Women in dentistry: From historical milestones to leadership in the sustainable development goals of the 2030 agenda

Velázquez-Cayón, Rocío T inidad; Balbuena, Pila Ma ín
A icle
Women in den is y: F om his o ical miles ones o
leade ship in he sus ainable de elopmen goals o he
2030 agenda
Adminis a i e Sciences
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Velázquez-Cayón, Rocío T inidad; Balbuena, Pila Ma ín (2025) : Women in
den is y: F om his o ical miles ones o leade ship in he sus ainable de elopmen goals o he 2030
agenda, Adminis a i e Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 15, Iss. 5, pp. 1-14,
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci15050182
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/321326
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
Recei ed: 21 Ap il 2025
Re ised: 13 May 2025
Accep ed: 14 May 2025
Published: 16 May 2025
Ci a ion: Velázquez-Cayón, R. T., &
Ma ín Balbuena, P. (2025). Women in
Den is y: F om His o ical Miles ones
o Leade ship in he Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals o he 2030
Agenda. Adminis a i e Sciences,15(5),
182. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
admsci15050182
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license
(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/).
Re iew
Women in Den is y: F om His o ical Miles ones o Leade ship
in he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals o he 2030 Agenda
Rocío T inidad Velázquez-Cayón * and Pila Ma ín Balbuena
Cen o Uni e si a io San Isido o, Pablo de Ola ide Uni e si y, 41092 Se illa, Spain;
pila ma inbalbuena@cen osanisido o.es
*Co espondence: elazquez@cen osanisido o.es
Abs ac : This e iew o e s a his o ical o e iew o he ole o women in he mode n
den al p o ession, acing hei jou ney om he ea lies pionee s o he p esen day and
highligh ing hei signi ican achie emen s. The second main sec ion p esen s a na a i e
analysis o he cu en si ua ion, ocusing on he main challenges aced by emale den is s
in ad ancing hei ca ee s in clinical p ac ice, academia, and leade ship oles. Finally,
he discussion connec s hese issues wi h he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) o
he 2030 Agenda and explo es suppo models o women’s empowe men in he heal h
sciences, wi h a pa icula emphasis on den is y.
Keywo ds: gende equi y; leade ship; den is s; den is y
1. His o ical E olu ion o Women in Den is y
Den is y has unde gone signi ican e olu ion o e ime, eshaping i s s uc u e and
co e componen s. His o ically, he ield o den is y has adi ionally been male-domina ed;
howe e , he g adual inclusion o women has s a ed o eshape he u u e o he p o-
ession as emale p ac i ione s inc easingly ake on isible and in luen ial oles (Bi ulco
e al.,2016;Seale & Waggone ,1992). Today, a enewed p o essional landscape is eme g-
ing in which women ha e es ablished a solid p esence in bo h clinical and academic
se ings. None heless, ep esen a ion in leade ship and execu i e posi ions emains limi ed
(Russell e al.,2025).
Women’s in ol emen in den is y da es back o an iqui y, e lec ing a longs anding,
hough o en o e looked, ajec o y. No ably, du ing he Middle Ages, he Sale no Medical
School played a pi o al ole in he dissemina ion o knowledge ela ed o o al hygiene
and den al ea men s, laying he g oundwo k o u u e p ac ices (Bi ulco e al.,2016;
Seale & Waggone ,1992). Wi h he ise o uni e si ies and he o maliza ion o scien i ic
knowledge, women’s p esence in academic spaces became inc easingly ma ginalized
due o he dominance o and ocen ic amewo ks, which hinde ed ecogni ion o hei
con ibu ions. None heless, se e al pionee ing his o ical igu es succeeded in making hei
ma k o e ime (Table 1). These women de ied p ohibi ions and na iga ed he cons ain s
o a adi ionally exclusiona y sys em, ul ima ely se ing impo an p eceden s o u u e
gene a ions (Domínguez Bello,2014;Quin ão e al.,2021).
