Rural Areas Facing the Challenge of Economic Diversification: Threats and Opportunities

Cas ellano-Ál a ez, F ancisco Ja ie (Ed.); Robina-Ramí ez, Ra ael (Ed.); Sil a,
F ancisco José Fe ei a (Ed.)
Book
Ru al A eas Facing he Challenge o Economic
Di e si ica ion: Th ea s and Oppo uni ies
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Cas ellano-Ál a ez, F ancisco Ja ie (Ed.); Robina-Ramí ez, Ra ael (Ed.); Sil a,
F ancisco José Fe ei a (Ed.) (2024) : Ru al A eas Facing he Challenge o Economic Di e si ica ion:
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Special Issue Rep in
Ru al A eas Facing he
Challenge o Economic
Di e si ica ion
Th ea s and Oppo uni ies
Edi ed by
F ancisco Ja ie Cas ellano-Ál a ez, Ra ael Robina-Ramí ez
and F ancisco José Fe ei a Sil a
Ru al A eas Facing he Challenge o
Economic Di e sifica ion: Th ea s and
Oppo uni ies
Ru al A eas Facing he Challenge o
Economic Di e sifica ion: Th ea s and
Oppo uni ies
Edi o s
F ancisco Ja ie Cas ellano-Ál a ez
Ra ael Robina-Ramí ez
F ancisco José Fe ei a Sil a
Basel •Beijing •Wuhan •Ba celona •Belg ade •No i Sad •Cluj •Manches e

Edi o s
F ancisco Ja ie
Cas ellano-Ál a ez
Economy Depa men ,
Uni e sidad de Ex emadu a
Cáce es
Spain
Ra ael Robina-Ramí ez
Business Managemen and
Sociology Depa men ,
Uni e si y o Ex emadu a
Cáce es
Spain
F ancisco José Fe ei a Sil a
Managemen Depa men ,
Economy and Managemen
Facul y, Uni e si y o he
Azo es
Pon a Delgada
Po ugal
Edi o ial O fice
MDPI
S . Alban-Anlage 66
4052 Basel, Swi ze land
This is a ep in o a icles om he Special Issue published online in he open access jou nal
Ag icul u e (ISSN 2077-0472) (a ailable a : h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ag icul u e/special_
issues/6BX5KK4395).
Fo ci a ion pu poses, ci e each a icle independen ly as indica ed on he a icle page online and as
indica ed below:
Las name, A.A.; Las name, B.B. A icle Ti le. Jou nal Name Yea ,Volume Numbe , Page Range.
ISBN 978-3-7258-1123-6 (Hbk)
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Con en s
F ancisco Ja ie Cas ellano-Ál a ez, Ra ael Robina-Ramí ez and F ancisco Sil a
Ru al A eas Facing he Challenge o Economic Di e sifica ion: Th ea s and Oppo uni ies
Rep in ed om: Ag icul u e 2024,14, 623, doi:10.3390/ag icul u e14040623 ............. 1
Fede ico Ma ínez-Ca asco Plei e and José Colino Suei as
Ru al Depopula ion in Spain: A Delphi Analysis on he Need o he Reo ien a ion o Public
Policies
Rep in ed om: Ag icul u e 2024,14, 295, doi:10.3390/ag icul u e14020295 ............. 6
Zeyang Sun and Xiaocang Xu
Can Access o Financial Ma ke s Be an Impo an Op ion o Ru al Families o B eak he Re u n
o Po e y Due o Illness in China?
