Chys o o o a, Ka e yna; Re iglio, U bano
A icle
F aming he ole o expe s in pla o m go e nance:
Nego ia ing he code o p ac ice on disin o ma ion as a
case s udy
In e ne Policy Re iew
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Alexande on Humbold Ins i u e o In e ne and Socie y (HIIG), Be lin
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Chys o o o a, Ka e yna; Re iglio, U bano (2025) : F aming he ole o expe s in
pla o m go e nance: Nego ia ing he code o p ac ice on disin o ma ion as a case s udy, In e ne
Policy Re iew, ISSN 2197-6775, Alexande on Humbold Ins i u e o In e ne and Socie y, Be lin,
Vol. 14, Iss. 1, pp. 1-28,
h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2025.1.1823
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/315584
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/3.0/de/deed.en
Volume 14 |
F aming he ole o expe s in pla o m
go e nance: Nego ia ing he code o
p ac ice on disin o ma ion as a case s udy
Ka e yna Chys o o o a Eu opean Uni e si y Ins i u e
U bano Re iglio Eu opean Uni e si y Ins i u e
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2025.1.1823
Published: 31 Ma ch 2025
Recei ed: 18 Ma ch 2024 Accep ed: 21 Oc obe 2024
Funding: The au ho s did no ecei e any unding o his esea ch.
Compe ing In e es s: The au ho has decla ed ha no compe ing in e es s exis ha
ha e in luenced he ex .
Licence: This is an open-access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e
Commons A ibu ion 3.0 License (Ge many) which pe mi s un es ic ed use,
dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly
ci ed. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/3.0/de/deed.en
Copy igh emains wi h he au ho (s).
Ci a ion: Chys o o o a, K., & Re iglio, U. (2025). F aming he ole o expe s in
pla o m go e nance: Nego ia ing he code o p ac ice on disin o ma ion as a case
s udy. In e ne Policy Re iew, 14(1). h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2025.1.1823
Keywo ds: Con en mode a ion, Pla o m go e nance, Co- egula ion, Policymaking,
Expe s
Abs ac : Gi en he g owing complexi y o pla o m go e nance, he ole o expe s in digi al
policy-making p ocesses is becoming mo e c i ical. Howe e , he e emains a gap in he li e a u e
ega ding he speci ic ole o expe s in shaping pla o m go e nance p ocesses. To explo e his
esea ch gap, his s udy examines he pe spec i es o expe s in ol ed in he Code o P ac ice on
Disin o ma ion, a co- egula o y go e nance mechanism es ablished by he Eu opean Union.
Th ough a o al o 40 semi-s uc u ed in e iews wi h disin o ma ion and policy expe s, we
analyse he pe cep ions o hei ole in shaping his p ocess. We ound ambi alen opinions on he
e icacy o he Code and widesp ead dis us o pla o ms, pa icula ly ega ding con en
mode a ion and da a sha ing p ac ices. Ou analysis also e eals key limi a ions and challenges
in ol ed in pla o m go e nance such as sys emic esou ce asymme ies. The a icle calls o
u he esea ch on deepening ou unde s anding o he pi o al ole expe s play in pla o m
go e nance and con en mode a ion in o de o iden i y s a egies o enhancing hei impac on
digi al policymaking.
Issue 1
This pape is pa o Con en mode a ion on digi al pla o ms: beyond s a es and i ms, a
special issue o In e ne Policy Re iew gues -edi ed by Romain Badoua d and Anne Bellon.
In oduc ion
In he dynamic ealm o digi al go e nance, he Eu opean Union (EU) has posi-
ioned i sel as a leading o ce, p oac i ely egula ing he digi al sphe e o ackle
socie al challenges s emming om he g owing dominance o online pla o ms.
Speci ically, he issues o con en mode a ion on Ve y La ge Online Pla o ms
(VLOPs) and he igh agains disin o ma ion ha e isen o p ominence as p ima y
conce ns o Eu opean policymake s. Conside ing he ou size in luence o he pla -
o ms and he many s akeholde s who a e di ec ly in ol ed, he go e nance
egime de eloped along he lines o “coope a i e esponsibili y” (Helbe ge e al.,
2018). Howe e , as his o ically in e ne go e nance and online con en mode a ion
ha e o e whelmingly aken he p i a e, sel - egula o y o m, he ins i u ion o
such “coope a i e esponsibili y”, o “co- egula ion”, has been challenging.
Gi en he apid ad ancemen and complexi y o he socio- echnical sys ems o be
go e ned, one g oup o s akeholde s which he Eu opean Commission has leaned
on o mo e he needle owa ds co- egula ion in he digi al sphe e ha e been ex-
pe s. While his e m is known o be wide and elusi e, in his con ex we speci i-
cally ocused on academic, indus y and ci il socie y expe s in ol ed in he e o
o in luence and shape how policymake s iew and espond o con en mode a ion
policy and en o cemen challenges on pla o ms (we u he elabo a e on his in
Sec ion 1). Mo e gene ally, he a icle del es in o he c ucial ole o expe s and
expe knowledge wi hin his dynamic policy landscape, examining hei in ol e-
men in he de elopmen , implemen a ion, moni o ing, and e alua ion o digi al
policies. This is done using he Code o P ac ice on Disin o ma ion as a case s udy
(he ea e e e ed o as ‘ he Code’). Fi s , we conduc ed 17 semi-s uc u ed in e -
iews wi h pa icipan s o he Expe G oup on S uc u al Indica o s o he Code
o P ac ice on Disin o ma ion coo dina ed by he Eu opean Digi al Media Obse a-
o y (EDMO) (Chys o o o a and Re iglio, 2024). This in es iga ion was in ended o
su ey he pe cep ion o hese expe s speci ically on he co- egula o y de elop-
men o he “S uc u al Indica o s” o he Code, discussing how o imp o e hem.
Following his, we ha e expanded ou esea ch ques ions and conduc ed 24 addi-
ional in e iews on he sel -pe cep ion o expe s in ol ed in he Code and o he
digi al policy p ocesses. The objec i e o his in es iga ion was o gain a deepe
unde s anding o expe s’ assessmen s o he Code and, mo e b oadly, pla o m
2 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
go e nance, while also explo ing hei sel -pe cep ions and opinions on hei ole
in he decision-making p ocess.