The pa h o women in den is y is a powe ul es amen o esilience. T ó ula di Ruggie o
is ecognized o he con ibu ions a he Sale no Medical School du ing he Middle Ages
(Bi ulco e al.,2016), whe e she ansmi ed essen ial knowledge ega ding o al hygiene
and den al ea men s, al hough he ole has been his o ically unde es ima ed (Quin ão
e al.,2021). Hildega d on Bingen was a mul i ace ed 12 h-cen u y igu e, known as a
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 182 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci15050182
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 182 2 o 14
Benedic ine abbess, mys ic, compose , w i e , and heale . She add essed o al hygiene in
he medical ea ise Causae e Cu ae (The Causes and Cu es) (Quin ão e al.,2021). In he
18 h cen u y, Madame de Rezé eme ged as a no able con ibu o o he ield. In 1719, she
published Disse a ion Apologe ique, discussing he use o elixi s o elie e den al pain. This
wo k is conside ed one o he ea lies known den al con ibu ions by a woman, no able
du ing a ime when emale pa icipa ion in medical sciences was highly es ic ed (Hyson,
2002). In 1740, Ma ie Madeleine Calais became he i s woman o icially licensed o p ac ice
den is y in F ance. Howe e , i was no un il 1866 ha Lucy Hobbs Taylo (also known as
Lucy Beaman Hobbs), a e o e coming nume ous ejec ions, became he i s woman in
his o y o g adua e om a den al college in he Uni ed S a es (Hyson,2002;Taylo ,1894).
He achie emen ma ked a u ning poin in he p o essionaliza ion o women in den is y
(Hyson,2002;P asanna e al.,2015).
Pionee s such as Emeline Robe s Jones, Hen ie e Hi sch eld Pagelsen, Nellie E.
Poole Chapman, Annie D. Rambu ge , Emilie Foeking, M. E angeline Jo don, and Ida
G ay Rollins, among o he s, pa ed he way ac oss a ious coun ies, es ablishing p ac ices
and lea ing a legacy ha has inspi ed u u e gene a ions (Domínguez Bello,2014;Loe y,
1991). Emeline Robe s Jones o e came ad e si y by opening he own den al p ac ice,
demons a ing he iabili y o a success ul ca ee in den is y despi e he economic and
social cons ain s o he ime in he Uni ed S a es (Hyson,2002;Robe s e al.,1997;Seale &
Waggone ,1992).
In Eu ope, Lilian Lindsay s ood ou in he Uni ed Kingdom, becoming he i s woman
o ea n a o mal deg ee in den is y in 1895. She la e held leade ship posi ions in ma-
jo den al associa ions, laying he g oundwo k o emale leade ship in he p o ession.
Concu en ly, Ida G ay Nelson Rollins b oke bo h gende and acial ba ie s, becoming
a leading igu e in Ame ican den is y (Hyson,2002). In Spain, igu es such as Ma ía
Rajoó (conside ed he coun y’s i s emale den is ) and Polonia Sanz y Fe e (one o he
i s women o ecei e an o icial license o p ac ice den is y) s ood ou , despi e acing
esis ance om male colleagues (Hyson,2002;Quin ão e al.,2021).
Despi e opposi ion, hese pionee ing women laid he ounda ion o u u e gene -
a ions. They p o ed ha alen and dedica ion in den is y a e no de ined by gende .
Thei e o s no only opened new pa hs in he p o ession bu also se ed as a model o
in eg a ing women in o p o essional and academic ins i u ions. Un il he 1970s, women
ep esen ed only abou 3% o he p o ession. Howe e , emale pa icipa ion accele a ed
in he la e hal o he 20 h cen u y (pa icula ly du ing he 1970s and 1980s), spu ed by
social mo emen s ad oca ing o gende equali y and he eme gence o dedica ed o ga-
niza ions ha s eng hened p o essional aining and suppo ne wo ks. O ganiza ions
such as he Women’s Den al Associa ion, ounded in 1892, played a i al ole in ad ancing
he p esence o women in he p o ession and acili a ing ecogni ion o hei con ibu ions
(P asanna e al.,2015). These and many o he ailblazing women ha e le an indelible
ma k on den is y, p o ing ha wi h de e mina ion and pe se e ance, any hing is possible
(Domínguez Bello,2014;Hyson,2002). Thei con ibu ions, documen ed in specialized
li e a u e (Table 1), unde sco e he essen ial ole women ha e played in he global ans-
o ma ion and mode niza ion o den is y (Domínguez Bello,2014;P asanna e al.,2015;
Quin ão e al.,2021).
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 182 3 o 14
Table 1. Women pionee s in he ield o den is y.
Name (Yea ) Con ex Ca ee Recogni ion/Impac
Lucy Beaman Hobbs
Taylo (1866)
Fi s woman o
g adua e om a
ecognized
den al school.
