Aikins, Muna AnNisa; Willems, Yayouk E a; F aemke, Deniz; Ra ing on, Lau el
A icle — Published Ve sion
Beyond aSha ed His o y: ABiosocial Pe spec i e on
Sociogenomics and Racism in Ge many
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(2024) : Beyond aSha ed His o y: ABiosocial Pe spec i e on Sociogenomics and Racism in
Ge many, KZ SS Kölne Zei sch i ü Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, ISSN 1861-891X, Sp inge
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Beyond a Sha ed His o y: A Biosocial Pe spec i e on
Sociogenomics and Racism in Ge many
Muna AnNisa Aikins · Yayouk E a Willems ·DenizF aemke ·
Lau el Ra ing on
Recei ed: 11 Ap il 2023 / Accep ed: 23 Janua y 2024 / Published online: 11 Ma ch 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Abs ac Recen ad ances in sociogenomics o e new oppo uni ies o in eg a e
gene ic and epigene ic measu es in o social science esea ch on human li espan de-
elopmen . Now, Ge man social science coho s ha e ollowed sui wi h his global
end. We an icipa e ha he in eg a ion o gene ic measu es in o Ge man social
science coho s is likely o be me wi h hesi a ion and dismay. His o ically, acial-
ized pseudo-science disguised as gene ic esea ch was used o jus i y he poli ical
exploi a ion, opp ession, and genocide conduc ed by colonial and Nazi Ge many
egimes. In esponse, Ge man ins i u ions and social sciences ac i ely a oided ace-
ela ed esea ch. Howe e , a oiding he in e sec ion o socially cons uc ed ace and
gene ics may s all he decons uc ion o endu ing acial disc imina ion and he iden-
i ica ion o acialized social inequali ies. Recen su ey s udies show ha hal o
he Ge man popula ion s ill belie e in he exis ence o biologically dis inc human
“ aces” and ha acism is ampan . This a icle is aimed a p o iding a biosocial
Du ing he wo k on hei disse a ions, Muna AnNisa Aikins and Deniz F aemke we e p e-doc o al
ellows o he In e na ional Max Planck Resea ch School on he Li e Cou se (LIFE, www.imp s-li e.
mpg.de; pa icipa ing ins i u ions: Max Planck Ins i u e o Human De elopmen , F eie Uni e si ä
Be lin, Humbold -Uni e si ä zu Be lin, Uni e si y o Michigan, Uni e si y o Vi ginia, Uni e si y o
Zu ich).
M. A. Aikins · Y. E. Willems · D. F aemke · L. Ra ing on
Max Planck Resea ch G oup Biosocial—Biology, Social Dispa i ies, and De elopmen , Max Planck
Ins i u e o Human De elopmen
Len zeallee 94, 14195 Be lin, Ge many
E-Mail: [email p o ec ed].de
M. A. Aikins
E-Mail: aikins@mpib-be lin.mpg.de
Y. E. Willems
E-Mail: willems@mpib-be lin.mpg.de
D. F aemke
E-Mail: aem[email p o ec ed].de
K
574 M. A. Aikins e al.
pe spec i e on sociogenomics and acism in Ge many. Fi s , we discuss he biolo-
gis ic cons uc ion o ace ha became p e alen in colonial and Nazi Ge many. We
a gue ha acis legacies a e sou ces o social inequali y in con empo a y Ge man
socie y. We u he e iew ecen human genomic science ha clea ly demons a es
ha he e is no biological basis o socially cons uc ed ace. Second, we p opose
a biosocial pe spec i e ha in eg a es how genes “ge ou o he skin” and acism
“ge s unde he skin”. T ansac ional gene ic e ec s, which in ol e human beha io
and in e ac ions be ween people in socie y, a e expec ed o depend on en i onmen al
inequali ies ied o sys emic acism. We summa ize ecen sociogenomics s udies us-
ing polygenic indices and epigene ic p o ile sco es showing ha a) genes con ibu e
o complex human ai s and b) he exp ession o gene ic a ia ion is a ec ed by
socioeconomic and acialized inequali y. Finally, we o e a oadmap owa d ace-
c i ical biosocial esea ch ha b eaks wi h he his o ically in o med a oidance o
ace o econs uc ace-c i ical concep s, da ase s, and scien i ic sys ems.
Keywo ds Gene ics · Racism · Gene–en i onmen in e play · Epigene ics ·
Ge many · Social de e minan s o heal h
Jensei s eine e knüp en Ve gangenhei : Eine biosoziale Pe spek i e
au Soziogenomik und Rassismus in Deu schland
Zusammen assung De Bei ag beleuch e die jüngs en Fo sch i e in de Sozioge-
nomik und de en Po enzial, gene ische und epigene ische Fak o enindiesozialwis-
senscha liche Fo schung zu menschlichen En wicklung zu in eg ie en. Aus eine
neuen biosozialen Pe spek i e au Soziogenomik und Rassismus in Deu schland
wi d die Wechselwi kung zwischen Genen, menschlichem Ve hal en, sozialen In e -
ak ionen und Umwel ak o en, insbesonde e sys emischem Rassismus, un e such .
