ha China is a low-cos manu ac u ing cen e.
The p ice o ca ageenan e lec s supply conside a ions as well as demand om
ca ageenan use s. The own-p ice elas ici y o demand o ca ageenan ( he sen-
si i i y o ca ageenan demand o a change in i s p ice) depends on how likely
0
50
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300
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450
0%
10%
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1992
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MillionUS$
Indonesia Philippines Res o wo ldWo ldWo ld ( igh axis)
Figu e 1.10 Ca ageenan seaweed impo by China in ade alue
Sou ce: Da a om UN Com ade (2023).
The global ca ageenan indus y 45
manu ac u e s o oods and o he p oduc s a e o change hei use o ca ageenan i
p ices ise o all. The e is li le in o ma ion o quan i y he impac o p ice luc ua-
ions. Howe e , as ca ageenan ypically accoun s o only a small po ion o he
cos o an end p oduc , a change in i s p ice may cause a ela i ely small change
in he o al cos . The e o e, p ice changes a e likely o ha e a limi ed impac on
0
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0%
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
$ US Billion
Canada Chile ChinaDenma k
F ance Ge manyIndonesiaI aly
JapanNo way PhilippinesRep. o Ko ea
Spain Uni ed KingdomUSARes o Wo ld
Global expo alue ( igh axis)
Figu e 1.11 Expo o ca ageenan om a ious coun ies by ade alue
Sou ce: Da a om UN Com ade (2023).
0
2
4
6
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USD/kg
IndonesiaPhilippines China
Figu e 1.12 A e age mon hly uni alues o ca ageenan expo s om selec ed coun ies,
2017–23
Sou ce: Conclusion Da a om UN Com ade (2023) and China Cus oms (2023).
52 Wald on, Lang o d, Pasa ibu e al.
ac i i ies. Neish and Su yana ayan (2017) a gued ha hese companies explo ed
and helped o es ablish he Indonesian seaweed p oduc ion sec o . In he 1990s,
he de elopmen o simple p ocessing echnologies ( o semi- e ined ca ageenan
(SRC)) led o he p oli e a ion o seaweed p ocessing companies, some o which
we e ounded by p e ious employees and ade s associa ed wi h he SMEs and
MNCs. Ra he han dealing di ec ly wi h a me s, he companies deal indi ec ly
h ough wha hey called in eg a ed o allied supplie s in modula go e nance sys-
ems. S anda ds o seaweed a ming we e se by an in e na ional hyd ocolloids
o ganisa ion (MARINALG) and we e en o ced by he en e p ises. By 2000, he
Indonesian indus y was domina ed by ma ke go e nance sys ems, whe e p oces-
so s had become e en mo e disconnec ed om a me s, linked by la gely au ono-
mous middlemen who conduc ed spo ansac ions. Seaweed and seaweed p oduc
s anda ds p oli e a ed bu we e applied une enly o no a all, and a me s ended
o hemsel es wi h li le company o go e nmen suppo . As elabo a ed below,
he e we e ew cases o ela ional go e nance whe e con ac s we e used o link
seaweed p oduce s and downs eam ac o s.
Neish and Su yana ayan (2017) sugges ed ha indus y de elopmen in Indo-
nesia was led by economic agen s, including a me s, companies, and scien is s
linked o companies and key indi iduals.2 Chap e 3 documen s he in ol emen
o Uni e si as Hasanuddin in Sou h Sulawesi a his ea ly s age. F om his base,
o he ac o s ha e en e ed o o malise he indus y de elopmen p ocess including
indus y associa ions, de elopmen agencies, and, o mos in e es o his chap e ,
he go e nmen . Go e nmen in e es can be explained by se e al key ac o s.
Go e nmen in e es in seaweed
The seaweed indus y has become inc easingly economically signi ican . Like
all coun ies, he sha e o ag icul u e, o es y, and ishe ies in o al GDP has de-
clined and in 2021 s ood a 13.28 pe cen . Fishe ies con ibu ed 22 pe cen o
Rp. 505,061 billion o GDP a 2021 nominal p ices (Bank Indonesia, 2023) and
seaweed is a signi ican con ibu o o Indonesia’s o al aquacul u e p oduc ion
(BAPPENA, 2021, p. 65).
The indus y also p o ides li elihood ac i i y o a signi ican numbe o u al
and coas al Indonesian households. Es ima es a y la gely (see Appendix 1), bu
sugges ha a ound 62,000 households a m seaweed (BPS, 2022a), wi h mo e
in ol ed in he seaweed indus y in o he ways – o example, as casual wage
labou e s o se ice p o ide s (see Chap e 8). To p o ide some con ex , his com-
pa es wi h 31 million households engaged in ag icul u e in Indonesia in 2013, 1.6
million o which we e engaged in cap u e ishing, and 985,000 in ish a ming
(BPS, 2022).
The global ca ageenan indus y is la ge wi h high po en ial g ow h p ospec s
(see Chap e 1). Al eady he dominan global ca ageenan seaweed p oduce , Indo-
nesia, is globally compe i i e in his sec o (Yulis i e al., 2021). Ambi ious plans
o g ow h in downs eam sec o s a e hough o p o ide an oppo uni y o gene -
a e much-needed o - a m employmen , in es men , and ax e enue. An Omnibus
The Indonesian seaweed indus y 53
Law (Job C ea ion Law, UU Cip a Ke ja 11–2020), aims o de elop a business-
enabling en i onmen and is suppo ed by a la ge numbe o subo dina e egula-
ions, policies, and ac i i ies designed o gene a e in es men .
While du ing he 1990–2000s he indus y de eloped in a la gely o ganic way,
he go e nmen is aiming o a mo e o de ly and o malised indus y de elopmen
p ocess. This is hough o equi e inc eased policy a en ion in ields including
indus y planning, sea-use zoning, esea ch and de elopmen , and he coo dina ion
o measu es o a ac in es men . This has led o he p oli e a ion o a la ge num-
be o policies associa ed wi h seaweed p oduc ion. A policy analysis by Pe mani
e al. (2023) o he Indonesian seaweed indus y e ealed 67 policy documen s wi h
a peak o p omulga ions in 2021 (Figu e 2.1).
A majo landma k in he e olu ion o he Indonesian seaweed policy landscape
was he issuance o he P esiden ial Dec ee 33–2019, Road Map o Na ional Sea-
weed Indus y De elopmen 2018–2021. The Dec ee is wide in scope and encom-
passes a la ge numbe o o he policies and is e e ed o h oughou he chap e .
Howe e , he e a e many o he high-le el policies3 which a e lis ed in Appendix 2.
Thus, an ex ensi e ins i u ional web has e ol ed o suppo indus y de elop-
men , go e nance, and se ice p o ision. Ins i u ional ac o s include go e nmen
adminis a i e line bu eaus o design and implemen policy, go e nmen ex ension
agencies o dissemina e echnologies, esea ch and de elopmen o ganisa ions o
0
5
10
15
20
Numbe o policies
Yea s o issuance
Figu e 2.1 A coun o go e nmen policies ele an o he Indonesian seaweed indus y,
1999–2022
Sou ce: Image ep oduced om Pe mani e al. (2023).
54 Wald on, Lang o d, Pasa ibu e al.
inc ease echnological le els, and associa ions o ep esen indus y in e es s. Ju is-
dic ion o he seaweed indus y alls mainly unde he Minis y o Ma ine A ai s
and Fishe ies (KKP) and i s line bu eaus bu in e sec s wi h a la ge numbe o uni s
in go e nmen , esea ch, associa ions, and in e na ional o ganisa ions. These a e
de ailed in Appendix 3.
The p oduc ion sec o
Ea ly g ow h pe iod
The ca ageenan indus y had globalised by he 1970s when MNCs om Wes e n
coun ies in es ed in seaweed p oduc ion in he Philippines, o be used o bo h
p ocessing in he coun y and in e na ional expo . Explo a o y missions o wild
seaweed and ea ly e o s in cul i a ion we e a emp ed in Indonesia in he 1970s,
as desc ibed in he P e ace. Pa icula s a o companies in he Philippines –
Copenhagen and FMC (la e o become MCI) sough o asce ain he echnical
easibili y o seaweed p oduc ion a ound Bali and Nusa Dua in he 1980s (Ma iño
e al. 2019; Iain Neish, pe sonal communica ion, 10 Sep embe 2022). When ials
p o ed success ul, seaweed b eeding s ock and echnologies we e dissemina ed o
o he a eas, p edominan ly h ough con ac wi h o he local coas al communi ies
and by mo emen be ween communi ies. Local businesspeople engaged in e ail,
ading, wholesale, and c edi , in an in eg a ed way which o en ac ed as key ex-
ension condui s (Iain Neish, pe sonal communica ion, 10 Sep embe 2022). The
en ep eneu s we e in e es ed in adding a new ac i i y o hei po olios alongside
ood and o he aqua ic p oduc s. As ade s ha we e embedded in illages, hey
had close con ac wi h a me s o dissemina e knowledge and inpu s (such as opes,
c edi , and seedlings) in o seaweed p oduc ion.
Low-income coas al communi ies could be expec ed o be ecep i e o e o s o
ex end seaweed i he ac i i y adds o o aligns wi h b oade li elihood s a egies.
New ac i i ies may con ibu e o a li elihood di e si ica ion s a egy (Ellis, 1998)
especially i hey a e complemen a y o exis ing ac i i ies in ela ion o labou de-
mand, seasonali y, sus ainabili y, ba ie s o en y, loca ion, and po en ial income
g ow h (Rea don, 1997). Seaweed is also a labou -in ensi e ac i i y ha can be
expec ed o de elop in a eas wi h low wages and oppo uni y cos s o labou .
P oduc ion s uc u es
Unlike many o he ag icul u al sec o s whe e he e a e la ge es a es (e.g. palm oil),
con ac sys ems (e.g. chickens), o economies o scale (some g ains), he sea-
weed p oduc ion sec o is domina ed by indi idual, au onomous households, wi h
a dea h o examples o co po a ised p oduc ion.
Seaweed cul i a ion is sensi i e o many en i onmen al ac o s ha a e highly
loca ion-speci ic, a iable, and uncon ollable, as Chap e s 6 and 7 discuss (e.g.
ides, seasons, ain all e en s, disease, and o he shocks). To be p oduc i e and
esilien in hese condi ions, p oduce s need o ha e bo h in-dep h knowledge o lo-
cal condi ions and he lexibili y and incen i e o wo k a ound hese condi ions. Fo
The Indonesian seaweed indus y 55
all bu he la ges households, seaweed a ming is no a ull- ime job so i equi es
lexibili y o alloca e labou ac oss a ange o o he complemen a y ac i i ies.
The p edominance o households in seaweed p oduc ion con o ms o heo y
ela ed o he compe i i eness o ac o s wi h di e en scale and go e nance s uc-
u es. The e can be an in e se ela ionship be ween p oduc i i y and a m size in
ag icul u al ac i i ies whe e households alloca e labou e icien ly o endu e shocks
(Chayano , 1991). Small a ms can be mo e e icien han la ge a ms when high
le els o local knowledge a e equi ed (Hazell e al., 2010). When hi ed labou e s
a e cos ly o moni o o mo i a e, he sel -supe ision unc ion o amily a ms a e
mo e e icien han la ge a ms (Keiji o e al., 2016). Smallholde s a e also highly
esponsi e o inc eased access o new echnologies and ma ke s (Schul z, 1964).
Al e na i e s uc u es o au onomous, indi idual households ha e been ialled
bu a e ye o be success ully es ablished. A p ocessing company (Widjaya) sough
o a m a la ge a ea o seaweed using hi ed labou bu encoun e ed p oblems wi h
p oduc ion. New echnologies and p oduc s de eloped o seaweed a ming in
deepe wa e s, including he use o mechanised loa ing and ha es ing me hods
(e.g. Sea6), a e unde de elopmen bu no ully ope a ional. Se e al p ocessing
companies (e.g. Mi subishi) ha e, o a e seeking o de elop, con ac ual ela ions
wi h households bu hese e o s emain a an explo a o y s age. While hese
co po a e s uc u es a e ye o gain a oo hold, condi ions ha may see some incu -
sion in he u u e include inc eases in labou cos s (see Chap e 8) and demands o
aceabili y (Ki s en and Sa o ius, 2002).
This is no o say, howe e , ha dominan smallholde sys ems a e s a ic. I
can ake ime o news abou seaweed o a el and be aken up, especially i he
up ake equi es subs i u ion ou o o he ac i i ies. Risk-a e se households may
wai o see he ac i i y g ound- es ed by o he a me s. Households inc emen ally
de elop ways o deal wi h shocks (e.g. wea he , disease) and o inke wi h sys ems
o inc ease p oduc ion o p oduc i i y. Da a om ieldwo k si es in he household
sec o show he eme gence o signi ican numbe s o la ge-scale household a m-
e s who employ casual wage labou e s o some asks (see Pa II o his book and
Lang o d, Wald on e al., 2024).
Household o ganisa ional modes also a y. Neish and Su yana ayan (2017)
dis inguished be ween wo ypes o seaweed a me s. The i s was he adi ional
nuclea amily model, whe e spouses and hei immedia e ela i es sha e he wo k
and income om seaweed cul i a ion. The second is he lead a me model whe e
one pe son o a small eam manage he a m en e p ise and sell he c ops, bu whe e
labou is bough in o a ange o asks, especially a aching cu ings and d ying.
G oup s uc u es (associa ions and coope a i es) a e also p omo ed by go e n-
men . The e is wide di e si y amongs households in hei scale o p oduc ion, sea
space use, and labou use e en wi hin he same illage (see Pa II).
Policy se ings o p oduc ion
The Indonesian seaweed indus y has g own somewha o ganically h ough he ac-
i i y o economic agen s ope a ing in a conduci e biophysical and socio-economic
en i onmen . Howe e , go e nmen is now playing an inc easingly ac i e ole in
56 Wald on, Lang o d, Pasa ibu e al.
p oduc ion aspec s o he indus y h ough echnical ex ension, esea ch and de-
elopmen , and in seed p opaga ion. Pe mani e al. (2023) documen ed 24 policies
ha ela e di ec ly o he p oduc ion-side aspec s o he indus y.
An impo an ole o go e nmen is o in es in esea ch and de elopmen . A
wide scope o esea ch has been conduc ed bu p oduc ion-side aspec s ea u e in
all o i .4 Mos esea ch is conduc ed on seed b eeding and supply, bu o he a eas
include ish epellen s and d ying o ens.
Ano he undamen al ole o go e nmen in he p oduc ion sec o is in echnical
ex ension. Wi h equi alen s in he ag icul u al sec o and o he aquacul u e indus-
ies, he Depa men o Fishe ies and Ma ine A ai s a p o incial le el (DKP)
has a echnical ex ension sys em cha ged wi h de eloping, es ing, adap ing, and
dissemina ing new seaweed echnologies o p ac ices in coo dina ion wi h a m-
e s. S a a e loca ed and managed by he DKP a he sub-dis ic le el. Simila o
ex ension in o he coun ies, he sys em is s e ched o human esou ces. In Sou h
Sulawesi, he seaweed-in ensi e sub-dis ic s ha e jus wo ex ension agen s e-
sponsible o as dis ances and la ge numbe s o illages and households. Du ies
o he s a include a la ge ange o addi ional adminis a i e du ies (e.g. s a is-
ics, adminis a ion, and ce i ica ion). Fa me s ha e ques ioned he e ec i eness
o he ex ension sys em a he local le el and de eloped and dissemina ed many
echnologies hemsel es. Howe e , se e al key p oduc ion-side echnologies ha e
been de i ed om he ex ension sys em including he pa a-pa a d ying me hod,
he double-line cul i a ion me hod, and mixed-species cul i a ion. The DKP also
dissemina es inpu s (e.g. opes and boa s), o en h ough g oup s uc u es ha aim
o imp o e p oduc ion, ma ke ing, and ex ension.
A inal o m o go e nmen in ol emen in he p oduc ion sec o is h ough
echnical implemen a ion uni s (TIUs) ha p oduce and dissemina e seaweed is-
sue cul u e in esh wa e , b ackish wa e , and ma ine aquacul u e. Known as seed-
ling ga dens (kebun bibi ) he uni s come unde he ju isdic ion o he Minis y o
Ma ine A ai s and Fishe ies (Regula ion 70–2020) and a e loca ed in 18 loca ions
and 20 seaweed illages (Kampung Budidaya Rumpu Lau ). Examples o esea ch
labo a o ies include he B ackish Wa e Fishe ies Aquacul u e Cen e in Takala
and he Ma icul u e and Fishe ies Cen e in Lombok.
The cen es we e es ablished o inc ease he quan i y and quali y o supply o
p opagules, a key cons ain in household p oduc ion sys ems pa icula ly a he
s a o he season (G is , 2022; Lang o d, Wald on e al., 2023). The cen es aim
o p opaga e seaweed wi h quali y cha ac e is ics ha include igou , colou , and
b anch s uc u e, all o which a e la gely a unc ion o age. The seedlings a e b ed
in con olled en i onmen s using ege a i e echniques. Spo ula ion ha would
allow inc eased p oduc ion is being ialled bu is ye o be scaled up o p oduc-
ion. To inc ease p oduc ion and dissemina ion, ou -g owe schemes wi h selec ed
households a e also used.
Despi e hese e o s, he olumes o p opagule ma e ial dissemina ed
om TIUs is jus a ac ion o ha p oduced by households hemsel es o ha
aded be ween households. A ela i ely small p opo ion o households di ec ly
ecei e ee issue cul u e p opagules om he p og amme (G is , 2022) bu
The Indonesian seaweed indus y 57
wi h equen sales and exchanges be ween households, many may ha e ecei ed
he ma e ial indi ec ly.
Seaweed p oduc ion
The ag o-clima ic and socio-economic en i onmen depic ed in his discussion is
conduci e o g ow h in seaweed p oduc ion. Na ional p oduc ion s a is ics ha e
epo ed exponen ial g ow h in seaweed ou pu since he 2000s wi h some decline
in ecen yea s. Expo s a is ics om Indonesia end simila ly, wi h apid g ow h
o 2010 ollowed by luc ua ions in ecen yea s. I accu a e, epo ed declines may
ha e been due o labou ansi ion om seaweed cul i a ion o o he mo e luc a-
i e o a ac i e ac i i ies such as ou ism (Wi a mini, 2018; Keohane, 2016) bu
he COVID-19 pandemic induced he opposi e e ec (Lang o d e al., 2021; Nu -
ya ono e al., 2020). When he ou ism sec o was se e ely a ec ed in a eas like
Bali, a ec ed wo ke s e u ned o on- a m ac i i ies including seaweed p oduc ion
(BBC, 2020; P a iwi, 2020). O e -use o key p oduc ion a eas may ha e con ib-
u ed o ecen declines.
Much o he ea ly expansion in seaweed p oduc ion occu ed in key a eas
including Bali, Nusa Dua, and Sou h Sulawesi. By he 2000s, howe e , he indus y
had expanded ac oss he a chipelago wi h some o he expansion occu ing in o -
mally. Fo example, membe s o households, mainly e hnic Buginese, om coas al
communi ies in Sou h Sulawesi, wo ked on palm plan a ions in Sabah in Malaysia
(Iain Neish, pe sonal communica ion, 10 Sep embe 2022). On ou e, hese wo ke s
s opped o e in No h Kaliman an and obse ed condi ions well sui ed o seaweed
cul i a ion. The mig a ion o wo ke s and p ac ices om Sou h Sulawesi led o
inc eased seaweed cul i a ion and has become a signi ican seaweed p oducing
p o ince.
While much in o ma ion has been in o mally passed be ween hose in he
sec o , mo e o mal go e nmen p og ammes aim o expedi e he p ocess. These
p og ammes aim o o e come issues ela ed o dissemina ion in emo e egions
and his is e lec ed in na ional policies and plans (such as he P esiden ial Dec ee).
Howe e , p o incial and sub-dis ic go e nmen ha e also de eloped and
implemen policies. These e o s e lec Indonesia’s decen alisa ion p og amme
implemen ed in 2000. P o inces hold ju isdic ion o e majo issues such as ma ine
zona ion and egional de elopmen plans. The spa ial dis ibu ion o seaweed p o-
duc ion in Indonesia in 2020 is shown in Figu e 2.2, which shows he impo ance
o Sulawesi (especially Sou h Sulawesi) in na ional seaweed p oduc ion.
The ma ke ing sec o
The Indonesian seaweed ma ke ing sec o ha links he p oduc ion o p ocessing
sec o s, comp ises o a ich apes y o ac o s, anspo , and logis ics sys ems,
and ins i u ional a angemen s. O pa icula in e es is he ole o ade s, who
play an impo an ole in he o ganisa ion o he seaweed indus y (Mulya i, 2015;
Su inah e al., 2018). In he ea lie s ages o indus y de elopmen , MNCs we e one
58 Wald on, Lang o d, Pasa ibu e al.
d i e o he dissemina ion o p oduc ion p ac ices. These companies linked wi h
local businesses wi h shops in illages o sub-dis ic owns. Local ade s we e
ypically in eg a ed wi h e ail, wholesale, ading, and inance ac i i ies and we e
commonly e hnic Chinese Indonesians. Wi h scien is s and companies looking o
expand seaweed p oduc ion du ing he 1980s, hese en ep eneu s we e he key
condui s in o ganising supply and linkages o a ming communi ies.
These local-le el ela ionships emain as he backbone o he seaweed ma ke ing
sys em, especially a he a me -ma ke in e ace. Howe e , wi h inc easing ade
olume and demands om buye s, addi ional in e media ies ha e en e ed he in-
dus y o o m a hie a chy o ade s ha lead o expo ma ke s o p ocessing com-
panies. Neish and Su yana ayan (2017) desc ibe hese as ma ke -go e ned sys ems
un by la gely au onomous ac o s, al hough he e a e also emnan s o he modula
sys em, whe e companies and expo e s ha e close ela ionships wi h ce ain buye s.
The ma ke hie a chy
The s uc u e o he Indonesian seaweed ma ke ing sys em has e ol ed o o m a
hie a chy o ac o s, linked h ough he exchange o seaweed o money. Local ad-
e s weigh and isually assess local a me s seaweed and buy a an ag eed p ice,
usually o cash “on he spo ”. The ela ionship is suppo ed by embedded se ices
and backwa d linkages. Fo example, ade s p o ide inpu s like ope, c edi , o
seedlings o he households which a e paid o on he sale o he seaweed (Neish,
2013). Local ade s can deal di ec ly wi h a me s o , o educe ansac ion cos s,
buy h ough local-le el collec o s. Unlike ade s, collec o s do no ake owne ship
o seaweed bu a e p o ided wi h cash o c edi om ade s o buy seaweed om
households based on hei knowledge, con ac s, us , and nego ia ion, o logis ical
skills. The collec o s migh deal wi h 50–110 a me s and a e some imes heads o
he local seaweed associa ions (Mulya i, 2015). Collec o s end o be mo e p e a-
len in he la ge seaweed p oducing and ma ke ing illages, like Laikang, a he
han he smalle illages, like Pi u Sunggu (Wald on e al. 2022).
Figu e 2.2 Volumes o ma ine seaweed p oduced o sale ac oss Indonesia in 2020
Sou ce: Da a om BPS (2022).
The Indonesian seaweed indus y 59
Local-le el ade s may also d y and clean he seaweed be o e agg ega ion wi h
o he lo s, o hen anspo o downs eam ac o s, which a e la ge ade s o p o-
cesso s. The e a e a wide a ie y o ade s in he hie a chy anging om he il-
lage le el o in a- and in e -island ade s. In addi ion, he e a e es ima ed o be
a ound 100 ade s wi h expo licences ha supply o eign ma ke s and domes ic
p ocesso s (Hoge o s and Ke e , 2019). This chain o ade s can some imes
be sho ened by p ocesso s ha ha e mo e modula ela ions h ough mo e s a-
ble p ocu emen a angemen s wi h pa icula buye s. Fo example, he company
Shanghai B illian Gum (BLG) sou ces seaweed h ough company p ocu emen
s a and ade s in epe i i e, ongoing ela ionships. These include se en o me
seaweed expo e s5 based h oughou Indonesia bu especially in Sou h Sulawesi,
No h Kaliman an, and he eas e n p o inces.
Ma ke cha ac e is ics
The ma ke -based go e nance sys em o he seaweed ma ke ing sys em bea s close
esemblance o ha o o he commodi ies in Indonesia and o he de eloping coun-
ies. This is especially he case o cash c ops like ui and ege ables, ma ine
p oduc s, and some li es ock and g ain commodi ies.6 Indonesian seaweed ma ke s
ha e se e al cha ac e is ics.
The i s is ha ansac ions occu in in o mal spo ma ke s be ween au onomous
ac o s. T ansac ions a e usually made in cash wi hou compulso y sale, inpu s,
p oduc speci ica ion, o o he o mal obliga ions. The ela ionships can be epe i-
i e be ween households and he seaweed buye s. T us and backwa d linkages o
c edi , seedlings, o ope a e in o mal and socially bound ela ionships be ween he
pa ies. This con as s wi h ansac ions h ough a me -buye con ac ual sys ems,
whe e pa ies a e bound by o mal legal a angemen s. Smallholde s a e likely o
mo e om spo o con ac sys ems o ood p oduc s ha a e di e en ia ed, pe ish-
able, o whe e consume s ha e ood sa e y conce ns (Ki s en and Sa o ius, 2002).
While hese demands a e g owing in a ange o oods, seaweed can be ega ded as a
bulk commodi y whe e spo ma ke s a e gene ally e ec i e and minimise ansac-
ion cos s (legal, measu emen , and moni o ing). Neish and Su yana ayan (2017)
desc ibes eme ging seaweed echnology and chains ha may u ilise a con ac ual
sys em.