Rep in ed om: Ag icul u e 2024,14, 165, doi:10.3390/ag icul u e14020165 ............. 23
Ruohan Zhang, Jialan Zhang, Kuan Zhang, Dingde Xu, Yanbin Qi and Xin Deng
Do Clean Toile s Help Imp o e Fa me s’ Men al Heal h? Empi ical E idence om China’s
Ru al Toile Re olu ion
Rep in ed om: Ag icul u e 2024,14, 128, doi:10.3390/ag icul u e14010128 ............. 42
F ancisco Ja ie Cas ellano-Ál a ez and Ra ael Robina-Ramí ez
Long-Te m Su i al o In es men s Implemen ed unde Endogenous Ru al De elopmen
P og ams: The Case S udy o La Ve a Region (Ex emadu a, Spain)
Rep in ed om: Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2130, doi:10.3390/ag icul u e13112130 ............ 56
Yao Zhang and Jianjun Huai
A Case S udy o Fa me s’ Beha io al Mo i a ion Mechanisms o C ack he F ac al
Mul idimensional Rela i e Po e y T ap in Shaanxi, China
Rep in ed om: Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2043, doi:10.3390/ag icul u e13112043 ............ 72
K zysz o Widawski, Alicja K zemi´nska, Anna Za ˛eba and Anna Dzikowska
A Sus ainable App oach o Tou ism De elopmen in Ru al A eas: The Example o Poland
Rep in ed om: Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2028, doi:10.3390/ag icul u e13102028 ............ 94
En ique-Eugenio Ruiz-Lab ado , José-Manuel Sánchez-Ma ín and José-Luis Gu ía-Gascón
The Ag i ou ism Value Chain: An Applica ion o he Dehesa A eas o Ex emadu a
Rep in ed om: Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2078, doi:10.3390/ag icul u e13112078 ............118
Ching-Cheng Shen and Dan Wang
Using he RPM Model o Explo e he Impac o O ganic Ag i ou ism Des ina ion Fascina ion
on Loyal y—The Media ing Roles o Place A achmen and P o-En i onmen al Beha io
Rep in ed om: Ag icul u e 2023,13, 1767, doi:10.3390/ag icul u e13091767 ............137
Yuxi Luo, Tian en Xiong, De eng Meng, An ong Gao and Yan Chen
Does he In eg a ed De elopmen o Ag icul u e and Tou ism P omo e Fa me s’ Income
G ow h? E idence om Sou hwes e n China
Rep in ed om: Ag icul u e 2023,13, 1817, doi:10.3390/ag icul u e13091817 ............155
Chengkai Zhang, Yu Li, Lili Yang and Zheng Wang
Does he De elopmen o Digi al Inclusi e Finance P omo e he Cons uc ion o Digi al
Villages?—An Empi ical S udy Based on he Chinese Expe ience
Rep in ed om: Ag icul u e 2023,13, 1616, doi:10.3390/ag icul u e13081616 ............180
Xiaojuan Yang, Weiwei Li, Ping Zhang, Hua Chen, Min Lai and Sidong Zhao
The Dynamics and D i ing Mechanisms o Ru al Re i aliza ion in Wes e n China
Rep in ed om: Ag icul u e 2023,13, 1448, doi:10.3390/ag icul u e13071448 ............203
i
Ci a ion: Cas ellano-Ál a ez, F.J.;
Robina-Ramí ez, R.; Sil a, F. Ru al
A eas Facing he Challenge o
Economic Di e sifica ion: Th ea s
and Oppo uni ies. Ag icul u e 2024,
14, 623. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
ag icul u e14040623
Recei ed: 8 Ap il 2024
Accep ed: 15 Ap il 2024
Published: 17 Ap il 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
ag icul u e
Edi o ial
Ru al A eas Facing he Challenge o Economic Di e sifica ion:
Th ea s and Oppo uni ies
F ancisco Ja ie Cas ellano-Ál a ez 1,*, Ra ael Robina-Ramí ez 2and F ancisco Sil a 3
1Economy Depa men , Uni e si y o Ex emadu a, 10071 Cáce es, Spain
2Business Managemen and Sociology Depa men , Uni e si y o Ex emadu a, 10071 Cáce es, Spain;
[email p o ec ed]
3Managemen Depa men , Uni e si y o he Azo es, 9500-321 Pon a Delgada, Po ugal;
[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
This Special Issue del es in o he challenges and h ea s associa ed wi h u al economic
di e sifica ion. The con ibu ions ecei ed shed ligh on he ac ha u al a eas in he
mos de eloped coun ies ace ma kedly di e en challenges compa ed o hose in o he
pa s o he wo ld. O e ing such a di e se and mul i ace ed pe spec i e on he a ious
eali ies o he u al wo ld om an in e na ional s andpoin is a key s eng h o his Special
Issue, which comp ises o al o ele en esea ch a icles; six come om Chinese au ho s and
h ee om Spanish au ho s, and con ibu ions om Polish and Taiwanese esea che s a e
also included.