G adua ed om he Ohio
College o Den al Su ge y, and
was admi ed o he Iowa S a e
Den al Socie y.
Inspi ed by he inclusion o
women in p o essional
ins i u ions; he AAWD
(Ame ican Associa ion o
Women Den is s) c ea ed an
awa d in he hono .
Hen ie e Hi sch eld
Pagelsen (1869)
Fi s woman o
g adua e om he
Pennsyl ania College o
Den al Su ge y.
T a eled om Ge many o he
U.S. o s udy; aced opposi ion
bu es ablished a success ul
p ac ice in Be lin, ea ing
oyal y.
Fi s woman o p ac ice
den is y wi h o mal
c eden ials in Ge many; a ole
model o u u e gene a ions.
Nellie E. Poole
Chapman (1870s)
Fi s woman o p ac ice
den is y in Cali o nia.
Lea ned om he husband
and con inued he p ac ice
while he was away.
Inspi ed o he women in
Cali o nia o en e he ield o
den is y.
Annie D.
Rambu ge (1874)
Fi s Ame ican woman
o g adua e om he
Pennsyl ania College o
Den al Su ge y.
P ima ily ea ed women
and child en.
O e came p ejudice and
gained ecogni ion as a
quali ied den is .
Emilie Foeking (1873)
Fi s woman o ea n a
den al deg ee
in Bal imo e.
Was admi ed o Bal imo e
a e being ejec ed in
Pennsyl ania; he hesis
de ended he ole o women in
den is y; e u ned o P ussia
o p ac ice.
Pionee in opening
oppo uni ies o women in
Eu opean den is y.
He hesis, “Is Woman
Adap ed o he Den al
P o ession?”, was published in
he Ame ican Jou nal o
Den al Sciences.
Lilian Lindsay (1895)
Fi s woman o ob ain a
o mal deg ee in
Den is y in he UK.
Accep ed a he hospi al and
he Edinbu gh Den al School.
Leade ship o p ominen
p o essional associa ions.
E angeline Jo don
(1898)
Fi s pedia ic den is in
he U.S.
Wo ked as a den al assis an
(specialized in child en).
Se s anda ds in
pedia ic den is y.
Highligh ed he impo ance o
child en’s den al ca e in
p i a e p ac ices; conside ed
he ounde o
Pedia ic Den is y.
Ida G ay Rollins (1890)
Fi s A ican Ame ican
woman o ea n a
den al deg ee.
Wo ked a D . Jona han Ta ’s
clinic, he i s dean o he
Uni e si y o Michigan School
o Den is y.
Made signi ican con ibu ions
o he A ican Ame ican
communi y and helped
es ablish he Na ional
Associa ion o Colo ed
Women (U.S.).
Ma ía Rajoó (1800) The i s emale den is
in Spain.
She p ac iced den is y in
Mad id be ween 1800
and 1830.
He p o essional wo k se an
impo an p eceden o u u e
gene a ions o women in he
ield.
Polonia Sanz y
Fe e (1849)
One o he i s women
in Spain o ob ain an
o icial license o
p ac ice den is y.
G an ed by he Academy o
Medicine and Su ge y o
Valencia o pe o m
p ocedu es such as oo h
cleaning and ex ac ions.
Se ed as cou den is o he
Mo occan p ince Muley el
Abbas du ing he wa
wi h Spain.
T ea ise on Tee h, 1852.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 182 4 o 14
2. Cu en Pe spec i es on Women in Den is y
The global e olu ion o he ole o women in den is y is clea ly e iden oday. A
g owing body o esea ch has highligh ed he ising en ollmen o women in den al ed-
uca ion, which has helped shape he p o ession’s cu en e olu ion (Chma e al.,2007;
Cohen,1996). Su eys conduc ed among women den is s ac oss 81 coun ies, in ol ing
189 membe associa ions o he Women Den is s Wo ldwide sec ion o he FDI Wo ld
Den al Fede a ion, demons a e signi ican p og ess in emale pa icipa ion in den is y
on a global scale. Women now ep esen a subs an ial p opo ion o he den al wo k o ce
in bo h de eloped and de eloping coun ies. Ne e heless, dispa i ies emain in e ms o
leade ship oles and p o essional ecogni ion. Women cu en ly comp ise be ween 48%
and 75% o den is s wo ldwide. Howe e , hei ep esen a ion in leade ship posi ions
emains limi ed, wi h only 3.9% holding execu i e oles and jus 10% se ing on he boa ds
o academic ins i u ions and p o essional associa ions (Campus e al.,2024).