Second, a language o desc ibe seaweed cha ac e is ics is widely accep ed and
used, bu o en in a b oad, in o mal, o subjec i e way. Fo example, he buye o
selle may claim mois u e con en o 36–38 pe cen and di and con amina ion
o 3–5 pe cen . Some p ocesso s ha e addi ional speci ica ions o colou (ligh )
and ca ageenan yield (e.g. 25 pe cen ) linked o p icing schedules. In p ac ice,
howe e , hese speci ica ions a e no always applied and a e a ely measu ed in
a me - ade ansac ions. This may aise ques ions in ela ion o he accu acy o
isual assessmen s (made by eye) and in o ma ion asymme ies in he ansac ion.
No ionally, buye s would ha e a be e eye o seaweed cha ac e is ics as hey buy
and sell e e y day and would ha e an incen i e o discoun es ima es o g ade
(mois u e and con amina ion) in o de o discoun he p ice. On he o he hand,
60 Wald on, Lang o d, Pasa ibu e al.
a me s who d y and pack he seaweed p esen ed o he buye also ha e an incen-
i e o do so oppo unis ically (e.g. by pu ing we o di y seaweed a he bo om
o sacks) o inc ease he weigh , he measu emen uni on which he ansac ion is
made (S one e al., 2023).
A hi d ea u e is ha he seaweed chain is ela i ely long wi h a la ge numbe
o ac o s and s ages o ans o ma ion (Koma ek e al., 2023). This means ac o s in
he ea ly s ages o he chain (p oduce s) ha e no di ec con ac wi h downs eam
ac o s (e.g. p ocesso s) and a e unlikely o e en ecognise he inal p oduc . This
makes i e y di icul o e ec i ely ansmi p ice-g ade di e en ials and buye
p e e ences down he chain. The indi ec signalling o di e en ials is es ed in p ice
analysis discussed below.
Finally, he e appea s o be a la ge numbe o seaweed buye s in he indus y
which could be expec ed o c ea e compe i i e ma ke s. Indeed, in pe iods o high
demand, buye s compe e ie cely wi h each o he o supply. Opposingly, howe e ,
he o ganisa ion o he hie a chy o ade s leads o a limi ed numbe o end use s
who can be powe ul.7 Fo example, he pu chasing powe o companies like BLG
and G een esh a e known o se p ices o he week.8 The compe i i eness o ma -
ke s is also es ed in he p ice analysis below.
Ano he ea u e o he Indonesian seaweed indus y is ha e hnic Chinese Indo-
nesians domina e he pos -p oduc ion sec o s. Chinese Indonesians ha e adi ion-
ally played a majo ole in seaweed ading and expo s and own he majo i y o
domes ic Indonesian ca ageenan p ocesso s, 9 as is he case in he Philippines.10
This ollows s uc u es in ag icul u e-based ade es ablished by ea ly Chinese dias-
po as (Skinne , 1963) ha ha e been obse ed in ishe ies (No aczek e al., 2001)
and con empo a y local-le el business ac i i ies (Chiang and Cheng, 2017). The
li e a u e has documen ed e hnic Chinese business ne wo ks ha o m alliances
wi h eli es and may expedi e business (McVey, 1992). These alliances can ex end o
mainland China h ough ade and in es men lows (Ren and Liu, 2022). As es ab-
lished in Chap e 1, he as majo i y o Indonesian seaweed is expo ed o China.
P ice analysis
P ices p o ide aluable insigh s in o he unc ioning o ma ke ing sys ems. They
signal he in e play be ween supply and demand, show pa e ns o change o e
ime, and he deg ee o in eg a ion in ime, space, and p oduc a ibu es. Lang o d,
Zhang e al. (2022) conduc ed a p ice analysis o Indonesian seaweed based on
o nigh ly p ice obse a ions collec ed by Ja ingan Sumbe Daya (JaSuDa) in 13
loca ions ac oss Indonesia. The da a has been collec ed since 2005, bu a sub-se
om 2011 o 2021 we e used. The p ices ha e been upda ed o May 2023 and a e
p esen ed in Figu e 2.3.
The p ice da a p o ides se e al insigh s. In Janua y 2015 he e was a la ge p ice
decline ha coincided wi h he announcemen o a ban on aw seaweed expo s as
pa o a b oade indus y policy o s imula e domes ic p ocessing. In Sep embe
2017, he e we e apid p ice inc eases ha coincided wi h he s a o ope a ions a
Indonesia’s la ges p ocesso , BLG. F om mid-2019 o mid-2021, p ices declined
The Indonesian seaweed indus y 61
and s agna ed, aligning wi h he mos se e e dis up ions om he COVID-19 pan-
demic. A e he p ice analysis by Lang o d, Zhang e al. (2022), he e we e apid
and sus ained p ice inc eases h ough he second hal 2021 and i s hal o 2022
(Lang o d, Wald on e al. 2023). I is impo an o no e ha he p ices a e no ional,
bu seaweed p ice inc eases ou s ipped in la ion. The his o ically high p ices we e
good o seaweed a me s bu placed a s ain on he capi al s ocks and ma gins o
downs eam ac o s. P ice le els ha e since co ec ed bu appea o emain abo e
p e-COVID le els.
Ano he inding o he p ice analysis is ha p ices a e (spa ially) co-in eg a ed
be ween egions (Figu e 2.3). This is an indica o o a compe i i e and gene ally
well- unc ioning ma ke , unde pinned by compe i ion and low o in o ma ion.
Howe e , p ices howe e became less in eg a ed a e he apid inc eases in 2017,
possibly as a esul o BLG pu chasing, and in o he 2020–21 COVID pandemic.
T anspo and supply chain dis up ions mean ha p ices we e ela i ely lowe in
mo e emo e a eas (Palopo in Sou h Sulawesi, Tual in Maluku, and Bon ong and
Nunukan in Kaliman an) compa ed o a eas close o majo ading hubs (Makas-
sa ). Model esul s also show ha he a ea closes o Makassa (Takala ) leads
p ices in o he egions (Lang o d, Zhang e al., 2022).
The da a collec ed includes seaweed p ices and he basic a ibu es o mois u e
con en and con aminan le els (sand and sal ). Reg ession analysis ound a low
co ela ion be ween hese a iables, sugges ing low ansmission o he alue o
quali y cha ac e is ics o seaweed and na ow p ice-g ade di e en ials. This may
be a unc ion o inaccu a e (subjec i e) measu emen o incen i es by all pa ies o
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
)gk/pR(eci P
Yea
Makassa , Sou h Sulawesi
Takala , Sou h Sulawesi
Denpasa , Bali
Bon ang, Kaliman an
Kupang, NTT
Tual, Maluku
Muna, Sou h Eas Sulawesi
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Figu e 2.3 Nominal seaweed p ices in se en loca ions in Indonesia, 2011–23
Sou ce: Da a p o ided by Jasuda in 2023.
68 Wald on, Lang o d, Pasa ibu e al.
Ca ageenan p oduc s
Wi hin he seaweed- o-ca ageenan sec o , Indonesian policy make s pu sue mul i-
ple o ms o upg ading o alue-adding, which is a majo ocus o he P esiden ial
Dec ee. As he majo i y (65 pe cen ) o Indonesian seaweed is expo ed in aw d y
o m, he go e nmen is seeking o inc ease he p opo ion p ocessed domes ically o
50 pe cen . I also aims o make he coun y a global leade in he ca ageenan sec-
o , which appea s sound gi en he high and sus ained o ecas g ow h (Chap e 1).
Ano he o m o upg ade can be seen in he p ocessing pa hways o ca ageenan.
The majo i y (56 pe cen ) o Indonesian ca ageenan is in he o m o semi- e ined
p oduc . The P esiden ial Roadmap aims o inc ease he p opo ion o seaweed p o-
cessed in o RC om 10 pe cen o 18 pe cen . Indonesia also aims o p oduce high-
alue niche ca ageenan p oduc s o ce ain ma ke s, including Eu ope (Hoge o s
and Ke e , 2019). Wi hin Indonesia, he as majo i y o ca ageenan p oduced is
expo ed o used domes ically as a ood addi i e, especially o d ink p oduc s. The
P esiden ial Dec ee plans o inc ease he u ilisa ion o ca ageenan in o he domes i-
cally p oduced oods including co ee, milk, mea , jellies, and oo hpas e.
Non-ca ageenan p oduc s
I is likely ha he Indonesian seaweed will be o ien ed o he p oduc ion o ca a-
geenan o some ime. Howe e much o he a en ion o he P esiden ial Roadmap
is conce ned wi h he de elopmen o non-ca ageenan p oduc s. This includes di-
ec ood p oduc s (Adha ini e al., 2019), animal eed, e ilise s (bios imulan s,
liquid and solid e ilise s, and plan ing media), cosme ics (e.g. capsules, pills,
oo hpas e, hai c eam, soap), and bioe hanol (Sul ah i, Husain e al., 2020; Sul-
ah i, Lang o d e al., 2020). The use o seaweed in a wide ange o applica ions has
gene a ed a en ion wo ld-wide, pa ly due o pe cei ed en i onmen al bene i s, es-
pecially o Aspa agopsis (Kinley e al., 2020; Ball e al., 2022). Howe e , many o
he echnologies and applica ions a e in he ea ly s ages o de elopmen and ace
logis ic o comme cial challenges. Fu he de elopmen should no be based only
on echnological de elopmen bu should be subjec o a ull cos -bene i analysis
o asce ain economic iabili y.
In line wi h po en ial and ambi ion, Indonesia has in es ed signi ican ly in o -
ganisa ions o conduc esea ch and de elopmen in o new seaweed p ojec s. These
include: he Cen e o Excellence o Seaweed a Hasanuddin Uni e si y; Badan
Pengkajian dan Pene apan Teknologi (BPPT) (Agency o he Assessmen and Ap-
plica ion o Technology) wi h a seaweed-based capsules p og amme; Seaweed-
based Capsule Shell Teaching Indus y acili y a Uni e si as Ai langga; and he
Depa men o Aqua ic P oduc Technology, Facul y o Fishe ies and Ma ine Sci-
ences, IPB Uni e si y in Bogo .
C oss-cu ing policies
The p e ious discussion o e iewed he seaweed indus y by e iewing on a
sec o -by-sec o basis. Howe e , se e al aspec s o he indus y cu ac oss indus y
The Indonesian seaweed indus y 69
sec o s. This includes ood sa e y and he egula ion o he use o ca ageenan in
o ganic ood, which is o e iewed in Chap e 1. O he c oss-cu ing issues such as
ma ine zoning and in es men a e e iewed below.
Zoning
The ules and no ms ha go e n use o sea space ha e been de eloped by commu-
ni ies and households hemsel es h ough he de elopmen o in o mal ins i u ions
(see Chap e 5). Howe e , he expansion and in ensi ica ion o seaweed p oduc ion
may in ol e an inc eased ole o go e nmen o media e compe ing in e es s be-
ween seaweed a me s, o he aquacul u al ac i i ies, use o boa lanes, and ma ine
p o ec ion zones. Zoning may ha e a ole in educing con lic , p o ec ing public
goods, alloca ing esou ces, and a ac ing in es men (Pe mani e al., 2023). While
land-based p ope y igh s a e mo e es ablished in Indonesia, he go e nmen in
ecen yea s has u ned i s a en ion o zona ion in ma ine a eas, which may impac
on seaweed cul i a ion.
The na ional go e nmen has a s ake in zoning, bu ju isdic ion lies a he
p o incial le el. Law 7–2007 on he managemen o coas al a eas and small is-
lands p o ided a manda e o p o incial go e nmen s o apply RZWP3K (Ren-
cana Zonasi Wilayah Pesisi dan Pulau-pulau Kecil – ‘Coas al A ea and Small
Island Zone Planning’) o espec i e egula ions. This manda e was amended by
Law 23–2014 on egional go e nmen s, which equi es each p o ince o issue
a p o incial egula ion o go e n RZWP3K, and mo e ecen ly Law 11–2020
which s ipula es he in eg a ion o RZWP3K in o RTRWP (Rencana Ta a Ruang
Wilayah, ‘Spa ial Planning’). As a p o incial issue, he issue o zoning is dis-
cussed u he in Chap e 3.
In es men
The go e nmen is e y in e es ed in a ac ing and p omo ing inwa d in es men .
In es men is a d i e o indus y g ow h and de elopmen wi h associa ed public
bene i s including employmen . The go e nmen can also gene a e e enue and
axes om he in ol emen in p ojec s. In line wi h indus y de elopmen ob-
jec i es, in es men in seaweed p ocessing plan s and a ms is a p io i y o he
go e nmen .
In es men is p omo ed h ough a la ge numbe o ac i i ies, o ums, and ade
shows a an in e na ional and local le el. An unde lying aspec o in es men p o-
mo ion is o p o ide an in es o - iendly o a business-enabling en i onmen in-
cluding a eas ele an o business p ocesses (e.g. egis a ion), p e e en ial policies
(e.g. ax ea men ), and he cla i ica ion and ha monisa ion o laws.
To d aw oge he hese dispa a e and some imes con o e sial objec i es and
mechanisms, China has used an Omnibus ins umen o guide in es men in In-
donesia, known as he Job C ea ion Law 11–2020 (UU Cip a Ke ja), enac ed by
he Indonesian p esiden in No embe 2020. The Law aims o a ac in es men ,
gene a e employmen , and s imula e he Indonesian economy by simpli ying he li-
censing p ocess and ha monising a ious laws and egula ions. While he Omnibus
70 Wald on, Lang o d, Pasa ibu e al.
Law p o ides a high-le el, o e -a ching amewo k ha anscends speci ic indus-
ies, i amended 76 laws ha ela ed o seaweed (Pe mani e al., 2023). This in-
cludes Law 32–2014 on he sea, Law 18–2012 on ood, Law 31–2004 on ishe ies,
Law 23–2014 on egional go e nmen s, Law 7–2007 (amended by Law 1–2014)
on he managemen o coas al a eas and small islands, and Law 33–2014 on Halal
assu ance. In 2021, he Indonesian go e nmen enac ed 49 implemen ing egula-
ions o he Omnibus Law (Pe mani e al., 2023).
Conclusion
This chap e ou lined he his o ical de elopmen o he seaweed indus y ha has
led o cu en indus y s uc u es. While i is a gued ha mos de elopmen s ha e
occu ed in a bo om-up way led by economic agen s, i also ou lines he plans and
measu es ha indus y and go e nmen ac o s a e making o mee u u e challenges
and objec i es. While hese measu es seem signi ican a he (na ional) le el o
analysis, hey may be un ecognisable a he local le els which a e he subjec o
subsequen chap e s.
No es
1 See Kalimaja i (2016), Neish (2015), Mulya i e al. (2020), Po se and Rudolph (2017),
W igh (2017), Neish (2007), Zam oni and Yamao (2012), Suadi and Kusano (2019),
Yulis i e al. (2021), Su inah e al. (2018), Hoge o s and Ke e (2019); Po se and
Ladenbu g (2015).
2 Se e al indi iduals we e ins umen al in he de elopmen o he indus y. These
included o eign scien is -en ep eneu s (Hans Po se and Iain Neish) and a ounde o
he Indonesian indus y known as he seaweed poli ician, Sul ah i Aziz (also known as
Sul ah i Hussain).
3 O he s a egic plan documen s om minis ies include: Minis y o Ma ine A ai s and
Fishe ies S a egic Plan 2020–2024, Minis y o Indus y S a egic Plan 2020–2024,
and he Coo dina ing Minis y o Ma i ime and In es men s A ai s S a egic Plan
2020–2024. P io o he 2018 P esiden ial Dec ee, no able documen s include he
Re i aliza ion P og am o Ag icul u e, Fishe ies, and Fo es y (P og am Re i alisasi
Pe anian, Pe ikanan, dan Kehu anan) ini ia ed by he P esiden o Indonesia in 2005,
he Accele a ion o Fishe ies Indus y P og am (Inp es No. 7 Tahun 2016, Pe cepa an
Indus i Pe ikanan), and P esiden ial Regula ion No. 3 o 2017, which ocuses on he
de elopmen o non- ood indus ies using seaweed as a aw ma e ial.
4 Key esea ch cen es suppo ed by he cen al go e nmen include he Resea ch Ins i u e
o Seaweed Cul u e in he Go on alo P o ince, he Agency o he Assessmen and
Applica ion o Technology (BPTP), Ins i u e o Ma ine Socio-Economic and Fishe ies
Resea ch, he Indonesian Ins i u e o Science and he Indonesian Ins i u e o Science
Cen e o Oceanog aphy Resea ch. In e na ional cen es include he Sou heas Asian
Regional Cen e o T opical Biology and he T opical Seaweed Inno a ion Ne wo k.
O he esea ch cen es a e loca ed in Lombok, Bali, and Sou h Sulawesi. The la e
includes he Cen e o Excellence o Seaweed a Hasanuddin Uni e si y and a Public
Ag icul u al Poly echnic in Pangkep.
5 These a e CV Jala Ganggang, PT Sindo Se ene In e na ional, PT Mega Ci a Ka ya, PT
Rika Rayhan Mandi i, CV Mi a Sejah e a, PT Cen al Pulau Lau , and CV Guna Baha i.
The Indonesian seaweed indus y 71
6 These di e om es a e c ops (cocoa, ubbe ) o s aple c ops (whea , ice) whe e he e
a e cen alised, co po a ised, o s a e-led ma ke ing sys ems. Fo de ailed analysis o
ma ke s uc u es o six di e en commodi ies see In e CAFE (2018).
7 The In e CAFE (2018) ound all six commodi ies s udied o be cha ac e ised by
oligopsony o oligopoly s uc u es.
8 Fo example, an indus y associa ion seeking ma ke in elligence asked a ade on
a F iday wha hei p ices would be nex week. The answe was “I don’ know, he
Chinese ha en’ bough ye .” The ade was wai ing un il hen, because i would be oo
isky o se up a pu chase o de in case p ices mo ed agains hem.
9 Fo example, Chinese Indonesians ha e es ablished seaweed p ocessing plan s in Wes
Ja a (Gumindo, Galic A ha Baha i, Hyd ocolloid Indonesia), Eas Ja a (Algalindo
Pe dana, Sea ech Ca ageenan, Ama a Ca ageenan) and Sou h Sulawesi (Cahaya Ceme -
lang, Giwang Ci a Lau , Wahyu Pu a Bimasak i, Anuge ah Mapan Jaya Hyd ocolloid).
10 Fo an accoun o a well-known Chinese-Filipino en ep eneu see Ga gan (1995).
11 Fo ca ageenan seaweeds, mois u e con en mus be a maximum o 38 pe cen wi h a
clean anhyd ous weed (CAW) yield o 50 pe cen minimum and a maximum o 3 pe
cen impu i ies. The s anda d goes on se equi emen s o p ope handling echniques
in ha es ing, d ying, packaging, labelling, and s o age.
12 They include Ban i Mu ung Indah, Algalindo Pe dana, Ama a Ca ageenan, Cen am,
Cahaya Ceme lang, Galic A ha Baha i, and Gumindo
13 Reconcilia ions a e based on ade s a is ics om UN Com ade o aw d ied seaweed
(HS code 121221), hickene s no con ined o bu domina ed by ca ageenan (HS code
130239), and domes ic p ocessing s a is ics o he Minis y o Indus y (Kemenpe in,
2022). Con e sion om RDS o a gene ic ca ageenan p oduc (a e age o ATC, SRC,
and RC) is based on a coe icien o 4:1.
14 The policy and ou comes o seaweed indus y policy esemble hose used in he Indo-
nesian cocoa indus y, whe e in 2010 expo s axes we e imposed o encou age domes-
ic p ocessing and esul ed in in es men om MNCs (Ha ison-Dunn, 2015). Ano he
pa allel is Russia’s indus y policy se ings which discou age he expo o aw imbe
(expo a i s) in o de o encou age domes ic wood p ocessing (Eks om, 2014). The
p o inces use simila indus y policies, Nusa Tengga a Timu (NTT) p o ince o bee
ca le (Wald on e al., 2016) seaweed (Lang o d, Tu upadang e al., 2022; Lang o d,
Tu upadang, and Wald on, 2023).
15 The Minis y o Indus y (Kemenpe in, 2022) lis policies o encou age downs eam
p ocessing: ax allowances, deduc ions o esea ch and de elopmen , and oca ional
aining cos s, exemp ions o machine y o indus ial de elopmen and using com-
modi y balance shee s o expedi e expo and impo app o als.
16 These a e in he Sou h Sulawesi P o ince (Luwu Timu , Janepon o, Bone), Sou h Eas
Sulawesi (Bombana, Bu on, Bu on Tengah), Go on alo, No h Kaliman an (Ta akan),
and Maluku U a a.
17 See, o example, in o ma ion on he Kendal Indus y Pa k/Special Economic Zone.
h ps://www.kendalindus ialpa k.co.id/page/index/17/special-economic-zone?p=1
18 A lis o 52 seaweed p ocesso s and expo e s in Sou h Sulawesi we e epo ed by he
Makassa Ag icul u al Qua an ine Agency (2023).
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DOI: 10.4324/9781003183860-5
3 The Sou h Sulawesi seaweed
indus y
Radhiyah Ruhon, Sco Wald on, Zannie Lang o d,
Adam Koma ek, Jing Zhang, and Eko Ruddy
Cahyadi
Chap e 2 explo ed how Indonesia has wo ked o suppo he de elopmen o he
seaweed indus y h ough na ional in es men in p oduc ion, ma ke ing, p ocess-
ing, and esea ch. This chap e ocuses on he p o incial le el, on Sou h Sulawesi
P o ince. Sou h Sulawesi is he la ges seaweed-p oducing p o ince in Indonesia
and he home o he case s udy illages analysed in Pa II o he book. This chap e
ou lines he ea u es o he Sou h Sulawesi seaweed indus y, including p oduc ion,
ade, p ocessing, and expo .
Es ablishmen o he seaweed indus y in Sou h Sulawesi
Sou h Sulawesi has a long his o y as a hub o ma i ime ou es. Se e al po s
along he wes coas o Sou h Sulawesi ha e se iced in e na ional ade since
he 16 h cen u y (Had awi 2018). Seaweed was expo ed om Sou h Sulawesi
om he 17 h h ough o he 19 h cen u y. Makassa Po con inued as a ma-
jo expo hub h oughou he 20 h cen u y (Na al In elligence Di ision 1944;
Soegia o and Sulus ijo 1981). These expo s included wild seaweed s ock om
Makassa wa e s and he o he islands a ound Sulawesi (B ugman 1882) and as
a as Aus alia (Pel as 1996). China and Japan we e di ec expo des ina ion
coun ies a ha ime, while Singapo e and Hong Kong became ansi coun ies
o p oduc s expo ed o he Uni ed S a es and a numbe o Eu opean coun ies.
Inc easing global demand o aga led o he expansion o ha es ing o aga -
bea ing seaweeds in Indonesia, howe e his was in e up ed by he ou b eak o
Wo ld Wa II (Soegia o and Sulus ijo 1981). In he 1960s and 1970s, ou po s
in Indonesia expo ed signi ican olumes o wild-ha es ed seaweed, including
Makassa (Figu e 3.1).
Fa ming o Kappaphycus al a ezii (known colloquially as ‘co onii’) was suc-
cess ully achie ed in Indonesia o he i s ime in he 1980s (as desc ibed in he
P e ace). This was ollowed by in es men s in seaweed p oduc ion and p ocessing
in se e al si es in Indonesia (Chap e 2). Howe e , hese ini ia i es did no ini ially
iden i y Sou h Sulawesi as a cen al loca ion o he de elopmen o he seaweed
indus y (Ha a and Pu nomo 1994; Soegia o and Sulus ijo 1981). Only 10–20 pe
cen o he o al olume o (wild-ha es ed) seaweed expo ed om Ujung Pandang
in Makassa Po o igina ed om he wa e s o Sou h Sulawesi (Muba ak 1980).
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license
84 Ruhon, Wald on, Lang o d e al.
-
20,00,000
40,00,000
60,00,000
80,00,000
1,00,00,000
1,20,00,000
1,40,00,000
-
5,00,000
10,00,000
15,00,000
20,00,000
25,00,000
30,00,000
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019202020212022
Seaweed Value (Millions, IDR)
Seaweed Annual P oduc ion (We Weigh , Ton)
Seaweed Annual P oduc ion
O he s
Luwu U a a
Ban aeng
Luwu Timu
Bone
Bulukumba
Jenepon o
Pangkep
Wajo
Luwu
Takala
Value (Uni million Rupiah)
Figu e 3.4 Seaweed p oduc ion om op en seaweed-p oducing dis ic s in Sou h Sulawesi om 2006–2022
All da a om DKP P o . SulSel.
The Sou h Sulawesi seaweed indus y 85
2009 and eaching 40,947 RTP in 2014. These numbe s luc ua ed and dec eased
o 33,589 in 2022.
As an indica ion o p o i abili y, Koma ek e al. (2023) indica es ha a me
a e age o al cos s (including a iable cos s, cash ixed cos s, and non-cash ixed
cos s) we e Rp. 6,867/kg o aw d ied seaweed. Fa me ope a ing p o i was
Rp. 27,633/kg o aw d ied seaweed. Seedling cos s we e he main cos incu ed
by seaweed a me s.
The expe iences o a me s in Pangkep highligh he challenges o ex eme
wea he condi ions and ma ine space con lic s aced in seaweed p oduc ion. Ex-
eme wea he condi ions such as high ain all (which may be exace ba ed by cli-
ma e change) equen ly esul in p oduc ion losses. The a me s exp essed conce n
ega ding he ad e se impac o hese en i onmen al ac o s ha al e empe a u e
and p ecipi a ion and ha e a se e e impac on cul i a ion (see Chap e 6). Ano he
Figu e 3.5 Map o household pa icipa ion in ma ine a ming in Sou h Sulawesi
Sou ce: Au ho s’ schema ic. Da a p o ided by DKP Sulsel 2023.
86 Ruhon, Wald on, Lang o d e al.
challenge iden i ied by a me s is ela ed o sea space con lic s be ween a me s
and o he s akeholde s. As seaweed a ming has expanded ex ensi ely, he e is
a lack o o mal go e nance in ela ion o zoning egula ion. An absence o clea
guidelines and bounda ies has led o con lic s a ising om compe ing in e es s and
disag eemen s o e sui able a ming a eas (see Chap e 5).