While all a icles sha e a common ocus on analyzing issues o significan in e es
wi hin hei espec i e u al en i onmen s, he app oaches aken by Chinese esea che s ex-
hibi no able di e si y. Fo ins ance, Yang e al. [
1
] de eloped an index aimed a quan i ying
u al e i aliza ion in he 12 adminis a i e egions o wes e n China. Thei me hodology
u ilizes en opy models, he BCG ma ix, and geode ec ion sys ems. This esea ch ep e-
sen s a aluable addi ion o he exis ing li e a u e on he subjec [
2
,
3
], emphasizing he
necessi y o es ablishing alid indica o s o accu a ely define u al condi ions [
4
]. This is
c ucial o ailo ing policy in e en ions o e ec i ely add ess he mul i ace ed challenges
ha a e inhe en in u al a eas.
The con ibu ions by Zhang e al. [
5
] and Sun and Xu [
6
] del e in o he impac
o financial de elopmen in u al China om dis inc angles. Zhang e al. [
5
] examine
he in e play be ween he inc easing accessibili y o digi al financial se ices o China’s
u al popula ion and he demand o in as uc u e, knowledge, and communica ion
echnologies in u al a eas. Thei s udy iden ifies a posi i e co ela ion be ween hese
ac o s, which s imula es u al consump ion and enhances financial egula o y sys ems.
In conclusion, he au ho s emphasize ha mode nizing China’s u al egions necessi a es
a significan push owa ds digi iza ion, including imp o emen s o mobile connec i i y
in as uc u e, ad ancemen s in echnological de elopmen , and he p omo ion o digi al
li e acy among he populace. On he o he hand, Sun and Xu [
6
], amids he heal h c isis
igge ed by COVID-19, u ilize da a om he Chinese Heal h and Re i emen Longi udinal
Su ey (CHARLS) o explo e he significance o financial ma ke de elopmen in helping
amilies cope wi h illness- ela ed expenses wi hou plunging in o po e y. Thei findings
e eal a posi i e associa ion be ween owne ship o financial asse s and heal h expendi u e.
Acco ding o he au ho s, his unde sco es he impo ance o os e ing financial ma ke
de elopmen , including digi al pla o ms, and enhancing financial li e acy among he
popula ion. These measu es aim o bols e he financial asse s o u al households, he eby
s eng hening he na ional heal hca e sys em and mi iga ing he isk o impo e ishmen
among hose a ec ed by illness.
Ano he pe spec i e on u al de elopmen is o e ed in he a icles au ho ed by Zhang
and Huai [
7
] and Zhang e al. [
8
] wi hin he ealm o in angibles in u al de elopmen [
9
].
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 623. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ag icul u e14040623 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ag icul u e
1
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 295
Among he s udies add essing he popula ion challenge om a demog aphic and spa ial
pe spec i e, no able a e he s udies o [
3
–
6
] Gu ié ez e al. (2020a and b). These s udies p o-
ide a empo al analysis o he u baniza ion p ocess and na ional e i o y depopula ion, con-
side ing i wi hin he con ex o g owing social inequali ies
([9,10] Cama e o e al., 2009, 2020)
.
Au ho s such as [
11
] Recaño (2017) unde sco e ha his con inuous popula ion loss may be
i e e sible, p opelled by he eedback gene a ed among all he elemen s being desc ibed.
In he ealm o analyzing inequali ies in access o basic public o p i a e se ices
o u al e sus u ban popula ions (3), an inc easing numbe o in es iga ions employ
spa ial ne wo k analysis and geog aphic in o ma ion sys ems. S udies such as hose by [
12
]
Alloza e al. (2021)
and [
6
] Gu ié ez e al. (2020b) quan i y accessibili y defici s be ween
u al and u ban popula ions o he loss o se ices (4), highligh ing he exis ing inequali ies
and inequi ies among ci izens in he p o ision o basic se ices, desc ibing i as an essen ial
ac o in he depopula ion p ocesses. An impo an ex ension o hese analyses o ci izens’
unequal access o basic se ices is conce ning financial exclusion, lowe digi aliza ion,
o he
closu e o banking en i ies in he depopula ed u al a eas by [
13
] Jiménez and Teje o
(2018) o [14] Ma ín-Oli e (2019).