Ou in es iga ion a emp s o ul ill se e al objec i es is-à- is he cu en s a e o
play in esea ch. While we b oadly look a he ole o expe s in policy-making
p ocesses and how expe knowledge is ansla ed in o policy, we aim o ex end
he cu en deba es on he ole o expe s o he digi al policy ealm in he EU, and
pla o m go e nance and con en mode a ion in pa icula . This is a dynamic poli-
cy a ea ha also has de o ed a special place o expe s wi hin he domina ing co-
egula o y app oach. The expe s a e called upon o con ibu e knowledge, o
some imes o con i m he Commission’s cou se, bu hey also eme ge as ac o s in
hei own igh , wi h speci ic goals, agendas and expec a ions om his engage-
men . To his end, we ha e a emp ed o disce n wha is he pe cei ed and ac ual
ole o expe s in ol ed in pla o m co- egula o y p ocesses a he EU le el by
looking a how Code-adjacen expe s see hei ole, and how hey ela e o o he
s akeholde s in he p ocess – he Commission and he pla o ms. The analysis
shows ha e en when go e nmen ins i u ions y o manda e a mo e inclusi e,
mul i-s akeholde co- egula o y egime, due o he “so ness” o his app oach, any
coope a ion can become e y ine ec ual and su ace-le el, necessi a ing a mo e
hands-on o m o co- egula ion. Ou inal goal is o shed ligh on po en ial im-
p o emen s ha Eu opean egula o s can ake in o conside a ion in ans e ing
and p oducing expe knowledge o policy-making.
Sec ion 1: Se ing he scenes: con ex , de ini ions and
me hods
The ollowing sec ion i s ly con ex ualises he ole o expe s in policy-making,
highligh ing he eme gence o e idence-based policy-making and he speci ic
cha ac e is ics o pla o m go e nance and con en mode a ion. Then, i ou lines
he peculia i ies o he EU's Code as a case s udy, s essing he collabo a i e
amewo k in ol ing expe s in co- egula ion. Finally, i de ines "expe s" wi hin
his con ex , desc ibing hei oles and he me hodology employed o ga he and
analyse in e iews.
An o e iew on he ole o expe s in digi al policymaking
The ole o expe s in policymaking has ecei ed a lo o a en ion om academia
in ecen yea s, in ields as wide- anging as en i onmen al (Valin & Hui ema,
2023), immig a ion (Boswell, 2009), and educa ional (Volma i, 2022) policy. While
no exclusi ely associa ed wi h i , he g owing in e es owa ds he in e sec ions
3 Chys o o o a, Re iglio
be ween expe ise and policy can be ied o he push o mo e e idence-based
policymaking (EBP), echoed bo h by academia and policymake s hemsel es, and
inc easingly ins i u ionalised in ecen yea s (Eu opean Commission, 2022). The
s udy o he ole o expe s is no limi ed o EBP hough; se e al s eams in li e a-
u e engage in “ agmen ed, pa allel monologues” on expe ise in policy, including
science and echnology s udies, epis emic communi ies, and knowledge u ilisa-
ion/mobilisa ion (Ch is ensen, 2021).
The ole o expe s in digi al policy p ocesses, howe e , has ecei ed ela i ely li -
le a en ion, excep o Me wally’s wo k (2022). This may be explained in many
ways; he ela i e no el y o pla o m go e nance as a esea ch ield, he elusi i y
o he e ms ‘expe ’ and ‘expe ise’, and he challenges o ob aining in e iews and
o pa icipa ing in closed-doo policy e en s, especially in sel - egula ion which
does no ha e he same anspa ency equi emen s as adi ional, s a e-led policy.
The li e a u e b oadly acknowledges ha expe s, especially echnical expe s
coming om ICT indus ies, ha e played a ole in es ablishing digi al and in e ne
policy in he pas , and con inue playing one oday (An & Yoo, 2019; Mă cuţ, 2020).
Some li e a u e exis s on he in e ac ions be ween di e en s akeholde s - includ-
ing ci il socie y o ganisa ions, ech companies, and policymake s - in sel - egula-
ion and s anda d se ing (Ha cou e al., 2020). The need o inse expe ise in o
he policymaking p ocess is o en ied o ei he highly echnical policy a eas o
done in a emp s o ind esolu ions o pa icula ly complex issues (Sp uij e al.,
2014). This makes all he mo e gla ing he cu en gap in he li e a u e looking a
he ole o expe s in digi al policy and in pa icula pla o m go e nance and con-
en mode a ion. These a eas no only can be e y echnical and exhibi he cha -
ac e is ics o being “wicked” p oblems bu hey also show unique ea u es.
On he one hand, pla o m go e nance has eme ged as a peculia o m o go e -
nance (Gillespie, 2018; Go wa, 2019). I equi es an unde s anding o echnical sys-
ems and pla o ms bu also he abili y o legally and echnically challenge he
powe ul ole o companies ha con ol hem as undamen ally poli ical ac o s
ha enginee he global in as uc u e o ee exp ession. Pla o m go e nance in-
cludes no only use s and pla o ms, bu also a as a ay o subjec s such as poli -
ical ac o s (including a ious b anches o go e nmen s), o he s akeholde s and
ad ocacy g oups (non-go e nmen al p i acy and digi al igh s g oups, academics
and esea che s, and in es iga i e jou nalis s), as well as o he companies ha
pa icipa e in he pla o m’s ecosys em (e.g., ad e ise s, de elope s, and o he pa -
ies).
On he o he hand, con en mode a ion is an in eg al pa o he online expe ience
4 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
on he pla o mised in e ne . In e y simple e ms, i is he ac o managing con-
en published on he pla o m acco ding o p e-se ules and c i e ia – which
migh s em om he pla o m’s own e ms o se ice, local egula ions, o e en in-
e na ional law (Robe s, 2017). Essen ially a sub- ype o pla o m go e nance,
con en mode a ion has also become a p i a ised o m o go e nmen which is
e en ually esponsible o balancing human igh s and p o ec ing ee speech
(Douek, 2022). This complex endea o necessi a es a di e se ange o expe ise,
including algo i hmic de ec ion analysis, legal knowledge on compliance and hu-
man igh s, e hical conside a ions in decision-making, and an unde s anding o
use beha io . This may also explain why expe engagemen , in his con ex , is in-
c easingly manda ed by law (Me wally, 2022).
The Code’s peculia i ies
While he policy app oach in his a ea may appea no di e en om he con en-
ional app oach o EU ins i u ions, which ies o inco po a e e idence and expe -
ise a di e en s ages o he policy cycle, wha makes he case o he in ol e-
men o expe s in pla o m go e nance pa icula ly in e es ing is he special posi-
ion o expe s, no ably academic and ci il socie y esea che s, wi hin he co- egu-
la o y amewo k. In his scena io, he egula o leans on he expe s no only o
u ilise hei knowledge o policy de elopmen , bu also sha es wi h hem some o
he esponsibili y o i s en o cemen h ough he expansi e p o isions o access
o da a o esea che s.
The EU’s Code o P ac ice on Disin o ma ion is a pa adigma ic example o his ap-
p oach. I is one o he longes - unning examples o coope a i e con en mode a-
ion go e nance in he EU, lending i he pa adigma ic s a us – i se s he s anda d
o o he such ins umen s and simila app oaches going o wa d and highligh s
gene al cha ac e is ics o his mode o go e nance (Fly bje g & Sampson, 2001).