2.1. Ca ee Choices and Wo king Condi ions
His o ically, emale den is s ha e expe ienced ca ee in e up ions due o amily
esponsibili ies. In esea ch om he la e 20 h and ea ly 21s cen u ies (del Aguila e al.,2005;
an Dam & an Rossum,1998)— esea ch by A chison e al. (2002), Baldwin e al. (1998),
Ba e al. (1992), Blasius and Pae (2005), and S okes e al. (1992)— indings inc easingly
sugges ha , in he ea ly s ages o hei ca ee s, many women op ed o wo k a angemen s
ha allowed a be e wo k–li e balance, mos no ably, a p e e ence o pa - ime p ac ices
and lexible oles. These decisions o en esul ed in ex ended ca ee b eaks. Female den is s
we e ound o occupy lowe posi ions in public heal hca e hie a chies (Hjalme s,2006)
and we e less likely o be owne s o pa ne s in p i a e p ac ices (McKay & Quiñonez,
2012). Many chose o p ac ice as gene al den is s and, when specializing, ended o
pu sue pedia ic den is y o o hodon ics (New on e al.,2000a,2000b,2001). In 2001,
New on e al. (2001) epo ed ha 61% o emale den is s had in e up ed hei ca ee s,
compa ed o 27% o hei male coun e pa s, wi h signi ican ly longe in e up ion pe iods
among women. Wi h he g owing numbe o women en e ing he p o ession, and despi e
e idence ha access o den al ca e is no a ec ed by he p o ide ’s gende (McCa hy &
MacDonald,1996), he ise o emale p ac i ione s has encou aged mo e child-cen e ed
ca e and p omo ed empa he ic, collabo a i e models o ea men . These ends ha e
con ibu ed o enhanced quali y in den al se ices (S okes e al.,1992;Waldman,1989,
1992). Ne e heless, implemen ing lexible wo k a angemen s has equi ed s a egic
eo ganiza ion o main ain he con inui y and e iciency o ca e, gi en ha educed wo king
days may lowe he o al numbe o pa ien s ea ed, he eby demanding human esou ce
planning adjus men s (New on e al.,2001;Waldman & B ude ,2009;B own & Laza ,1998;
Mu phy e al.,2006).
Campus e al. (2024) show ha women den is s in he public sec o eel mo e secu e
e u ning o wo k a e ma e ni y lea e (82.8%) han hose in he p i a e sec o (51.6%).
Cu en ly, he end owa d p i a e p ac ice emains s ong. Acco ding o Campus e al.,
o e 57% o emale den is s wo k as sel -employed p o essionals, p ima ily in solo (29.7%)
o g oup p ac ices (28.8%). Mos wo k be ween 31 and 40 h pe week. Howe e , Russell
e al. (2025) ound a pe sis en gap in oppo uni y ha con inues o nega i ely impac hei
ca ee p og ession.
In he 2025 su ey by Sangalli e al. o den is s in he Uni ed S a es, bo h men and
women epo ed simila challenges in hei wo k–li e balance (62.8%) and s ess (59.6%).
Howe e , women epo ed ecei ing less inancial, adminis a i e, and men o ship suppo ,
and el less encou aged o pu sue leade ship oles. They also epo ed mo e equen

Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 182 5 o 14
ca ee b eaks and signi ican ly highe a es o ha assmen and bullying (41.3% s. 22.6%),
mic oagg essions (55.6% s. 33.9%), and gende bias (46.9% s. 14.5%).
Meanwhile, Hea on e al. (2023) ound ha 13% o pa icipan s o hei s udy epo ed
mul iple li e ime expe iences o un ai ea men based on ace. These expe iences we e
associa ed wi h a 72% inc ease in he p e alence o high den al anxie y, con ibu ing o he
delay o a oidance o den al ca e and deepening o al heal h dispa i ies among bo h den is s
and pa ien s o colo . Simila ly, Lopes-Sil a e al. (2024), in a mul icen e s udy conduc ed
ac oss ou B azilian s a es, epo ed ha 45% o den al s uden s om e hnic mino i y
backg ounds expe ienced explici disc imina ion in academic and clinical en i onmen s.