Mo e ecen a e he analyses o he economic con ex in a eas a ec ed by depopula ion,
which a e scan ily di e sified and based on adi ional ac i i ies (5), o especially hose
wi h ewe job oppo uni ies (6), conside ed an essen ial cause in he ou flow o young
popula ion, pa icula ly women. A pi o al s udy in he analysis o he economic challenges
o depopula ion-p one a eas is ecen ly conduc ed by he [
5
] Bank o Spain (2021). This
s udy p esen s a de ailed analysis o economic e ec s and causes o depopula ion, p o iding
aluable insigh s in o he o he di e en ia ing elemen s o hese municipali ies compa ed
o mo e u ban ones, such as income and sala y inequali ies, he concen a ion o highe -
skilled wo ke s in ci ies, lowe con ibu ions o economic ac i i y, alue-added gene a ion,
o lowe
p oduc i i y in depopula ed u al a eas. Fu he mo e, he s udy o e s an analysis
o his o ical ends in in es men concen a ion p omo ed in ecen decades wi h he
de elopmen o Spain and how economic ac i i y and capi al ha e ended o concen a e
in u ban a eas.
The diagnosis om he Bank o Spain and o he s udies such as [
12
] Alloza e al. (2021)
inco po a es an analysis o inequali ies in fiscal o public in es men e ms, iden i ying
deficiencies in imp o ing in es men s in communica ions o oad ne wo ks in hese mo e
isola ed e i o ies. These s udies es ablish a connec ion be ween he highe ulne abili y
o u al e i o ies a isk o depopula ion and hei g ea e dis ance om majo u ban
cen e s, as also emphasized by [
5
] Bank o Spain (2021). Undoub edly, his ulne abili y is
associa ed wi h pa icula opog aphic o geog aphical isola ion cha ac e is ics (7). Mo e
ecen ly, s udies ha e highligh ed defici s in access o digi al se ices and he exis ence o a
digi al di ide [
12
] (Alloza e al., 2021). This la es s udy, like se e al p e iously desc ibed
ones, ques ions he e ec i eness o he implemen ed public policies (8), as desc ibed in
his s udy.
1.3. Go e nmen Ini ia i es o Achie ing Mo e Cohesi e Te i o ies
In 2017, he Commi ee o he Regions [15] (Eu opean Union, 2017) s a ed ha demo-
g aphic challenges (in pa icula aging, a dec ease in he numbe o young people, and
low bi h a es) a e among he mos significan challenges acing EU. I iden ified a highe
g ow h in u ban a eas han in u al ones in mos Eu opean coun ies, wi h emo e u al
a eas ac oss he con inen expe iencing in ense demog aphic challenges. U gen measu es
we e sugges ed, ecognizing ha esponses o his majo challenge a e s ill unde de eloped.
In he same yea , he Spanish go e nmen es ablished he Commissione o he Na ional
S a egy Facing he Demog aphic Challenge [
16
] (MPTFP, 2019), app o ed in he Council
o Minis e s in Ma ch 2019. I is wo h no ing ha wo yea s ea lie (2015), a s udy p oposal
o he adop ion o measu es ela ed o u al depopula ion in Spain was app o ed in he
Spanish Sena e.
8

Ag icul u e 2024,14, 295
A yea la e , he Minis y o Ecological T ansi ion and he Demog aphic Challenge
ini ia ed a public pa icipa ion p ocess ha led o he app o al o he “Reco e y Plan:
130 Measu es
Facing he Demog aphic Challenge” [
17
] (MITECO, 2021). This poli ical
impulse o ace he challenge o depopula ion in Spain, p oposing coo dina ed ini ia i es
and special conside a ion o he depopula ion challenge, eflec s he g owing conce n o
he na ional adminis a ion in add essing his p oblem.
These ad ances, d i en by inc easing public and media a en ion du ing hose yea s,
we e ein o ced by he igo ous s udies o se e al o ganiza ions, highligh ing he impo -
ance o he depopula ion challenge and he need o implemen measu es in mul iple a -
eas: [
9
] Cama e o e al. (2009); [
10
] Cama o e al. (2020); [
18
] CES, 2018;
and [19] CES, (2021)
.
Specifically, he e was a consensus among he a ec ed u al municipali ies on he specific
ac ions and measu es ha should be adop ed, as ou lined in he p oposal epo by he
Spanish Fede a ion o Municipali ies [20] (FEMP, 2017).
The ollowing sec ion p esen s he o igin o he in o ma ion gene a ed in his esea ch
h ough an expe consul a ion using a wo- ound Delphi-me hod su ey. I s objec i e
was o ga he expe assessmen s on he ele an aspec s o depopula ion analysis in
Spain, p o iding hei c i ical and collec i e insigh s on policies and ini ia i es aimed a
mi iga ing o e e sing he challenge o depopula ion, o e ing hei e alua ion o he
u ili y o p oposed ini ia i es in p e ious diagnoses. In all cases, he s a emen s e alua ed
by he consul ed panel o expe s co espond o p oposals ou lined in ecen esea ch.