Du ch die Zusammen assung ak uelle soziogenomische S udien wi d e deu lich ,
dass Gene zu komplexen menschlichen Me kmalen bei agen und dass de Ausd uck
gene ische Un e schiede on sozioökonomischen und assi izie en Ungleichhei en
beein luss wi d. Im Bei ag wi d auße dem die his o isch o he schende biologis-
ische Kons uk ion on „Rasse“ im kolonialen und na ionalsozialis ischen Deu sch-
land behandel und au gezeig , wie dieses E be soziale Ungleichhei in de mode nen
deu schen Gesellscha beein luss . Die ak uells en E kenn nisse de Humangenomik
we den he angezogen, um eindeu ig es zuhal en, dass es keine biologische G und-
lage ü das Konzep on „Rasse“ gib . Abschließend bie e de Bei ag einen Aus-
blick au assismus-k i ische biosoziale Fo schung in Deu schland. Diese Fo schung
s eb an, Konzep e, Da ensä ze und wissenscha liche Sys eme assismus-k i isch
zu übe p ü en und neu zu ges al en.
Schlüsselwö e Gene ik · Rassismus · Gen-Umwel -Zusammenspiel ·
Epigene ik · Deu schland · Soziale De e minan en de Gesundhei
K
Beyond a Sha ed His o y: A Biosocial Pe spec i e on Sociogenomics and Racism in Ge many 575
1 In oduc ion
Recen ad ances in sociogenomics1o e new oppo uni ies o in eg a e gene ic
and epigene ic measu es in o esea ch on human beha io s, heal h, and well-being.
Fo example, sociogenomics esea che s ha e iden i ied gene ic a ian s co ela ed
wi h ai s commonly in es iga ed by social and de elopmen al scien is s, such as
educa ional a ainmen , body mass index, and sexual beha io (Ganna e al. 2019;
Okbay e al. 2022; Puli e al. 2019). A ca alys o sociogenomics esea ch has
been he addi ion o biological measu es o big-da a coho s udies in he USA, UK,
Ne he lands, No way, and o he coun ies (Mills and T op 2020). In sho , “ he
gene ic da a e olu ion is unde way” and science is apidly ad ancing (Ma schenko
2022, p. 717). Now, Ge man social science coho s, such as he Socioeconomic
Panel S udy and TwinLi e, ha e ollowed sui wi h his global end (Koellinge
e al. 2023; Mönkediek e al. 2019). We an icipa e ha he in eg a ion o gene ic
measu es in o Ge man social science coho s is likely o be me wi h hesi a ion and
dismay (Bu 2022; Mills and T op 2020). The e a e good easons o his wa iness.
Disguised as “gene ic esea ch,” acialized pseudo-science was used o jus i y
he poli ical exploi a ion, opp ession, and genocide conduc ed by colonial and Nazi
Ge many egimes. In esponse, Ge man ins i u ions and social sciences ac i ely
a oided ace- ela ed esea ch o se e al decades. Pe haps unsu p isingly, his ace-
e asi e app oach has no decons uc ed acis belie s; ecen su ey s udies show
ha almos hal (49%) o he Ge man popula ion s ill belie e in he exis ence o
Fig. 1 A biosocial pe spec i e ames he biological and he social as in e dependen and mu ually con-
s i u ing o ces. Ou side he skin social inequali y becomes measu able unde he skin by in luencing ou
p oxima e en i onmen s, beha io s, and in e pe sonal ela ionships (yellow a ows). Unde he skin ge-
ne ic di e ences in luence no only ou biological a ibu es bu also ou beha io s and ela ionships ia
gene-en i onmen in e play (g een a ow). Sys ems o social inequali y impose a hie a chy on gene ically
in luenced indi idual di e ences, which in u n a ec s he de elopmen o ansac ional ai s
1Bolded e ms a e included in ou glossa y.
K
576 M. A. Aikins e al.
“human aces” (DeZIM 2022). Mo eo e , nascen su ey s udies documen acial
disc imina ion in Ge man public social sys ems, including heal h ca e, educa ion,
housing, and employmen , ha need o be u he in es iga ed as po en ial sou ces
o popula ion dispa i ies in heal h and well-being (Aikins e al. 2021).
Al hough he a i al o sociogenomics in Ge many ca ies he isk o misappli-
ca ion, a biosocial pe spec i e o e s an oppo uni y o coun e ac pe asi e bio-
de e minis ic no ions abou how genes may in luence li e cou se p ocesses. Bioso-
cial esea ch is “a b oad concep e e encing he dynamic, bidi ec ional in e ac ions
be ween biological phenomena and social ela ionships and con ex s, which con-
s i u e p ocesses o human de elopmen o e he li e cou se” (see Fig. 1; Ha is
and McDade 2018, p. 2). I anscends he dicho omy be ween dis al and p oxima e
le els o analysis, and ames he biological and he social as in e dependen and
mu ually cons i u ing o ces. Biosocial esea ch p o ides a lens h ough which he
e ec s o bo h genes and acism on human de elopmen can be in eg a ed.