This disc imina ion was linked o inc eased anxie y, wi hd awal om essen ial aining
expe iences, and diminished leade ship oppo uni ies wi hin he p o ession.
I is essen ial o examine how s uc u al and cul u al dynamics con inue o shape
women’s p o essional expe iences wi hin den is y. The ole o women in den is y ac oss
A ican con ex s is ma ked by bo h p og ess and pe sis en challenges. In Sou h A ica, he
numbe o emale den is s has nea ly doubled be ween 2002 and 2015, e lec ing e o s
o di e si y he p o ession and inc ease access o den al educa ion among his o ically
ma ginalized g oups (Bhaya & Chik e,2018). Howe e , despi e his demog aphic shi ,
women emain unde ep esen ed in leade ship and specialis oles. In Kenya, quali a i e
esea ch e eals ha gende ed social expec a ions (pa icula ly ela ed o childbea ing and
domes ic esponsibili ies) con inue o cons ain women’s ca ee ad ancemen in heal h
leade ship, including den al sec o s (Mu aya e al.,2019). These ba ie s a e compounded
by pe cep ions o emale leade s as mo e emo ional o eac i e, which may u he hinde
hei selec ion o manage ial oles.
2.2. Academic and Resea ch Aspec s
The UN Educa ional, Scien i ic, and Cul u al O ganiza ion’s Women in Science da a
show ha less han 30% o he wo ld’s esea che s a e women (UN Educa ional,n.d.). Since
he beginning o he 21s cen u y, he e has been a g owing end in women’s access o
den al educa ion. Howe e , hei access o leade ship posi ions in uni e si ies and o he
ins i u ions emains es ic ed due o a ious sociocul u al ac o s (Whel on & Wa dman,
2015;He nández-Ruiz e al.,2022).
In academia, a g adual inc ease in emale au ho ship has been obse ed, ye he
ansi ion o leade ship oles emains slow. S udies by Solomon and Hayes (1995), Yuan
e al. (2010), and Kongkia kamon e al. (2010) con i med a g owing emale p esence
in au ho ship; howe e , ep esen a ion in senio posi ions emains low. Go lieb e al.
(2024) epo ha emale au ho ship has inc eased by 1.2% annually, eaching 47% in 2022,
wi h women su passing 50% as i s au ho s since 2016. None heless, emale p esence in
leade ship oles and senio au ho ship con inues o lag behind (Russell e al.,2025).
As o 2022, women accoun o 47% o scien i ic publica ions in den al esea ch, while
hei ep esen a ion on edi o ial boa ds s ands a 41%. This gap is linked o challenges in
balancing amily esponsibili ies and a lack o obus men o ship ne wo ks (Gangwani
e al.,2024;Russell e al.,2025). Mo eo e , emale den al esea che s and academics ace sig-
ni ican ly g ea e obs acles in ca ee de elopmen and wo kplace en i onmen s compa ed
o hei male coun e pa s (Sangalli e al.,2025). Recen esea ch indica es ha al hough
women equen ly appea as i s au ho s in scien i ic publica ions, hei ep esen a ion in
senio au ho ship oles and leade ship o high-impac p ojec s emains low, highligh ing
s uc u al ba ie s o ca ee ad ancemen in esea ch (Go lieb e al.,2024).
Schumache e al. conduc ed in 2021 an obse a ional s udy analyzing a icles pub-
lished in h ee leading o hodon ic jou nals: The Eu opean Jou nal o O hodon ics (EJO),
The Ame ican Jou nal o O hodon ics and Den o acial O hopedics (AJODO), and The Angle
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 182 6 o 14
O hodon is (ANGLE), including 2539 a icles. Thei indings e ealed ha a gende gap
pe sis s in o hodon ic publica ions (Schumache e al.,2021). This is a no ewo hy obse a-
ion, pa icula ly conside ing ha o hodon ics is he special y mos commonly pu sued by
women who choose no o con inue p ac icing as gene al den is s (New on e al.,2000a,
2000b,2001).