The objec i e
o his in es iga ion is o e i y he ele ance and impo ance o hei u gen
implemen a ion wi hou u he delay.
2. Resea ch Me hodology
2.1. Delphi Me hod
This esea ch p esen s da a collec ed h ough a su ey conduc ed wi h expe s in he
field o u al de elopmen and depopula ion issues. The Delphi me hodology, ini ially
applied in he s udy o na ional secu i y by Dalkey and Helme (1963) [
21
], has been
employed, wi h nume ous applica ions in a ious scien ific fields o p edic ion and o e-
cas ing o e he pas 60 yea s, as ex ensi ely e iewed by Khodyako e al. (2023) [
22
]. This
e iew builds upon he esea ch o Gup a and Cla ke (1996) [
23
] conduc ed wo decades
ea lie , and he Delphi me hod has inc easingly ound applica ions in s udying he expec ed
e ec s o ag icul u al and u al de elopmen policies in Spain: [
24
] Diez (1979); [
25
] Fea ne
(1989); [26] Ma ínez-Ca asco e al. (2014); and [27] Ab eu and Mesias (2020).
The Delphi echnique aims o ob ain he eliable opinions o a g oup o expe s h ough
an in e ac i e p ocess wi h a small panel o expe s. As no ed by Lamde a (2006) [
28
]in
hei li e a u e e iew ha included an analysis o he limi a ions o his me hod, i emains
a alid ins umen o p edic ion and decision suppo in he social domain.
In his s udy, wo ounds we e conduc ed, wi h 35 expe s comple ing he p ocess in
wo i e a ions ou o he ini ial 50 pa icipan s in he fi s ound. Acco ding o Lande a
(2002) [
29
], his me hodology allows o expe anonymi y, as pa icipan s a e unawa e o
each o he ’s iden i ies; and mo e impo an ly, i acili a es eedback h ough successi e
ounds, enabling g oup discussion on complex issues.
The esea ch commenced wi h he design o an ini ial ques ionnai e, in o med by
an ex ensi e li e a u e e iew and in-dep h in e iews wi h 13 expe s and s akeholde s
associa ed wi h he u al de elopmen in Spain. The ques ions we e asked o he expe s o
assess hei le el o ag eemen wi h s a emen s p esen ed o hem on aspec s highligh ed by
he ecen li e a u e, using a Like scale om 1 o 5 (1 = To ally Disag ee; 5 = To ally Ag ee).
They we e equi ed o assess a eas wi h a ying le els o need o imp o emen (1 = Ve y
Low Need o Imp o emen ;5=Ve yHigh Need o Imp o emen ) o p io i ize ac ions
p esen ed o hem (fi s , second, o hi d) based on hei impo ance. All hese ques ions
ul ima ely aimed o con as he ele ance o hypo heses pu o wa d by p e ious s udies,
wi h ou main ques ions in ended o be alida ed by he expe panel:
9
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 295
(1s ) How impo an is he challenge o depopula ion in Spain, and o wha ex-
en is i complex o e e se o alle ia e he p ocesses a ec ing he la ge a eas o he
na ional e i o y?
(2nd) Is i necessa y o in oduce changes in policies o comba depopula ion in u al
a eas, such as eo ien ing exis ing policies, making egula o y changes, o alloca ing mo e
unding o his pu pose?
(3 d) Do expe s posi i ely e alua e s a egies implemen ed in ecen yea s a he
na ional le el, specifically a ge ing he figh agains depopula ion in u al a eas, and ha
need o be implemen ed in he coming yea s?
(4 h) Wha specific measu es and ac ions in a ious a eas, among hose demanded
by u al a eas a ec ed by depopula ion in Spain, should be implemen ed wi hou u he
delay, among hose p oposed and ag eed upon wi hin he ede a ion o p o inces and
municipali ies?
Undoub edly, he s a emen s in he p oposed ques ions a e indeb ed o he findings o
p e ious esea ch, especially hose pu o h by he Economic and Social Council [
7
] (CES,
2021) and he [
5
] Bank o Spain (2021), o mo e specifically, conc e e p oposals ad oca ed
by he Depopula ion Commission c ea ed in he Spanish Fede a ion o Municipali ies and
P o inces [20] (FEMP, 2017).