Ou a icle comp ises h ee sec ions. Fi s , we p esen a sha ed his o y o gene ics
and acism in Ge many ha led o ace-e asi e social science. We a gue ha acis
legacies a e sou ces o social inequali y in con empo a y Ge man socie y. Mo e-
o e , we b ie ly e iew ecen human genomic science ha clea ly shows ha he e
is no biological basis o socially cons uc ed ace. In Sec . 2, we summa ize ecen
sociogenomics s udies using polygenic indices (PGI) and epigene ic p o ile sco es
indica ing ha (1) genes ma e o human de elopmen and (2) he pheno ypic ex-
p ession o gene ic a ia ion is a ec ed by socioeconomic and acialized inequali y.
We p esen a biosocial pe spec i e ha con ex ualizes e ec s o genes on human
de elopmen wi hin la ge sys ems o acialized and economic social inequali y. In
Sec . 3, we o e a ace-c i ical oadmap ha s eng hens (1) ace-c i ical biosocial
esea ch and (2) a ace-c i ical scien i ic sys em.
2 The Biologis ic Cons uc ion o Race
2.1 A Sha ed His o y o Gene ics and Racism in Ge many
Black Ge man schola s ha e long a gued ha unde s anding con empo a y acism
in Ge many equi es e iewing he his o y o Eu opean colonialism in A ica and
o he pa s o he wo ld (El-Tayeb 2001; Kilomba 2008; Ogun oye e al. 1992). In
1884–1885, he Ge man chancello on Bisma ck in i ed Ame ican and Eu opean
colonize s o o malize he pa i ioning o A ica. This esul ed in he Ge man occu-
pa ion o e i o ies in Togo, Came oon, “Ge man Eas A ica,” and “Ge man Sou h-
Wes A ica,” and he i s genocide o he wen ie h cen u y in oday’s Namibia,
whe e, in 1904–1908, Lo ha on T o ha o de ed he killing o housands o He e o
and Nama, pa ially in concen a ion camps (Aikins 2008; Olusoga and E ichsen
2010; Zimme e and Zelle 2008).
A con inuum o acis ideologies can be aced ex ending om he colonial con-
s uc ion o whi e biological sup emacy o genocidal heo ies and p ac ices (Bauche
2021; Mohsen 2020). The biologis ic cons uc ion o ace and acial hygiene i s
eme ged du ing Ge man colonialism. Eugen Fische in oduced he edisco e y o
K
Beyond a Sha ed His o y: A Biosocial Pe spec i e on Sociogenomics and Racism in Ge many 577
Mendel’s wo k on gene ic inhe i ance in pea plan s in o he ield o physical an h o-
pology. The “whi e” o “A yan ace” was posi ed o possess supe io in elligence,
pe sonali y cha ac e is ics, and a ious heal h ad an ages compa ed wi h o he “hu-
man aces.” Ge man colonies we e used as “labo a o y condi ions” o u he de elop
eugenic and acial hygiene ideology in physical and psychological heal h (G osse
2000). Fische s udied descendan s o Du ch se le s and local Khoikhoi women o
he Rehobo he communi y as esea ch subjec s in Ge man Sou h-Wes A ica o
es ablish he he edi y o “ acial cha ac e is ics” and “ ace” as a biological cons uc
(Bauche 2021; Lippha d 2012; Plümecke 2013).
In Ge many, Fische and his colleagues conduc ed s udies on se e al hund ed
Ge man-bo n child en o whi e mo he s and Black a he s om A ican colonial
oops, whom he F ench s a ioned in pos -WWI occupied Ge many (Weindling
2022). Fische la e became he di ec o o he no o ious Kaise Wilhelm Ins i-
u e o An h opology, Human He edi y, and Eugenics, which u he expanded he
cons uc ion o biological ace and acial pu i y ha became he co ne s one o
Nazi eugenic ideology. In 1937, he Nazi egime o cibly s e ilized hese Ge man-
bo n child en o whi e mo he s and Black a he s, who we e de oga i ely called
“Rhineland Bas a ds,” o p e en u u e acial impu i y o he desi ed “A yan” Ge -
man na ion (Weindling 2022).
The academics O ma on Ve schue , Emil Abde halden, and Jose Mengele
we e in ol ed in ins i u ionalizing acialized pseudoscien i ic heo ies by conduc ing
dehumanizing acis expe imen s o medical and gene ic esea ch (Bauche e al.