De eloped as a sel - egula o y ool in 2018 by a g oup o Signa o ies, including
Ve y La ge Online Pla o ms, o he ech i ms, ac -checke s and ci il socie y o -
ganisa ions, unde he guidance o he Eu opean Commission, i s pu pose was o
se common ules and s anda ds o con en mode a ion o disin o ma ion in he
EU. In addi ion o sel - epo ing om pla o m companies, howe e , he Code o e-
sees a mo e holis ic moni o ing o he s a e o disin o ma ion in he EU h ough
he de elopmen o S uc u al Indica o s (Commi men 41). These SIs a e mean o
complemen he sel - epo ing, by se ing a baseline and hen con inuously as-
sessing aspec s o disin o ma ion; o example, i s p e alence, he moni o ing o
p oblema ic sou ces, he audience’s beha io s, and pla o ms’ a emp s o demone-
ise hose who p o i om sp eading i (Nenadic e al., 2023). The success ul moni-
5 Chys o o o a, Re iglio
o ing based on he SIs hinges on ano he Commi men unde he Code - he Sig-
na o ies p o iding access o da a o esea che s, who can hen independen ly as-
sess he ele an aspec o he pla o ms’ wo k, and con inuously e alua e he e -
ec i eness o he Code as a policy ins umen . The exis ence o hese mul i-s ake-
holde moni o ing mechanisms, as well as a signi ican le el o in ol emen o he
Eu opean Commission as he de ac o con eno o he Code, hus con ibu es o
he s a us o he Code as mo e o a co- egula ion de ice, han a simple sel - egula-
o y ins umen .
The Code combines he es iges o an ex-pos app oach o con en mode a ion
go e nance, h ough, o example, Commi men s ela ed o use appeal mecha-
nisms. Mo e impo an ly, howe e , especially in he pa o S uc u al Indica o s
and access o da a, we can obse e one o he i s comp ehensi e a emp s o es-
ablish an ex-an e “s uc u ed and ongoing o e sigh egime” (Douek, 2022), which
ecognises he sys emic issues in pla o m design ha lead o he dissemina ion o
disin o ma ion, and he ac ha he ange o ac o s in ol ed in con en mode a-
ion decision-making is a b oade han on -line mode a o s, o e en jus he
pla o ms hemsel es, by ca ing ou ules o he engagemen o use s, ac -
checke s, esea che s and egula o s. The issue is ha , while he ex-pos app oach
is na ow and hus, a leas in heo y, en o ceable, he b oade ex-an e con en
go e nance egime can be so all-encompassing, so as o become comple ely ine -
ec ual. Howe e , his a gumen belies ano he possible eason behind he pla -
o m’s opposi ion o ull-blown ex-an e con en go e nance - i ully implemen ed,
i could shed ligh on o he pa s o hei business model hey would a he con-
ceal, e.g., i s emphasis on i ali y and pola isa ion, and lead o he e en ual dis-
man ling o he en i e “su eillance capi alis ” mode o p oduc ion (Zubo , 2019).
All in all, pla o ms ehemen ly oppose he ins i u ionalisa ion o a genuine ex-
an e o e sigh a e e y s ep o he way - and gi en ha he pla o ms alone pos-
sess he exclusi e knowledge o how hei algo i hms cu en ly wo k, policy-mak-
e s would be a a disad an age when ying o c a any ype o ex-an e go e -
nance egime. As such, he Code ep esen s an a emp o each a “middle g ound”
be ween pla o ms’ p e e ence o ex-pos sel - egula ion and he g owing de-
mands o mo e obus and sys emic solu ions o he p oblems s emming om
pla o m ope a ions.
The mu ky middle g ound be ween sel - and co- egula ion, as men ioned abo e, is
ano he signi ican peculia i y o he Code. O cou se, e en i sel - egula ion and
co- egula ion se and en o ce di e en egula o y goals, s anda ds and jus i ica-
ions, hey ope a e on a spec um (Finck, 2018). Mo eo e , while pla o ms a e al-
6 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
eady sel - egula ing en i ies as hey de e mine he e ms and condi ions, digi al
egula ion na u ally equi es some o ms o en o ced sel - egula ion o co- egula-
ion which can ake he o m o olun a y codes o conduc and nego ia ed sel -
egula o y ag eemen s. The s a e ole, in his case, is ela i ely limi ed o mo e o
an in o mal o e sigh and s ee ing ole. The ini ial Code was an example o such a
nego ia ed sel - egula o y ag eemen , de eloped wi h signi ican inpu om he
Eu opean Commission in e ms o kicks a ing he p ocess, and manda ing i s es-
ablishmen . Howe e , he e ision o he Code in 2022, which b oadened he
g oup o Signa o ies o he Code, and mos impo an ly, included a clause on he
po en ial e olu ion in o a Code o Conduc unde A . 45 o he DSA, has b ough
his ins umen i mly in o he ealm o co- egula ion. By aligning he Code con-
c e ely wi h “ha d” egula ion like he DSA, his mo e o eshadowed a b oade
end owa d mo e explici go e nmen in ol emen in egula o y p ocesses con-
ce ning online con en mode a ion (B ogi & De G ego io, 2024). As such, wi hin
his pape , we ea he Code as a de- ac o (soon- o-be de-ju e) co- egula o y in-
s umen , while ecognising i s sel - egula o y oo s.
The concep ual app oach
Agains his backd op, i is undamen al o de ine wha we mean by “expe s” and
si ua e hei ole wi hin con en mode a ion and pla o m go e nance. An "expe "
in he con ex o policy-making encompasses indi iduals o en i ies possessing
specialised knowledge ele an o decision-making. This expe ise may be de i ed
om scien i ic esea ch, p o essional expe ience, o ep esen a ion o speci ic
g oups' expe iences (Ch is ensen e al., 2023; G undmann, 2017; Robe , 2010).
Expe s a e cha ac e ised by hei abili y o apply knowledge o new p oblems, o -
en pe cei ed as us ed and independen in o ma ion sou ces (G undmann, 2017),
and hei ela ional ole in policymaking. They may ac as in o man s, knowledge
b oke s, o issue ad oca es, media ing hei knowledge o in o m o in luence poli-
cy decisions (Lewis e al., 2023; Pielke, 2007). This b oad de ini ion aligns wi h he
Eu opean Commission's c i e ia, including indi idual expe s (o en academics),
s akeholde g oup ep esen a i es, o ganisa ions (e.g., companies, NGOs), na ional
au ho i ies, and o he public bodies (Eu opean Commission, 2016).