Acco ding o Russell e al. (2025), emale p o essionals a e o en elega ed o seconda y
posi ions, e lec ing sys emic inequali ies in au ho ship and managemen . The wo k–li e
balance con inues o be a de e mining ac o in he p o essional de elopmen o emale
den is s. S udies by Russell e al. (2025) and Wells e al. (2014) sugges ha while lexible
wo k models help balance pe sonal and p o essional li e, hey o en limi access o high-
esponsibili y oles and educe annual p oduc i i y. Mo e ecen ly, ega ding he ole o
speake s a con e ences held by Eu opean scien i ic socie ies, Heggie e al. (2021), Kole si
and Papadopoulou (2022), and Dunn (2024) ha e demons a ed he dispa i y be ween men
and women, wi h he la e being clea ly unde ep esen ed.
2.3. Leade ship Aspec s
Since he end o he las cen u y, gende -based inequali ies ha e been obse ed in he
ep esen a ion o women in leade ship and decision-making posi ions wi hin he ield o
den is y (S okes e al.,1992). Ca ee in e up ions due o child-bea ing yea s ha e limi ed
access o highe - esponsibili y posi ions e en hough lexible wo k a angemen s ha e
helped acili a e he wo k–li e balance (Da idson e al.,2012;New on e al.,2000a,2000b,
2001). Di icul ies in econciling pe sonal and p o essional esponsibili ies ha e his o i-
cally cons ained women’s in ol emen in leade ship posi ions and academic esea ch
(Blinkho n e al.,2001;Kongkia kamon e al.,2010;Yuan e al.,2010).
In he ea ly 21s cen u y, he pe sis ence o gende bias and adi ional ins i u ional
s uc u es has con inued o limi women’s access o senio managemen posi ions, de-
spi e he inc easing numbe o women in clinical den al p ac ice. Mo eo e , esea ch
by Risse and Laskin (1996) and Ros ami e al. (2010) has highligh ed he p esence o
wo kplace ha assmen .
Cu en ly, in egions such as Eu ope and La in Ame ica, despi e he high en ollmen
o women in den al educa ion p og ams, cul u al and s uc u al ac o s con inue o hinde
hei access o leade ship posi ions. Fo example, in Spain, women ep esen o e 50% o
he den al wo k o ce, ye s uc u al ba ie s limi hei p esence in senio managemen
oles (He nández-Ruiz e al.,2022). In he Uni ed S a es, as o 2019, women’s ep esen a ion
in edi o ial and dean-le el posi ions emained limi ed, wi h only modes p og ess epo ed
(Li e al.,2019).
The sys ema ic e iew conduc ed by Gangwani and Koloky has (2019) highligh s he
ou main hemes ha d i e gende inequali ies in e ms o leade ship wi hin he academic
wo ld in he ields o medicine and den is y: (1) he lack o app op ia e ole models
and men o ship o success ul socializa ion o emale acul y; (2) he lack o pee suppo
o women’s p omo ion h ough he academic anks and hei selec ion o execu i e
adminis a i e oles a a es equal o hose o hei male coun e pa s; and (3) implici bias
and nega i e s e eo ypes (Gangwani & Koloky has,2019).
S udies by He nández-Ruiz e al. (2022), Gangwani e al. (2024), Russell e al. (2025), and
Be na di e al. (2023) con i m ha women den is s con inue o ace signi ican challenges in
accessing leade ship posi ions in den is y, bo h in academia and ac oss o he p o essional
domains. Ca e al. in 2025 e eal gende -based di e ences in he pe cep ion o leade ship
skills in den is y. While women end o alue adap abili y, o ganiza ional awa eness, and
con lic managemen , men p io i ize achie emen o ien a ion and men o ing. These indings
sugges ha pe cep ions o e ec i e leade ship a y acco ding o gende .
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 182 7 o 14
In he wo kplace con ex , Pe sko and Rose e (2023) ound ha women o colo con-
inue o ace biases in leade ship iden i ica ion, as hei di ec i e beha io s a e o en in e -
p e ed less a o ably and hey a e pe cei ed as less “p o o ypical” leade s compa ed o hei
whi e coun e pa s, hinde ing hei access o execu i e posi ions (Be dahl & Bha acha yya,
2024). Fu he mo e, Cozie e al. (2023) epo ed ha li e ime pe cei ed expe iences o
acism a e associa ed wi h a 45% inc eased isk o epo ing “poo ” o “ e y poo ” o al
heal h s a us among Black Ame ican women, highligh ing he sys emic impac o acism
on hei o e all well-being.