2022). Mengele, a doc o om Auschwi z-Bi kenau, was pa icula ly no o ious o
his expe imen s on p isone s du ing he Holocaus . The biological cons uc ion o
ace and acial hygiene culmina ed in he eugenic policies o Nazi Ge many ha led
o he sys ema ic mu de o millions o people du ing he Holocaus .
Un o una ely, acial iolence did no end wi h Nazi Ge many. Examples include
heigh ened acial iolence agains e ugees, “ o eigne s,” and/o “un-Ge man” peo-
ple in he yea s ollowing Ge man euni ica ion, mu de s by he Na ional Socialis
Unde g ound o ganiza ion (2000 o 2011), and an i-Semi ic and acially mo i a ed
e o is a acks in Halle (2019) and Hanau (2020) (Ka akayalı e al. 2017; Ka apin
2002; Schellenbe g 2013). An i-Black, an i-Semi ic, an i-Muslim, an i-Asian, and
an i-Roma and Sin i acism p esen in Ge many oday is his o ically ied o he sci-
en i ic heo ies o whi e supe io i y and acial pu i y s emming om colonial and
Nazi Ge many (DeZIM 2022).
2.2 Race E asi eness in Con empo a y Ge many
In an explici a emp a p e en ing u u e s a e-commissioned acial a oci ies, Ge -
man poli ical and scien i ic ins i u ions we e made “ ace e asi e.” We use he e m
ace e asi eness o desc ibe he delibe a e a oidance o add essing ace, acial-
iza ion, and acism. This concep acknowledges ha such a oidance is no passi e
bu pu pose ul, e lec ing an e o o uphold a s a us quo ha a o s whi eness.
Race e asi eness can mani es in a ious ways, om ac i ely a oiding discussions
o ace o downplaying he impo ance o ace and acism (Annamma e al. 2017;
Bonilla-Sil a 2013). Race-e asi e app oaches in Ge many obscu e acism empo a -
K
578 M. A. Aikins e al.
ily, socially and geog aphically. Fo example, acism is commonly es ic ed o Nazi
policies, he igh -wing pa liamen a y pa y “Al e na i e o Ge many,” B i ish and
F ench colonialism, o iewed as a US-speci ic issue (Bojadzije e al. 2017). Con-
sequen ly, he e is a lack o da a on he expe iences o acialized g oups (Ahyoud
e al. 2018).
Recen ly, an amendmen o emo e o eplace he e m “Rasse” ( ace) in he Ge -
man cons i u ion has been p oposed (F oese and Thym 2022). Cap u ing he p esen
meaning o “Rasse” is di icul , because i is a oided in public discou ses owing
o i s associa ion wi h Nazi Ge many and a - igh poli ical g oups (E bach e al.
2023). Con e sa ions abou he e m “Rasse” p edominan ly e ol e a ound his o i-
cal de ini ions ha e e ence biological ca ego iza ions, o igin, cul u al backg ound,
o na ional backg ound (Ka mann 2017; Lippha d 2019).
Howe e , e o s o eplace he Ge man e m “Rasse” unde es ima e he adap abil-
i y o he concep o ace. I is i s agueness and ambigui y ha make i a pe sis en
amewo k (Bauche 2021). By upholding an elusi e discou se in which “nei he ace
has o be explici ly add essed no does acism ha e o be o ensi ely de ended” (Bo-
jadžije 2015, p. 276), ace-e asi e pa e ns a e sus ained ac oss gene a ions. This
is well cap u ed by Baliba ’s concep o “ acism wi hou aces,” whe e cul u e and
e hnici y eplace ace (Baliba 1990). In he i s s udy on an i-Black disc imina ion
in Ge many called “A ozensus,” 99.1% o 2452 esponden s indica ed ha “people
ask me whe e I eally come om and how long I ha e li ed in Ge many” and 78.6%
s a e: “I am old o go back o whe e I came om” (Aikins e al. 2021, p. 213).
C i ical s ances agains acism equi e a nuanced unde s anding o acism ha is no
solely based on adi ional acis e minology.
Recen su ey s udies by he newly es ablished “Na ional Disc imina ion and
Racism Moni o ” documen ha acis belie s in biologis ic ca ego iza ions, cul u al
hie a chies, and in he legi imiza ion o social inequali ies a e ound in 33–50% o he
Ge man popula ion (DeZIM 2022). Acco dingly, acism is p esen in essen ially all
Ge man social sys ems, including heal h ca e, educa ion, housing, and employmen ,
ha need o be u he in es iga ed as po en ial sou ces o popula ion dispa i ies
in heal h and well-being (Aikins e al. 2021). Racism is no isola ed o igh -wing
o ganiza ions; i is e e ywhe e. We will e u n o sociogenomics esea ch, explo ing
how hese social s uc u es may ge unde he skin,inSec .2.Bu i s ,we u n o
lessons om human genomics ha add ess he alsehood o gene ic my hs s ill held
by so many.