Be o e we del e in o he discussion, i ’s impo an o b idge he gap be ween he
s udies o he ole o expe ise in policy-making and pla o m go e nance, o un-
de s and who a e he expe s in pa icula in he con en mode a ion go e nance
o he EU. Me wally (2022) has pu o wa d ou b oad ye meaning ul ca ego ies
ha si ua e expe s based on hei posi ionali y wi hin pla o m go e nance and
con en mode a ion: (i) ou side expe s, as paid hi d-pa y expe s o en deemed
7 Chys o o o a, Re iglio
as neu al while o en lacking anspa ency; (ii) in e nal expe s, as he inside en-
ginee ing and policy eams; (iii) us & sa e y expe s, as he p o essionalised ex-
pe s om he co esponding eme ging indus y, o en composed o o me social
media employees; (i ) ci il socie y, as he expe s om non-go e nmen al o gani-
sa ions and ad ocacy g oups eme ged as inc easingly powe ul expe bodies.
These ca ego ies, o cou se, a e no uni o m, ye hey highligh di e en back-
g ounds, wo ld iews, and goals. Ul ima ely, all hese expe s emain “engaged in
an e o o in luence, shape, and he eby con ol, how he decision make s iew
and espond o con en policy and en o cemen challenges on he pla o ms” (p.5
ibid).
Fo his pape , howe e , i is impo an o make u he dis inc ions. While he
g oups ha a e iden i ied by Me wally a e all p esen in Eu ope, no all o hem
a e ac i ely engaging in he EU pla o m go e nance p ocess, a leas no h ough
he o mal policy o mula ion and implemen a ion channels. This could be ex-
plained by he peculia i ies o he Eu opean Commission’s policy-making p ocess,
which adi ionally seeks expe ise om academia, ci il socie y, consume g oups
and indus y (Eu opean Commission, 2016), as well as he pa icula ame o e e -
ence o Me wally’s s udy, which explo ed expe s in pla o ms’ in e nal and indus-
y sel - egula ion, a he han b oade egula o y amewo ks. In ou s udy o ex-
pe in ol emen in he Code o P ac ice, we ha e ound ou main g oups ha
ha e engaged in his p ocess di ec ly:
(i) In e nal expe s – o icial ep esen a i es o he pla o ms, usually policy man-
age s and lobbyis s, who do no possess in-dep h echnical o us -and-sa e y
knowledge, bu ac as public- acing condui s and ansla o s o he pla o ms’ as
knowledge and expe ise.
(ii) Academics and esea che s – indi idual expe s, who possess in-dep h opic
ma e knowledge on issues ele an o he Code (such as disin o ma ion, audience
s udies, media policy, e c.)
(iii) Indus y s akeholde s – ep esen a i es o indus ies and sec o s a ec ed by
he ope a ions o he pla o ms o who ha e a s ake in pla o m ope a ions (e.g.,
media indus y), and who possess sec o -speci ic knowledge abou he b oade e -
ec s o pla o misa ion and i s implica ions o he sp ead o disin o ma ion.
(i ) Ci il socie y – ep esen a i es o a b oad ange o o ganisa ions, such as ad o-
cacy g oups, NGOs, ac -checke s, who ha e o he ele an expe ise on disin o -
ma ion, digi al and consume igh s.
8 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
Code o P ac ice on Disin o ma ion. Expe s na iga e a ious challenges, including
powe imbalances and us issues, ye hey emain key con ibu o s o policy
p ocesses. Thei di e se pe spec i es and sel -pe cep ions e eal a dynamic in e -
play be ween expe ise and in luence, shaping how hey engage wi h policymake s
and s akeholde s.
Sec ion 3: Discussion
This esea ch in es iga ed how expe s in ol ed in he Code conside hei ole in
he decision-making p ocess as well as i s e ec i eness. The analysis o he in e -
iews sugges ha engagemen o expe s in EU digi al policy ollows many o he
same pa e ns as expe engagemen in o he EU policy a eas, e.g. eme gen
hemes o poli ical/business cap u e, ins umen alisa ion and non- anspa en se-
lec ion p ocesses (Boswell, 2008; Me z, 2015); di icul ies in inding common lan-
guage wi h policy-make s, o en necessi a ing “knowledge b oke age” (Ramo &
Bialik, 2020), and assessing he expe s’ impac on inal ou comes. Thei s a ed
goals also align wi h Me wally’s amewo k (2022), as hey engage in no m-making
and na a i e se ing, shaping con en policies and hei en o cemen ; excep in
ou case, expe s engage wi h con en policies no by di ec ly ad oca ing o o he -
wise engaging wi h he pla o ms, bu h ough ule-se ing in he mo e o mal
enue o he Code o P ac ice on Disin o ma ion. Despi e he widesp ead dis us
in pla o ms and owa ds he e icacy o he policy p ocess highligh ed in he ind-
ings, expe s a e s ill willing o con ibu e o a ious easons, mainly o indi id-
ual and ins umen al ones such as ne wo king and p es ige, bu also mo e idealis-
ic ones such as sha ing hei expe ise o he common good.
In his ega d, ou s udy d aws pa allels wi h exis ing li e a u e on he ole o ex-
pe s in policy-making, ex ending i also o pla o m go e nance. Howe e , com-
pa ed o o he policy a eas whe e expe s a e in ol ed, he Code nego ia ion
p ocess p o ed o be somewha peculia - which is wha we seek o explo e in
g ea e de ail.
The Code o P ac ice on Disin o ma ion as a policy p ocess
The Code o P ac ice on Disin o ma ion add esses he eme gen challenge o disin-
o ma ion, a ield s ill in i s in ancy and lacking es ablished policy solu ions. This
no el y, unde sco ed by In e iewee 5's claim ha “ he wo ld o coun e -disin o -
ma ion didn’ exis i e yea s ago”, coincides wi h disin o ma ion's ascension on he
EU and global policy agendas, no ably ecognised by he Wo ld Economic Fo um
(2024) as a op global isk.
15 Chys o o o a, Re iglio
The ini ial ush o de elop he Code in 2018, d i en by he u gency o comba dis-
in o ma ion, esul ed in ague commi men s and unde whelming ou comes, as as-
sessed by he Eu opean Commission (2020), Eu opean Regula o s G oup o Audio-
isual Media Se ices (ERGA, 2020), and Nenadic (2020). Despi e a 2022 e ision
aimed a s eng hening he Code, i s e ec i eness emains cons ained by i s cu -
en non-binding na u e and a lack o p og ess on commi men s, wi h pla o m e-
po s missing on a e age 64% o essen ial quan i a i e da a (Pa k & Mündges,
2023). A c i ical limi a ion o he Code is i s ocus on symp oms a he han he
oo causes o disin o ma ion, no ably he engagemen -d i en algo i hms o Ve y
La ge Online Pla o ms (VLOPs). This pe spec i e is echoed by expe s, wi h some
ad oca ing o a comple e o e haul o he business model, while o he s a e mo e
ese ed.
The ansi ion o co- egula ion unde he Code does no undamen ally change i s
limi a ions, as commi men s a e s ill de e mined by p o i -seeking Signa o ies.