Leal Mu illo e al. (2024) examined he ela ionship be ween leade ship s yles and
job sa is ac ion among heal hca e p o essionals. The ans o ma ional leade ship s yle
exhibi ed he s onges posi i e co ela ions, ollowed by au hen ic and ansac ional s yles.
In con as , passi e and laissez- ai e s yles we e consis en ly associa ed wi h nega i e
co ela ions, ega dless o he p o essionals’ oles. These indings o e aluable insigh s o
guiding he selec ion and aining o pe sonnel in manage ial and coo dina ion posi ions
h ough he adop ion o e ec i e leade ship app oaches.
3. Gende Challenges in Den is y and he 2030 Agenda
In he 2030 Agenda o Sus ainable De elopmen (Uni ed Na ions,2023), adop ed
in 2015 by he membe s a es o he Uni ed Na ions, a mas e plan is es ablished wi h
17 Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) aimed a achie ing peace and p ospe i y o
people and he plane , now and in he u u e.
The cu en ole o women in den is y is closely aligned wi h se e al Uni ed Na ions
Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs), pa icula ly he ollowing: SDG 5—Gende Equali y,
p omo ing and ecognizing he con ibu ions o women in den is y, suppo s he goal o
ensu ing ull and e ec i e pa icipa ion and equal oppo uni ies o leade ship a all le els;
SDG 3—Good heal h and well-being is e lec ed in he essen ial ole emale den al p o es-
sionals play in expanding access o o al heal hca e, especially in unde se ed communi ies;
SDG 4—Quali y educa ion is also ele an , as i encompasses equal access o p o essional and
highe educa ion in ields such as den is y; SDG 8—Decen wo k and economic g ow h is
suppo ed by e o s o elimina e gende -based ba ie s and p omo e ai wo king condi ions,
equal pay, and ca ee ad ancemen oppo uni ies o women in he den al p o ession.
SDG 5 (Uni ed Na ions,2023) is a ans e sal objec i e ha add esses gende equali y
on a global scale h ough nine a ge s, each accompanied by speci ic indica o s. No ably,
ad ancing gende pa i y in clinical and academic ields ( hus ul illing Ta ge 5.5, which
seeks o ‘ensu e women’s ull and e ec i e pa icipa ion and equal oppo uni ies o lead-
e ship a all le els o decision-making’) will gene a e posi i e syne gies con ibu ing o he
achie emen o SDGs 3, 4, and 8. This in e connec ed app oach unde sco es he necessi y
o comp ehensi e s a egies o p omo e gende equi y and os e sus ainable de elopmen .
Acco ding o (Glick e al.,n.d.) heal hca e p o essionals will possess he knowledge,
skills, and a ibu es necessa y o e ec i ely con ibu e o he p e en ion and managemen o
o al diseases and o ensu e ha a ious heal hca e disciplines wo k collabo a i ely o enhance
heal h and well-being. The ole o women in achie ing his goal is e y impo an , as i is
closely linked o a aining equi y in educa ion and access o heal h sciences. Despi e he
inc easing p esence o women in den is y and ad ancemen s in clinical p ac ice, Fleming
e al. (2024) indica e ha leade ship ep esen a ion emains limi ed, highligh ing a gap in
decision-making posi ions. Thei access o execu i e oles is cons ained, a ec ing pe cep ions
o compe ence and elega ing hei oppo uni ies o ca ee ad ancemen (Russell e al.,2025).
Wi hin he amewo k o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals and he Uni ed Na ions’
2030 Agenda, he Gende Equali y Index was published in 2024 as a composi e indica o
designed o assess he complex no ion o gende equali y. Based on he Eu opean Union’s
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 182 8 o 14
policy amewo k, his index acili a es he moni o ing o gende equali y p og ess ac oss
he EU o e ime. The epo highligh s signi ican ad ancemen s in emale ep esen a ion
in leade ship oles bu also unde sco es pe sis en challenges ela ed o occupa ional
seg ega ion and access o quali y employmen . These indings emphasize he need o
comp ehensi e and sus ainable public policies o p omo e subs an i e equali y. O e all,
he documen p esen s a b oad pe spec i e in which no able p og ess has been achie ed,
ye he e emain c i ical obs acles ha equi e s a egic in e en ion o ul ill Sus ainable
De elopmen Goal 5 (Eu opean Ins i u e o Gende Equali y,2024).