2.3 Human Gene ic Va ia ion is Inhe en ly Biosocial
Genomics has p o ided powe ul ools o display how humans a e simila o each
o he . “Ins ead o de inable bounda ies, gene ic g adien s un be ween human g oups.
Among he 3.2 billion base pai s in he human genome, he e is no ixed di e ence
ha sepa a es, o example, A icans om non-A icans” (Fische e al. 2019)2.Pu
di e en ly, “we’ e all ela ed o each o he o a ying ex en s, in a complex web o
2Quo e om he websi e o he Jena Decla a ion: h ps://www.uni-jena.de/en/190910-je-en.
K
Beyond a Sha ed His o y: A Biosocial Pe spec i e on Sociogenomics and Racism in Ge many 579
genealogical ela ions ha o m an unimaginably complica ed amily ee” (Coop
2022,p.3).
Thus, we can use genomic da a o map ou deg ee o ela edness and ace
pa e ns o mig a ion. Fo example, ancien DNA echnology has shown ha humans
ha e always mig a ed ac oss geog aphically widesp ead egions (Liu e al. 2021;
Skoglund and Ma hieson 2018). When people mig a e, hei language and i uals
o en accompany hem, i.e., cul u es mig a e. The e o e, genes and cul u es co ela e
(Abdellaoui e al. 2022).
Gene–cul u e co ela ion can se iously con ound associa ions o gene ic a ian s
wi h complex human ai s in genomic s udies ( o an illus a i e example see Hame
and Si o a 2000). I g oups di e , e en a li le bi , in he equency o a gene ic
a ian owing o popula ion s a i ica ion (i.e., pa e ns o mig a ion and he lack o
p olonged in e b eeding be ween subpopula ions) and also di e in a pheno ype o
en i ely cul u al/en i onmen al easons, his can induce a spu ious associa ion and
scien i ically inco ec conclusions. The e o e, i is impe a i e o genomic s udies
o complex human ai s o accoun o popula ion s a i ica ion, which hey ypically
a emp o do by es ic ing analyses o mo e o less homogenous popula ions and
by including “p incipal componen s o ances y” as co a ia es (P ice e al. 2006).
Homogenous popula ions in genomics a e o en de ined in e ms o so-called ge-
ne ic ances y, e.g., “Eu opean gene ic ances y” o “A ican gene ic ances y.” The
usage o gene ic ances y labels in genomic science has ecei ed a g ea deal o c i -
icism. The jus i ied ea is ha a gene ic science ha pa i ions humans in o “gene ic
ances y g oups” using con inen al geog aphic labels will ein o ce alse belie s in
he exis ence o biologically dis inc acial g oups (Fujimu a and Rajagopalan 2011;
Olson e al. 2005). As acial assignmen s “inco po a e in o ma ion (alongside be-
lie s) abou indi iduals’ pheno ypic cha ac e is ics o geog aphic o igins, hey can
be said o be in o med by (o co ela ed wi h) biology” (Mo ning 2014, p. 191). Al-
hough he biological concep o ace has been scien i ically delegi imized, he e is
isk o con using biological and social concep s ela ed o ace, e hnici y, mig a ion,
popula ion, and ances y ( o guidance see Ba am e al. 2023; Ka mann 2017;
Lippha d 2019). Gene icis s he e o e inc easingly emphasize ha gene ic ances y
is no conside ed a unidimensional sco e linked o con inen al geog aphic ca ego ies
bu a mul idimensional iew o who you ances o s we e and whe e hey mo ed o
(Lewis e al. 2022).
Scien i ically, e ms such as “Eu opean gene ic ances y” a e imp ecise desc ip-
ions o gene ic simila i y o some p ede ined se o e e ence g oups (Coop 2022).
Ra he han e lec ing some kind o s able biological bounda y be ween human
g oups, he numbe and egional speci ici y o he e e ence g oups a e dependen
on da a a ailabili y. As mo e people pa icipa e and mo e DNA da a become a ail-
able, DNA-based es ima es o ances y will change. Gene ic ances y labels and he
de ini ion o wha cons i u es a popula ion e lec he social con ex o how samples
we e chosen and desc ibed by esea che s.
E en es ic ing analyses o samples wi h appa en ly high gene ic simila i y, such
as “people whose ou g andpa en s all come om he UK,” and including p incipal
componen s o gene ic simila i y, has been ound o no ully accoun o popu-
la ion s a i ica ion (Leslie e al. 2015; Olalde e al. 2018). The e o e, esea che s
K
580 M. A. Aikins e al.
a e inc easingly using wi hin- amily designs o s udy gene ic e ec s (Howe e al.
2021). Fo example, examining how siblings aised in he same amily di e om
each o he is a scien i ically and concep ually powe ul app oach o hinking abou
how gene ic di e ences may in luence complex human ai s. In con as , looking
a DNA om di e en people li ing in di e en en i onmen s is use ul o s udy-
ing ou ela edness and gene ic simila i y ac oss his o ies o mig a ion, ma ing, and
mo ali y.