This, coupled wi h a powe imbalance a o ing VLOPs, es ic s he po en ial o
meaning ul examina ion o algo i hmic sys ems. Howe e , he en i e exe cise o
he Code does p o ide a aluable insigh in o he changing ace o expe ise in
pla o m go e nance, as he p e iously almos in o mal and indus y-led modus
ope andi gi es way o mo e o mal egula ion wi h g ea e in ol emen o he
s a e, expe s and o he s akeholde g oups.
I should also be no ed ha while powe imbalance be ween expe s and p i a e
s akeholde s in he egula o y p ocess is qui e common in a eas ha conce n co -
po a e egula ion o a e associa ed wi h s ong in e es g oups, hose expe s who
engage in policy-making beyond pla o m go e nance ha e unde lined ha his
imbalance is el especially s ongly is-a- is he pla o ms, compa ed, o example
o ag icul u al policy. This is a ela i ely new de elopmen ; digi al policy e e ans
no e ha p io o he GDPR, Big Tech companies did no pay as much a en ion o
Eu opean policy p ocesses, bu since hen hei p esence and in luence in B ussels
has g own exponen ially. These peculia i ies o he Code, hus, p o ide an in e es -
ing aming o explo e he ole o expe s in policy, which has so a been unde ex-
plo ed in li e a u e. In he nex sec ions, we discuss he key indings o his s udy,
ex ending he discussion o expe engagemen in con en mode a ion o he
ealm o pla o m go e nance.
The changing ole o he expe in EU pla o m go e nance
Many “legacy” expe s exp essed us a ion wi h he o ganisa ion o expe en-
gagemen in he Code p ocess: hey ci ed a lack o i e a i e eedback mechanisms
16 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
in he policy-making p ocess, expec ing ins i u ions o acili a e meaning ul dia-
logue and collabo a ion among s akeholde s. This is unde sco ed by he o e all
lack o o mal oppo uni ies o s akeholde engagemen in he Code p ocess, com-
pa ed o he no mal EU policy cycle, due o i s decla ed s a us as a sel - egula o y
mechanism. Though, as we ou lined in p e ious sec ions, expe s had a chance o
pa icipa e a all s ages o he p ocess, o a di e en deg ee, he oppo uni ies o
con ibu e on hema ically ela ed egula ions like he Eu opean Media F eedom
Ac o he DSA we e much mo e o malised and plen i ul.
In hese ci cums ances o a se iously limi ed abili y o engage in he policy
p ocess, knowledge b oke age eme ges as a c ucial mechanism o b idging he
gap be ween expe s and policymake s. Pla o ms such as he Eu opean Digi al
Media Obse a o y (EDMO) also se e as condui s o expe knowledge, acili a -
ing dialogue be ween esea che s, policymake s, and ci il socie y. Th ough hese
pla o ms, expe s p o ide e idence-based insigh s and ecommenda ions, con-
ibu ing o in o med decision-making p ocesses a bo h he na ional and EU le -
els. This unde sco es he impo ance o collabo a i e pla o ms in ansla ing ex-
pe knowledge in o ac ionable policy ou comes.
Which expe ise o policy?
The selec ion o expe s and he anspa ency o his p ocess a e c i ical compo-
nen s in ensu ing he e ec i eness and legi imacy o policy-making e o s, pa ic-
ula ly in a eas as complex and apidly e ol ing as pla o m go e nance.
Though expe s, pa icula ly compu e scien is s and echnologis s, ha e always
been an in eg al pa o mul i-s akeholde go e nance o he in e ne (An & Yoo,
2019; P ice & Ve huls , 2005), his newes h ead o expe in ol emen in ech-
nology policy is ma kedly di e en . Ci il socie y and eedom o speech ad oca es,
scien is s and academics o whom he in e ne is a ield o s udy (e.g., echnology
e hicis s) o a sou ce o da a o hei wo k (e.g. media schola s) a e he mos ob i-
ous addi ions - hey con ibu e expe ise no on how he In e ne o pla o ms
wo k echnically, bu on wha implica ions his echnology has o he socie y as a
whole. O he g oups, om consume p o ec ion o ganisa ions, o indus y associa-
ions, a leas a he Eu opean le el, a e conside ed o be p o iding "expe ise" el-
e an o hei pa icula sec o 's in e ac ions wi h pla o ms.
This is b oadly e lec ed in he Code’s pa e ns o expe engagemen oo, bu wi h
some unexpec ed ami ica ions. Compa ed o he ea ly days o in e ne go e -
nance, he si ua ion is lipped. The e's a consensus among he in e iewees ha
17 Chys o o o a, Re iglio
policymake s o en p io i ise engagemen wi h indi iduals om policy o social
science backg ounds, po en ially o e looking he aluable insigh s ha echnolo-
gis s and da a scien is s can o e .
This o e ep esen a ion o "policy people" aises conce ns abou he comp ehen-
si eness and e icacy o policy solu ions, pa icula ly in add essing echnical chal-
lenges like disin o ma ion and algo i hmic go e nance. I is especially gla ing in
ligh o he changing na u e o he no ion o “pla o m expe ”. Big Tech companies
possess he bes unde s anding o how hei echnology ac ually wo ks; howe e ,
he ype o "expe s" hey in ol e a he EU le el a e now policy p o essionals and
lobbyis s who may no possess his knowledge hemsel es; a he , hey a e he
" aces" o he company who a e speci ically ained o choose how much in o ma-
ion and wha kind o in o ma ion is ed in o he policy p ocess. This unde sco es
he “ o maliza ion” o pla o m go e nance, which has led o he “p o essionaliza-
ion” o he pla o ms’ engagemen in EU policy; and unde sco es he ambiguous
de ini ion o expe ise by EC, which o en s addles he line be ween knowledge,
ad ocacy and lobbying.
The lobbyis s in he oom
The p esence o lobbyis s and indus y app esen a i e in EC’s expe g oups is no
an issue ha conce ns only digi al policy (Robe , 2010), bu i bea s epea ing. Fo
one, his unde lines he undamen al ques ion o who is an expe and whe he
e idence-based policy should be buil upon objec i e knowledge and ac s, o in a
mo e delibe a i e manne . Some expe s in ol ed in he Code, especially hose
coming om ci il socie y and academia, we e us a ed by he p esence o indus-
y lobbyis s - o example, In e iewee 13 claimed “ hey a e no expe g oups,
hey a e s akeholde g oups”. Indeed, he p esence o indus y lobbyis s in expe
g oups aises ques ions abou con lic s o in e es and he ex en o which policy
ou comes may be in luenced by co po a e agendas. This blu ing o lines be ween
expe ise and ad ocacy unde sco es he need o g ea e anspa ency and sc u iny
in he selec ion o pa icipan s. The p esence o such “indus y expe s”, howe e , is
no a p oblem in i sel - hei insigh s can be ex emely aluable, i p o ided in
good ai h, and gi e legi imacy o a mo e delibe a i e mode o expe ise in policy.