O e all, he o icial s a is ics indica e ha seaweed p oduc ion in Sou h
Sulawesi has been buoyan bu has luc ua ed and le elled o in ecen yea s. The
ema kable a m-ga e p ice inc eases o 2022 impac ed no only he li elihoods
o he a me s, bu also he mo i a ion o de elop he ading and dis ibu ion o
seaweed p oduc s. Discussion will now u n o he ading o seaweed p oduc s in
Sou h Sulawesi, whe e he seaweed is dis ibu ed by se e al ac o s p io o en e ing
he domes ic and in e na ional ma ke .
Dis ibu ion
The seaweed indus y in Sou h Sulawesi ope a es h ough a complex ne wo k o
ading channels in ol ing a ious key ac o s. The main ac o s a his s age a e he
collec o s/ ade s who ac as in e media ies and dis ibu e he seaweed om he lo-
cals o he domes ic o in e na ional ma ke . In Sou h Sulawesi, like many o he a -
eas in Indonesia, local ade s will pu chase he aw d ied seaweed om he a me s
and agg ega e i in o a ce ain olume be o e selling i on o egional ade s. Local
ade s may be equi ed o ed y he seaweed when he pu chased seaweed does
no mee he equi ed mois u e le el o 38 pe cen (Badan S anda disasi Nasional
2018). This usually happens when he p oduc comes om o he egions o ano he
p o ince. The local ade s ope a e by main aining a close ela ionship wi h he
a me s by p o iding hem wi h inpu s (seeds, opes, o educe ope a ional cos s)
and echnical suppo . In e u n, he a me will sell hei ha es o he ade .
The ela ionship be ween he a me s and he local ade s is conside ed mu ual as
he ade s p o ide a s eady ma ke and he a me s p o ide he local ade s wi h
a consis en supply. The ela ionship be ween he key ac o s may p omo e us ,
epu a ion, and long-s anding connec ions (Zam oni 2021; Lang o d e al. 2024;
Wald on e al. 2022).
Acco ding o BPS (2022), a ound 94.78 pe cen o seaweed households sell hei
c ops o local ade s/collec o s, while he es is sold o o he a me s (2.48 pe cen ),
expo e s (1.77 pe cen ), and o he s (1.41 pe cen ). O he s includes selling o p o-
cessing indus ies, es au an s, coope a i es, o di ec ly o o he pa ies. Mos o he
ansac ions be ween a me s a e in he o m o p opagules (Lang o d e al. 2024).
The pe cen age shown by BPS also indica es ha he di ec pu chase o seaweed
p oduc s om a me s by local p ocessing indus ies appea s o be limi ed. This end
is simila o ha in a s udy by Neish in 2007–2008, which sugges ed ha in Sou h
Sulawesi, almos all a me s in e iewed chose o sell o local collec o s (Neish
2013). The mos common easons we e p ice (100 pe cen ) and kinship (88 pe
cen ). Resul s ob ained by PAIR, sugges he main eason (60 pe cen ) a me s p e e
o sell o collec o s is ha collec o s o en p o ide c edi (Lang o d e al. 2024).
Ano he key ac o in he ading ne wo k is he b oke /middleman, a le el o
local ade s who wo k as an ex ension o la ge ade s o companies, ei he as
The Sou h Sulawesi seaweed indus y 87
local ade s o as an indi idual who goes o he illage doo - o-doo making ad-
ing o e s o he a me s (Koma ek e al. 2023). This ype o ac o was common in
Laikang illage, which may be due o he as ness o he a ea and he high num-
be o seaweed a me s in he egion. In Pi u Sunggu, he a me s men ioned ha
a numbe o local ade s/collec o s had es ablished b anches o wo ked oge he
wi h small collec o s in adjacen illages. These alliances mean hey a e able o
pu chase mo e local p oduce, p e en ing i om alling in o he hands o compe i-
o s who also ope a e in he same illages. This ex ension o he ne wo k is usually
a membe o he ade ’s amily who li es in he nex illage.
In he con ex o Sou h Sulawesi, 2022 wi nessed a signi ican inc ease in he
a m-ga e p ice o d ied seaweed. The inc eased p ice mo i a ed an inc ease in
a me s and ade s in se e al dis ic s, including Pangkep. In Pi u Sunggu, he
a me s associa ed he highe p ice wi h he new ade s as i encou aged compe i-
ion be ween new and es ablished ade s. I was also assumed he new ade s
would p omo e mo e anspa en p icing.
The 2022 a m-ga e p ice o d ied seaweed may, howe e , ha e p esen ed op-
po uni ies and challenges o seaweed a me s in Sou h Sulawesi. Al hough a m-
e s bene i ed om highe income and p o i , he inc easing demand du ing his
pe iod led o unsus ainable p ac ices such as p ema u e ha es ing o o e exploi a-
ion o en i onmen al esou ces. These p ac ices esul ed in a ma ke o e supply
and was ollowed by a p ice c ash.
Regional collec o s ac as middlemen be ween local ade s and he la ge ad-
e s/expo e s o p ocessing companies. They play a i al ole in ensu ing ha
seaweed p oduc s make hei way smoo hly along he dis ibu ion line. In Sou h
Sulawesi, egional ade s mos ly eside in Makassa , Ma os, and Takala Ci y,
close o he big po in Makassa . Simila o local ade s, he egional ade s may
also conduc epacking and ed ying (i necessa y) and s o ing. Because o he
many sou ces/channels o RDS p oduc s, quali y con ol is a c i ical pa o he
ope a ion o he egional ade who is he las ga e o he p oduc be o e en e ing
he expo ma ke . I he seaweed does no mee quali y s anda ds, he egional
ade may nego ia e a lowe p ice o ejec he ba ch al oge he . Regional ade s/
collec o s a e also awa e o he di e en equi emen s and p e e ences o expo
des ina ions. Fo ins ance, ce ain coun ies may equi e speci ic p oduc quali y
s anda ds o ha e speci ic packaging egula ions (Koma ek e al. 2023).
In Sou h Sulawesi, many o he egional ade s/collec o s ha e a la ge amoun
o capi al and may ade in o he ma ine-de i ed p oduc s in addi ion o seaweed.
Whe e he main ading p oduc is seaweed, he egional collec o will usually
ade in a numbe o seaweed species such as co onii, G acila ia, sacol, and spi-
nosum. The RDS is also collec ed om Kaliman an and se e al egions in Eas e n
Indonesia (Koma ek e al. 2023). Regional ade s will o ganise he shipmen o
goods o cus ome s ei he in Indonesia o o e seas. Some o hese egional ad-
e s a e indi iduals who a e a ilia ed o p ocessing companies (Zam oni 2021). In
2022 local ade s pu chased seaweed om a me s o Rp. 37,150/kg and on sold
he seaweed o Rp. 43,320/kg (Table 3.1). A ma gin o Rp. 6,170/kg o he local
ade s included Rp. 1,098/kg in cos s ela ed o paymen o collec o s, labou , and
anspo a ion.
88 Ruhon, Wald on, Lang o d e al.
P ocesso s
The seaweed p ocessing indus y plays a i al ole in ans o ming RDS in o a i-
ous alue-added p oduc s o domes ic consump ion and in e na ional ade. The
RDS is supplied by local and egional collec o s in Sou h Sulawesi as well as by
o he ade s om di e en p o inces. Simila o he ela ionships ha a e buil be-
ween a me s and local ade s, p ocessing companies also p e e o buy p oduc s
om ading pa ne s. T us and a common unde s anding ha e been buil in ela-
ion o he quali y o he seaweed needed by he p ocessing companies. I he col-
lec o is negligen o in en ionally engages in ha m ul ma ke ing p ac ices (such as
mixing seaweed wi h sal o o he o eign ma e ), he collec o will be blacklis ed
by he company. Du ing he cou se o his esea ch, cases o audulen collec o s
we e common in Jenepon o and Takala . I was also a opic o con e sa ion among
local ade s in Pi u Sunggu whe e hey exp essed conce n ha hese p ac ices
would unde mine p ices and could impac he us ela ionships. P oduc quali y
ela es o impu i y, humidi y, and gel con en which ollows S anda Nasiona In-
donesia (SNI) s anda ds (SNI 2690: 2018) ha ha e been se by he go e nmen .
A his s age, RDS is hen p ocessed in o ATC, SRC, o RC. These p oduc s,
oge he wi h unp ocessed RDS, a e hen expo ed o used in domes ic indus ies
ha u ilise ca ageenan. I is es ima ed ha na ionally a ound 80 pe cen o aw
d ied seaweed is expo ed (Ra nawa i e al. 2020; Anggadi edja 2017), and he es
o he p oduc is p ocessed domes ically be o e being expo ed o used in domes ic
p ocessing (Anggadi edja 2017).
As o 2023, he e a e a ound se en seaweed p ocessing companies in Sou h
Sulawesi (DKP P o . SulSel 2022c, 2023c; BBKP, 2023). These p ocesso s mos ly
specialise in he p oduc ion o aga o ca ageenan (Rimme e al. 2021). One o
he main companies in Sou h Sulawesi is PT. Bio a Lau Ganggang (BLG) in Pin-
ang, which specialises in ca ageenan p oduc ion, posi ioning i sel as he la ges
seaweed company in he wo ld in ha segmen (Kuka pape 2022). The company
has a long his o y and has expe ience in seaweed esea ch and de elopmen ha
can be aced back o 1996. Since i s es ablishmen in Pin ang, he company has
expanded i s p oduc ion quan i ies (P a iwi 2022). In 2019, he company had a
p oduc ion capaci y o 100 onnes pe day o powde ed seaweed. Howe e , he
a ailable supply o seaweed as a aw ma e ial was only 50 onnes pe day (sou ced
om Sou h Sulawesi and Eas Kaliman an), which esul ed in a sho age o aw
ma e ials o BLG’s p oduc ion (Pemp o Sulsel 2019; Al a izi 2019). A he ime,
BLG employed a ound 510 employees, wi h mo e han hal o hose employed be-
ing locally ec ui ed (Sul iani 2022). As o 2023, he numbe o employees a BLG
is 735 people, and aw ma e ial equi emen s ha e inc eased o 150–200 onnes pe
day. In 2022, a ound 70 pe cen o his daily quo a was being me , lea ing up o
30 pe cen o he quo a un illed (Kuka pape 2022). The company expo s i s pow-
de ed seaweed o coun ies such as China, he Uni ed S a es, Eu ope, and Malaysia.
Fo he de elopmen o he Sou h Sulawesi seaweed indus y, he p esence
o BLG is conside ed o ha e been o bene i as i appea s o ha e encou aged
an inc ease in he seaweed p ice (Lang o d e al. 2022). I has also gi en ise o
The Sou h Sulawesi seaweed indus y 89
inc eased job oppo uni ies o he local esiden s (Sul iani 2022), imp o emen s
o oads and o he in as uc u e adjacen o he indus y, gua an eed adhe ence o
p ice s anda ds, and an end o local buye s manipula ing p ices (Sulsel 2020). The
challenges aced by BLG a e ela ed o a limi ed supply o RDS which has been
a p oblem o o he p ocessing companies in p e ious s udies in es iga ing he
challenges and h ea s aced by p ocesso s ( an de Heijden e al. 2022; Soe houd
e al. 2022). O he p oblems include he inconsis en supply and low-quali y o aw
ma e ials, which a ec s he o e all quali y o he end p oduc . The ac o ies also
s uggle o ope a e a ull capaci y. High anspo a ion cos s be ween islands and
long wai ing imes also pose di icul ies. The e is s ong compe i ion om Chinese
buye s who also pu chase d ied seaweed, and om hyd ocolloid p oduce s in o he
coun ies. The p ocesso s also may ha e limi ed expe ience in expo a ion o high-
end ma ke s and s uggle o mee he speci ic equi emen s o hose ma ke s. Mos
o he seaweed expo ed s ill consis s o aw ma e ials (Sesdi jen DJPB KKP n.d.).
This means ha he economic alue adding om seaweed p ocessing is ela i ely
low (al hough alue adding h ough imp o ed d ying p ac ices is unde aken by
some companies (Lang o d, Tu upadang e al. 2023).
As a compa ison, PT. Ban imu ing Indah (PT. BI) is a smalle p ocessing com-
pany based in Ma os which was es ablished in 1985 as a c acke ac o y using
sh imps as aw ma e ial. In 1986, i s a ed p ocessing G acila ia p oduc in col-
labo a ion wi h Japan. By 1989, he company swi ched o p ocessing co onii o
p oduce ATC and SRC. In 2017, i b ie ly p oduced G acila ia-based p oduc s o
a yea . Mo e ecen ly i has ocused on he p oduc ion o co onii-based p oduc s
(SRC), ha ing a p oduc ion capaci y o 4.8 onnes pe day. PT. BI p ima ily ades
wo con aine s o SRC (50 onnes) pe mon h on he in e na ional ma ke , mos ly
o he UK, bu has also supplied Russia, A gen ina, and Chile in he pas . The com-
pany has speci ica ions o i s aw ma e ials, including a maximum wa e con en
o 37 pe cen and impu i ies limi ed o 3 pe cen . The o igin o he aw ma e ial is
c ucial o he p ocessing plan as buye s o en equi e aceabili y o ensu e qual-
i y. Buye s may e en demand speci ic o igins such as Nusa Tengga a Timu (NTT),
Nusa Tengga a Ba a (NTB), and Maluku.
In an in e iew wi h he Head o Plan on Ma ch 2023, i was disclosed ha PT
BI pu chased seaweed om Jenepon o and Bone a a p ice o Rp. 34,000/kg. When
sou cing om ou side Sou h Sulawesi, he p ice inc eased o Rp. 35,000–36,000/kg,
including anspo a ion cos s. Su p isingly, only 30 pe cen o hei aw ma e ials
cu en ly de i e om wi hin he p o ince (Jenepon o, Bone, Pangkep, and Ma os),
wi h he emaining 70 pe cen sou ced om elsewhe e. The company has iden i ied
a signi ican decline in seaweed quali y wi hin Sou h Sulawesi, especially in ela ion
o gel s eng h. The minimum gel s eng h equi ed is 700g/cm2, bu seaweed om
Sou h Sulawesi ypically a e ages be ween 500g/cm2 and 600g/cm2. The decline in
quali y can be a ibu ed o a ious ac o s such as when a me s ha es seaweed
ea lie han is op imal, especially when he e is high demand o aw ma e ial and
du ing changing oceanic condi ions (Lang o d, Wald on e al. 2023). Some expo e s
p io i ise d y le els o e gel s eng h and a e willing o pu chase any seaweed ha
mee s he d y-le el equi emen . Addi ionally, poo handling p ac ices by collec o s,
90 Ruhon, Wald on, Lang o d e al.
who mix seaweed om di e en o igins and ha es ages, con ibu e o he decline in
quali y. In some cases, collec o s e en use sal o expedi e he d ying p ocess, u he
de e io a ing he quali y o he aw ma e ial.
A he p ocessing le el, p ocessing echniques and he quali y o seaweed in lu-
ence p ices and cos s; howe e , a de ailed decomposi ion o ma gins o p ocesso s
is una ailable. Figu e 3.6 p o ides an indica ion o he alue o p oduc s p oduced
a di e en s ages o he ca ageenan supply chain. Ma gins a e composed o bo h
ope a ing cos s and p o i . Ope a ing cos s p obably con ibu e o he size o he
ma gin due o he ixed and a iable cos s o seaweed p ocessing ( a he han he
physical mo emen o he p oduc along he chain).
The yield o ca ageenan (ATC, SRC, and RC) ex ac ed om ca ageenan
seaweed (RDS) is shown in Figu e 3.7, howe e his can be in luenced by he
p ocessing echnique and he quali y o he aw ma e ials. Fo ins ance, p ocess-
ing 1,200kg o RDS would esul in a p oduc ion ou pu o 400kg o ATC, 300kg
o SRC, o 240kg o RC. In e ms o p oduc ion cos s, aw ma e ials accoun o
app oxima ely 75–80 pe cen o he o al cos , ollowed by labou cos s a 10–15
pe cen , wi h chemical and ene gy cos s each accoun ing o 5–10 pe cen . P o i
ma gins, as es ima ed by he p ocesso s in e iewed, anged be ween 10 and 20 pe
cen , wi h an a e age o 15 pe cen .
P o incial expo
The e a e an es ima ed 52 seaweed expo e s in Sou h Sulawesi P o ince (DKP
P o . SulSel 2021; BBKP 2023). The expo o seaweed om Sou h Sulawesi has
gene ally inc eased o e he las decade (DKP P o . SulSel 2021). Figu e 3.8 e-
po s s a is ics on he weigh o RDS expo ed o e he decade 2012 o 2022 and
Re ined
Ca ageenan (RC)
Semi‐ e ined
Ca ageenan
(SRC)
Alkali T ea ed
Chips (ATC)
Raw Di ied
Seaweed (RDS)Rp. 40000-50000/kg
USD7-11/kg
equi alen o Rp.103,749 -163,033/kg
USD12-13/kg
equi alen o Rp. 177,855-192,676/kg
USD14-15/kg
equi alen o Rp. 207,494-222,315/kg
+Rp. 18,000/kg
non-seaweedcos s
+Rp. 3,000/kg
milling cos
Figu e 3.6 Value adding o domes ic ca ageenan seaweed p ocessing
Sou ce: Au ho s’ schema ic. Da a om Koma ek e al. (2023).
The Sou h Sulawesi seaweed indus y 91
a e age p ices. The weigh o expo s ended up o e he pe iod wi h a sligh de-
cline om 2015 o 2018, a spike in 2019, and a le elling-ou o e he COVID-19
pandemic yea s o 2020–2021. While weigh s inc eased sligh ly in 2022, p ices
su ged, which led o a la ge inc ease in alue expo ed. Figu e 3.9 p esen s he
same indica o s (weigh , alue, and a e age p ice) bu on a mon hly basis o show
a ia ion in a single yea (2022). The e we e sligh luc ua ions in he weigh o
seaweed expo ed. A e age de i ed p ices a ied mo e o e he yea , wi h a peak
in Augus 2022 which accu a ely e lec s epo s om he ield whe e he a m-ga e
~1.33:1
We
Seaweed
Raw
D ied
Seaweed
(RDS)
38% MC
Alkali T ea ed
Co onii
(ATC)
Semi-Re ined
Ca ageenan
(SRC)
Re ined
Ca ageenan
(RC)
D ying
Alkali
ea men
Milling
Alkali ea men
+ milling
Ca ageenan
ex ac ion
~3:1
~4:1
~5:1
~7.5:1
We seaweed o
inal p oduc a io
~22.5:1
We seaweed o
inal p oduc a io
~30:1
We seaweed o
inal
p oduc a io
~37.5:1
Figu e 3.7 Ra es o con e sion o seaweed in o o he p oduc s
Sou ce: Au ho s’ schema ic. Da a om Koma ek e al. (2023).
‐
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
‐
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 201820192020 20212022
A e ageP ice (USD/Kg)
Expo Volume (Kilo onnes),Value($ millions)
Yea
A e ageP ice
( igh axis)
Expo Value
(le axis)
Expo Volume
(d y weigh ,le
axis)
Figu e 3.8 Weigh , alue, and a e age p ice o all ypes o seaweed expo s om Sou h
Sulawesi, 2012–2022
Sou ce: Realisasi Pembangunan Pe ikanan Sulawesi Sela an Tahun 2012–2021. pd and Da a Expo
Pe ikanan 2022 DKP.pd , eleased by DKP P o . Sulsel
No e: o al expo olume ep esen a i e o all ypes o seaweed p oduc s, accoun ed in d y weigh
(di e en om he eleased da a o he p oduc ion which is ep esen ed in we weigh , pe sonal com-
munica ion, Ap il 2023)
92 Ruhon, Wald on, Lang o d e al.
p ice eached Rp. 48,000/kg (p ices in Makassa peaked a Rp. 50,000/kg), he
highes in indus y his o y. P ices hen declined a he end o 2022 and in o 2023.
Fo he las 20 yea s, China has been he majo expo des ina ion o Sou h
Sulawesi’s seaweed p oduc s. Acco ding o BKIPM, mo e han 70 pe cen o he
o al expo ed seaweed om Sou h Sulawesi has gone o China each yea since 2018
(BKIPM S a is ik 2023). P e ious s udies ha e highligh ed ha he p ice paid o sea-
weed in Indonesia was la gely d i en by demand om China, whe e he bulk o he
p ocessing occu s. This has caused he domes ic p ice o be gene ally lowe han he
a e age global p ice (Rimme e al. 2021; Lang o d e al. 2022). Wi h he inc easing
demand o seaweed p oduc in he global ma ke , he Indonesian go e nmen is y-
ing o domina e his ma ke by encou aging he de elopmen o he indus y h ough
se e al policies and a ge s being se o he Sou h Sulawesi seaweed indus y.
Sou h Sulawesi seaweed policy
The na ional go e nmen has enac ed a wide ange o policies aimed a he sea-
weed indus y (see Chap e 2 and Appendix 1). P o incial go e nmen s also play
a ole in policy-making by enac ing highe -le el policy and de eloping policies
wi hin hei ju isdic ion. These a e ou lined b ie ly below.
Sou h Sulawesi P o ince does no ye ha e an o e -a ching equi alen o he
na ional go e nmen “Roadmap” o he p o incial seaweed indus y, howe e ,
indus y policies a e colla ed in policy documen s. Fo example, Sou h Sulawesi
P o ince s a es ha p o incial p og ammes (in 18 dis ic s/ci ies) should suppo
seaweed p oduc ion h ough inpu s (supe io p opagule p oduc ion h ough is-
sue cul u e p og ammes) o pos -ha es handling (DKP P o . SulSel 2022d). To
p omo e collabo a ion wi hin he p o incial go e nmen , he KKP es ablished he
seaweed aquacul u e ishing illage in Laikang illage, loca ed in Takala Regency
o Sou h Sulawesi (ANTARA News Makassa 2022).
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
‐
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Janua yFeb ua yMa ch Ap ilMay June July Augus Sep embe Oc obe No embe Decembe
A e ageP ice (US$/kg)
Expo Volume (kilo onnes), Value($millions)
A e ageP ice
(Righ axis)
Expo Value
(Le axis)
Expo Volume
(D yweigh ,Le a
xis)
Figu e 3.9 Weigh , alue, and a e age p ice o all ypes o seaweed expo s om Sou h
Sulawesi by mon h
Sou ce: Da a om T ade Agency and BKIPM Sulsel and p epa ed by DKP Sulsel. A e age p ices a e
de i ed om o al alues and weigh s.
The Sou h Sulawesi seaweed indus y 93
Fu he downs eam, he e a e also p og ammes o suppo he es ablishmen o
new seaweed p ocessing plan s in Sou h Sulawesi, in Bone, Jenepon o, and Luwu
Timu . These plan s will be equi ed o ob ain p ocessing easibili y ce i ica ion,
Haza d Analysis and C i ical Con ol Poin (HACCP) ce i ica es o heal h, and
o he ce i ica ion o expo o domes ic dis ibu ion (Ningsih 2020). The go e n-
men is also in ol ed in a ious p og ammes o suppo expo s. In 2016 he Sea
Toll p og amme was de eloped o acili a e in e - egional dis ibu ion o seaweed
wi hin Indonesia, including supplies om Sou h Sulawesi (Sapu a 2023; Sesdi jen
DJPB KKP n.d.). Fu he mo e, he p o incial go e nmen ’s commi men o sup-
po ing he indus y is e iden h ough se e al s a egies, o example by adop ing
he ecommenda ion o Omnibus Law No. 11 o 2020 in he Sou h Sulawesi P o-
incial Spa ial Plan (RTRW) o 2022–2041. These ecommenda ions a e aimed a
easing business and in es men license egis a ion o a ac o eign in es men .
The go e nmen has also pa ne ed wi h he Minis y o In es men (BKPM) o
p omo e Sou h Sulawesi’s seaweed indus y as one o he a ge ed de elopmen
p ojec s in he In es men Oppo uni y Map (PPI) 2022 (Nooca 2022).