The final ques ionnai e was sen ia email, which was complemen ed by he dis ibu-
ion o he ques ionnai e h ough Google Fo ms, o a hund ed expe s on u al a eas om
a ious public and p i a e ins i u ions be ween Sep embe and Decembe 2021, elici ing
esponses om a o al o 50 expe s (Fi s Round). Following he analysis o esponses
o his ini ial su ey, he ques ionnai e unde wen e ision, p o iding an oppo uni y o
de e ed g oup discussion.
I is wo h no ing ha he configu a ion o his ini ial con ac lis was complex, in-
ol ing a significan e o o compile emails h ough a ious means. This anged om
he simple me hod o iden i ying esea che s wi h ele an publica ions o he s udy o
o ficial lis s o people esponsible o a ious adminis a i e asks and ins i u ions (a local,
egional, na ional, and communi y le els) in ol ed in depopula ion issues. Addi ionally,
con ac s om u al de elopmen ac o s, p ima ily hose di ec ly in ol ed in a ious Local
Ac ion G oups (LAG), we e included in he lis .
The second ques ionnai e (Second Round) was sen be ween Janua y and Ma ch 2022.
In addi ion o inco po a ing new aspec s o nuances aised in he fi s ound, i acili a ed
con olled eedback. This was made possible by including he agg ega ed esul s ( om all
ques ions) ob ained in he Fi s Round. Each echnician could assess, main ain, o al e hei
esponses. Addi ionally, a new final ques ion was in oduced, equi ing he e alua ion o
he impo ance o a ious ac ions in he ealm o policies comba ing depopula ion.
2.2. Expe Panel P ofile and S udy Objec i es
The da a p esen ed in his esea ch co espond o he esponses p o ided by a panel o
35 expe s wi h whom in e ac ion ook place o e a pe iod o six mon hs. They esponded
o he wo ques ionnai es sen (Fi s and Second Rounds), and he esul s a e p esen ed
in he ollowing sec ion. As no ed by Lande a (2002) [
29
], he Delphi echnique allowed
us o ob ain he desc ip i e s a is ics o he esponses, such as he Mean (Me), Median
(Md), o ela i e equencies (%) o he esponses. Despi e he small numbe o expe s
conside ed, gi en he quali a i e na u e o he ins umen , i emains alid o he anal-
ysis and unde s anding o complex social eali ies, wi h he p esen ed esul s ha ing no
in e en ial claims.
As shown in Table 2, he expe panel was he e ogeneous, encompassing esponses
om local de elopmen agen s, p i a e en i ies ac i e in he local sphe e, esea che s
(mos ly om uni e si ies), and membe s o egional o na ional public adminis a ions
(AAPP), along wi h esponses om expe s o Eu opean Union (EU) ins i u ions. All o
hese expe s wo k in he field o u al de elopmen and possess a high le el o knowledge
ega ding he depopula ion challenge in Spain. The expe ience and di e si y o p ofiles
10
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 295
among he esponden s undoub edly con ibu ed ichness and nuances o he analysis
o he complex eali y unde s udy, iden i ying a eas whe e hei pe spec i es di e and
o he s whe e a high le el o consensus exis s.
Table 2.
P o essional p ofile o he Delphi Panel in he Fi s Round (N = 50) and he Second Round
(N = 35).
Local De elopmen Agen s P i a e
Sec o AAPP Resea che s Eu opean Union Ins i u ions N◦
1s Round 14 10 8 14 4 50
2nd Round 10 4 6 11 4 35
Sou ce: sel -gene a ed.
The expe panel had ex ensi e p o essional expe ience on he opic o u al a eas,
wi h an a e age o 20 yea s in his field; all had uni e si y educa ion, wi h 62.9% ha ing
comple ed pos g adua e s udies. Thei le el o knowledge abou he depopula ion chal-
lenge was high, wi h a sel -assessed knowledge le el o 4 (on a scale o 1 o 5) being he
mode o he opics add essed in his s udy.
I is impo an o men ion ha esponses we e ob ained om expe s who wo k in
di e en Spanish Au onomous Communi ies (Andalusia, A agon, Cas illa-La Mancha,
Mad id, Region o Mu cia, and Valencia), as indica ed, in ins i u ions ope a ing a he
local, egional, na ional, o Eu opean le els. This di e si y en iched he assessmen o
he ques ions posed o hem ega ding he deba e and si ua ion in Spain conce ning he
challenge o u al a eas expe iencing significan depopula ion.