4. Ini ia i es and S a egies o Achie e Gende Equi y in Den is y
Recen s udies on he ole o women in den is y p opose a ious ini ia i es and
s a egies ha include s uc u al and educa ional ac ions aimed a ans o ming he p o-
essional en i onmen (Figu e 1). These e o s ocus on os e ing a mo e inclusi e and
equi able a mosphe e o ad ance ue gende equi y in he ield. Among hese ini ia i es
a e men o ship p og ams and suppo ne wo ks, which connec young p o essionals wi h
expe ienced leade s o acili a e knowledge ans e and p o ide ole models (Gangwani
e al.,2024;Go lieb e al.,2024); implemen a ion o ins i u ional equali y policies, includ-
ing he de elopmen o clea p omo ion and hi ing c i e ia o ensu e equal oppo uni ies,
suppo ed by di e si y commi ees and inclusi e policies (Russell e al.,2025); p omo ion
o lexible wo k models, in ol ing he adap a ion o den al se ice s uc u es o in eg a e
wo k a angemen s ha enable a wo k–li e balance wi hou comp omising e iciency and ca e
quali y (New on e al.,2001;Russell e al.,2025); e iew and expansion o academic e alua ion
c i e ia, ensu ing a comp ehensi e assessmen o con ibu ions in eaching, men o ship, and
esea ch o acili a e ca ee ad ancemen in o leade ship oles (Gangwani e al.,2024;Go lieb
e al.,2024); con inuous moni o ing o equi y indica o s, sys ema ically collec ing and upda -
ing da a on emale ep esen a ion o design e idence-based in e en ions (Russell e al.,2025);
ad ancing awa eness and aining on gende issues, inco po a ing gende equi y modules
in o den al educa ion and con inuing educa ion p og ams o eshape pe cep ions and os e
inclusi e en i onmen s (Ca e al.,2025;Go lieb e al.,2024).
Adm.Sci.2025,15,xFORPEERREVIEW8o 14


4.Ini ia i esandS a egies oAchie eGende Equi yinDen is y
Recen s udieson he oleo womeninden is yp opose a iousini ia i esands a -
egies ha includes uc u alandeduca ionalac ionsaimeda  ans o ming hep o es-
sionalen i onmen (Figu e1).Theseeffo s ocuson os e ingamo einclusi eandequi-
ablea mosphe e oad ance uegende equi yin he ield.Among heseini ia i esa e
men o shipp og amsandsuppo ne wo ks,whichconnec youngp o essionalswi hex-
pe iencedleade s o acili a eknowledge ans e andp o ide olemodels(Gangwanie 
al.,2024;Go liebe al.,2024);implemen a iono ins i u ionalequali ypolicies,including
hede elopmen o clea p omo ionandhi ingc i e ia oensu eequaloppo uni ies,sup-
po edbydi e si ycommi eesandinclusi epolicies(Russelle al.,2025);p omo iono 
lexiblewo kmodels,in ol ing headap a iono den alse ices uc u es oin eg a e
wo ka angemen s ha enableawo k–li ebalancewi hou comp omisingefficiencyand
ca equali y(New one al.,2001;Russelle al.,2025); e iewandexpansiono academic
e alua ionc i e ia,ensu ingacomp ehensi eassessmen o con ibu ionsin eaching,
men o ship,and esea ch o acili a eca ee ad ancemen in oleade ship oles
(Gangwanie al.,2024;Go liebe al.,2024);con inuousmoni o ingo equi yindica o s,
sys ema icallycollec ingandupda ingda aon emale ep esen a ion odesigne idence-
basedin e en ions(Russelle al.,2025);ad ancingawa enessand ainingongende 
issues,inco po a inggende equi ymodulesin oden aleduca ionandcon inuingeduca-
ionp og ams o eshapepe cep ionsand os e inclusi een i onmen s(Ca e al.,2025;
Go liebe al.,2024).

Figu e1.S a egies oachie egende equi yinden is y.
5.In e na ionalSuppo andGlobalModelso Empowe men 
Va iousin e na ionals a egiesandini ia i esha ebeenimplemen ed op omo e
gende equali yandenhance hepa icipa iono womenandgi lsindi e se ields,in-
cludingheal h,science,andden is y.TheWo ldHeal hO ganiza ion(WHO)hasde el-
Figu e 1. S a egies o achie e gende equi y in den is y.