Amongs all he policy a eas ele an o seaweed, p o incial go e nmen has
ju isdic ion o e zoning. The managemen o coas al a eas and small islands is
go e ned by Law 7/2007, which gi es p o incial go e nmen s he au ho i y o
implemen egula ions o coas al a eas and small island zone planning (Pe mani
e al. 2023). As such, he Sou h Sulawesi p o incial go e nmen issued wo egu-
la ions: he Spa ial Planning Plan (RTRW) 2009–2029 and he Coas al and Small
Island Zoning Plan (RZWP3K) 2019–2039. These we e la e supe seded by a new
egula ion (Regional Regula ion No. 3 o 2022 conce ning Regional Spa ial Plans,
2022–2041).1
Conclusion
Seaweed collec ion and expo s ha e been p ac ised in Sou h Sulawesi since
ancien imes when Sou h Sulawesi se ed as a global ading hub. Seaweed
cul i a ion began in he ea ly 1980s and inc eased du ing he 21s cen u y. The
o ganic, bo om-up g ow h has led o a sophis ica ed web o in e ac ions a he
communi y le el and an a omised supply chain popula ed by a la ge numbe o
ac o s. Indus y g ow h has a ac ed he a en ion o co po a e ac o s (p ocesso s
and expo companies) and go e nmen . This is e lec ed in he enac men o
se e al policy ini ia i es, al hough policy a en ion can be expec ed o g ow as
he indus y encoun e s new g ow h-induced challenges and oppo uni ies. This
includes a ailabili y o seedlings, ola ile p ices, labou sho ages, ecological
p oblems, con lic s o e sea space, and he objec i es o local go e nmen o
p omo e alue-adding and employmen . While highe le els o go e nmen play
a ole in add essing hese issues, i is impe a i e ha policy is based on de ailed
and obus in o ma ion om he local le el such as he da a on cos s and p ices
encoun e ed by supply chain ac o s p esen ed in his chap e . I is sugges ed
ha decisions ha equi e knowledge o he local and comme cial en i onmen
should be es ed in he local-le el agen s. The impo ance o unde s anding local
con ex is explo ed in subsequen chap e s.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003183860-7
4 Expo commodi y on ie s and
he ans o ma ion o illage li e
Zannie Lang o d, Radhiyah Ruhon, Zulung Zach
Walyand a, and Risya A syi A mis
Ag a ian change in Pi u Sunggu
On a sunny day in Pi u Sunggu, we mee wi h Pak Cak a a his home nea he coas -
line. The walls a e eshly pain ed a sky blue, o na e u ni u e deco a es he home and
an imp essi e a ay o biscui s and swee s si on he able. The e a e new illy g een
cu ains hanging o e he windows and a ish ank wi h se e al gold ish. The house is
no new, howe e . I was buil wi h a la ge a ic o ill wi h ice a e he ha es . Bu
nobody he e along he coas line a ms ice anymo e. The ice ields we e con e ed
in o sh imp ponds in he 1980s and 90s when ige p awn p ices we e high, and now
house milk ish and whi eleg sh imp, and mos people make hei li ing om he
sea a ming seaweed. The e a e signs o weal h all a ound he hamle , wi h new and
o na ely deco a ed houses, new mo o bikes, and many people doing well. Pak Cak a
explains how he s a ed a ming seaweed when he p ice was jus Rp. 8,000/kg, and
wa ched i go up – 11,000, 12,000, 13,000, 14,000, up and up, 22,000, 23,000 … now,
he says, he p ice is Rp. 33,000/kg – so imes a e good o seaweed a me s.1
Pi u Sunggu is a place ha has seen apid and widesp ead ans o ma ion o i s
landscape a se e al poin s in ime. Some people ha e done e y well ou o hese
ans o ma ions, adap ing en ep eneu ially o new ci cums ances. O he s ha e
had o mo e a ound o ind wo k, selling hei labou o landowne s in he illage
and i s su ounds o mo ing o o he islands. The las cen u y has seen landscapes
ans o med om mixed ag icul u e o ice ields, om ice ields o sh imp ponds,
and o e he las decade, he sea om communal ishing g ounds o p i a e sea-
weed a ms. These apid ans o ma ions, pulled along by b oade de elopmen s in
global alue chains, ha e changed li elihoods in ag a ian households. They ha e
led o shi ing die s, educa ion le els, gende oles, housing, in as uc u e and
anspo , mig a ion and labou use.
This chap e desc ibes he his o y o ag a ian ans o ma ion in Pi u Sunggu
om he pe spec i e o illage esiden s. In o ma ion gained h ough o al his o ies
wi h olde esiden s o he illages is iangula ed wi h his o ical maps, s a is ical
in o ma ion, and published li e a u e o desc ibe he his o y o expo -o ien a ed
ag a ian change in he illage. This his o y illus a es he se ies o ag icul u al an-
si ions and changes in land owne ship which enabled some esiden s o en husias-
ically ake up seaweed a ming and claim ex ensi e igh s o he sea in he ea ly
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license
102 Lang o d, Ruhon, Walyand a & A mis
2000s. O he s pe sis ed wi h es ablished li elihood ac i i ies and we e le behind
on his unexpec ed new on ie o sea space enclosu e. These pa e ns shaped he
way ha he cu en indus y is o ganised and he di e en li elihoods ha people
d aw om i .
Pi u Sunggu illage
This sec ion o he book ocuses on ou case s udy loca ion o Pi u Sunggu, a small
illage on he coas line o Pangkajene dan Kepulauan Regency, a ew hou s’ d i e
no h o he p o incial capi al o Makassa . The popula ion o Pi u Sunggu a he
end o 2022 was a ound 2,108, di ided in o 613 households, 181 o which a m
seaweed. The illage is di ided in o h ee hamle s (Figu e 4.1): he coas al hamle
o Pungkalawaki, whe e he majo i y o seaweed is a med; he inland hamle o
Bon o Sunggu, whe e esiden s a m li le seaweed bu own la ge a eas o ag icul-
u al land; and he cen al hamle o Kampung Ba u, a se lemen buil in he 1970s
be ween he Siden eng Ri e and he oad, whose esiden s ha e adi ionally
wo ked as ade s and who a e now hea ily engaged in seaweed a ming (Table
4.1). Ou su ey o 96 ou o a epo ed 136 seaweed a me s (a he commence-
men o he esea ch) in he illage ound ha 55 we e loca ed in Pungkalawaki, 36
in Kampung Ba u, and 3 in Bon o Sunggu. Few a e loca ed in Bon o Sunggu, due
o bo h he inland loca ion o his hamle and he la ge landholdings o his coho .
Figu e 4.1 Layou o he illage wi h h ee hamle s
Sou ce: Map c ea ed by Risya A syi A mis using A cMap. Land co e based on maps o illage a ail-
able in o ice o illage head, combined wi h analysis o sa elli e image y and iangula ed wi h pub-
lished in o ma ion.
Expo commodi y on ie s 103
Table 4.1 O e iew o Pi u Sunggu hamle s
Pungkalawaki In he coas al hamle o Pungkalawaki, esiden s li e along a oad unning
pa allel o he coas line and he i e bank close o he i e mou h.
Mos esiden s a e seaweed a me s o ishe men, and some also ha e
b ackishwa e ponds in which hey g ow sh imp and ish. Pungkalawaki
was his o ically a emo e hamle un il oads we e imp o ed in he
1970s. This a ea was con e ed o b ackishwa e ponds as ice ields
nea he coas salinised. Mos seaweed (67 pe cen ) p oduced in
Pi u Sunggu is om Pungkalawaki a me s, who access he sea ia
a coas al pie . Be o e commencing seaweed a ming, 67 pe cen o
Pungkalawaki seaweed a me s had ponds and 80 pe cen unde ook
ma ine ishing. Pungkalawaki people ha e a his o y o wo king a sea.
Bon o Sunggu The inland hamle o Bon o Sunggu is loca ed nea es o a main oad and
esh wa e sou ce, and he esiden s g ow ice and ege ables. I has
his o ically been he cen al se lemen in he illage as a esul o i s
p oximi y o he main oad, and esiden s he e ha e his o ically owned
la ge a eas o he ag icul u al land in he illage. I was he si e o an
Ox am p ojec o de elop o ganic ege able and ice a ming in he
egion om 2010–2015, and hese ag icul u al ac i i ies con inue oday
in a small a ea o Bon o Sunggu (see Much a , 2017). Bon o Sunggu
has a esh wa e sou ce and land use is a combina ion o sh imp
and ish ponds, ice ields, and o es . Ve y li le seaweed a ming is
cu en ly unde aken by Bon o Sunggu esiden s. Residen s ypically
own ag icul u al land which hey use p ima ily o pond a ming. We
loca ed only se en seaweed a me s om his hamle du ing ou long-
e m ieldwo k, and jus h ee o hese appea in he household su ey.
Kampung
Ba u
Kampung Ba u (li e ally ansla ed as ‘new illage’) is he mos ecen
hamle in he illage. I is loca ed be ween Pungkalawaki and Bon o
Sunggu and on he banks o he Siden eng Ri e . Residen s o his
illage mo ed o his loca ion om hei p e ious loca ion amids
he ice ields which was known as ‘Bon o Baddo’. Bon o Baddo
had limi ed access o oads, i e s, o sea, and esiden s epo ha
poo oads made anspo ing goods in and ou di icul . Go e nmen
oad p ojec s in he 1970s imp o ed he oads in Pi u Sunggu and
Bon o Baddo esiden s abandoned hei p e ious si e and mo ed o
li e along he new oad, o ming he new hamle o Kampung Ba u.
Wi h access o he sea ia he i e , many esiden s ook up wo k as
ishe men o seaweed a me s. They ypically hold limi ed land a eas
and we e adi ionally seen o ha e poo e access o educa ion and
employmen han he esiden s o he o he hamle s, bu ha e ecen ly
expe ienced g ow h in weal h as a esul o seaweed a ming. A ound
26 pe cen o he seaweed p oduced in Pi u Sunggu is p oduced by
Kampung Ba u esiden s. Be o e commencing seaweed a ming, jus
11 pe cen o Kampung Ba u seaweed a me s had ponds, 64 pe cen
unde ook ocean ishing, c ab ne ing, o clam collec ing, and 33 pe
cen unde ook nei he o hese ac i i ies, ins ead wo king as ade s o
ishe ies p oduc s o unde aking o - a m wo k. The lack o ag icul u al
land holdings by people in his illage may ha e inc eased up ake o
seaweed a ming by people in Kampung Ba u, and as a esul o hei
ea ly adop ion, hey now own la ge a eas o sea space and ha e apidly
inc eased hei weal h o e ime.
104 Lang o d, Ruhon, Walyand a & A mis
Land use change in Pi u Sunggu
O e he las cen u y, Pi u Sunggu illage has unde gone a se ies o landscape
ans o ma ions which e lec b oad changes ha ha e occu ed along much o he
coas line in he a ea. A se ies o his o ical maps combined wi h ecen sa elli e
image y (Figu e 4.2) shows he epea ed ans o ma ion o land use in he egion
o e he las cen u y. His o ical maps illus a e land use in he illage a ou poin s
in ime: in 1917 p io o la ge scale clea ing o he land o ice ields he landscape
was p obably used o mixed ag icul u e including palm ees and bamboo; in 1925
when he landscape had been ans o med in o ice ields; in 1981 when he con-
e sion o he land o b ackishwa e ponds began along he coas line bu did no a
ha poin each inland a eas; and in 2022 when he a ea was almos en i ely used
o b ackishwa e pond a ming and seaweed a ming (Figu e 4.1). These his o ical
maps e lec se e al dis inc pe iods o ag icul u al land use in he illage which a e
desc ibed in he ollowing sec ions.
The ea ly his o y o Pi u Sunggu
Pi u Sunggu si s wi hin he egency o Pangkajene dan Kepulauan (he ea e
‘Pangkep’), as ou lined in he In oduc ion. The a ea which is now Pangkep was
p e iously pa o he Kingdom o Siang, ounded a ound 1112 AD and pe sis -
ing un il a ound 1544 (Zainal and Ap asing, 2014). The kingdom was one o
he oldes and mos in luen ial kingdoms o Sou h Sulawesi (Muhaeminah and
Makmu , 2016; Zainal and Ap asing, 2014) and was he i s kingdom in Sulawesi
o es ablish ade ela ions wi h Eu ope (Had awi e al., 2019), bene i ing om he
use o Pangkajene Ri e as a s a egic po o ading. The kingdom declined in he
mid-16 h cen u y pa ly as a esul o he sil a ion o he Pangkajene Ri e such ha
i was no longe sui able o ancho age o me chan ships (Had awi, 2018; Pel as,
1996). A he same ime he nea by Gowa Kingdom was g owing in s eng h.
A e he decline o he Siang Kingdom, se e al smalle kingdoms, including
he Ba asa Kingdom o Pangkajene, g ew in he oid, bu hese ell unde he ule
o he Makassa ese Kingdom o Gowa (Makkulau, 2008). In he 1660s some o
hese kingdoms changed hei a ilia ion o all unde he Buginese Kingdom o
Bone, which e en ually de ea ed he Kingdom o Gowa in he 18 h cen u y. This
kingdom was subsequen ly go e ned by he Du ch Eas India Company (Ve enigde
Oos indische Compagnie (VOC)) in he 18 h cen u y. Th oughou he pe iod o
VOC con ol h ough he 17 h and 18 h cen u ies, many Bugis-Makassa ese peo-
ple a elled o o he pa s o Indonesia and ab oad and se led he e o a oid he
ule o he Kingdom o Bone and he ade monopoly o he Du ch VOC (C ibb,
2000; D akeley, 2005). In he 19 h cen u y he decline o he VOC saw Pangkep
come unde he di ec adminis a ion o he Ne he lands go e nmen (Van Go sel,
2022). The Du ch ule main ained local sys ems o powe in he egion, which
bo h suppo ed i s con ol o he e i o ies while simul aneously uelling desi e o
independence (C ibb, 2000). In 1942 wi h he Japanese occupa ion, independence
Expo commodi y on ie s 105
Figu e 4.2 Land use in Pi u Sunggu in 1917 ( op le ); 1925 ( op igh ); 1981 (bo om le );
2022 (bo om igh )
Sou ce: Maps c ea ed by Risya A syi A mis using A cMap. Land use da a ex ac ed om his o ical
maps. Figu e 4.2a is based on a his o ical map p oduced in 1943 om ae ial pho og aphs aken in 1917–
1918 (Uni ed S a es A my Map Se ice 1943). Figu e 4.2b is based on a Du ch map p oduced based
on ae ial pho og aphs aken in 1925. (Topog a ische In ich ing & Topog a ische Diens 1927). Figu e
4.2c is based on maps a ailable om he Indonesian go e nmen showing he landscale in 1981–2
(Bakosu anal 1991). Figu e 4.2d was c ea ed based on iangula ion o maps on display in he Pi u
Sunggu illage o ice, sa elli e image y om 2023, and p ima y da a. Adminis a i e bounda ies shown
a e hose cu en ly in use.
106 Lang o d, Ruhon, Walyand a & A mis
s uggles in Indonesia in ensi ied (C ibb, 2000), and esis ance mo emen s g ew
in se e al pa s o Sou h Sulawesi, including Pangkep. Following he Japanese
su ende in 1945, Indonesia p oclaimed independence and in 1949 so e eign y
was ecognised by he Du ch a e an ex ended p ocess. Since hen he e ha e been
se e al adminis a i e changes o he o ganisa ional s uc u e o he egion, and he
illage names and bo de s in he Pangkep egion.
Pangkep is he e o e loca ed in a egion which has his o ically been o s a egic
and economic impo ance. I si s a he in e sec ion be ween Bugis and Makassa
e hnic g oups, and iden i ica ion o people in he egion wi h hese wo g oups is
o en luid and o e lapping. The a ea ha is now Pi u Sunggu was spa sely popu-
la ed a he u n o he 20 h cen u y, and he i s a ailable map o land co e which
in o ms he 1917 map in Figu e 4.2 shows ha in 1917–1918, he illage a ea was
p ima ily ‘bamboo’ and ‘palm’ (coconu ), wi h ‘woodland’ (including mang o es)
along he coas s. Rice ields we e al eady isible on he maps in an a ea abou 5km
o he sou h o he illage bu we e no iden i ied wi hin Pi u Sunggu. This does
no necessa ily indica e ha no ice was g own in he a ea, a he ha he land was
p obably used o mixed c opping ac i i ies which a e no inely di e en ia ed in
he colonial maps. Mos esiden s did no di ec ly ecall his pe iod as hey we e
no bo n a ha ime, al hough a ew o hem o e ed sho e lec ions on wha
hey knew abou i . One esponden no ed ha ‘I hea d om he old people ha in
colonial imes, people he e consumed swee po a oes o bananas as a s aple ood,
I hea d ha my g and a he a e hose oods’. Se e al unpa ed oads we e p esen
in he illage, bu esiden s epo ed ha un il he 1970s hese we e muddy and
p o ided limi ed accessibili y. Acco ding o his o ical maps, be ween 1917 and
1925 he land a ea o Pi u Sunggu was almos en i ely ans o med in o ice ields,
beginning a pe iod o mo e han i y yea s o ice a ming.
Rice a ming
Olde esiden s o Pi u Sunggu oday ecall he ice a ming e a which began in
app oxima ely he 1920s and con inued un il he ice ields we e con e ed in o
sh imp and ishponds in he 1980s and 1990s. This e a was di ided in o wo dis-
inc pe iods – he pe iod o ield ice a ming om he 1920s o he 1970s, in
which a low yielding a ie y was g own wi h minimal inpu s and no i iga ion
yielding jus one ha es pe yea , and an in ensi ied pe iod which occu ed a e
he G een Re olu ion in he 1970s, in which a me s g ew a new a ie y o ice
using chemical e ilise s.
Field ice a ming (1920s–1970s)
Fo mos o he ice a ming e a o Pi u Sunggu (un il he G een Re olu ion in he
1970s), he ype o ice g own was a a ie y o ield ice known as Ase lapang.
Residen s ecalled he la ou o his ice a ou ably, desc ibing he g ains as ‘big
and ag an ’ wi h a pleasan as e. As one esiden ecalls, he ice ‘had hai , was
all, had a long g owing pe iod, was ha es ed using [a wooden ool known as]
Expo commodi y on ie s 107
ani-ani, and yielded li le’. The ice was g own in ields wi hou i iga ion, and as a
esul o he eliance on ainwa e , cul i a ion o mos o he ields was limi ed o
a single c op o e a h ee-mon h pe iod in he ainy season. Bu alo we e used o
wo k he ields and hei manu e was used as e ilise .
Residen s’ ecollec ions o his pe iod a y depending on hei landowne ship
s a us. Rice ields we e unequally dis ibu ed amongs he illage s, and some o
he land was owned by non- esiden s o he illage, including esiden s o nea by
illages and esiden s o o sho e islands. As one esiden ecalls, ‘ he e we e peo-
ple om ou side [ he illage] who owned land [he e]. I depends, i people he e
we e weal hy hey migh ha e had land, bu i no , e en hough hey li ed he e hey
didn’ ha e a pond o a ice ield.’ Landowne ship was domina ed by a small g oup
o ‘ u al eli e’ who we e able o accumula e land o e ime, and who we e mos ly
esiden s o he inland hamle Bon o Sunggu. The majo i y o esiden s did no
ha e signi ican land holdings, and gene ally ecall his as a di icul pe iod when
ood was sca ce. Residen s epo ed mixing hei ice wi h low-cos ege ables as
he supply o ice alone was insu icien o mee household needs. As one esiden
ecalled,
We had co n and swee po a o which we cu in o small pieces and hen
cooked. The e was no o he ood a ha ime. The ood was pu chased a he
Sege i Ma ke and was b ough o he illage by ca ying i on you shoulde s
and walking on oo . The e we e no ehicles a ha ime … all he land in he
illage was used o g owing ice. Co n and swee po a o could no g ow …
[The ice ields] belonged o he illage s, bu he e was s ill no enough
ood. I used o be e y ha d, people su e ed. E en he ine co n husks we e
ea en. The e we e o en people who did no cook because hey didn’ ha e
any ood. I some imes eel sad when I hink abou he su e ing o he people
in he pas . I will always emembe ha ime.
Small ish supplemen ed hese s a chy oods and we e epo edly ela i ely cheap
du ing ha pe iod. They could be ob ained om ice ields whe e, as one esiden
desc ibed, ‘a ha ime he e we e no pes icides, so usually when we we e wo king
in he ields, we also caugh ish’. Fish, sh imp, c abs, and clams we e also caugh
in he sea using adi ional boa s and ishing me hods, and hese we e sold a local
ma ke s.
Some esiden s o Pungkalawaki and Bon o Baddo ( he o me esidence o
Kampung Ba u people) owned ice ields, bu many wo ked as labou e s in he
ice ields o o he s – a p ac ice known as ma’sangki. This occu ed unde a p o i -
sha ing sys em in which he labou e s would ecei e a po ion o he ha es ed ice.
As one esponden ecalled:
My a he was a a m labou e [on a] ice ield [owned by] a esiden o an is-
land. The owne could no come o he illage so he asked my a he o wo k
on his ice ields and he yield was di ided in wo … some [o he ice ields]
a e owned by people ou side he illage, ha ’s why a lo o people he e a e
108 Lang o d, Ruhon, Walyand a & A mis
labou e s. The e a e also illage s who own ice ields bu he e a e no many
o hem, only ce ain people in he illage do.
I was common o women, men, and child en alike o unde ake ma’sangki, bo h
wi hin he illage and ou side i . One esponden desc ibed wo king wi h he pa -
en s as a child:
I would wo k on o he people’s land, in emo e places, oo, because we
helped ou pa en s. Because I had many younge siblings … a e g adua ing
om junio high school I wen o Pin ang and Sid ap o a m wo k. Because
I wasn’ going o school anymo e – a money p oblem. Usually we would
go somewhe e o abou 15 o 20 days. When he ha es in ou illage had
inished we would mo e o ano he a ea o a m wo k, and when he wo k
was inished he e, we would mo e again, o ano he place.
A ound one hi d o Kampung Ba u seaweed a me s epo ha p io o com-
mencing seaweed a ming hey unde ook o - a m wo k o mig a ed o look o
wo k. Mig a ion o o - a m wo k has been common in Pi u Sunggu his o ically,
and many esiden s epo ed pe iods o ‘wande ing’ o Makassa , Kaliman an, and
Papua o wo k. Du ing he ield ice a ming e a, seasonal mig a ion o wo k was
common due o he low p oduc i i y o he ield ice, as one esiden desc ibed:
Be o e, a e he ice was plan ed, he a me s would lea e i una ended and
go o he ci ies o ea n ano he li ing … many people would wo k elsewhe e,
such as being pedicab d i e s in Makassa . They would e u n o he illage
when i en e ed he ha es season. Fo una ely, a ha ime he e we e no
plan hoppe pes s.
This mo emen was made bo h necessa y and possible by he non-in ensi e na-
u e o he ield ice a ming sys em, which was single-c op, uni iga ed, wi h low
inpu s. Fa me s epo ha hey did no expe ience signi ican issues wi h pes s a
ha ime and a ibu e pes issues o inc easing use o insec icides and chemical
e ilise s – possibly because such inpu s in e e e wi h na u al biological con ol
mechanisms (Se le e al., 1996; Heong e al., 2014). Fa me s had o mo e a ound
o ea n hei li ing du ing his pe iod, as one esiden desc ibed:
The p oblem was ha ice ields canno be plan ed all yea ound, only
du ing he wes monsoon season, and a ha ime he e was no i iga ion, so
when he wes monsoon season ended and he ha es was o e , he e was no
o he wo k, so I would go o Makassa .
Fa ming ac i i ies in he pe iod we e he e o e domina ed by non-in ensi e ice
a ming supplemen ed by ma ine ishing and o - a m wo k. Rice ield inpu s o
labou we e low, e ilise s we e limi ed o bu alo manu e, i iga ion was ain ed
only, and ice ields once plan ed equi ed li le addi ional wo k un il ha es ing.
Expo commodi y on ie s 109
Fish we e ob ained h ough ma ine ishing and ishing in ice ields, bu s a ch
needs we e o en un ul illed and many esiden s ecall his as a di icul and ‘hun-
g y’ ime. This si ua ion con inued un il he G een Re olu ion en e ed he illage
in he 1970s.
The G een Re olu ion (1970s)
F om he ea ly 1970s, he Indonesian go e nmen encou aged he implemen a ion
o ‘G een Re olu ion’ echnologies. The i e-p onged app oach included he in-
oduc ion o high yielding ice a ie ies, chemical e ilise s, syn he ic pes icides,
i iga ion and imp o ed plan ing me hods, s imula ing a ansi ion om low-inpu ,
low-p oduc i i y ield ice p oduc ion o high-inpu , high-p oduc i i y (IR8, lo-
cally known as ci a ung) ice p oduc ion (Rahmi e al., 2020). These me hods sup-
po ed subs an ial inc eases in Indonesian ice p oduc ion o e ime (Figu e 4.3).
In line wi h b oade na ional p og ammes (e.g. Hansen, 1972), esiden s ecall
being ‘p essu ed’ by he go e nmen o ca y ou he di ec i es o he G een Re olu-
ion, bu also ha he yields o a me s who adop ed hem we e so much highe ha
soon many a me s ook hem up o hei own oli ion. As one a me desc ibed,
We we e no o ced, bu he communi y did no wan o accep some hing
which hey did no know abou … [bu ] a e i had been p o en ha he new
a ie y p oduced mo e ice, we didn’ need o be old o g ow i anymo e, we
wen along wi h i ou sel es … a e i was p o en, many wan ed i because
i was eally good … he new ice could p oduce up o eigh ons pe hec a e,
be o e we go a maximum o h ee ons.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
P oduc ion Quan i y (MT)
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
2020
Figu e 4.3 Rice p oduc ion in Indonesia o e ime
Sou ce: Da a om FAO 2023.
116 Lang o d, Ruhon, Walyand a & A mis
esiden s oday was se led a a ime when seaweed p ices we e much lowe and
he ac i i y was much less p o i able han i is oday. I was aken up p ima ily by
hose who al eady ea ned hei li elihoods by ishing in he sea, by hose who had
limi ed al e na i e li elihood ac i i ies, and by hose who had he abili y o in es
in he new p oduc ion echniques.
Ini ially, new seaweed a me s ecei ed capi al o seaweed a ming om in e -
es ed pa ies and in es o s om ou side he illage, as well as om he local go -
e nmen and om a non-go e nmen al o ganisa ion. Go e nmen assis ance was
ecei ed in he o m o aining p og ammes, seaweed seeds, and bamboo d ying
pla o ms. Village esiden s also de eloped low-cos ways o building ancho s in
he sea o o e come capi al sho ages in he es ablishmen o seaweed plo s. Pung-
kalawaki esiden s – who li e along he coas line o Pi u Sunggu – we e he i s
o ake up seaweed a ming in la ge numbe s. Resul s om ou su ey (ou lined in
he In oduc ion, and wi h a ull accoun p o ided in Lang o d e al. 2024) sugges
ha hey cu en ly ep esen abou 58 pe cen o he Pi u Sunggu seaweed a ming
coho and p oduce 67 pe cen o he illage’s seaweed (Figu e 4.7). La ge num-
be s o Pungkalawaki esiden s ook up seaweed a ming be ween 2005 and 2011,
and ou su ey indica ed ha hey a e he la ges seaweed a me s in he illage,
p oducing on a e age o 1.9 onnes d y seaweed each in 2021. Kampung Ba u esi-
den s adop ed seaweed a ming la e and mo e g adually, wi h mos a me s aking
up seaweed a ming be ween 2010 and 2019. Today, hey ep esen 38 pe cen o
seaweed a me s and 27 pe cen o p oduc ion, on a e age p oducing 1.1 onnes in
2021 – 40 pe cen less seaweed han he a e age Pungkalawaki seaweed a me .