The ob ained in o ma ion, aluable o i s specialized and explo a o y na u e, p o-
ides insigh s in o he pe spec i es ha p o essionals om di e en sec o s (Table 2) hold
ega ding he key aspec s in he design and implemen a ion o public policies o suppo
u al a eas unde going depopula ion p ocesses. I is no ewo hy ha , al hough he s udy
ocuses on policies o comba u al depopula ion in Spain, i o e s aluable eflec ions
ha could be conside ed in guiding u u e u al de elopmen and e i o ial cohesion
policies implemen ed in o he EU coun ies. These insigh s may p o e use ul in shaping o
eo ien ing na ional-le el e i o ial policies.
3. Resul s
3.1. Impo ance o he Depopula ion Challenge in Spain
As shown in Table 3, all 35 expe s in he panel pe cei e he depopula ion challenge
in Spain as ei he “se ious” o “ e y se ious”. This issue, a ec ing ex ensi e u al a -
eas due o he con inuous p ocesses o u baniza ion and popula ion loss in as u al
egions,
was specifically
a ed as “ e y se ious” by 62.9% (22 ou o 35) pa icipan s in he
Second Round.
Table 3. Assessmen o conside a ions ega ding he depopula ion challenge in Spain (N = 35).
Ra ing om 1 o 5 Rela i e F equency (%) Me Md
(Ra ings om 1 = Comple ely Disag ee o 5 = Comple ely Ag ee) 12345
1. The depopula ion challenge is a e y se ious issue in Spain 0.0 0.0 0.0 37.1 62.9 4.6 5
2. Comba ing depopula ion in u al a eas should be one o he majo
na ional challenges 0.0 0.0 5.7 28.6 65.7 4.6 5
3. Depopula ion in u al a eas and small municipali ies is a complex and
challenging issue o e e se. 0.0 8.6 5.7 48.6 37.1 4.1 4
4. Ci izens a e awa e o he depopula ion p oblem and i s connec ion o he
mul i unc ionali y o u al a eas. 17.1 45.7 22.9 14.3 0.0 2.3 2
Sou ce: Resul s om he Second Round o he Delphi Panel.
11
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 295
The le el o consensus ega ding he conside a ion o depopula ion as one o he
“majo na ional challenges” was also e y high. A o al o 94.3% ag eed o s ongly ag eed
wi h he s a emen , wi h an a e age a ing o 4.6. This aligns wi h he impo ance a ibu ed
o his issue in e ms o e i o ial and social cohesion by he [
5
] Bank o Spain (2021) and [
8
]
Molina de la To e (2018).
Sligh ly lowe pe cen age (85.7%) o expe s indica ed ag eemen o s ong ag ee-
men wi h he ac ha depopula ion is a complex p oblem o sol e o e e se, echoing
a ious diagnos ics and emphasizing he impo ance o add essing i om mul iple pe -
spec i es [
18
] (CES, 2018). The magni ude and di ficul y o he depopula ion challenge
should make us awa e o he need o o mula e c ea i e and holis ic u al de elopmen
policies and ini ia i es ha could shape u al e i o ies as spaces o expe imen a ion
and new oppo uni ies [
30
] (Pinilla and Sáez, 2017), ailo ed o he needs o challenges o
each e i o y.
Con as ingly, 22 ou o 35 esponden s disag eed o s ongly disag eed wi h he
s a emen ha he Spanish popula ion, in gene al, has a high le el o awa eness abou he
impo ance o he depopula ion p oblem and he mul iple unc ions ha “ ib an ” u al
a eas ha e o socie y as a whole. The a e age alue (Me) o his s a emen was 2.3, wi h a
median (Md) o 2. This esul con as s wi h he findings o he [
31
] CIS Ba ome e (2019)
fi e yea s ago. Acco ding o his s udy, he Spanish popula ion was becoming inc easingly
awa e abou depopula ion, wi h 82.4% s a ing hey had hea d abou he depopula ion
challenge, o which 90% conside ed i o be a “ e y o qui e se ious” p oblem, eflec ing a
g owing public conce n.
In ano he ques ion included in he Fi s Round, which saw minimal changes in he e-
sponses p o ided in he Second Round (indica ing he s abili y o esponses achie ed in he
second su ey), he panel o expe s was asked o indica e, in hei opinion,
he impo ance
(on a scale o 1 o 5, wi h 5 = e y impo an ) o di e en a eas o imp o emen in u al
a eas ha de e mine he need o g ea e suppo o hese egions.