In he nex sec ion, we e iew sociogenomics esea ch ha has used DNA-based
measu es o s udy how economic and acialized inequali y may ge unde he skin.
Sociogenomics is a new scien i ic ield ha in eg a es gene ic and epigene ic mea-
su es and heo y in o he social sciences o s udy eme gen social, beha io al, and
heal h ou comes.
3 Genes and Social Inequali y Ma e o Human De elopmen
3.1 Genes Con ibu e o Complex Human T ai s
Al hough all humans a e 99.9% gene ically he same, mos pa en s o wo o mo e
child en will ha e obse ed ha he emaining 0.1% make a di e ence no only
o how we look bu also o who we a e. Twin and amily s udies ha e empi ically
es ablished ha genes con ibu e o ou appea ance, beha io s, heal h, pe sonali y,
and cogni ion h ough p ocesses s a ing e y ea ly in on ogeny (Tu kheime 2000;
Polde man e al. 2015).
A e some unsuccess ul candida e gene app oaches, genomic s udies oday a e
commonly based on genome-wide associa ion s udies (GWAS) o hund eds o
housands o millions o people ( o a e iew on compu a ional me hods see Abdel-
laoui e al. 2023). Fo example, owing o GWAS we now know common gene ic
egions associa ed wi h human heigh (Yengo e al. 2022), ma ke s o ch onic in-
lamma ion (Lig ha e al. 2018), body mass index (Puli e al. 2019), and dep ession
(Howa d e al. 2019). Simila ly, common gene ic egions ha e been iden i ied ha
co ela e wi h highly social ou comes, such as educa ional a ainmen (Okbay e al.
2022), income (Hill e al. 2019), and isk- aking beha io s (Ka lsson Linné e al.
2019).
Resul s om GWAS can be used o compu e polygenic indices (PGIs). PGIs
a e DNA-based co ela es o indi idual di e ences in human ai s. Compa ed wi h
candida e gene s udies, PGIs ha summa ize housands o gene ic a ian s, each wi h
miniscule e ec sizes iden i ied in e y la ge GWAS, ha e esul ed in ep oducible
associa ions o non-negligible size (Dick e al. 2015; an de Weije e al. 2022).
Fo example, he mos ecen PGI o educa ional a ainmen accoun s o up o 16%
o he a iance in educa ional a ainmen in sepa a e a ge samples (Okbay e al.
2022). (No e ha he u ili y o PGIs o he social sciences is an a ea o ac i e deba e,
e.g., Meye e al. 2023).
The biological, de elopmen al, and en i onmen al mechanisms in ol ed in as-
socia ing hese PGIs wi h pheno ypes a e no well unde s ood. Impo an ly, hey
a e likely o di e as ly be ween di ec gene ic e ec s ha a e la gely exp essed
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Beyond a Sha ed His o y: A Biosocial Pe spec i e on Sociogenomics and Racism in Ge many 587
Plain-language FAQs and educa ion p og ams can imp o e he accu acy o scien-
i ic news co e age and public accessibili y (Ganna e al. 2019). This, in u n, could
acili a e he de elopmen and implemen a ion o policies and in e en ions aimed
a elimina ing inequali ies. Mo eo e , biosocial esea che s can engage in scien i ic
ou each. A unique andomized con olled school expe imen in he USA sugges s
ha when s uden s lea n abou ace and con empo a y genomics—in con as o
Mendelian gene ics as is common in Ge man biology cu icula— hei gene ic es-
sen ialis belie s abou ace migh decline signi ican ly (Dono an e al. 2023).
5Conclusion
His o ically, acialized pseudo-science disguised as gene ic esea ch was used o
jus i y he poli ical exploi a ion, opp ession, and genocide conduc ed by colonial
and Nazi egimes. Thus, we an icipa e ha he in eg a ion o gene ic measu es in o
Ge man social science coho s is likely o be me wi h jus i ied eluc ance. Recen
su ey s udies ha e e ealed ha a la ge p opo ion o he Ge man popula ion s ill
belie es ha ace is a biological a he han a social cons uc . To mi iga e he isk o
misapplica ion o sociogenomics in Ge many, we p oposed a oadmap o ace-c i -
ical biosocial science ha b eaks wi h he his o ically in o med a oidance o ace o
econs uc ace-c i ical concep s, da ase s, and scien i ic sys ems. Al hough ace is
no de ined by biological bounda ies, acism has biosocial e ec s on people’s heal h
and well-being h ough hei li ed expe iences. Indeed, no el sociogenomics ools
ha e been used o s udy how social inequali y a ec s he pheno ypic exp ession o
gene ically in luenced cha ac e is ics. A biosocial pe spec i e in eg a es how genes
ge ou o he skin and how acism ge s unde he skin.