The e a e only a ew Bon o Sunggu seaweed a me s – du ing 16 mon hs o ield-
wo k we only ound 7 Bon o Sunggu esiden s who had seaweed a ms – bu hese
ew a me s on a e age p oduce highe olumes han hose om o he a eas. In
ecen yea s, he p ice o seaweed has inc eased d ama ically, including, oughly,
doubling om Rp. 10,000/kg in ea ly 2017 o o e Rp. 20,000/kg by 2018, and
spiking o nea ly Rp. 50,000/kg om June 2021 o Oc obe 2022, be o e d opping
again o a ound Rp. 15,000/kg by Sep embe 2023 (Lang o d e al. 2023 and e e
o Chap e 2). As a esul , seaweed a ming has c ea ed conside able weal h o
some who ha e access o he sea in which o unde ake i .
Employmen c ea ion
The mos labou -in ensi e job associa ed wi h seaweed a ming is ying seaweed
p opagules o opes p io o plan ing. This wo k is ime-sensi i e, such ha a g oup
o i e people migh be equi ed o achie e he ying equi ed o eplan an a ea
wi hin a day. As a esul , a me s do no no mally do all o his wo k hemsel es
bu pay o he s o do i o hem. The c ea ion o employmen h ough his p ac ice
is widely seen as one o he impo an posi i e social impac s o seaweed a ming.
This is el pa icula ly s ongly in Pi u Sunggu, whe e, as discussed abo e, many
people ha e adi ionally had o mig a e o ind wo k. This seaweed binding wo k
can be unde aken by women while ca ing o small child en, as well as by elde ly
people and hose wi h physical disabili ies such as blindness o limi ed mobili y
Expo commodi y on ie s 117
who may no be in a posi ion o unde ake o he o ms o wo k. I is conside ed
o be an adequa e bu no highly paid job compa ed o cul i a ion by he a me s
hemsel es. I also in ol es si ing in he same posi ion o long pe iods o ime
and binde s who do no wea glo es may expe ience se e e skin i i a ion om
p olonged con ac wi h he seaweed. None heless, many people p e e i o wo king
in he sun on he ponds. One esiden obse ed how seaweed a ming had changed
labou ela ions be ween people in Kampung Ba u and Bon o Sunggu:
I used o inspi e he child en a ound my house ha he people o Kampung
Ba u we e c ea i e and ha dwo king people. In he pas , he people o Bon o
Sunggu Hamle we e he employe s o he Kampung Ba u communi y, who
we e ag icul u al labou e s, hey wo ked on ou ances al ields. Bu now, he
people o Bon o Sunggu Hamle a e slowly becoming labou e s o he Kam-
pung Ba u communi y, and he hamle ’s economy is g owing. The g ow h
comes om seaweed. This is p oo ha i you wo k ha d and diligen ly, i
will gi e you a good change in li e. Please look a he communi y o Kam-
pung Ba u. I you look closely, he numbe o people who own ca s is highe
in Kampung Ba u Hamle [ han he e in Bon o Sunggu].
Chap e 8 explo es he wo k o seaweed binde s in mo e de ail.
Booms and bus s
The Pi u Sunggu seaweed indus y has expe ienced se e al pe iods o boom and
bus d i en by p ice changes. Th oughou 2014 and 2015, seaweed p ices declined
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
1,00,000
1,20,000
Bon o Sunggu Kampung Ba u Pungkalawaki
A e age annual p oduc ion pe a me , 2021
To al annual p oduc ion, 2021
To al hamle p oduc ion A e age pe capi a p oduc ion
Figu e 4.7 To al and a e age seaweed p oduc ion by hamle
Sou ce: Da a om au ho s’ su ey.
118 Lang o d, Ruhon, Walyand a & A mis
s eadily o hal hei p e ious alue. As a esul o his ongoing decline, many a m-
e s sold o ga e away hei sea space and a ming equipmen and mig a ed o ind
wo k, o en in Kaliman an o Papua. One a me lamen ed ha he had made se e al
seaweed plo s in he ea ly days o he indus y, bu had mo ed away o wo k and
gi en hem away, no an icipa ing he u u e p o i abili y o he indus y: ‘I ga e
hem all away … and now [ he new owne s] don’ wan o gi e hem back’. These
ansac ions occu ed be o e sea space was in sho supply.
In 2017, he la ge Chinese ca ageenan p ocesso BLG commenced ope a ion
in nea by Pin ang, and in he second hal o 2017, Makassa p ices mo e han dou-
bled om Rp. 9,400/kg o Rp. 22,000/kg (Zhang e al., 2023). Seaweed a ming
quickly became much mo e p o i able, p omp ing many o he esiden s o e u n
o he illage and ecommence seaweed a ming. The ag icul u al and aquacul u al
li elihoods a ailable o esiden s o he illage a e he e o e closely linked o pa -
e ns o mig a ion.
In he ea ly yea s o seaweed a ming, a me s s uggled o main ain yea - ound
cul i a ion o he species o seaweed ha hey we e cul i a ing: Kappaphycus al a-
ezzi, known colloquially as ‘co onii’. The yea 2017 ma ked an impo an poin in
he de elopmen o he indus y in Pi u Sunggu because i was he yea ha ano he
species was in oduced o he illage: Kappaphycus s ia us, known colloquially
as ‘sacol’. Sacol con ains he same ype o ca ageenan as co onii so was easily in-
co po a ed in o supply chains by ade s, who o en mix he species oge he . Sacol
is mo e ole an o oceanic condi ions du ing he Pi u Sunggu d y season, so he
in oduc ion o his species mean ha a me s could al e na e be ween sacol and
co onii o achie e yea - ound p oduc ion. Since he in oduc ion o his species,
seaweed a ming ac i i ies ha e in ensi ied. Households ha p e iously unde ook
bo h ishing and seaweed a ming ha e spen inc easing ime on he la e . This
has also inc eased he demand o seaweed binde s o he ex en ha labou supply
wi hin he illage is no longe su icien , and some a me s ha e o anspo hei
seaweed o g oups o binde s loca ed in o he , inland illages, in o de o access
wo ke s.
C ab ishing
O e ime, he e ha e also been changes in he c ab ishing ac i i ies unde aken
alongside seaweed a ms. Ini ially, illage esiden s caugh mos ly mang o e
c abs, which hey sold a ma ke , o local ade s, o o ho els in he ci y. G adually,
c ab ading became mo e common and a c ab peeling business ( o blue swim-
me c abs) was es ablished in he illage, which bough small c abs and sold he
mea in he ci y. A he same ime, c ab ishe men shi ed om using ne s ha hey
sewed by hand hemsel es o pu chasing ne s om s o es. Today, c ab ishing is
highly seasonal and p ices luc ua e signi ican ly. O e he yea o ou obse a ion,
p ices changed om Rp. 50,000/kg in Janua y, o a peak o Rp. 90,000/kg in Ap il,
be o e alling o Rp. 20,000/kg o e he ollowing mon hs. Fishe men a ely ca ch
la ge c abs bu ins ead ca ch la ge numbe s o small c abs (be ween 5–25 kg/day,
depending on he season and he p ice). C ab ishe s ypically do no di e en ia e
Expo commodi y on ie s 119
hei ca ch based on c ab size, gende , o p egnancy, bu sell he en i e y o hei
load di ec ly o ade s. The e is a ade based a he pie h oughou he c abbing
season o buy c abs di ec ly o he boa s. The c ab peeling business in he illage
also c ea es jobs o 10–20 esiden s, al hough his is a ewe han he numbe o
people employed in seaweed binding.
While he seaweed indus y has c ea ed posi i e bene i s o many illage esi-
den s, he e ec s on c ab ishe men ha e been less posi i e. C ab ishe men, who
p e iously had access o he en i e coas al a ea o c ab ishing, a e now excluded
om a la ge pa o he coas al space and hei ac i i ies ha e been squeezed in o
he gaps be ween seaweed a ms. Many c ab ishe men s uggle o make an ad-
equa e li ing, and as he seaweed a ming a ea is i ually all aken, i is di icul
o c ab ishe men o swi ch o he mo e luc a i e ac i i y. These dynamics will be
explo ed in mo e de ail in Chap e 5.
Li elihood specialisa ion
Today, Pi u Sunggu seaweed a me s a e highly specialised in seaweed a ming.
Mos o hem (60 pe cen ) also unde ake ma ine ishing (Figu e 4.8). Pond a m-
ing is also common, i is unde aken by 38 pe cen o a me s, while some also un-
de ake o - a m wo k (11 pe cen ), c ab ishing (10 pe cen ), and collec ing ocean
shells (7 pe cen ). No ably, jus 1 pe cen o a me s su eyed epo ed p oducing
ice, and no esponden s epo ed g owing ui o ege ables o ea ing li es ock.
This is because he land a ea o Pi u Sunggu is almos en i ely aken up by b ackish-
wa e ponds, wi h some coconu s g owing on he banks be ween hem. Pi u Sunggu
a me s a e he e o e highly expo o ien a ed in hei p oduc ion, and ely on he
sales o seaweed and/o sh imp and ish o he money hey need o pu chase ood.
0% 10%20% 30%40% 50%60% 70
%
Rice
Coconu s
Ocean shells
C abs
O - a m wo k
Pond a ming
Fishing in h
e ocean
Pe cen age o households pa icipa ing in d i e en li elihood ac i i ies
Be o e commencing seaweed a mingA e commencing seaweed a ming
Figu e 4.8 Li elihood ac i i ies o Pi u Sunggu seaweed a me s
Sou ce: Da a om au ho s’ su ey.
120 Lang o d, Ruhon, Walyand a & A mis
This is unlike he si ua ion in he nea by illage o Laikang, whe e 27 pe cen o
seaweed a me s also g ow ice and 18 pe cen also g ow co n. Pi u Sunggu seaweed
a me s a e he e o e qui e specialised in expo -o ien a ed p oduc s – 77 pe cen o
hem ea n mo e han hal o hei household income om seaweed a ming and 83
pe cen employ mo e han hal o hei household labou in seaweed a ming.
Expo -d i en change in Pi u Sunggu
Pi u Sunggu is a place ha has seen a numbe o ans o ma ions o he landscape
wi h he in oduc ion o new c ops and echnologies, occu ing alongside en i on-
men al changes which u he push hem in o new p oduc i e domains. Seaweed
a ming was no he i s and is unlikely o be he las expo c op o ans o m
illage li elihoods in Pi u Sunggu. The long- e m pa e ns in land owne ship, in-
ensi ica ion, land deg ada ion, and in as uc u e de elopmen c ea ed a pe iod
in illage de elopmen whe e ce ain esiden s ound hemsel es sea ching o a
new li elihood ac i i y. They ook i up wi h en husiasm, claiming igh s o he sea
which paid o when seaweed p ices ose. This chap e has explo ed how his o ical
con ex c ea ed a coho o a me s poised o adop a new c op. The nex chap e
shows how his p ocess occu ed and was con es ed, nego ia ed, and accep ed in
di e en con ex s.
No e
1 In he mon hs ha ollowed, a m-ga e p ices in Pi u Sunggu ose o a peak o Rp. 48,000/
kg (and Rp. 50,000/kg in nea by Makassa ), be o e alling again h ough 2022 and in o 2023.
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DOI: 10.4324/9781003183860-8
5 F om communal access
o p i a e owne ship
Nego ia ing igh s o he sea
Zannie Lang o d, Radhiyah Ruhon,
Zulung Zach Walyand a, Risya A syi A mis, and
Im an Lapong
Enclosu e
Looking ou ac oss he wa e s o Pi u Sunggu, he ocean is isibly ull o seaweed
a ms, igh ly packed oge he wi h only small gaps be ween hem o boa s o pass
h ough. Jus wen y yea s ago, seaweed a ming was i ually unknown in his
a ea, and ishe men mo ed a ound he space eely, ca ching ish, ne ing c abs,
and ading wi h o sho e islands. The sea was a communal esou ce which could
be used by anybody, and nobody could be p e en ed om using i . Howe e , oday
i is di ided in o indi idually owned plo s o sea space (Figu e 5.1) which can be
bough , sold, en ed, and inhe i ed.
Seaweed a ming has caused a d ama ic change in he way ha he sea is used and
managed. Unlike ishe s and c ab ne e s, who ypically mo e a ound ac oss la ge
(a) (b)
Figu e 5.1 a) A seaweed a me wo king on his a m; b) Pi u Sunggu seaweed a ms om
abo e
Image om d one oo age by Nu Ihsan eco ded May 2022 o sho e o Pi u Sunggu illage.
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license
124 Lang o d, Ruhon, Walyand a, A mis & Lapong
a eas in sea ch o hei ca ch, seaweed a ming equi es ha a me s be able o claim
use o an a ea o sea space o he ull a ming cycle – a ound six weeks (Figu e
5.1). Du ing he ime ha he seaweed is g owing, hey mus be able o exclude o he
ocean use s – such as c ab ne e s and passing boa s – om hei a ea o he sea, as
boa s passing h ough a seaweed plo can damage he seaweed o become angled in
he opes suppo ing he a m. In addi ion, in o de o se up hei a ming appa a us,
a me s mus ins all ancho s o a ach hei a m o he sea loo , known as seaweed
a m ‘ ounda ions’.1 These ounda ions delinea e he a ea o he a m and a e expen-
si e o se up. To jus i y he in es men , a me s need o be able o gua an ee ha
hey will be able o con inue o use hem o longe han jus one cycle – no mally
o se e al yea s. This equi es a di e en ype o igh o use he sea: one ha is bo h
exclusi e and pe manen . This is a signi ican change om he cus oma y use o sea
space, in which people ha e adi ionally enjoyed he non-exclusi e igh o empo-
a ily access he sea: hey we e ee o use i , bu so was e e ybody else.
The success o he seaweed a ming ansi ion has he e o e depended on he
con e sion o he ocean om a public access a ea o space di ided in o disc e e,
indi idually owned a ming plo s, whe e a me s can wo k he same a ea o sea
space o e many mon hs o yea s. I elies on excluding o he ocean use s om
seaweed a ming a eas, and, in Pi u Sunggu, he excluded use s a e p ima ily c ab
ne e s, who wi h he seaweed a ming ansi ion ha e been pushed ou o sho e-
line a eas, and now mus se hei c ab ne s u he o sho e o in he gaps be-
ween seaweed a ms. The concep o land ‘enclosu e’ has been widely used o
in e p e he d i e s and e ec s o ‘ he di ision o consolida ion o communal …
lands’ in o ‘ca e ully delinea ed and indi idually owned and managed a m plo s’
(B i annica 2013, n.p.). Ea ly w i ing on enclosu e in Eu ope explo ed he mul iple
in e ac ing o ces ha led o enclosu e o common land om he 12 h o he 19 h
cen u y, d i en no only by landholding eli e, bu also by a me s hemsel es:
Con a y o he popula idea ha enclosu e was wholly a landlo d’s mo e-
men … he e was a dis inc e o on he pa o he peasan y … o abandon
he open- ield sys em and escape compulso y co-ope a ion wi h he lazy and
shi less … he e was no compulsion on he cus oma y enan s … o make
hem enclose; hei s was a pu ely spon aneous mo emen p omp ed by a de-
si e o escape obsole e es ic ions. The e was also ano he mo i e – he need
o sel -p o ec ion. The g ow h o la ge g azing a ms, and he consequen
o e -s ocking o he commons, led he small men o enclose as he only way
o keep some o he pas u e o hei own use.
(Cu le 1920, pp. 65–66)
As Cu le no es, enclosu e esul ed om mul iple di e gen e o s on he pa o
di e en g oups o people ope a ing unde in e ac ing p essu es o e a long pe iod
o ime, esul ing in une en geog aphies o enclosu e. He emphasises he agency
o a me s wi hin hese p ocesses, as ac o s in he p ocess d i en by bo h en e-
p eneu ialism (desi ing o ‘escape compulso y co-ope a ion’ wi h o he s), and he
inc easing p essu es hey aced as a esul o b oade s uc u al changes.
F om communal access o p i a e owne ship 125
Mo e ecen wo k on enclosu e has simila ly emphasised bo h ‘ op-down’ and
‘bo om-up’ p ocesses o enclosu e. In Indonesia, enclosu e has o en been d i en
by la ge-scale land acquisi ions o ag icul u e (such as palm oil plan a ions), min-
ing o conse a ion ( o example, Golds ein 2016; Hall e al. 2015; I o e al. 2014;
McCa hy e al. 2012; Pichle 2015; Schoenbe ge e al. 2017; Semedi and Bakke
2014). Howe e , enclosu e is also a p ocess unde aken ‘ om below’, by small-
holde a me s hemsel es (see, o example, Alkhalili 2015; Cas ellanos- Na a e e
and Jansen 2015; Cu y and Koczbe ski 2009). In es o - and a me -d i en p o-
cesses o en in e ac as smallholde s bo h espond o ex e nal p essu es ( o exam-
ple, Gio gio e al. 2022) and en ep eneu ially pu sue new ag icul u al oppo uni ies,
such as hose o e ed by expo commodi ies ( o example, Olo sson 2021).
To da e, he Indonesian seaweed indus y has been esis an o la ge-scale ag-
ibusiness as a esul o he p ac icali ies o a ming seaweed, which is seasonally
a iable, equi es high labou inpu s, and is subjec o high le els o isk due o
en i onmen al changes (as will be desc ibed in de ail in Chap e s 6 and 7). Con-
sequen ly, p ocesses o enclosu e ha e occu ed wi hin illages la gely in he ab-
sence o claims on sea space om ou side he illage. In his con ex , enclosu e
has been d i en by coas al esiden s hemsel es. Hall e al. (2011, p. 145) desc ibe
smallholde d i en p ocesses o ‘in ima e exclusion’, in which ‘neighbou s and kin
who sha e common his o ies and social in e ac ion … exclude one ano he om
access o land as pa o a s a egy o accumula e capi al’. They no e ha ‘ hese a e
“e e yday” p ocesses, mundane and piecemeal, ha do no g ab headlines. Bu
cumula i ely, hey ha e he e ec o p oducing ag a ian classes wi h di e en ial
access o means o p oduc ion’ (Hall e al. 2011, p. 145). The ole o expo com-
modi ies in igge ing he econ igu a ion o land access sys ems has been s udied
in se e al con ex s. Righ s o use land a e o en gained h ough he applica ion
o labou . In subsis ence ag icul u al sys ems, cons an labou applica ion on land
is ypically equi ed o main ain i s p oduc i i y, which ein o ces he owne ship
claim o he use . The e a e di e ences in labou use be ween di e en ypes o
land-based ag icul u al ac i i ies – annual c ops and pe ennial c ops – ha impac
on he es ablishmen o p ope y igh s. Li (2014) desc ibes how he p oduc ion o
cocoa by Sulawesi highlande s gene a ed enclosu e o p e iously communal land.
She emphasises he ma e iali y o cocoa as cen al o his p ocess, since
[ ] ee c ops like cacao do some hing by hei pe manence. When highlande s
plan ed cacao in hei ields, he p esence o he ees dis up ed he cycle in
which hey clea ed a pa ch o o es , used i o a ew seasons, hen le i o
allow. The ees also changed he owne ship s a us o he land, ans o ming i
in o indi idual p ope y, since no one else could use he land he ea e . Exclud-
ing o he use s, and o he uses, wasn’ new: plan ing a ield o co n also equi ed
exclusion, a leas un il a e he ha es . The new elemen was pe manence.
( pp. 84–85)
Simila p ocesses occu in Vanua u whe e p oduc ion o ka a in la ge quan i ies o
expo , which equi es lowe labou inpu s han adi ionally p oduced ood c ops,
228 Lang o d
educe p essu e on land esou ces. I also has he po en ial o p o ide ecosys em
se ices and new li elihood oppo uni ies o coas al households. Despi e his in-
e es , he e is ela i ely li le unde s anding o wha he global seaweed indus y
ac ually looks like, which leads o a gap be ween ideals and eali y. Chap e 1
in oduced undamen al in o ma ion on he global indus y. I highligh ed ha sea-
weed a ming is a ela i ely new ac i i y globally, and ha cu en global ma ine
seaweed p oduc ion is domina ed by jus six species o seaweed. A ound 55 pe
cen o seaweeds a e g own o p oduce he ood seaweeds used o no i, wakame
and kombu, wi h 40 pe cen g own o p oduce hyd ocolloid con aining seaweeds,
including Eucheuma and Kappaphycus o ca ageenan p oduc ion, and G acila ia
o aga p oduc ion. Cu en ly, he e is e y limi ed cul i a ion o o he species,
owing in pa o a lack o unde s anding o how o g ow and p ocess hem e i-
cien ly, and o hei en i onmen al equi emen s and impac . While he e is con-
side able wo ldwide exci emen abou he po en ial o seaweed o s o e ca bon,
educe me hane emissions and inc ease ood secu i y, his needs o be checked
agains he easibili y o p oducing hose seaweeds in di e en en i onmen al, geo-
g aphic, socio-economic and policy con ex s.
Chap e 1: The global ca ageenan ma ke se he mac o le el scene o o he
chap e s o he book. I compa ed ca ageenan wi h o he majo hyd ocolloids used
o gelling, hickening and s abilising pu poses in oods, cosme ics and pha ma-
ceu icals such as gela in, cellulose gum, pec in, xan han gum and A abic gum.
Each o hese hyd ocolloids pe o ms di e en unc ions and is used in specialised
combina ions o p o ide goods wi h speci ic ex u es and consis encies. These hy-
d ocolloids can complemen and subs i u e o each o he o di e en ex en s in
di e en applica ions. The main use o ca ageenan cu en ly is in he ood and
be e age indus y, wi h nea ly hal o all ca ageenan being used in mea and dai y
applica ions. Mo e han hal o he ma ke is a lowe pu i y o m o ca ageenan
known as semi- e ined ca ageenan (SRC) used in a ange o low alue, non- ood
applica ions including pe ood, bu i is inc easingly used in ood p oduc s. Mos
ca ageenan used is kappa-ca ageenan and io a-ca ageenan, de i ed om he
species o seaweed g own in Indonesia. Indonesia domina es global ca ageenan
seaweed p oduc ion and he majo i y is p ocessed in China, o by Chinese compa-
nies ope a ing in Indonesia. The e has been a end owa ds inc eased p ocessing in
coun ies o o igin, a p ocess ha has been expedi ed by Chinese di ec in es men
in he Indonesian seaweed p ocessing sec o . The bene i s o domes ic alue add-
ing and employmen ha e o be weighed up agains he nega i e e ec s o compe-
i ion on local p ocesso s, and pose ques ions o go e nmen on policies owa ds
o eign di ec in es men (FDI), including on ax and en i onmen al s anda ds.
The da a and analysis p esen ed in he chap e sugges ha ca ageenan ma ke s
a e likely o con inue o g ow, gi en demand se ings o p ocessed ood globally
and in de eloping coun ies, bu also in a wide ange o o he p oduc s o o m a di-
e si ied ma ke . While he hyd ocolloid sec o is highly compe i i e, ca ageenan
has sough -a e pe o mance cha ac e is ics. This bodes well o he go e nmen s,
companies and households o Indonesia ha ha e in es ed in seaweed p oduc ion
o plan o.
Conclusion 229
Chap e 2: The Indonesian seaweed indus y analysed he indus y a a na ional
meso le el, be ween he global and p o incial le els. The indus y is ela i ely
new, and has only had signi ican comme cialisa ion since he 1990s. The ea ly de-
elopmen o he indus y was d i en la gely by mul ina ional companies seeking
o de elop a new p oduc ion base. The p oduc ion base has become inc easingly
a omised. Seaweed a ming is comple ely domina ed by small, indi idual house-
holds ha make hei own managemen decisions and inno a ions, wi h a dea h
o co po a ised seaweed a ms o es a es. Households deal wi h local ade s wi h
whom hey ha e close pe sonal o ecip ocal ela ionships bu he e is a dea h o
o mal, con ac go e nance sys ems. A emp s ha e been made o co po a ise he
p oduc ion and ma ke ing sys ems bu smallholde -based p oduc ion sys ems and
‘spo ’ ma ke ing sys ems a e mo e e icien . These p o-poo cha ac e is ics a e also
a sou ce o in e na ional compe i i e ad an age. Indonesia has o many yea s been
he wo ld’s la ges p oduce o ca ageenan seaweeds. Indonesian policy aims o
consolida e o expand his posi ion as a seaweed p oduce and, u he mo e, o
inc ease he sha e o i used o domes ic p ocessing o mee alue adding and
employmen objec i es. Go e nmen has sough o expedi e he p ocess h ough
he ools o indus y policy (expo bans, subsidies o domes ic p ocessing) wi h
ad e se e ec s. Howe e , Indonesia is mee ing he objec i e o building a domes-
ic p ocessing base h ough FDI, especially om China. Chinese-in es ed com-
panies in Indonesia accoun o pe haps hal o he ac ual ou pu o Indonesia’s
ca ageenan p ocessing sec o and companies in China p ocess i ually all o In-
donesia’s expo s o aw d ied seaweed. While go e nmen has sough o play a
media ing ole, indus y de elopmen and conduc is d i en by powe ul o ces ha
di ec ly and p o oundly a ec local go e nmen s and households.
Chap e 3: The Sou h Sulawesi seaweed indus y explo ed he p o incial indus-
y and alue chain. E en gi en s a is ical quali ica ions (Appendix 1) he indus y
appea s o ha e g own s ongly o e he las wo decades. The chap e desc ibed
how seaweed p oduced in his egion is combined wi h p oduc ion om o he a eas
in Eas e n Indonesia as i makes i s way o Makassa o p ocessing, packing and
expo . The chap e demons a ed how alue is added o seaweed a di e en poin s
o i s ans o ma ion and highlighed he cen al ole o Sou h Sulawesi in he Indo-
nesian seaweed indus y. Lessons om he g ow h and de elopmen o he leading
p o ince may be applicable o o he a eas seeking o g ow seaweed indus ies.