The bigge conce ns among he in e iewees we e hose o poli ical cap u e and
ins umen alisa ion in expe delibe a ions, pa icula ly when di e se in e es s and
agendas we e a play. The ou size in luence and massi e lobbying spending o Big
Tech in he EU, which also co e s hei pa icipa ion in a ious ele an expe
g oups and consul a ion p ocesses is well-documen ed (Ke gueno e al., 2021;
18 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
Bank e al., 2021; Co po a e Eu ope Obse a o y, 2023a; Massoglia, 2024). This is
he case o ele an digi al egula ions such as he GDPR (Kayali & Manancou ,
2021), he DSA (Gouja d, 2022), and e en he AI Ac (Co po a e Eu ope Obse a o y,
2023b). The e o e, i comes as no su p ise ha hemes o lobbying and business
cap u e ea u ed p ominen ly in he in e iews, as a signi ican con ibu o o he
eeling o “powe lessness” in he ace o be e - esou ced and o ganised pla o ms.
The pla o m lobbyis s we e o en able o domina e discussions agains he some-
wha uncoo dina ed, loose g ouping o o he expe s ep esen ing di use in e -
es s. While we canno con i m whe he his was compounded by some expe s, as
In e iewee 17 pu s i , being “in he pocke o Big Tech”, his s a e o a ai s unde -
sco es an undeniable and sys emic esou ce asymme y be ween he Eu opean
Commission, expe s and he pla o ms.
Sys emic esou ces asymme ies
A signi ican and widesp ead limi a ion ha eme ged is he sys emic esou ces
asymme y, namely di e en le els o esou ces be ween he Commission, he ex-
pe s and he pla o ms a a sys emic le el, no only in e ms o unding, bu also
in e ms o human esou ces, collec ed knowledge and accessible in o ma ion and
da a.
Financial esou ces asymme y is he mos immedia ely ob ious one. This is, o
cou se, e lec ed in he lobbying budge s. A he same ime, he expe s’ wo k is
comple ely olun a y and unpaid, wi h he a e excep ion o expe g oup appo -
eu s. This lea es pla o ms wi h ou size in luence and le e age in he policy
p ocess. As a ma e o ac , much o he Code p ocess elied on pla o m’s unding.
No ably, he pilo es o he de elopmen o S uc u al Indica o s was unded by
pla o ms which also hesi a ed and pos poned he paymen o T us Lab ( he hi d
pa y esponsible o his pilo es ).
Human esou ces asymme y s ems na u ally om he inancial one. On he one
hand, pla o ms can a o d o hi e he bes alen , lawye s and lobbyis s o ep e-
sen hem, and o assign en i e eams o wo k on a gi en policy issue, as i hap-
pened wi h he Code o P ac ice. On he o he hand, hey al eady possess un i aled
echnical expe s, specialised in he egula ed p oduc s. The Commission does no
ha e ma ching in-house echnical expe ise and would s uggle o a ac such al-
en , when compe ing wi h Big Tech i ms. This is ano he po en ial explana ion o
he unde - ep esen a ion o independen echnical expe s in he Code p ocess
o e all, which was no ed by se e al in e iewees.
19 Chys o o o a, Re iglio
In o ma ion and knowledge asymme y is, in u n, connec ed o human esou ces.
Pla o ms and hei expe s possess in-dep h, inside knowledge on all aspec s o
he algo i hmic sys ems being egula ed, including as amoun s o big da a gen-
e a ed and analysed by hem on a daily basis. Wi hou his in o ma ion made
a ailable o hi d pa ies, he en i e exe cise o he Code o P ac ice isks losing i s
meaning, as epo ing o he pla o ms’ canno be independen ly e i ied o as-
sessed.
Da a access and he ‘me a- egula o y’ ole o esea che s
While in o ma ion asymme y pu s he en i e Code exe cise a isk o ailu e, i is
also in heo y he one a ea easily ixable, as i has li le up on cos s o he pla -
o ms. Howe e , his has p o en o be ex emely challenging since he incep ion o
he Code o P ac ice, as demons a ed in he ongoing clashes on he access o da a
o esea che s. The expe s a e well-awa e o he pa amoun alue o da a o e-
sea ch pu poses, wi h discussions abou he need o Eu opean unding and p i i-
leged access o s udy social media. Ano he pe spec i e sugges s ha majo ech
companies a e eluc an o p o ide un es ic ed access o da a. These a e hough
o be delibe a ely limi ing esea che s' access o da a, ecognising ha such access
would expose sensi i e in o ma ion, leading hem o adop obs uc ionis ac ics
while main aining a acade o coope a ion.
The pe cei ed ensions and ad e si y be ween expe s and pla o ms ega ding ac-
cess o da a a e likely o be u he exace ba ed wi h he DSA coming in o ull
o ce, and he Code o P ac ice po en ially becoming he Code o Conduc . This
ansi ion should essen ially ensh ine and make en o ceable access o da a p o i-
sions, which we heo ise will s eng hen he me a- egula o y ole o expe s om
academic and ci il socie y esea ch o ganisa ions. In his ole, expe s will ake an
e en mo e ac i e pa in pla o m go e nance, in moni o ing, e alua ion, audi ing
and en o cemen o he Code o P ac ice and he DSA. As men ioned abo e, he ex-
pe s ecognise how impo an his could be o egula ing pla o ms, wi h In e -
iewee 2 ema king: “I we, as esea che s, had access o he same da a ha he
pla o ms ha e access o, hen we would no need he Code o P ac ice.” The ein
lies he issue: while access o da a has he po en ial o esol e he p oblem o in-
o ma ion asymme y, i ul ima ely hinges upon he p ac ical implemen a ion. The
u h is ha a wide access o da a is incompa ible wi h pla o ms’ in e es s and
he e o e we can likely expec an inc easing dis us and opposi ion be ween pla -
o ms and expe s/ esea che s, ha pe haps only he ule o law o he Commis-
sion can se le o allow a meaning ul coope a ion/co- egula ion. This b ings A i-
cle 40 o he DSA, which s ipula es access o da a o esea che s, o he o e as a
20 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
key p o ision, he implemen a ion and en o cemen o which can “make o b eak”
Eu opean con en mode a ion go e nance.
Conclusion
The engagemen o expe s in EU pla o m go e nance, pa icula ly wi hin he
amewo k o he Code o P ac ice on Disin o ma ion, highligh s e ol ing dynamics
and pe sis en challenges. The o mal s uc u es and oles o expe ise in pla o m
go e nance a e unde going signi ican shi s. The Eu opean Commission, aking
cha ge o pla o m go e nance, e en in he ini ial sel - egula o y s ages, opened
up he doo s o mo e di e en “expe s”, e lec ing an e olu ion o "expe -
ise"— om echnologis s o policymake s, om ci il socie y o ganisa ions ocused
on digi al igh s o b oade human igh s g oups, media ep esen a i es, and o he
s akeholde s. This di e si ica ion unde sco es he luid and con es ed no ion o
wha i means o be a "pla o m go e nance expe ." The concep emains ambigu-
ous, encompassing no only hose who specialise di ec ly in pla o m go e nance
bu also indi iduals om di e se sec o s who b ing aluable insigh s based on
hei in e ac ions wi h pla o ms. This inclusi i y en iches he discou se bu also
complica es he delinea ion o expe ise in his apidly changing ield.