Glossa y
Ances y Ances y e e s o in o ma ion abou he people ha an indi idual is biologically
descended om, including hei gene ic ela ionships. Gene ic in o ma ion can
be combined wi h his o ical in o ma ion o in e whe e an indi idual’s (dis an )
ances o s li ed/.
Bio-de e minis ic Bio-de e minism o “gene ic de e minism” is he belie ha human beha io is
de e mined by “inna e” physiology— ypically a pe son’s gene ic makeup.
Black A e m e e ing o acialized people o A ican descen . Black is o en
associa ed wi h naming and analyzing an i-Black acism. I is also used as
a socio-poli ical and cul u al iden i y o indi iduals and communi ies who
expe ience an i-Black acism.
Di ec gene ic e ec s Di ec gene ic e ec s e e o e ec s ha la gely anspi e h ough inside
he skin p ocesses, whe e he in luence o geno ype on pheno ype can be
sa is ac o ily explained ia biological p ocesses ha a e minimally con ingen
upon he en i onmen .
DNA me hyla ion DNA me hyla ion (DNAm) desc ibes he p esence o absence o a me hyl
g oup a achmen o a CpG si e on he genome. DNAm allows di e en cells in
he body wi h he same DNA o de elop in o di e en issues. I is c i ical o
de elopmen and changes dynamically wi h age and en i onmen al inpu s.
Epigene ic P o ile Sco es Epigene ics a e he biological mechanisms h ough which he exp ession o
genes is egula ed. This includes DNA me hyla ion, his one modi ica ion, and
noncoding RNA ac ion. One class o epigene ic p o ile sco es is compu ed
on he basis o genome-wide DNA me hyla ion. P ominen examples include
K
588 M. A. Aikins e al.
epigene ic p o ile sco es o biological aging, also known as “epigene ic clocks.
He e, we ocus on DNAm, acknowledging ha epigene ic mechanisms unc ion
syne gis ically. DNAm desc ibes he p esence o absence o a me hyl g oup
a achmen o a CpG si e on he genome. DNAm allows di e en cells in he
body wi h he same DNA o de elop in o di e en issues. Thus, i is c i ical o
de elopmen and changes dynamically wi h de elopmen (F aga and Es elle
2007; Wilson and Jones 1983).
Akin o de i ing polygenic indices om GWAS, esea che s ha e used
s a is ical me hods o mine DNAm da ase s and de i e epigene ic p o ile
sco es o smoking, body mass index, in lamma ion, educa ional a ainmen ,
cogni ion, and agg essi e beha io s, among o he s (Lig ha e al. 2016;
McCa ney e al. 2022; Ru ledge e al. 2022;Wahle al.2017). The majo i y
o epigene ic social science s udies ha e ocused on epigene ic p o ile sco es
o heal h and aging, some imes e e ed o as “epigene ic clocks” ( o e iew
see Ra ing on and Belsky 2022). DNAm and o he epigene ic modi ica ions
a e conside ed hallma ks o aging and heo ized o be key ansduce s o he
biological embedding o social ad e si y (López-O ín e al. 2013). The e ha e
been se e al gene a ions o epigene ic p o ile sco es o aging- ela ed heal h
and hese measu es di e in hei sensi i i y o social de e minan s o heal h
(Ra ing on and Belsky 2022).
Compa ed wi h PGIs, he de elopmen o epigene ic p o ile sco es ends
o equi e smalle disco e y samples, esul in mo e po able measu es ac oss
popula ions, and ha e la ge e ec sizes in sepa a e a ge samples (Hamil on
e al. 2019). This may pa ially be due o he ac ha epigene ic p o ile sco es
a e cap u ing en i onmen al exposu es, gene ic a ia ion, and de elopmen al
idiosync asy (Ra ing on e al. 2023b).
Genome-wide
associa ion
s udies
(GWAS)
Genome-wide associa ion s udies associa e di e ences in single-nucleo ide
polymo phisms (SNPs) wi h di e ences in a pheno ype. In mos cases, he
pheno ype o in e es is sys ema ically eg essed on o a single SNP and
a s anda d se o co a ia es, such as age, sex, bi h coho , and he in e ac ions
among hem. This model is es ima ed o each SNP in he da ase , o en
esul ing in a wide a ie y o SNPs ela ed o he ou come.
Pheno ype A pheno ype is a ai o cha ac e is ic (i.e., dep essi e symp oms) ha is
nei he a gene ic a iable (i.e., SNPs) no an en i onmen al a iable (i.e., li ing
condi ions), al hough i is he ou come o gene–en i onmen in e play.
Physical an h opology Physical an h opology ca ego ized people in o aces based on physical ai s,
including skin one, eye colo , hai ex u e, and skull shape, ha we e hough
o e lec di e ging gene ics and e olu iona y his o ies.
Polygenic indices Polygenic indices a e calcula ed as a weigh ed sum o a pe son’s alleles,
whe e weigh s co espond o e ec es ima es epo ed in he GWAS summa y
s a is ics. They a e no measu es o some hing “inna e” abou a pe son.