Chap e 4: Expo commodi y on ie s and he ans o ma ion o illage li e
explo ed how he illage o Pi u Sunggu has been ans o med by successi e wa es
o expo commodi y ‘booms’, leading o apid and long-las ing en i onmen al
and socio-economic changes. The esiden s o Pi u Sunggu a e almos en i ely de-
penden on expo commodi y p oduc ion o hei li elihoods: e y li le ood is
g own he e. The illage landscape was ans o med om mixed c opping o ield
ice p oduc ion in he ea ly wen ie h cen u y, om ield ice o we ice du ing
he G een Re olu ion o he 1970s, om we ice o sh imp and ish a ming om
he 1980s and, mos ecen ly, he sea om communal ishing g ounds o seaweed
a ms om he ea ly 2000s. These expo -o ien ed ans o ma ions ha e led o in-
c eased incomes o many esiden s. Nowadays, mos o hem ea n he majo i y o
230 Lang o d
hei income h ough ei he seaweed a ming, pond a ming o sh imp and ish o
ishing o blue swimme c abs and ma ke ish. Al hough people consume wild-
caugh ma ine ish and a med ish and sh imp, mos o hese p oduc s a e des ined
o expo ma ke s. Pi u Sunggu esiden s a e he e o e impac ed hea ily by global
ma ke s, demand and p ices. This has c ea ed a si ua ion o high bu o en ola ile
incomes o a me s, including pe iods o ‘boom and bus ’ as p oduc ion o di e -
en commodi ies has expanded and con ac ed in esponse o ma ke signals and
changing go e nmen incen i es (such as hose a ec ing he a ailabili y o e i-
lise ). These booms and bus s ha e also a ec ed mig a ion pa e ns. People e u n
o he illage when p ices and incomes a e good (as has been he case wi h seaweed
a ming in ecen yea s) and a elled ab oad o wi hin Indonesia o wo k when
li elihood op ions we e limi ed. This chap e highligh ed he his o ical impo ance
o expo c ops o li elihoods in his coas al illage, and he close ela ionship be-
ween expo commodi y p ices and social and economic o ganisa ion.
Chap e 5: F om communal access o p i a e owne ship: nego ia ing igh s
o he sea explo ed how seaweed a me s in Pi u Sunggu ans o med hei o -
sho e sea a ea enu e om communal ishing g ounds in o pa cels o indi idually
‘owned’ plo s o sea space. I aced how he i s seaweed a me s es ablished plo s
and sough o exclude ishe s om hei a ming a eas, and how his was con es ed
o many yea s. O e ime, as mo e and mo e people es ablished plo s, esis ance
dec eased, un il e en ually mos people who had esis ed seaweed a ming had be-
come seaweed a me s hemsel es, and he igh s o indi iduals o claim exclusi e
owne ship o sea space by ins alling a m ma ke s became widely ecognised. I
desc ibed how oday seaweed a ming plo s in Pi u Sunggu a e en ed, bough and
sold o high p ices, as well as he ypes o con lic s ha pe sis be ween di e en
seaweed a me s, be ween a me s and ishe s and o e enc oachmen o seaweed
a ms on boa lanes. I highligh ed how hese use in o mal a angemen s which,
while no o mally ecognised by go e nmen , a e widely ecognised and en o ced
wi hin Pi u Sunggu. I also ci ed examples o o he seaweed a ming a eas which
ha e es ablished simila ules o sea use. In some cases, local ules limi he num-
be o plo s an indi idual a me may own, he loca ions which may be claimed o
a ming and he hou s du ing which a ms may be ope a ed. In Pi u Sunggu, many
a me s ha e claimed la ge a eas o sea space, and ely on casual wage labou e s o
keep hei a eas p oduc i e. The sys em o p ope y igh s has he e o e led o he
c ea ion o a labou ma ke and, in u n, his labou ma ke is essen ial o alo ising
he claims ha seaweed a me s ha e on he sea. Wi hou hei wo k, i would be
impossible o a m such la ge a eas. The chap e highligh s how seaweed a m-
ing has equi ed a econ igu a ion o local unde s andings o sea space access and
igh s in ways ha ha e bene i ed some communi y membe s and disad an aged
o he s, such as c ab ishe s who we e excluded om wha was p e iously c ab
ishing g ounds.
Chap e 6: En i onmen al and socio-economic cons ain s o ma ine a ming
and Chap e 7: Fa me decision-making in he Indonesian seaweed indus y ex-
plo ed he ange o en i onmen al and socio-economic ac o s a ec ing a me
decision-making and a m pe o mance. Chap e 6 desc ibed how ocean condi ions
Conclusion 231
such as su ace wa e empe a u e, salini y, ligh pene a ion, wa e mo ion, nu ien
le els, u bidi y, ephiphy es, g azing wildli e and pollu ion impac upon seaweed
g ow h. These condi ions c ea e dis inc seasonal pa e ns o cul i a ion ha a y
be ween a eas. Chap e 6 also examined how socio-economic ac o s such as ac-
cess o sea space, access o labou , access o capi al, seaweed ma ke p ices and isk
o he also cons ain he p oduc ion oppo uni ies a ailable o indi idual a m-
e s. Chap e 7 explo ed how a me s espond o hese en i onmen al and socio-
economic cons ain s and oppo uni ies by al e ing hei p oduc ion s a egies in
o de o op imise p oduc ion h oughou seasonal changes in ocean condi ions and
o manage he isk o ice-ice disease, including by a ying he species and loca ion
o seaweed plan ed and he iming o i h oughou he yea , hei a m main enance
pa e ns, p opagule use, loa use and ope use. I showed ha many a me s use a
s a egy o geog aphic di e si ica ion, in which hey a m mul iple plo s in di e -
en loca ions in he sea, which bo h minimises he isk o o al seaweed loss due o
ice-ice disease in any one plo , and p o ides lexibili y o mo e seaweed be ween
plo s in esponse o di e en g ow h a es in di e en loca ions.
These chap e s also desc ibed p opagule use dynamics, pa icula ly he issue o
p opagule ‘quali y’ which is widely iden i ied as a majo p oblem acing a me s.
I showed ha in Pi u Sunggu, p opagule ‘quali y’ is p ima ily a seasonal p oblem.
The issue is no a lack o gene ic ma e ial o p opaga ion as is some imes as-
sumed, bu poo en i onmen al g owing condi ions a ce ain imes o yea which
mean ha a me s ha e ouble p oducing any seaweed a all, including o use as
p opaga ion ma e ial. P opagule ‘quali y’ gene ally imp o es as oceanic condi ions
become mo e sui able o seaweed cul i a ion in di e en seasons o he yea . The e
is also a long- e m decline in a m p oduc i i y no ed by a me s, howe e , his
is likely o be a leas in pa a esul o changing ocean condi ions a he han an
issue o declining p opagule ‘quali y’ as is some imes assumed. As seaweed a m-
ing in Pi u Sunggu has in ensi ied o e ime, mo e seaweed compe es o nu ien s
in he wa e s o -sho e o he illage and as such i is likely ha declining yields
a e linked o he inc easing a ea unde cul i a ion – and possibly also o declining
e ilise use in coas al sh imp ponds.
These chap e s also explo ed he ole o a me decision-making in a m p o-
duc i i y, showing how success ul a me s moni o ed hei a ms almos daily and
made small changes in a m appa a us in esponse o hei obse a ions. Fo exam-
ple, a me s inc eased he numbe o plas ic bo le loa s i hey no ed ha seaweed
g owing close o he loa s g ew be e han ha u he away (which was sligh ly
deepe ). They educed ope ension in esponse o inc eased wa e mo ion o educe
b eakages and inc eased o educed p opagule size in esponse o isks o b eak-
ages om wa es in di e en seasons. They ha es ed seaweed ea ly o p e en
he o b eakage, and mo ed seaweed be ween loca ions in esponse o epiphy es,
mud o g azing by ish. They b ough seaweed o sho e o cleaning i epiphy ic
g ow h was excessi e, o ha es ed and eplan ed undamaged po ions o i i dam-
age was excessi e. Fa me s make a ange o decisions designed o maximise yield,
bu also – and o en mo e commonly – o minimise he isk o losses, which a e
equen in ce ain seasons, due o ice-ice disease and om b eakages om wa e
232 Lang o d
mo ion. The chap e explo ed how diligen a m managemen p ac ices a e a key
componen o he pe o mance o seaweed a ms.
The chap e s also explo ed how socio-economic ac o s a ec a m manage-
men , including how a lack o access o sea space leads some a me s o plan a
much highe densi ies han is ecommended, how access o binding labou o en
a ec s ha es and plan ing iming, how binde decision-making a ec s he size
o he p opagules hey bind, how he isk o he a imes o high p ices a ec s
he size o p opagules a me s use and he iming o ha es . I also showed how
seaweed p ices d i e bo h inc easing up ake o seaweed a ming by new a me s,
and in ensi ica ion o a ming by exis ing a me s. The chap e s showed how a m
pe o mance and managemen decisions a e closely linked o socio-economic ac-
o s and, how hese mus be conside ed in moni o ing pe o mance o exis ing
a ms.
Chap e 8: Gende ed wo k and casual labou in he Indonesian seaweed indus-
y explo ed he ange o di e en ypes o labou ha a e employed in he seaweed
indus y in Pi u Sunggu. I highligh ed he gende ed na u e o on- and o - a m
jobs in he indus y, wi h men p ima ily in ol ed wi h on- a m wo k, and women
in ol ed in he many p epa a o y and pos -ha es ac i i ies. I also highligh ed he
ole o casual wage labou e s in he indus y, o en la ge numbe s o people om
inland illages who wo k as seaweed binde s. These binde s a e o en people wi h
ew o he li elihood oppo uni ies, such as women wi h ca ing esponsibili ies,
widows and people wi h disabili ies. In addi ion, many people ind wo k ‘ga he -
ing’ seaweed ha has b oken o a ming opes and washed asho e. This chap e
highligh ed he way ha seaweed is inco po a ed in o he li elihoods o a di e se
ange o households, in bo h seaweed- a ming and non-seaweed- a ming illages,
and sugges ed ha people who do no a m seaweed bu wo k in he indus y indi-
ec ly should also be conside ed s akeholde s.
Chap e 9: Seaweed ma ke ing: illage-based ade s as inancial and ma ke
in e media ies explo ed he local seaweed ma ke ing sys em in Pi u Sunggu, in
which local ade s ecei e seaweed om a me s and sell i o Makassa -based
wa ehouses. I desc ibed how senio ade s in he illage cap u e seaweed supply
by p o iding inancial se ices o a me s, bu how wi h ising seaweed p ices, new
en an s o he indus y a e ying o dis up his s uc u e. Fa me s and ade s alike
epo ha hey a e able o accu a ely assess seaweed mois u e le els, bu do no
necessa ily s i e o deli e highe quali y cha ac e is ics, including mois u e. I
highligh ed how p ice signals om Makassa a e ansmi ed o ade s and a me s
which appea s o be an e ec i e me hod o gene a ing supply esponses, bu no o
inc easing seaweed quali y, which is o p ima y in e es o p ocesso s. Bo h ade s
and a me s ha e incen i es o mee minimum quali y s anda ds, bu no o exceed
hem. I hei seaweed is d ie han minimum s anda ds, i will o en be mixed wi h
we e seaweed o inc ease weigh and sales e enue. This chap e sugges ed ha
a me s and local ade s ha e he capaci y o supply be e quali ies o seaweed,
bu ha his would equi e a buying schedule wi h highe p ice-g ade di e en ials,
and he incen i es o all he ac o s in he chain o use i .
Conclusion 233
Policy ecommenda ions
The chap e s o his book elescoped down om mac o- o meso- and mic o-le el
analysis, wi h an emphasis on socio-economic and en i onmen al ac o s in he
decision-making o a me s. Se e al policy implica ions ollow om his:1.
Policy ecommenda ion 1: De elopmen o al e na i e seaweed p oduc s should be
subjec o economic easibili y analysis
Chap e 1 e iewed he global ma ke o ca ageenan. The Indonesian go e n-
men aims o di e si y he ma ke o ca ageenan seaweed p oduc s including
p oducing oods, uels, e ilise s, animal eeds and ca bon cap u e. In addi ion,
i has ied o de elop new p oduc s om o he seaweed species ound in Indo-
nesia. These p oduc s do no ye ha e a ma ke , and because o his, i is unclea
whe he such a ma ke can be es ablished o i is comme cially iable o house-
holds and companies o se ice such a ma ke . I is ecommended ha biophysi-
cal esea ch and de elopmen in o al e na i e seaweed ma ke s, p oduc s and
species is in eg a ed wi h ma ke esea ch and economic easibili y analysis.
A echnoeconomic analysis such as his could guide esea ch and de elopmen
p og ammes and policies by p o iding insigh s in o he mos economically ea-
sible p oduc de elopmen op ions.
Policy ecommenda ion 2: Conside he en i onmen al impac s o FDI in p ocessing
The Indonesian go e nmen has sough o imp o e p ocessing echnology in-
coun y by incen i ising FDI in seaweed p ocessing plan s. Howe e , hese
plan s we e app o ed wi h libe al ax and in es men e ms, and ca ageenan
p ocessing can ha e a conside able en i onmen al impac . Now ha Indonesia
has es ablished a signi ican ca ageenan p ocessing base, i is ecommended
ha u u e in es men s a e ca e ully e alua ed ac oss social, economic and en-
i onmen al c i e ia o maximise bene i s o Indonesia.
Policy ecommenda ion 3: Ca e ully conside he cos s and bene i s o indus y policy
A e he boom ha occu ed du ing he cou se o his s udy, seaweed p ices
began a signi ican decline in Oc obe 2022 (Lang o d e al. 2022). Du ing pe-
iods o p ice decline in he Indonesian seaweed indus y, i has equen ly been
sugges ed ha he e should be p icing in e en ion o suppo a me s. Du ing
pe iods o p ice inc eases, i has also been sugges ed ha domes ic p ocesso s
should be suppo ed by capping p ices and, indeed, such a policy was imple-
men ed in Nusa Tengga a Timo (NTT) in 2022 (Lang o d e al. 2023). These
wo ypes o p ice in e en ions se e di e en pu poses. Ca e should be aken
when in e ening in ma ke s, howe e , as in e en ions o en ha e unin ended
impac s. Whe he such impac s jus i y wel a e bene i s o a me s o in es-
o s (p ocesso s), unde wha condi ions and o e wha ime ames, should be
ca e ully conside ed be o e any p ice o ade in e en ions a e announced o
implemen ed.
Policy ecommenda ion 4: Ma ine spa ial planning
The indings in Chap e 5 ha e impo an policy implica ions o ma ine zoning.
As he Indonesian go e nmen seeks o expand seaweed a ming in o new a eas
234 Lang o d
o eas e n Indonesia, hese insigh s sugges ha ad anced sea-space planning
and ma ine zoning could suppo mo e equi able access o seaweed a ming a -
eas. Eme ging p oduc ion a eas could, o example, p e-emp i ely se bound-
a ies o sea space o no jus seaweed a ming, bu also boa lanes, ishing
ac i i ies, en i onmen al ese es (pa icula ly nea sensi i e ma ine ecosys ems
such as co al ee s and seag ass meadows and ish habi a s) and ou ism. O he
ac o s ha could be conside ed include whe he limi s on a m a eas a e desi -
able, and whe he o mal ecogni ion o use claims by a me s would be desi -
able. The wo kshopping o ma ine planning and zoning a eas in ad ance o wide
es ablishmen o seaweed a ming in new egions is app op ia e. In exis ing e-
gions, such wo k is complica ed by exis ing claims o sea space by communi y
membe s, and any a emp a in e en ion should be unde aken h ough close
consul a ion wi h communi y membe s o a oid gene a ing ha dship and un es .
Policy ecommenda ion 5: Focus on p opagule dis ibu ion a he han solely on
gene ics
The p oblem o p opagule ‘quali y’ is no solely one o gene ics. Seaweed is
clonally p opaga ed so ha much o he a ia ion in p opagule quali y is closely
linked o he oceanog aphic condi ions in which hey a e g own. When a m-
e s complain abou p opagule quali y, hey complain abou he a ailabili y o
p opagules o ha hey a e small, old, exhibi colou ha indica es poo heal h
o a e damaged. In some loca ions, he es ablishmen o p opagule nu se ies in
a eas wi h good yea - ound g owing condi ions can suppo imp o ed p opagule
a ailabili y, howe e he issue o quali y will emain la gely linked o seasonal
a ia ion in he sui abili y o di e en coas al a eas o seaweed a ming. E o s o
suppo supply o quali y p opagules should ocus on p oduc ion and dis ibu ion
o quali y seaweed p opagules, a he han solely on echnological de elopmen s.
Policy ecommenda ion 6: Focus on plas ics end-o -li e managemen a he han
plas ic loa al e na i es
Plas ic loa s a e used widely in seaweed a ming because hey a e highly sui -
able o he pu pose. They a e ligh so hey a e easy o anspo , hey mo e
easily wi h cu en s so educe b eakages and can be illed wi h wa e o sink
seaweed below he su ace o he ocean o minimise losses a e ain. Any a -
emp o educe he use o hese loa s would need o o e a sui able al e na i e
o hem wi h simila ea u es a low cos . A p esen , no such op ions exis .
Howe e , signi ican imp o emen s in plas ic managemen could be made by
suppo ing a me s’ end-o -li e managemen o plas ics. Many used bo les om
seaweed a ming a e a p esen h own in o he sea o i e , o le o decompose
on acan land. The a e o plas ic deg ada ion inc eases o e ime, such ha
used plas ic bo les may ep esen a g ea e h ea o ma ine ecosys ems han
hose used on a ms (because bo les used on a m a e newe , and he e o e
deg ade mo e slowly han olde bo les which ha e been disca ded). Imp o ed
end-o -li e managemen o bo les he e o e ep esen s an impo an i s s ep in
imp o ing plas ic managemen om seaweed a ming. I is ecommended ha
end-o -li e plas ics managemen be p io i ised as a key s ep owa ds educing
he con ibu ion o seaweed a ming o ocean plas ics.
Conclusion 235
Policy ecommenda ion 7: Build ecogni ion o he impo ance o local knowledge
in o a m ex ension p og ammes
The go e nmen ex ension sys em would bene i om he inco po a ion o local
knowledge in o esea ch, ex ension and aining se ices. While se e al impo -
an echnological gains ha e been aken up (such as he use o bamboo d ying
pla o ms o pa o he d ying p ocess, and he use o he win- ope me hod
o educe b eakages), ad ice o echnologies ha a e gene al in na u e and no
adap ed o local eali ies a e unlikely o be aken up. Fa me s a e in ima ely
uned in o hei local en i onmen and can assess whe he echnologies a e
sui able and bene icial. Close engagemen wi h a me s and hei complex
decision-making p ocesses – as ou lined in his book – can suppo mo e
e ec i e a m ex ension se ices.
Policy ecommenda ion 8: Re iew aid dis ibu ion sys em o educe con lic s
be ween a me s
Go e nmen aid has caused signi ican con lic be ween seaweed a me g oup
membe s. The aid p o ided is o en only su icien o a ew o he g oup mem-
be s, and dis ibu ion be ween membe s is o en une en. This has led o us a-
ion by many a me s and a lack o in e es in joining a me g oups o wo king
coope a i ely. In addi ion, he go e nmen assis ance p o ided is o en no i
o pu pose. Fo example, p og ammes may dissemina e he w ong ype o boa
o boa mo o o he w ong size o quali y o ope. A e iew o go e nmen and
g oup p og ammes di ec ed a he seaweed indus y (and indeed o he indus-
ies) is ecommended.
Policy ecommenda ion 9: De elop seaweed g ow h models and emo e sensing
echnologies o build an unde s anding o seaweed g owing loca ions and yields
and he impac o clima e change
The e is a lack o da a on seaweed g owing pa e ns and how hese ela e o local
ocean condi ions. This could be add essed h ough new echnologies, such as
by combining analysis o sa elli e image y o a m loca ions wi h in-si u meas-
u emen de ices o de elop a model o seaweed g ow h unde di e en g ow-
ing condi ions. Such de elopmen s could p o ide impo an da a on seaweed
g ow h and cu en p oduc ion a eas which a e necessa y o guide he de el-
opmen o a mo e sus ainable and esilien seaweed indus y, which may in-
clude imp o emen s in seaweed quali y and p oduc ion unde en i onmen ally
sus ainable condi ions. These de elopmen s will also be impo an o building
esilience s a egies in he ace o clima e change. Fa me s expe ience equen
seaweed losses due o p olonged ain all and high empe a u e e en s. A close
unde s anding o seaweed p oduc ion quan i ies, loca ions and g owing condi-
ions could suppo mo e in o med indus y planning.
Policy ecommenda ion 10: Recognise casual labou e s as a key g oup o seaweed
indus y s akeholde s
A ange o demog aphic g oups wo k in he seaweed p oduc ion sec o . Some
a e men, women and child en in seaweed a ming households, while o he s
a e om non-seaweed a ming households, including casual labou e s. These
casual wo ke s should be ecognised as impo an s akeholde s in he indus y,
236 Lang o d
as hey include ulne able popula ions such as widows, people wi h disabili ies
and women wi h ca ing esponsibili ies who may ha e no o he sou ce o in-
come. Casual labou e s wo king in he indus y should be included in s a is ics,
analysis and policy on he indus y in o de o conside he impac o de elop-
men on he indus y, including in non-seaweed a ming a eas.
Policy ecommenda ion 11: Quali y imp o emen s equi e p ocesso -led p ice
signals
Fa me s and illage-based ade s a e highly a uned o he quali y (p ima ily
mois u e and di con en ) equi emen s o p ocesso s and wa ehouses, bu seek
o a oid supplying seaweed which exceeds equi emen s as hey would su e
dec eased e enues because o he lowe weigh s, which is he basis o paymen .
As such, local ade s egula ly mix high and low quali y seaweed, and a me s
a oid d ying hei seaweed o oo long. Imp o ed p ice quali y signals could
incen i ise he supply o highe quali y seaweed.
Policy ecommenda ion 12: Financial se ices o a me s could be di e si ied
Fa me s o en use inancial se ices om a numbe o di e en sou ces, includ-
ing om illage-based ade s, bank loans, coope a i es, pawnshops and am-
ily membe s. Each o hese sou ces has di e en loan sizes, in e es a es and
epaymen e ms, and a me s selec each o hese o mee hei needs. In e es
a es om some sou ces a e high, while in Pi u Sunggu, illage-based ade s do
no cha ge in e es bu equi e a me s o sell seaweed o hem di ec ly, some-
imes a lowe han ma ke p ices. Fa me s p e e o use deb a he han o sa e
hei money in banks as bank cha ges a e high ela i e o he amoun s hey seek
o sa e. Consequen ly many a me s also ‘sa e’ money wi h ade s. Digi ally
media ed inancial p oduc s ha e been sugges ed as a way o gi ing a me s’ ac-
cess o c edi . Al hough his is an inno a i e me hod, ou esea ch sugges s ha
a me s ha e access o c edi om a ange o sou ces which sui hei needs, bu
could bene i om a be e ange o sa ings p oduc s.
Conclusion
This book has explo ed how an expo commodi y – ca ageenan seaweed – has
ans o med li elihoods in one illage o Indonesia. Many people ha e bene i ed
om he highe incomes a ailable h ough he indus y, bu he dis ibu ion o ben-
e i s has been une en. The indus y has had bo h posi i e and nega i e social and
en i onmen al impac s as i has d as ically ans o med he use o sea space by
coas al illages. I is hoped ha he esea ch and ecommenda ions in his book
will con ibu e o he de elopmen o he seaweed indus y – globally, in Indonesia
and in o he coun ies – and imp o e he li elihoods o coas al communi ies ha
pa icipa e in i .
No e
1 Addi ional policy ecommenda ions om AIC p ojec s a e ou lined in ou policy b ie
(Wald on e l. (2023) and main p ojec epo (Lang o d, Wald on e al. (2023).
Conclusion 237
Re e ences
Lang o d, Alexand a, Welem Tu upadang, and Sco Wald on. 2023. “In e en ionis
Indus y Policy o Suppo Local Value Adding: E idence om he Eas e n Indonesia
Seaweed Indus y.” Ma ine Policy 151 (105561). doi.o g/10.1016/j.ma pol.2023.105561
Lang o d, Alexand a, Sco Wald on, Nunung Nu ya ono, Syamsul Pasa ibu, Boedi Ju-
lian o, I syadi Si adjuddin, Radhiyah Ruhon, Zulung Zach Walyand a, Im an Lapong,
and Risya A syi A mis. 2023. Sus ainable Upg ading o he Sou h Sulawesi Seaweed
Indus y. Melbou ne, Aus alia: Aus alia-Indonesia Cen e. h ps://pai .aus aliaindone-
siacen e.o g/ esea ch/sus ainable-upg ading-o - he-sou h-sulawesi-seaweed-indus y-2
Lang o d, Alexand a, Jing Zhang, Sco Wald on, Boedi Julian o, I syadi Si adjuddin, Iain
C. Neish and Nunung Nu ya ono. 2022. “P ice Analysis o he Indonesian Ca ageenan
Seaweed Indus y.” Aquacul u e 550 (737828). doi.o g/10.1016/j.aquacul u e.2021.737828
Wald on, Sco , Nunung Nu ya ono, Alexand a Lang o d, Syamsul Pasa ibu, Kus ia iyah,
Ta man, Ul ah J. Si ega , Muhammad Fa id Dimja i Lusno, Sul ah i, Boedi Sa jana
Julian o, Si adjuddin, Ruhon, Radhiyah, Walyand a, Zulung Zach Walyand a, Lapong,
I syadi Muhammad Im an, Risya A syi A mis, Eugene Sebas ian, Helen B own, Fadhilah
T ya Wulanda i, Hasnawa i Saleh, and S e e W igh . 2022. Policy B ie : Sus ainable
Upg ading o he Sou h Sulawesi Seaweed Indus y. Melbou ne, Aus alia: Aus alia-
Indonesia Cen e. h ps://pai .aus aliaindonesiacen e.o g/wp-con en /uploads/2022/11/
SIP-1-EN-ONLINE.pd
244 Lang o d, Ruhon & Wald on
onnes (Table A1.5). This is he only su ey o seaweed a me s conduc ed since he
2013 census. I in ol ed in e iewing 7,075 a me s, he selec ion o which (by e-
gion) was guided by he esul s o he 2013 census. The su ey elied on a me s’ e-
po s o he numbe o longlines ope a ed and he weigh o each longline a ha es .