Ul ima ely, he co e issue is no a lack o expe ise o expe s bu he ins i u ional
mechanisms—o lack he eo — o con ening hese oices in a anspa en , s uc-
u ed, and cons uc i e manne . Ou s udy highligh s s uc u al p oblems, like po-
li ical cap u e, non- anspa en selec ion p ocesses, and lobbying in luence, which
complica e expe engagemen and endange he e ec i eness o de eloped poli-
cy solu ions. These s uc u al challenges o co- egula ion poin o he sys emic e-
sou ces asymme y be ween pla o ms and EU ins i u ions. Pla o ms, a med wi h
subs an ial esou ces and exclusi e knowledge o hei own sys ems, possess he
abili y o coo dina e e ec i ely among hemsel es, an icipa e egula o y mo es,
main ain a le el o con ol o e he na a i e, e en by ins umen ally exploi ing
expe s o legi imise hei policies and ac ions. This powe dynamic il s he scale
in a ou o pla o ms, po en ially comp omising he e icacy and impa iali y o
egula o y e o s. This esou ce imbalance ex ends beyond he Commission's ela-
ionship wi h pla o ms o encompass ci il socie y o ganisa ions and independen
expe s. Limi ed unding, ime cons ain s, and capaci y issues hinde meaning ul
pa icipa ion in policy-making p ocesses, exace ba ing imbalances in expe ise and
ep esen a ion. Wi hou adequa e esou ces and suppo , independen expe s
om non-go e nmen al and academic sec o s s uggle o con ibu e e ec i ely,
unde mining he legi imacy and e ec i eness o pla o m go e nance ini ia i es.
21 Chys o o o a, Re iglio
In conclusion, go e ning he con en mode a ion o online pla o ms equi es na i-
ga ing a complex landscape augh wi h challenges. While he EU's e o s o-
wa ds co- egula ion ep esen a s ep in he igh di ec ion, c i ical issues h ea en
he iabili y o such collabo a i e go e nance models. Add essing hese challenges
equi es enhanced anspa ency, accoun abili y, and inclusi i y in digi al go e -
nance p ocesses o maximise he impac o expe knowledge and o ensu e e ec-
i e egula ion o online pla o ms.
Re e ences
Al ay, S., Be iche, M., Heue , H., Fa kas, J., & Ra hje, S. (2023). A su ey o expe iews on
misin o ma ion: De ini ions, de e minan s, solu ions, and u u e o he ield. Ha a d Kennedy School
Misin o ma ion Re iew. h ps://doi.o g/10.37016/m -2020-119
An, J., & Yoo, I. T. (2019). In e ne go e nance egimes by epis emic communi y: Fo ma ion and
di usion in Asia. Global Go e nance, 25(1), 123–148. h ps://doi.o g/10.1163/19426720-02501008
Audenho e, L., & Donde s, K. (2019). Talking o people III: expe in e iews and eli e in e iews. In
H. Van den Bulck, M. Puppis, K. Donde s, & L. Van Audenho e (Eds.), The Palg a e Handbook o
Me hods o Media Policy Resea ch. Palg a e Macmillan. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-030-1606
5-4_10
Bank, M., Du y, F., Leye decke , V., & Sil a, M. (2021). The lobby ne wo k – big ech’s web o in luence
in he EU. h ps://co po a eeu ope.o g/si es/de aul / iles/2021-08/The%20lobby%20ne wo k%2
0-%20Big%20Tech%27s%20web%20o %20in luence%20in%20 he%20EU.pd
Boswell, C. (2008). The poli ical unc ions o expe knowledge: Knowledge and legi ima ion in
Eu opean Union immig a ion policy. Jou nal o Eu opean Public Policy, 15(4), 471–488. h ps://doi.o
g/10.1080/13501760801996634
Boswell, C. (2009). Knowledge and policy. In The poli ical uses o expe knowledge: Immig a ion
policy and social esea ch (1s ed., pp. 233–251). Camb idge Uni e si y P ess. h ps://doi.o g/10.101
7/CBO9780511581120
B ogi, E., & G ego io, G. (2024). F om he code o p ac ice o he code o conduc ? Na iga ing he
u u e challenges o disin o ma ion egula ion. Jou nal o Media Law, 16(1), 38–46. h ps://doi.o g/1
0.1080/17577632.2024.2362480
Ch is ensen, J. (2021). Expe knowledge and policymaking: A mul i-disciplina y esea ch agenda.
Policy & Poli ics, 49(3), 455–471. h ps://doi.o g/10.1332/030557320X15898190680037
Chys o o o a, K., & Re iglio, U. (2024). EDMO expe s’ eedback on s uc u al indica o s o he EU
code o p ac ice on disin o ma ion. Eu opean Uni e si y Ins i u e. h ps://op.eu opa.eu/en/publica io
n-de ail/-/publica ion/3ebebaa2-4eec-11e -acbc-01aa75ed71a1/language-en
Co po a e Eu ope Obse a o y. (2023a). Lobbying powe o Amazon, Google and co. h ps://co po a ee
u ope.o g/en/2023/09/lobbying-powe -amazon-google-and-co-con inues-g ow
Co po a e Eu ope Obse a o y. (2023b). By e by by e. How big ech unde mined he AI Ac . h ps://co
po a eeu ope.o g/en/2023/11/by e-by e
22 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
Douek, E. (2022). Con en Mode a ion as Sys ems Thinking. Ha a d Law Re iew, 136(2), 526–607.
Eu opean Commission. (2016). Commission decision es ablishing ho izon al ules on he c ea ion and
ope a ion o Commission expe g oups (Decision No. C(2016)3301). h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/ anspa enc
y/documen s- egis e /de ail? e =C(2016)3301&lang=en
Eu opean Commission. (2018). Code o P ac ice on disin o ma ion. h ps://digi al-s a egy.ec.eu opa.e
u/en/lib a y/2018-code-p ac ice-disin o ma ion
Eu opean Commission. (2020). Assessmen o he Code o P ac ice on disin o ma ion – achie emen s
and a eas o u he imp o emen [Wo king documen ]. h ps://digi al-s a egy.ec.eu opa.eu/en/lib a
y/assessmen -code-p ac ice-disin o ma ion-achie emen s-and-a eas- u he -imp o emen
Eu opean Commission. (2022). S eng hened Code o P ac ice on disin o ma ion. h ps://digi al-s a eg
y.ec.eu opa.eu/en/policies/code-p ac ice-disin o ma ion
Eu opean Commission. Di ec o a e Gene al o Communica ions Ne wo ks, Con en and Technology.