Popula ion A g oup o indi iduals who sha e ce ain cha ac e is ics and who a e o en
simila in hei common ances y, geog aphic loca ion, o o he demog aphic
ac o s. Di e en scien i ic ields ha e di e en ways o de ining popula ions.
Popula ion
s a i ica ion
Popula ion s a i ica ion desc ibes ha popula ions o mo e dis al ances y
di e in which gene ic a ian s a e p esen , how common o a e hose a ian s
a e, and how hose a ian s co ela e wi h each o he ac oss he genome
(i.e., pa e ns o linkage disequilib ium). The genome-wide di e ences ha
esul in popula ion s a i ica ion a ise because o mig a ion and he esul ing
lack o p olonged in e b eeding be ween subpopula ions. This causes allele
equencies ac oss he genome o di e ge be ween g oups, mos ly due o
andom luc ua ions called “gene ic d i ” and o a lesse ex en due o na u al
selec ion and/o non andom ma ing. Owing o popula ion s a i ica ion, he
esul s o GWAS conduc ed in one popula ion a e no po able o ano he
popula ion.
P incipal componen s
o gene ic simila i y
P incipal componen s o gene ic simila i y e e o linea combina ions o
geno ypes o SNPs, whe e each SNP has a “loading” gi ing i s con ibu ion o
he p incipal componen . They a e o en used as s a is ical ep esen a ions o
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Beyond a Sha ed His o y: A Biosocial Pe spec i e on Sociogenomics and Racism in Ge many 589
gene ic simila i y among people due o popula ion s a i ica ion and/o c yp ic
ela edness. These p incipal componen s a e included in gene ically in o ma i e
s udies o educe he bias o con ounding.
Quan i a i e c i ical
app oaches
Quan i a i e c i ical (Quan C i ) esea ch is an eme ging ield oo ed in c i ical
heo y ha ecognizes he p esence o s uc u al acism and sexism wi hin
a ious socie al sys ems, such as he economy, poli ics, and educa ion. In
Quan C i esea ch, he goal is o challenge na a i es ha po ay ma ginalized
g oups as de icien and ac i ely wo k o disman le opp essi e sys ems h ough
an i- acis and an i-sexis e o s (Ga cia e al. 2018).
Race-c i ical A ace-c i ical app oach is based on pe spec i e, posi ion, and p ac ice ha is
di ec ed owa d an i- acism. I analyzes and c i icizes acializa ion p ocesses,
acis domina ion, and inequali y, as well as hei ideological legi imiza ion,
and s i es o social change.
Race e asi eness Race e asi eness se es as a s a egy o disengage om con e sa ions abou
ace and acism. I expands he amewo k o colo blindness by acknowledging
he in en ionali y in a oiding subs an i e discussion o acknowledgmen o ace
and i s connec ion o whi e sup emacy, powe , and/o p i ilege.
Racism Social and ins i u ional acism includes he gene a ional legacy o s a e-
sanc ioned social powe , esou ces, ep esen a ion, and a o i ism li ed by
p i ileged people, e.g., whi e p i ilege, which comes a he cos o ma ginalized
acial and e hnic g oups.
Social inequali y Social inequali y desc ibes unequal challenges and oppo uni ies o di e en
social s a uses, which occu a he in e sec ion o socially cons uc ed dimen-
sions o ace, e hnici y, skin one, gende , weal h, educa ion, physical abili y,
sexuali y, na ionali y, and age, among o he s.
Sociogenomics Sociogenomics, also called social and beha io al genomics, in eg a es gene ic
and epigene ic measu es and heo y in o he social sciences o s udy eme gen
social, beha io al, and heal h ou comes.
T ansac ional gene ic
e ec s
T ansac ional gene ic e ec s e e o e ec s ha o igina e om a pe son’s
own genome, bu equi e in e ac ion wi h he en i onmen , he eby anspi ing
h ough p ocesses inside and ou side he skin. Mos ai s o in e es o psy-
chologis s and sociologis s, such as men al heal h, physical heal h, pe sonali y,
cogni i e skills, and educa ion depend on ansac ional gene–en i onmen
e ec s.
Whi e Whi e desc ibes a acial g oup ha was de i ed om pseudoscien i ic acism.
I was used as a poli ical ool bene i ing whi e people poli ically and economi-
cally.
Acknowledgemen s We hank he Uni e si y o Texas a Aus in “Biosocial Wo king G oup” and Joshua
Kwesi Aikins om he Uni e si y o Kassel o hei eedback on an ea lie e sion o his manusc ip .
Au ho Con ibu ion M.A. Aikins and L. Ra ing on w o e he i s d a o he manusc ip . All au ho s
con ibu ed c i ical e isions o he manusc ip .
Funding Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL.
Con lic o in e es M.A. Aikins, Y.E. Willems, D. F aemke, and L. Ra ing on decla e ha hey ha e no
compe ing in e es s.
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