No ably, BPS (2022a) di e en ia ed be ween p oduc ion which was sold as a
inal p oduc (mos ly in d y, bu also small amoun s in we o m) and p oduc ion
which was used as an inpu o he nex a ming cycle. In a e ealing s a is ic, hey
epo ed ha 36 pe cen o all seaweed p oduc ion in Indonesia was used o p opa-
ga e a new cycle, wi h only 62 pe cen sold (Table A1.6).
This is an impo an de elopmen as i p oduc ion is es ima ed based on he
amoun o seaweed ha es ed, wi hou accoun ing o he amoun used as p op-
agules, he amoun o seaweed eco ded as ha es ed will be much highe han he
amoun o seaweed eco ded as sold. Fo example, i a a me s a s wi h 10kg o
seaweed seeds and g ows i un il i eaches 30kg, hen ha es s i , he ha es would
be eco ded as 30kg when in ac only 20kg o new ma e ial has been p oduced. O
he 30kg ha es ed, 10kg will be used o seed o he nex cycle, and only 20kg
will be sold and a ailable o downs eam sec o s. While o he ag icul u al sec o s
also in ol e simila s a is ical issues (ca y-o e seeds o c ops o eplacemen
Table A1.5 Seaweed p oduc ion in Indonesia in 2020 by p o ince
2020 To al ma ine
p oduc ion
( onnes)
P opo ion o
o al na ional
ma ine
p oduc ion
To al pond
p oduc ion
( onnes)
P opo ion o
o al na ional
pond
p oduc ion
Sulawesi Sela an 1,409,700 30% 222,601 63%
Nusa Tengga a Timu 1,037,875 22% 30 0%
Kaliman an U a a 441,152 9%
Nusa Tengga a Ba a 402,687 9%
Sulawesi Tengah 393,458 8% 26,436 8%
Sulawesi Tengga a 382,218 8%
Maluku 262,850 6%
Jawa Timu 144,697 3% 6,947 2%
Sulawesi U a a 35,807 1%
Maluku U a a 35,508 1%
Sulawesi Ba a 28,257 1%
Kaliman an Timu 20,787 39,352 11%
Bali 19,361
Ban en 10,591
Lampung 10,119
Jawa Tengah 9,536 11,420 3%
DKI Jaka a 9,039
Kepulauan Riau 5,041
Papua Ba a 1,571
Jawa Ba a 44,366 13%
O he 450
To al 4,660,704 351,152
G and o al 5,011,856
Sou ce: Da a om BPS (2022a).
Reconciling seaweed indus y s a is ics 245
li es ock), he la ge p opo ion o ma e ial used o mul iplica ion in seaweed con-
s i u es a signi ican s a is ical issue. Table A1.6 shows he amoun o ma ine sea-
weed used o di e en pu poses as epo ed in BPS 2022a.
Analysis o sa elli e image y
We used high esolu ion sa elli e image y o measu e he a ea unde p oduc ion in
Pangkep Regency om 2018 o 2020 (see Lang o d e al. 2021). We ound ha he
o al a ea cul i a ed a any ime du ing 2020 was 782ha, bu ha on a e age 244ha
was unde cul i a ion in any gi en mon h. These a eas a e ac ual a eas included in
cul i a ion plo s, so hey exclude a eas be ween plo s.
Compa ison o a ailable s a is ics
Table A1.8 summa ises he da a a ailable om di e en sou ces.
Numbe o households
Se e al sou ces epo s a is ics on he numbe o households engaged in seaweed
a me s (Table A1.9). The mos accu a e es ima e is om census da a. The 2023
Table A1.6 Final use o seaweed p oduced by p o ince
2020 Used as
p opagules
Sold as
p opagules
Sold
we
Sold d y O he To al
p oduc ion
Lampung 1,709 11 25 8,372 210,119
Kepulauan Riau 1,681 23 1 3,327 9 5,041
DKI Jaka a 1,313 113 34 7,578 1 9,039
Jawa Tengah 3,911 64 5,561 0 0 9,536
Jawa Timu 54,819 7,962 19,447 61,828 641 144,697
Jawa Ba a 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ban en 5,098 100 4,179 264 950 10,591
Bali 11,538 274 29 7,507 13 19,361
Nusa Tengga a Ba a 135,463 6,295 1,597 258,774 558 402,687
Nusa Tengga a Timu 450,237 19,388 2,651 552,232 13,367 1,037,875
Kaliman an Timu 5,365 255 51 14,615 501 20,787
Kaliman an U a a 107,769 502 2,120 330,400 361 441,152
Sulawesi U a a 5,120 103 030,397 187 35,807
Sulawesi Tengah 138,252 5,791 7,421 239,608 2,386 393,458
Sulawesi Sela an 484,822 16,306 15,933 852,258 40,381 1,409,700
Sulawesi Tengga a 141,960 4,575 2,342 231,207 2,134 382,218
Sulawesi Ba a 5,927 681 307 18,329 3,013 28,257
Maluku 62,108 601 623 198,663 855 262,850
Maluku U a a 6,846 133 37 28,367 125 35,508
Papua Ba a 210 70 120 1,163 8 1,571
O he 94 24 6 289 37 450
To al 1,624,242 63,271 62,484 2,845,178 65,529 4,660,704
Sou ce: BPS (2022a). BPS also epo s he o al numbe o seaweed p oducing households, as shown in
Table A1.7 by species. Fo ull esul s see BPS (2022a).
246 Lang o d, Ruhon & Wald on
Table A1.7 Numbe o seaweed a ming households in Indonesia by ype o cul i a ion
Numbe o a ming households
g owing di e en ypes o seaweed
To al ma ine a ming
households
To al pond a ming
households
Lampung 101 0
Kepulauan Riau 197 0
DKI Jaka a 93 0
Jawa Ba a 0 454
Jawa Tengah 304 149
Jawa Timu 2,152 132
Ban en 354 0
Bali 749 0
Nusa Tengga a Ba a 2,056 0
Nusa Tengga a Timu 10,166 10
Kaliman an Timu 219 211
Kaliman an U a a 2,075 0
Sulawesi U a a 286 0
Sulawesi Tengah 2,895 191
Sulawesi Sela an 24,922 3,110
Sulawesi Tengga a 7,083 0
Sulawesi Ba a 804 0
Maluku 7,275 0
Maluku U a a 858 0
Papua Ba a 103 0
O he s 62 0
To al 62,754 4,257
Sou ce: Da a om BPS (2022a).
Table A1.8 Summa y o da a collec ed om di e en sou ces
Volume A ea unde
cul i a ion
Numbe o
households
in ol ed
Na ional
Sulsel
Pangkep
Na ional
Sulsel
Pangkep
Na ional
Sulsel
Pangkep
KKP (2020) ü ü ü ü
DKP Sulsel (2020) üüüüüüüüü
Minis y o Indus y (2020) ü*
Ag icul u al Census (2013) ü ü
BPS seaweed su ey (2020) ü ü ü ü
P esiden ial Dec ee (2018) ü ü
Sa elli e da a (2020) ü
* De i ed om expo and p ocessing s a is ics.
Reconciling seaweed indus y s a is ics 247
census da a is no ye a ailable. Howe e , 2013 census da a epo s ha he e a e
66,115 seaweed a ming households in Indonesia (ma ine and pond). This aligns
closely wi h BPS 2021 su ey es ima es o 67,011 seaweed a ming households in In-
donesia, including 62,754 ma ine a ming households and 4,257 pond a ming house-
holds. Na ional (KKP/FAO) p oduc ion s a is ics es ima ed ha p oduc ion olumes
in 2013 and 2020 we e simila (9.3 million onnes in 2013 and 9.6 million onnes in
2020). Unless he e we e la ge changes in he scale o household p oduc ion in ha
pe iod, i seems easonable ha he numbe o households employed in he indus y
would be simila . The Sou h Sulawesi DKP epo s ha he e a e 32,874 ma ine sea-
weed a ming households in Sou h Sulawesi, a ound 32 pe cen highe han he BPS
es ima e o 24,922. While b oad con e gence be ween hese sou ces p o ides some
con idence in he s a is ics, epo s in he P esiden ial Dec ee o 267,800 seaweed
a ming households appea highly o e s a ed, mos p obably because hey a e based
on inaccu a e da a on cul i a ed a ea and a e age size o household plo s.
The es ima es o he numbe o people wo king in he indus y a e much mo e
inconsis en han he numbe o households, p obably due o di e en assump ions
abou who is included as a wo ke in he indus y (Table A.10 and as discussed in
Chap e 10). Consequen ly, he numbe o households in ol ed in seaweed a ming
is p e e ed as he basis o analysis.
A ea unde cul i a ion
The KKP es ima es ha 102,254ha we e cul i a ed o seaweed a ming in 2020 (o
a po en ially sui able a ming a ea o 12,123,383ha (KKP 2022)). The P esiden ial
Table A1.9 Es ima ed numbe o seaweed a ming households in Indonesia om di e en
sou ces
Na ional Sou h Sulawesi
Ma ine Pond Ma ine Pond
Ag icul u e census 2013 66,115 22,293
BPS seaweed su ey (2020) 62,754 4,257 24,922 3,110
DKP Sulsel (2020) – 32,874 –
P esiden ial Dec ee (2018) 267,800 –
Table A1.10 Es ima ed numbe o seaweed a me s in Indonesia om di e en sou ces
Na ional Sou h Sulawesi
Ma ine Pond Ma ine Pond
Ag icul u e census 2013 – –
BPS seaweed su ey (2020) 88,176 5,211 33,331 3,878
DKP Sulsel (2020) – 98,621 –
P esiden ial Dec ee (2018) – –
248 Lang o d, Ruhon & Wald on
Dec ee Nomo 33–2019 es ima ed ha a much la ge a ea o 267,800ha was used o
seaweed a ming in 2018 o a po en ially sui able a ea o 1,510,223ha. The SulSel DKP
es ima ed ha in 2020, 40,322ha we e used o seaweed a ming by 32,874 house-
holds. Nei he he Ag icul u al Census 2013 no he 2021 BPS su ey epo ed he
a ea unde cul i a ion. Ou ecen sa elli e image y analysis es ima ed he a ea unde
p oduc ion in Pangkep in 2020. Table A1.11 epo s he da a om hese h ee sou ces.
Es ima ing he a ea unde p oduc ion is di icul and is cu en ly unde aken
based on es ima es p o ided by selec ed a me s. Sa elli e image y p o ides a mo e
p ecise calcula ion because i es ima es he a ea unde p oduc ion, excluding gaps
be ween plo s. We ound ha he o al a ea cul i a ed a any ime in Pangkep du ing
2020 was 782ha (see Lang o d e al. 2021 o me hodology). In he same yea , KKP
es ima ed ha 3,431ha we e cul i a ed a any ime. This sugges s ha ac ual p o-
duc ion a eas may be g ea ly o e es ima ed a he p o incial and na ional le el – in
Pangkep in 2020 by a ac o o app oxima ely six.
P oduc ion da a
Seaweed p oduc ion es ima es de i ed om da a om di e en sou ces a e in-
consis en , as shown in Table A1.12. KKP s a is ics a e based on olumes sold, so
exclude amoun s used as p opagules, which is app op ia e.
The Minis y o Indus y da a sugges s ha 2.0 million onnes o seaweed en-
e ed supply chains in 2020, while in he same yea BPS pu his igu e a 3.3
million onnes (excluding amoun s used as p opagules). The KKP es ima ed o al
p oduc ion a 9.6 million onnes we seaweed equi alen sold in he same yea . As
he Minis y o Indus y es ima e is based on ac ual expo da a, a he na ional le el
i is likely o be he mos accu a e.
Table A1.11 Es ima ed a ea unde seaweed cul i a ion om di e en sou ces (ha)
Na ional Sou h Sulawesi Pangkep
KKP (2020) 102,254 40,322 3,431
P esiden ial Dec ee (2018) 267,800 – –
Sa elli e image y (2020) – – 782
Table A1.12 Es ima ed olume o seaweed p oduc ion om di e en sou ces
To al olume o p oduc ion ( onnes)
Na ional Sou h Sulawesi
Ma ine Pond Ma ine Pond
KKP RI (2020) 8,090,796 1,456,730 3,442,076
KKP Sulsel (2020) – 2,431,802 996,975
Minis y o Indus y (2020) 2,008,760 –
BPS seaweed su ey (2020) 2,907,662
( olume sold)
351,152 868,191
( olume sold)
222,601
Reconciling seaweed indus y s a is ics 249
I he es ima es abo e on he use o we seaweed equi alen in he Indonesian
ca ageenan domes ic p ocessing sec o and o expo s a e ealis ic (2,151,260
onnes), he KKP s a is ics (o 9,547,526 onnes o ma ine and pond p oduc ion)
a e o e s a ed by a ac o o 4.8.
Summa y
The inconsis encies e ealed in his sec ion highligh he di icul ies o p o iding
an accu a e s a is ical depic ion o he Indonesian seaweed indus y. Na ional ex-
po s a is ics eco ded by Cus oms a e likely o be accu a e, igu es a e less likely
o be accu a e a p o incial le els, whe e in e -p o incial o in e -island ade can
be mo e po ous. The mos accu a e sou ces o da a on he domes ic indus y appea
o be ag icul u al census da a (upda ed e e y en yea s), BPS (2022a) household
su ey da a, Minis y o Indus y da a and Sou h Sulawesi DKP household pa ici-
pa ion da a. The da a p esen ed in P esiden ial Dec ee Nomo 33–2019 and KKP
p oduc ion olume and cul i a ion a ea da a appea o be g ea ly o e s a ed.
A e aking in o accoun me hods and disc epancies, ealis ic es ima es include:
25,000–33,000 ma ine seaweed a ming households in Sou h Sulawesi and 62,000
ac oss Indonesia; a ound 2 million onnes we seaweed p oduc ion na ionally; and
a much smalle cul i a ion a ea han ha es ima ed by he KKP, in he ange o
42,000 ha na ionally.
This analysis sugges s ha , simila ly o o he ag icul u al indus ies, da a
collec ion and epo ing p ocesses o seaweed should be imp o ed. While his may
no be adminis a i ely easible, his would ideally in ol e collabo a ion om all
go e nmen agencies collec ing da a on he seaweed indus y (DKP/KKP, BPS,
Minis y o Indus y, Minis y o Ag icul u e). On he p oduc ion side, his would
in ol e be e me hods o es ima ing cul i a ion a eas (based on ac ual a m bound-
a ies o seaweed p oducing a eas as a whole), mo e accu a e (and pe haps a iable)
inco po a ion o assump ions on yield coe icien s, explici ly s a ing whe he p o-
duc ion includes o excludes p opagules and e ined assump ions h ough which
es ima es o he numbe o households in ol ed in seaweed a e used o each es i-
ma es o he numbe o people in ol ed in seaweed a ming. Ideally, i would also
cap u e da a on he numbe o people om non-seaweed a ming households who
wo k in he indus y as casual labou e s ( o mo e on his, see Chap e 8).
No es
1 No e ha Ma os has been emo ed om he da ase due o a known da a anomaly. In
o icial da a, an addi ional 16 a me s om Ma os a e eco ded.
2 Ca ageenan p oduc con e sion a es as epo ed in Lang o d e al. 2023. Aga con e -
sion a e assumes 50 pe cen weed con en and 20 pe cen yield.
Re e ences
BPS (Badan Pusa S a is ik) 2013. Sensus Pe anian 2013. h ps://s 2013.bps.go.id
BPS (Badan Pusa S a is ik) (2022a). Hasil Su ei Komodi as Pe ikanan Po ensi Rumpu
Lau 2021 Se i 2. Badan Pusa S a is ic. h ps://www.bps.go.id/publica ion/2022/08/29/
250 Lang o d, Ruhon & Wald on
269de33babc6e3d52bbae5b6/hasil-su ei-komodi as-pe ikanan-po ensi- umpu -lau -
2021-se i-2.h ml
BPS (Badan Pusa S a is ik) (2022b). S a is ical Yea book o Indonesia 2022. h ps://www.
bps.go.id/publica ion/2022/02/25/0a2a ea4 ab72a5d052cb315/s a is ik-indonesia-2022.
h ml
DKP P o . SulSel. 2021. Lapo an S a is ik Pe ikanan Sulawesi Sela an 2020. Makassa :
Dinas Kelau an dan Pe ikanan P o insi Sulawesi Sela an.
FAO (Food and Ag icul u e O ganisa ion o he Uni ed Na ions). 2023. FishS a J (so wa e
o FAO’S Fishe ies and Aquacul u e s a is ics). h ps://www. ao.o g/ ishe y/en/s a is ics/
so wa e/ ishs a j
KKP (Kemen e ian Kelau an dan Pe ikanan) 2022. E aluasi kine ja dan encana kebijakan
budidaya umpu lau 2021–2023. KKP 2022.
Kemen e ian Pe indus ian Republic Indonesia (Kemenpe in). 2022. Kebijakan Indus i
Pengolahan Rumpu Lau . Kemen e ian Pe indus ian 2022.
Lang o d, A., S. Wald on, Sul ah i and H. Saleh. 2021. Moni o ing he COVID-19-A ec ed
Indonesian Seaweed Indus y Using Remo e Sensing Da a. Ma ine Policy 127 (104431):
1–10. doi.o g/10.1016/j.ma pol.2021.104431
Lang o d, A., W. Tu upadang, and S. Wald on. 2023. In e en ionis Indus y Policy o
Suppo Local Value Adding: E idence om he Eas e n Indonesia Seaweed Indus y.
Ma ine Policy 151 (105561). doi.o g/10.1016/j.ma pol.2023.105561
P esiden ial Dec ee 33–2019 (Pe a u an P esiden Republik Indonesia Nomo 33 Tahun
2019 en ang Pe a Panduan Pengembangan Indus i Rumpu Lau Nasional Tahun
2018–2021).
Appendix 2
Indonesian seaweed- ela ed policies
Fik i Fi mansyah Sjah uddin, Yan i N. Mu likh,
Sco Wald on, and Ris i Pe mani
To ou line he complex Indonesian policy landscape, Figu e A2.1 p esen s a hie -
a chy o Indonesian laws and egula ions based on he p o isions s a ed in Law
No. 12/2011. The hie a chy o py amid consis s o se en le els, o de ed in le el
o p ecedence and om na ional le el down o he egional le el. In p inciple,
egula ions and policies made a lowe le els should no con adic he policies a
highe le els.
The policies made by he cen al, p o incial, and dis ic go e nmen s ha im-
pac di ec ly o indi ec ly on seaweed a e lis ed in Table 2.1. The lis o policies
a e d awn om a much mo e de ailed s udy conduc ed on he policy landscape and
supply chain go e nance o seaweed in Indonesia conduc ed by Pe mani e al.
(2023). Six y-se en policy documen s we e collec ed based on desk op esea ch
The Dec ee o he People's
Consul a i e Council
Laws and Go e nmen Regula ion in Lieu o
Law
Go e nmen Regula ion
1945
Cons i u ion
P esiden ial Regula ion
P o incial Regula ion
Regional Regula ion
Figu e A2.1 The hie a chy o laws and egula ions in Indonesia
Sou ce: Schema ic by au ho s based on hei a chy desc ibed in Law 12 A icle 7 he Yea 2011.
252 Sjah uddin, Mu likh, Wald on & Pe mani
Table A2.1 Indonesian seaweed- ela ed policies
Cons i u ion Policy Desc ip ion
1945 Cons i u ion
Undang Undang
Dasa 1945
The Cons i u ion o he Republic o Indonesia
ou lining he basic p inciples and s uc u e o he
Indonesian go e nmen .
The Dec ee o
he People’s
Consul a i e Council
Ke e apan Majelis
Pe musya awa an
Rakya – TAP MPR
A majo cons i u ional documen p oduced by
he People’s Consul a i e Council (Majelis
Pe musya awa an Rakya (MPR)) in Indonesia
ha p o ides guidelines and di ec ions o he
go e nmen and Indonesian ins i u ions.
Laws
Undang-undang
Law No. 8/1999 – Consume P o ec ion
Undang-undang No. 8 Tahun 1999
Pe lindungan konsumen
This law comp ises all p o ec ions o ensu e legal
ce ain y o consume s. Seaweed consume s a e
p o ec ed by his law om illegal selle s’ o ade s’
ac i i ies. Fo example, selle s who do no ul il he
ag eemen .
Law No. 31/2004 – Fishe ies
Undang-undang No. 31 Tahun 2004 – Pe ikanan
In A icle 7, e se 5 explana ion, seaweed is included
as one o he ishe ies esou ces. This law is
amended by Go e nmen Regula ion in Lieu o Law
2/2022.
Law No. 9/2006 – Wa ehouse Receip Sys em
Undang-undang No. 9 Tahun 2006 – Sis em esi gudang
Policy base o Indonesian wa ehouse eceip sys em.
In his policy, seaweed is no speci ically lis ed as
a commodi y. This law was amended by Law No.
9/2011.
Law No. 27/2007 – Coas al and Small Islands Managemen
Undang-undang No. 27 Tahun 2007 – Pengelolaan wilayah
pesisi dan pulau-pulau kecil
In A icle 23, e se 2, aquacul u e is lis ed as one o
he small islands’ u ilisa ions. This law was amended
by Go e nmen Regula ion in Lieu o Law 2/2022.
Law No. 9/2011 – Amendmen o Law No. 9 The Yea 2006
Rega ding Wa ehouse Receip Sys em
Undang-undang No. 9 Tahun 2011 – Pe ubahan a as Undang-
undang Nomo 9 Tahun 2006 en ang sis em esi gudang
Some a icles and e ses in Law No. 9/2006 ega ding
wa ehouse eceip sys em ha e been e ised.
Indonesian seaweed- ela ed policies 253
Law No. 18/2012 – Food
Undang-undang No. 18 Tahun 2012 – Pangan
Food secu i y is de ined as he condi ion ood
necessi ies a e ul illed om an indi idual o a
na ional le el. Seaweed is an edible p oduc and a
ma e ial esou ce ha con ibu es o na ional ood
secu i y.
Law No. 1/2014 – Amendmen o Law No. 27 The Yea 2007
Rela ed o Coas al and Small Islands Managemen
Undang-undang No. 1 Tahun 2014 – Pe ubahan a as Undang-
undang No. 27 Tahun 2007 en ang pengelolaan wilayah pesisi
dan pulau-pulau kecil
Na ional de ence and secu i y we e added in he same
e se whe e aquacul u e ac i i y was lis ed. This law
was amended by Go e nmen Regula ion in Lieu o
Law 2/2022.
Law No. 7/2014 – T ade
Undang-undang No. 7 Tahun 2014 – Pe dagangan
Seaweed p oduc s a e aded domes ically and
o e seas. T ade is egula ed by Law No. 7/2014
(amended by Law 11/2020 – Omnibus Law).
Law No. 33/2014 – Halal P oduc Assu ance
Undang-undang No. 33 Tahun 2014 – Jaminan p oduk halal
As seaweed p oduc s a e consumed in Indonesia, halal
assu ance o seaweed p oduc s should ollow Law
No. 33/2014. This law was amended by Go e nmen
Regula ion in Lieu o Law 2/2022.
Law No. 3/2014 – Indus y
Undang-undang No. 3 Tahun 2014 – Pe indus ian
Seaweed p oduc s a e p ocessed a a ange o
indus ial le els. Local indus ies a e bound by
his law. Law 11/2020 – Omnibus Law amends he
indus y law.
Law No. 23/2014 – Local Go e nance
Undang-undang No. 23 Tahun 2014 – Peme in ahan dae ah
This law au ho ises he di ision be ween local and
cen al go e nmen au ho i y. Seaweed a ms and
indus ies a e o en egula ed a he p o incial o
dis ic le el. Law 11/2020 – Omnibus Law amends
his indus y law.
Law No. 32/2014 – Ma ine A ai s
Undang-undang No. 32 Tahun 2014 – Kelau an
In A icle 17, e se 2, poin c, i is s a ed ha he
go e nmen manages ishe ies esou ces and
acili a es he es ablishmen o ishe ies indus ies
ha can imp o e he li elihoods o aquacul u e
a me s and ishe s. This law was amended by
Go e nmen Regula ion in Lieu o Law 2/2022.
(Con inued)
260 Sjah uddin, Mu likh, Wald on & Pe mani
MMAF Regula ion No. 55/2020 – The P ocedu es, Requi emen s,
and Es ablishmen o Aquacul u e A ea
Pe a u an Men e i Kelau an dan Pe ikanan Republik Indonesia
No. 55 Tahun 2020 – Ta a ca a, pe sya a an, dan pene apan
kawasan budidaya pe ikanan
The go e nmen se s s anda ds o a eas o be
alloca ed as aquacul u e zones.
MMAF Regula ion No. 57/2020 – Amendmen o Minis y o
Ma ine A ai s and Fishe ies Regula ion No. 17 The Yea 2020
Rega ding Minis y o Ma ine A ai s and Fishe ies S a egic
Plan 2020–2024
Pe a u an Men e i Kelau an dan Pe ikanan No. 57 Tahun 2020
- Pe ubahan a as Pe a u an Men e i Kelau an dan Pe ikanan
No. 17 Tahun 2020 Ten ang Rencana S a egis Kemen e ian
Kelau an Dan Pe ikanan Tahun 2020–2024
The amendmen o Minis y o Ma ine A ai s and
Fishe ies S a egic Plan 2020–2024.
MMAF Regula ion No. 70/2020 – The O ganisa ion and Wo king
P ocedu e o he Ins i u e o Ma icul u e Resea ch and
Fishe ies Ex ension
Pe a u an Men e i Kelau an dan Pe ikanan Republik Indonesia
No. 70 Tahun 2020 - O ganisasi dan a a ke ja Balai Besa
Rise Budidaya Lau dan Penyuluhan Pe ikanan
The o ganisa ion o he Ins i u e o Ma icul u e
Resea ch and Fishe ies Ex ension was es uc u ed.