(2018). A mul i-dimensional app oach o disin o ma ion: Repo o he independen High le el G oup on
ake news and online disin o ma ion. Publica ions O ice. h ps://da a.eu opa.eu/doi/10.2759/739290
Eu opean Commission. Di ec o a e-Gene al o Join Resea ch Cen e. (2022). Suppo ing and
connec ing policymaking in he Membe S a es wi h scien i ic esea ch [Wo king documen ].
Publica ions O ice. h ps://join - esea ch-cen e.ec.eu opa.eu/j c-news-and-upda es/e idence-in o
med-policymaking-new-documen - os e -discussion-be e -use-scien i ic-knowledge-policy-2022-1
0-26_en
Eu opean Digi al Media Obse a o y (EDMO). (n.d.). Implemen a ion o he Code o P ac ice on
Disin o ma ion: Lessons om he assessmen s and p oposals o he u u e [Wo kshop epo ].
Eu opean Digi al Media Obse a o y (EDMO. h ps://cadmus.eui.eu/bi s eam/handle/1814/70916/
Wo kshop_2020_EDMO.pd ?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Eu opean Regula o s G oup o Audio isual Media Se ices (ERGA). (2020). ERGA epo on
disin o ma ion: Assessmen o he implemen a ion o he Code o P ac ice. h ps://e ga-online.eu/wp-co
n en /uploads/2020/05/ERGA-2019- epo -published-2020-LQ.pd
Finck, M. (2017). Digi al egula ion: Designing a sup ana ional legal amewo k o he pla o m
economy. SSRN Elec onic Jou nal. h ps://doi.o g/10.2139/ss n.2990043
Fly bje g, B. (2001). Making social science ma e : Why social Inqui y ails and how i can succeed
again (S. Sampson, T ans.; 1s ed.). Camb idge Uni e si y P ess. h ps://doi.o g/10.1017/CBO978051
1810503
Gillespie, T. (2019). Cus odians o he in e ne : Pla o ms, con en mode a ion, and he hidden decisions
ha shape social media. Yale Uni e si y P ess. h ps://doi.o g/10.12987/9780300235029
Go wa, R. (2019). The pla o m go e nance iangle: Concep ualising he in o mal egula ion o
online con en . In e ne Policy Re iew, 8(2). h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2019.2.1407
Gouja d, C. (2022, Oc obe 14). Big ech accused o shady lobbying in EU Pa liamen . POLITICO. h p
s://www.poli ico.eu/a icle/big- ech-companies- ace-po en ial-eu-lobbying-ban/
G undmann, R. (2017). The p oblem o expe ise in knowledge socie ies. Mine a, 55(1), 25–48. h p
s://doi.o g/10.1007/s11024-016-9308-7
Gunde sen, T. (2018). Scien is s as expe s: A dis inc ole? S udies in His o y and Philosophy o
Science Pa A, 69, 52–59. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.shpsa.2018.02.006
23 Chys o o o a, Re iglio
Ha cou , A., Ch is ou, G., & Simpson, S. (2020). Global s anda d se ing in in e ne go e nance (1s
ed.). Ox o d Uni e si y P essOx o d. h ps://doi.o g/10.1093/oso/9780198841524.001.0001
Ha ey, W. S. (2011). S a egies o conduc ing eli e in e iews. Quali a i e Resea ch, 11(4), 431–441.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/1468794111404329
Helbe ge , N., Pie son, J., & Poell, T. (2018). Go e ning online pla o ms: F om con es ed o
coope a i e esponsibili y. The In o ma ion Socie y, 34(1), 1–14. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/01972243.2
017.1391913
Hols , C., Molande , A., & Ch is ensen, J. (2022). Expe ise, policy-making and democ acy (1s ed.).
Rou ledge. h ps://doi.o g/10.4324/9781003106555
Kayali, L., & Manancou , V. (2021, Feb ua y 10). How Eu ope’s new p i acy ules su i ed yea s o
nego ia ions, lobbying and d ama. POLITICO. h ps://www.poli ico.eu/a icle/eu ope-p i acy- ules-su
i ed-yea s-o -nego ia ions-lobbying/
Ke gueno, R., Aiossa, N., Pea son, L., Co se , N. S., Teixei a, V., & Hul en, M. (2021). Deep pocke s,
open doo s. Big ech lobbying in B ussels. h ps:// anspa ency.eu/wp-con en /uploads/2024/10/Dee
p_pocke s_open_doo s_ epo .pd
K ick, E., & Go ni zka, Å. (2024). T acing scien isa ion in he EU Commission’s expe g oup sys em.
Inno a ion: The Eu opean Jou nal o Social Science Resea ch, 37(2), 319–339. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/
13511610.2020.1811649
Lewis, D., Rahman, M. F., Twinomuhangi, R., Haque, S., Huq, N., Huq, S., Ribbe, L., & Ish iaque, A.
(2023). Uni e si y-based esea che s as knowledge b oke s o clima e policies and ac ion. The
Eu opean Jou nal o De elopmen Resea ch, 35(3), 656–683. h ps://doi.o g/10.1057/s41287-022-005
26-0
Li ig, B. (2009). In e iewing he eli e – in e iewing expe s: Is he e a di e ence? In A. Bogne , B.
Li ig, & W. Menz (Eds.), In e iewing expe s (pp. 98–113). Palg a e Macmillan UK. h ps://doi.o g/1
0.1057/9780230244276_5
Mă cuţ, M. (2017). C ys allizing he EU digi al policy. In M. Mă cuţ, C ys alizing he EU digi al policy
(pp. 109–176). Sp inge In e na ional Publishing. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-319-69227-2_4
Massoglia, A. (2024, Janua y 26). S a e and ede al lobbying spending ops $46 billion a e ede al
lobbying spending b oke eco ds in 2023. OpenSec e s News. h ps://www.opensec e s.o g/news/202
4/01/s a e-and- ede al-lobbying-spending- ops-46-billion-a e - ede al-lobbying-spending-b oke-
eco ds-in-2023/
Me wally, A. (2022). The go e no s’ ad iso s: Expe s and expe ise as pla o m go e nance. Yale JL
& Tech, 24, 510–540.
Me z, J. (2015). The Eu opean commission, expe g oups and he policy p ocess: Demys i ying
echnoc a ic go e nance. Palg a e Macmillan. h ps://doi.o g/10.1057/9781137437235
Mündges, S., & Pa k, K. (2024). Bu did hey eally? Pla o ms’ compliance wi h he code o p ac ice
on disin o ma ion in e iew. In e ne Policy Re iew, 13(3), 1–21. h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2024.3.17
86
Nenadic, I. (2020). Implemen a ion o he Code o P ac ice on Disin o ma ion: Lessons om he
assessmen s and p oposals o he u u e. h ps://hdl.handle.ne /1814/70916
Nenadic, I., B ogi, E., & Bleye -Simon, K. (2023). S uc u al indica o s o assess e ec i eness o he
24 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