MMAF Regula ion No. 84/2020 – The O ganisa ion and Wo king
P ocedu e o The Resea ch ins i u e o Seaweed Cul u e
Pe a u an Men e i Kelau an dan Pe ikanan Republik Indonesia
No. 84 Tahun 2020 – O ganisasi dan a a ke ja Loka Rise
Budidaya Rumpu Lau
The o ganisa ion o he Resea ch Ins i u e o Seaweed
Cul u e was es uc u ed.
MoF Regula ion No. 96/2020 – Amendmen o Minis y o
Finance Regula ion No. 11 The Yea 2020 Rega ding The
Implemen a ion o Go e nmen Regula ion No. 78 The Yea
2019 on Tax Allowance o Pa icula Sec o In es men s and/o
in Pa icula Regions
Pe a u an Men e i Keuangan No. 96 Tahun 2020 – Pe ubahan
a as Pe a u an Men e i Keuangan No.11 Tahun 2020 en ang
pelaksanaan Pe a u an Peme in ah No. 78 Tahun 2019 en ang
asili as pajak penghasilan un uk penanaman modal di bidang-
bidang usaha e en u dan/a au di dae ah-dae ah Te en u
Tax allowances ha can be accessed by s akeholde s
wo king in seaweed indus ies.
Table A2.1 (Con inued)
Cons i u ion Policy Desc ip ion
Indonesian seaweed- ela ed policies 261
MoF Regula ion No. 153/2020 – G oss Income Deduc ion o
Pa icula Resea ch and De elopmen Sec o s in Indonesia
Pe a u an Men e i Keuangan No. 153 Tahun 2020 – Pembe ian
pengu angan penghasilan b u o a as kegia an peneli ian dan
pengembangan e en u di indonesia
Tax deduc ions ha can be accessed by s akeholde s
wo king in seaweed indus ies.
MoT Regula ion No. 14/2021 – Amendmen o he Regula ion
o he Minis e o T ade No. 33 The Yea 2020 Conce ning
Goods and Requi emen s o Goods ha Can Be S o ed in The
Wa ehouse Receip Sys em
Pe a u an Men e i Pe dagangan Republik Indonesia No. 8 Tahun
2018 – Pe ubahan a as pe a u an Men e i Pe dagangan No.
33 Tahun 2020 en ang ba ang dan pe sya a an ba ang yang
dapa disimpan dalam sis em esi gudang
The amendmen o commodi ies ha can be s o ed
and access he wa ehouse eceip sys em. Seaweed
commodi ies can s ill access he eceip sys em.
MMAF Regula ion No. 22/2021 – De elopmen o Fishe y
Managemen Plans and Fishe y Managemen A ea Ins i u ions
in The Fishe y Managemen A eas o The Republic o Indonesia
Pe a u an Men e i Kelau an dan Pe ikanan No. 22 Tahun 2021
– Penyusunan encana pengelolaan pe ikanan dan lembaga
pengelola pe ikanan di wilayah pengelolaan pe ikanan nega a
epublik indonesia
Plans o de elop Fishe y Managemen A eas (FMAs)
and hei managemen ins i u ions. Seaweed a ms
a e loca ed in FMAs. Thus, hey will also be
managed by FMA.
MMAF Regula ion No. 27/2021 – Non-Comme cial Fishe ies
Cap u e and/o Aquacul u e Wi hin The Indonesian Fishe ies
Managemen A ea
Pe a u an Men e i Kelau an dan Pe ikanan No. 27 Tahun 2021
– Penangkapan ikan dan/a au pembudidayaan ikan di wilayah
pengelolaan pe ikanan nega a epublik Indonesia yang bukan
ujuan kome sial
S anda ds o non-comme cial aquacul u e ac i i ies.
Minis e ial dec ee
Kepu usan Men e i
MMAF Dec ee No. 2/2007 – Good Fish Fa ming P ac ices
Kepu usan Men e i Kelau an dan Pe ikanan No, 2 Tahun 2007 -
Ca a budidaya ikan yang baik
This minis e ial dec ee se s s anda ds o bes
aquacul u e p ac ices in Indonesia.
(Con inued)
262 Sjah uddin, Mu likh, Wald on & Pe mani
MMAF Dec ee No. 1/2019 – The Gene al Guidelines o Seaweed
Fa ming
Kepu usan Men e i Kelau an dan Pe ikanan No, 1 Tahun 2019 –
Pedoman umum pembudidayaan umpu lau
Po en ial de elopmen and equi emen s o seaweed
aquacul u e. Seaweed a ming and ha es ing
me hods, en i onmen al managemen , human
esou ces, supe iso y, moni o ing, and he
e alua ion o seaweed aquacul u es a e se ou lined
in his guideline.
P o incial egula ions
Pe a u an P o insi
Sou h Sulawesi Regula ion No. 9/2009 – Sulawesi Sela an Spa ial
Plan 2009–2029
Pe a u an Dae ah No. 9 Tahun 2009 – Rencana a a uang
wilayah p o insi sulawesi sela an ahun 2009–2029
This egula ion was eplaced by he Sou h Sulawesi
Regula ion No. 3/2022. O iginally, his egula ion
se he spa ial planning o Sou h Sulawesi P o ince
2020–2029.
Sou h Sulawesi Regula ion No. 7/2018 – Sou h Sulawesi
Indus ial De elopmen Plans 2018–2038
Pe a u an Dae ah No. 7 Tahun 2018 – Rencana pembangunan
indus i P o insi Sulawesi Sela an 2018–2038
Seaweed indus ies a e o become p io i ies o Sou h
Sulawesi P o ince indus y de elopmen .
Sou h Sulawesi Regula ion No. 2/2019 – Coas al and Small
Islands Zona ion Plan o Sou h Sulawesi P o ince 2019–2039
Pe a u an Dae ah No. 2 Tahun 2019 – Rencana zonasi wilayah
pesisi dan pulau-pulau kecil P o insi Sulawesi Sela an Tahun
2019–2039
This egula ion se he coas al and small islands
zona ion plan 2019–2039. Howe e , i was eplaced
by Sou h Sulawesi Regula ion No. 3/2022.
Sou h Sulawesi Regula ion No. 3/2022 – Spa ial Planning o
Sou h Sulawesi P o ince 2022–2041
Pe a u an Dae ah Sulawesi Sela an No. 3 Tahun 2022 – Rencana
a a uang wilayah P o insi Sulawesi Sela an ahun 2022–2041
This egula ion legalises he Spa ial Planning o
Sou h Sulawesi P o ince 2022–2041 and eplaces
he p e ious egula ion Sou h Sulawesi’s Go e no
Regula ion No. 9/2009.
Sou h Sulawesi’s Go e no Regula ion No. 3/2018 – The
O ganisa ion and Hie a chy o The Ma ine O ice B anch o
Sou h Sulawesi Ma ine A ai s and Fishe ies O ice
Pe a u an Gube nu Sulawesi Sela an No. 3 Tahun 2018 –
O ganisasi dan a a ke ja cabang dinas kelau an pada Dinas
Kelau an dan Pe ikanan P o insi Sulawesi Sela an
The go e no se s he o ganisa ional s uc u e o he
Depa men o Ma ine A ai s and Fishe ies b anch
o ices.
Table A2.1 (Con inued)
Cons i u ion Policy Desc ip ion
Indonesian seaweed- ela ed policies 263
Nusa Tenga a Timu ’s Go e no Regula ion No. 39/2022 –
Fishe ies Commodi y T ading Sys em
Pe a u an Gube nu Nusa Tengga a Timu No. 39 Tahun 2022 –
O ganisasi dan a a ke ja cabang dinas kelau an pada Dinas
Kelau an dan Pe ikanan P o insi Sulawesi Sela an
The go e no can ban d ied seaweed om being aded
ou side he p o ince.
Regional egula ions
Pe a u an Kabupa en
Luwu U a a’s Head Dis ic Regula ion No. 23/2008 – Seaweed
Aquacul u e Zona ion in Luwu U a a Ma ine Te i o y
Pe a u an Bupa i Luwu U a a No. 23 Tahun 2008 - Zonasi
budidaya umpu Lau di wilayah pe ai an Kabupa en Luwu
U a a
This egula ion ied o educe con lic be ween
seaweed a me s and o he g oups. Thus, i egula es
and alloca es a eas speci ically o seaweed a ming.
The uni a ea o seaweed a ming is de ined as
a 1ha squa e and 3m deep a he lowes ide. The
space be ween each squa e should be a leas 25m.
Seaweed squa es canno be alloca ed in wa e mo e
han 4 miles om he sho e.
Bone’s Head Dis ic Regula ion No. 2/2013 – Bone Regency
Spa ial Managemen Plan 2012–2032
Pe a u an Bupa i Bone No. 2 Tahun 2013 – Rencana a a uang
wilayah Kabupa en Bone ahun 2012–2032
This egula ion se s up he spa ial managemen plan
o Bone Dis ic , Sou h Sulawesi. Seaweed a ms
a e alloca ed o some egions wi hin sub-dis ic s:
a) Awangpone, b) Cen ana, c) Tellu Sia ingnge,
d) Tane e Ria ang Timu , e) Ba ebbo, ) Sibulue,
g) Ma e, h) Ton a, i) Salomeko, j) Kajua a. The
seaweed a ming p og amme was implemen ed
be ween 2012 and 2016 and should be in i s
e alua ion phase om 2017–2031.
No e: Minis e ial abb e ia ions used in he able: Minis y o Ma ine A ai s and Fishe ies (MMAF), Minis y o Finance (MoF), Minis y o Indus y (MoI), Minis y
o Coope a i e, Small–Medium En e p ises (MoCSME), Minis y o Ma i ime and In es men A ai s (MoMIA), and Minis y o T ade (MoT).
264 Sjah uddin, Mu likh, Wald on & Pe mani
and in e iews wi h key in o man s. The policies co e egula ions ela ed o he
seaweed supply chain, including p oduc ion, dis ibu ion, consump ion, and e-
sea ch and de elopmen . The policy documen s lis ed in Table 2.1 can be ob ained
h ough he websi e o he In o ma ion and Law Documen a ion Ne wo k (Ja ingan
Dokumen asi dan In o masi Hukum (JDIH)) o he espec i e minis y o local
go e nmen . Fo example, MMAF Regula ion No. 17/2019 can be ound on he
Minis y o Ma ine A ai s and Fishe ies (MMAF) JDIH websi e (h ps://jdih.kkp.
go.id).
Re e ences
Ind a i, M. F. 2021. Kons i usi dan Kons i usionalisme. Jaka a: Mahkamah Kons i usi
Republik Indonesia.
Pe mani, Ris i, Yan i Nu aeni Mu likh, Nunung Nu ya ono, Sco Wald on, Alexand a
Lang o d, Syamsul H. Pasa ibu, and Fik i Sjah uddin. 2023. The Policy Landscape and
Supply Chain Go e nance o he Indonesian Seaweed Indus y: A Focus on Sou h Sulawesi.
Melbou ne, Aus alia: Aus alia-Indonesia Cen e. h ps://pai . aus aliaindonesiacen e.
o g/wp-con en /uploads/2023/06/FINAL-REPORT_ENG_TWP-3_The-policy-
landscape-and-supply-chain-go e nance-o - he-Indonesian-seaweed-indus y_-A- ocus-
on-Sou h-Sulawesi-2.pd
Rumia a, I. N. P. B. 2015. Kedudukan Pe a u an Men e i Pada Kons i usi. Ke a Dya mika,
12 (2): 15.
Sup yadi, A. and Amalia, F. 2021. “Kedudukan Pe a u an Men e i Di injau Da i Hie a ki
Pe a u an Pe undang Undangan Di Indonesia.” Uniza Law Re iew (ULR) 4 (2): 00.
Appendix 3
Ins i u ions in he Indonesian seaweed
indus y
Fik i Fi mansyah Sjah uddin, Yan i N. Mu likh,
Sco Wald on, and Ris i Pe mani
A wide ange o o ganisa ions a e ac i e in he Indonesian seaweed indus y
h ough policy, egula ion, esea ch and de elopmen , educa ion and aining, and
indus y suppo se ices. The lis o o ganisa ions compiled in Table A3.1 is based
on supply chain s udies by Pe mani e al. (2023), Hoge o s and Ke e (2019),
and Wa e s e al. (2019).
Table A3.1 Lis o o ganisa ions in ol ed in Indonesian seaweed indus y
Minis ies Minis y o Ma ine A ai s and Fishe ies (Kemen e ian Kelau an dan
Pe ikanan)
Minis y o Indus y (Kemen e ian Pe indus ian)
Minis y o T ade (Kemen e ian Pe dagangan)
Minis y o Coope a i es and Small–Medium En e p ises (Kemen e ian
Kope asi dan Usaha Kecil – Menengah)
Minis y o Finance (Kemen e ian Keuangan)
Coo dina ing Minis y o he Economy (Kemen e ian Koo dina o
Bidang Pe ekonomian)
Coo dina ing Minis y o Ma i ime and In es men A ai s (Kemen e ian
Koo dina o Bidang Ma i im and In es asi)
Go e nmen
depa men s
and agencies
Agency o De elopmen Planning, Resea ch, and De elopmen o
Sou h Sulawesi P o ince (Badan Pe encanaan Pembangunan Dae ah,
Peneli ian, dan Pengembangan P o insi Sulawesi Sela an)
Depa men o Ma ine A ai s and Fishe ies o Sou h Sulawesi P o ince
(Dinas Kelau an dan Pe ikanan P o insi Sulawesi Sela an)
Depa men o Ma ine and Fishe ies o Takala Regency (Dinas Kelau an
dan Pe ikanan Kabupa en Takala )
Fishe ies Depa men o Luwu Regency (Dinas Kelau an dan Pe ikanan
Kabupa en Luwu)
Depa men o Fishe ies and Ma ine A ai s o Ban aeng Regency (Dinas
Kelau an dan Pe ikanan Kabupa en Ban aeng)
In es men and
ading
Indonesia In es men Coo dina ing Boa d (Badan Koo dinasi Penanaman
Modal)
Commodi y Fu u es T ading Regula o y Agency, Minis y o T ade
(Badan Pengawas Pe dagangan Be jangka Komodi i)
(Con inued )
266 Sjah uddin, Mu likh, Wald on & Pe mani
Resea ch,
de elopmen ,
and ex ension
agencies
Cen e o Excellence o De elopmen and U ilisa ion o Seaweed,
Uni e si y o Hasanuddin (Pusa Unggulan Ilmu Penge ahuan dan
Teknologi – Pengembangan dan Peman aa an umpu Lau )
Cen e o Coas al and Ma ine Resou ces S udies, IPB Uni e si y (Pusa
Kajian Sumbe daya Pesisi dan Lau , Ins i u Pe anian Bogo )
Sou heas Asian Regional Cen e o T opical Biology
Na ional Resea ch and Inno a ion Agency (Badan Rise dan Ino asi
Nasional)
Seaweed Cul i a ion Resea ch Cen e Go on alo (Loka Rise Budidaya
Rumpu Lau Go on alo)
Ma icul u e Resea ch and Ex ension Cen e o Fishe ies – Gondol – Bali
(Balai Besa Rise Budidaya Lau dan Penyuluhan Pe ikanan – Gondol
– Bali)
Fishe ies Reco e y Resou ces Agency (Balai Rise Pemulihan
Sumbe daya Pe ikanan)
Ma icul u e Cen e – Lombok (Balai Pe ikanan Budidaya Lau – Lombok)
Ma icul u e Cen e – Ba am (Balai Pe ikanan Budidaya Lau – Ba am)
B ackish Wa e Aquacul u e Cen e – Jepa a (Balai Besa Pe ikanan
Budidaya Ai Payau – Jepa a)
B ackish Wa e Aquacul u e Cen e – Si ubondo (Balai Besa Pe ikanan
Budidaya Ai Payau – Si ubondo)
B ackish Wa e Aquacul u e Cen e – Takala (Balai Besa Pe ikanan
Budidaya Ai Payau – Takala )
B ackish Wa e Aquacul u e Cen e – Ujung Ba ee, Aceh (Balai Besa
Pe ikanan Budidaya Ai Payau – Ujung Ba ee, Aceh)
B ackish Wa e Aquacul u e Resea ch and Ex ension Cen e – Ma os
(Balai Rise Pe ikanan Budidaya Ai Payau dan Penyuluhan
Pe ikanan – Ma os)
T aining and Ex ension Cen e o Fishe ies – Banyuwangi (Balai
Pela ihan Dan Penyuluhan Pe ikanan – Banyuwangi)
T aining and Ex ension Cen e o Fishe ies – Ambon (Balai Pela ihan
Dan Penyuluhan Pe ikanan – Ambon)
T aining and Ex ension Cen e o Fishe ies – Medan (Balai Pela ihan
Dan Penyuluhan Pe ikanan – Medan)
T aining and Ex ension Cen e o Fishe ies – Bi ung (Balai Pela ihan
Dan Penyuluhan Pe ikanan – Bi ung)
Uni e si ies Uni e si y o Pa imu a (Uni e si as Pa imu a)
Uni e si y o Udayana (Uni e si as Udayana)
Uni e si y o Sam Ra ulangi (Uni e si as Sam Ra ulangi)
Uni e si y o Hasanuddin (Uni e si as Hasanuddin)
IPB Uni e si y (Ins i u Pe anian Bogo )
Uni e si y o B awijaya (Uni e si as B awijaya)
Uni e si y o Hang Tuah (Uni e si as Hang Tuah)
Uni e si y o Ai langga (Uni e si as Ai langga)
Uni e si y o Gadjah Mada (Uni e si as Gadjah Mada)
Indus y
o ganisa ions
Indonesian Seaweed Associa ion (Asosiasi Rumpu Lau Indonesia)
Indonesia Seaweed Indus y Associa ion (Asosiasi Indus i Rumpu Lau
Indonesia)
Indonesia Seaweed Fa me Associa ion (Asosiasi Pe ani Rumpu Lau )
Indonesian Independen Wo ke s Union Coope a i e (Kope asi Se ika
Peke ja Me deka Indonesia)
T opical Seaweed Inno a ion Ne wo k (TSIN)
Resou ces Ne wo k (Ja ingan Sumbe daya (Jasuda))
Table A3.1 (Con inued)
Ins i u ions in he seaweed indus y 267
S anda disa ion
and
ce i ica ion
Na ional S anda disa ion Agency (Badan S anda isasi Nasional)
S anda disa ion and Ag o-Indus y Se ices Cen e – Bogo (Badan
S anda isasi dan Pelayanan Jasa Ag o-indus i – Bogo )
Fish Qua an ine, Quali y Con ol, and Sa e y o Fishe y P oduc s Agency
(Balai Ka an ina Ikan, Pengendalian Mu u dan Keamanan Hasil
Pe ikanan)
Ecoce
Con ol Union
Ag icul u e Ce i ica ion Thailand
BIOCe Indonesia
Kiwa
Ce i ica ion o En i onmen al S anda ds (CERES)
No - o -p o i
o ganisa ions
and seaweed
p og amme
dono s
Swiss Impo P omo ion P og amme
Yayasan Konse asi Alam Nusan a a (YKAN)
Wo ld-Wide Fund o Na u e (Yayasan WWF Indonesia)
Uni ed Na ions Indus ial De elopmen O ganisa ion
Ge many’s Impo P omo ion Desk
Rikol o
Kalimaja i Founda ion
Ne he lands Embassy
Cen e o he P omo ion o Impo s om de eloping coun ies (CBI)
Pa ne ship o Aus alia-Indonesia Resea ch (PAIR)
Aus alia-Indonesia Pa ne ship o P omo ing Ru al Incomes h ough
Suppo o Ma ke s in Ag icul u e (PRISMA)
Aus alia-Indonesia Cen e (AIC)
Aus alian Cen e o In e na ional Ag icul u al Resea ch (ACIAR)
Re e ences
Hoge o s , R. and Ke e , K. 2019. Seaweed Ex ac s – Indonesia. The Hague, Ne he lands:
Cen e o he P omo ion o Impo s om De eloping Coun ies.
Pe mani, Ris i, Yan i Nu aeni Mu likh, Nunung Nu ya ono, Sco Wald on, Alexand a
Lang o d, Syamsul H. Pasa ibu, and Fik i Sjah uddin. 2023. The Policy Landscape
and Supply Chain Go e nance o he Indonesian Seaweed Indus y: A Focus on
Sou h Sulawesi. Melbou ne, Aus alia: Aus alia-Indonesia Cen e. h ps://pai .
aus aliaindonesiacen e.o g/wp-con en /uploads/2023/06/FINAL-REPORT_
ENG_TWP-3_The-policy- landscape-and-supply-chain-go e nance-o - he-Indonesian-
seaweed-indus y_-A- ocus-on-Sou h-Sulawesi-2.pd
Wa e s, Ti any, Hilda Liona a, Tommi P ase yo Wibowo, Robe Jones, Se h Theue kau ,
Subhan Usman, Im an Amin, and Ilman Muhammad. 2019. Coas al Conse a ion and
Sus ainable Li elihoods h ough Seaweed Aquacul u e in Indonesia: A Guide o Buye s,
Conse a ion P ac i ione s, and Fa me s (Ve sion 1). A ling on, VA and Jaka a: The
Na u e Conse ancy.
Appendix 4
Companies in he Indonesian
ca ageen sec o
I syadi Si adjuddin and Boedi Julian o
This appendix summa ises in o ma ion on he Indonesian ca ageenan p ocessing
sec o , which is designed o accompany he analysis p esen ed in Chap e s 1 and
2. Da a was collec ed and c oss- e i ied h ough a numbe o sou ces. Da a on
wel e companies ha a e membe s o he Indonesian Seaweed Indus y Asso-
cia ion (ASTRULI) was collec ed om he associa ion. De ails on ano he wen y
non-membe s we e collec ed ia desk op esea ch, ield isi s, and in e iews. This
included in e iews wi h hi een ca ageenan p ocesso s, a ious ading compa-
nies, and discussions a he S a egic Seaweed Con e ence in Su abaya, Sep embe
2022. Da a was collec ed be ween July and No embe 2022. I is impo an o no e
ha he sec o is in a cons an s a e o change, wi h companies en e ing, exi ing,
and a ying p oduc ion.
Table A4.1 Companies in he Indonesian ca ageen sec o
Company (ASTRULI
membe s ma ked *)
Loca ion P oduc Capaci y
( ons/
yea )
App oxima e
u ilisa ion
Ac ual
p oduc ion
( ons yea )
In es men
Aga Kembang Kupang ATC 600 60% 360 Domes ic
Algae Sumba Timu
Les a i
Sumba ATC 1,200 50% 600 Domes ic
Algalindo Pe dana* Pasu uan RC 1,000 50% 500 Domes ic
Ama a Ca agenan
Indonesia *
Ja im SRC 1,500 50% 750 Domes ic
Anuge ah Mapan
Jaya (ope a es
PT Indoamkmu
Hyd ocolloid)
Ma os SRC 1,200 30% 360 Domes ic
Asia Mina Sejah e a
(acqui ed Giwang Ci a
Lau Oc obe 2022)
Makassa ATC, SRC 1,000 0% 0Domes ic
Ban imu ung Indah* Makassa
Ban en
SRC, ATC 1,200 50% 600 Domes ic
Ba ulicin Algae Pe dana Tanah
Bumbu
SRC 600 30% 180 Domes ic
Companies in he ca ageen p ocessing sec o 269
Company (ASTRULI
membe s ma ked *)
Loca ion P oduc Capaci y
( ons/
yea )
App oxima e
u ilisa ion
Ac ual
p oduc ion
( ons yea )
In es men
Bio a Ganggang Lau Pin ang SRC, RC 8,000 60% 4,800 Fo eign-
in es ed
(China)
Buana ama Faja Abadi* Ka awang ATC, SRC 600 30% 180 Domes ic
Cahaya Ceme lang* Makassa ATC, SRC,
RC
1,200 30% 360 Domes ic
Cen am Pasu uan RC 1,000 70% 700 Domes ic
Fuyuan Biologi
Teknologi
Si ubondo RC 3,000 30% 900 Fo eign-
in es ed
(China)
Galic A a Baha i* Bekasi SRC 1,000 40% 400 Domes ic
Galic Bina Mada* Cika ang RC 1,000 60% 600 Domes ic
G eenOne Bio echnology Si ubondo ATC 4,000 60% 2,400 Fo eign-
in es ed
(China)
Gumindo Pe kasa
Indus i*
Cilegon SRC 1,500 50% 750 Domes ic
Hongxin Algae
In e na ional
Si ubondo ATC, SRC 3,000 60% 1,800 Fo eign-
in es ed
(China)
HW Ma ine Si ubondo ATC 1,000 60% 600 Fo eign-
in es ed
(US)
Hyd ocolloid Indonesia* Cibinong SRC 1,200 30% 360 Domes ic
Indo lo a Cip a Mandi i* Malang RC 1,200 50% 600 Domes ic
Indonusa Algaemas
P ima*
Malang ATC, ATS 1,200 50% 600 Domes ic
Kappa Ca ageenan
Nusan a a*
Pasu uan ATC, RC 600 50% 300 Domes ic
Ka aginan Indo Mandi i Bli a SRC 600 30% 180 Domes ic
Ka aginan Indonesia Sema ang SRC 1,000 50% 500 Domes ic
Ocean Ca ageenan
Indonesia
Mojoke o ATC, SRC 600 60% 360 Domes ic
Phoenix Mas Lombok SRC 180 20% 36 Domes ic
Ro e Ka aginan
Nusan a a
Ro e ATC, SRC 1,200 10% 120 Domes ic
Sansiwi a Eas Ja a SRC 500 0% 0Domes ic
Sea6 Ene gy Indonesia Bluleng SRC,
eme ging
p oduc s
600 60% 360 Fo eign-
in es ed
(India)
Sego o Algae Bandung RC 600 30% 180 Domes ic
Wahyu Pu a Bimasak i Makassa ATC, SRC 1,000 0% 0 Domes ic
No e: Re ined Ca ageenan (RC); Semi-Re ined Ca ageenan (SRC); Alkali T ea ed Co onii; (ATC); Alkali
T ea ed Spinosum (ATS)
Table A4.1 (con inued)