As shown in Table 4, mo e han h ee-qua e s o he panel o expe conside ed
i “impo an ” o “ e y impo an ” o imp o e he si ua ion o he popula ion o u al
municipali ies a ec ed by depopula ion in compa ison wi h he si ua ion o he u ban pop-
ula ion. These a eas include he ollowing: (1) imp o ing access o jobs and employmen
oppo uni ies; (2) he equaliza ion o high-quali y public heal h se ices o he elde ly o
child en wi h hose a ailable in u ban a eas; (3) enhancing in as uc u e and anspo a-
ion connec ions, such as imp o ing oad ne wo ks o public anspo a ion wi h la ge
neighbo ing municipali ies; and (4) he need o imp o e digi al in as uc u e and in e ne
access, as equen ly men ioned in he li e a u e. Following hese ou needs o he u al
popula ion, he e is also a high consensus ega ding he compelling need o imp o ing
access o o he local p i a e se ices (such as pha macies, pos o fices, and shops), as well
as imp o ing access o basic educa ion se ices. In gene al, hese esul s sugges he need
o imp o emen in e ms o quali y and co e age o he en i e popula ion o undamen al
basic se ices [
15
] (Eu opean Union, 2017), mi iga ing he p ocesses o he so-called “ u al
exodus” in Spain [6] (Gu ie ez, e al., 2020b).
These desc ibed deficiencies, in addi ion o ein o cing he conside a ion ha he
challenge o depopula ion in u al a eas mus be unde s ood as a p oblem lacking socio-
e i o ial cohesion, sugges ha we should no only analyze he p oblem as a demog aphic
issue bu also as an economic and social one. The e o e, i is necessa y o coun e ac he
g adual loss o e i o ial compe i i eness ha has occu ed in Spanish u al a eas, wi h
he aim o gene a ing employmen and economic ac i i y o inc ease he a ac ion o an
ac i e popula ion, oppo uni ies, and spaces o medium- e m de elopmen . This in ol es
ac ions aimed a main aining a minimum le el o se ices ha ensu e he well-being o
inhabi an s o u al a eas.
12
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 295
Table 4.
E alua ion o he imp o emen needs o he popula ion in depopula ing u al a eas compa ed
o he si ua ion in u ban a eas (N = 35).
Ra ing om 1 o 5 Rela i e F equency (%)
Me Md
(1 = Ve y Low Need o Imp o emen and5=Ve yHigh Need
o Imp o emen ) 12345
1s . A ailabili y o job/employmen /business oppo uni ies. 0.0 0.0 8.6 22.9 68.6 4.6 5
2nd. Access o heal hca e o childca e o child en and he elde ly. 0.0 0.0 8.6 40.0 51.4 4.4 5
3 d. In as uc u e and anspo a ion connec ions (e.g., wi h u ban a eas and
o he owns). 2.9 2.9 31.4 11.4 51.4 4.1 5
4 h. Digi al in as uc u e (b oadband and in e ne access). 0.0 5.7 17.1 37.1 40.0 4.1 5
5 h. Access o local se ices, such as shops, pos o fices, pha macies, e c. 0.0 0.0 22.9 42.9 34.3 4.1 4
6 h. Access o educa ion and aining se ices. 0.0 0.0 14.3 60.0 25.7 4.1 4
7 h. Access o cul u al and ec ea ional ac i i ies. 0.0 5.7 37.1 31.4 25.7 3.8 4
8 h. Th ea s o he na u al en i onmen and i s p o ec ion. 2.9 11.4 34.3 28.6 22.9 3.6 4
9 h. A ailabili y o housing. 0.0 25.7 37.1 14.3 22.9 3.3 3
10 h. Access and a o dabili y o a ious ene gy op ions (gas, elec ici y, e c.). 2.9 14.3 37.1 37.1 8.6 3.3 3
Sou ce: esul s om he Second Round o he Delphi Panel.
O he aspec s, desc ibed in he las ou ows o Table 4, ob ained mean sco es close o
a mean alue o h ee, showing a highe le el o disag eemen among esponden s ega d-
ing hei se e i y. This was he case o equalizing he oppo uni ies o he popula ion o
small u al municipali ies a ec ed by depopula ion in e ms o hei access o cul u al and
leisu e ac i i ies; he p o ec ion and main enance o he alues o hei na u al and en i on-
men al su oundings; o he a ailabili y o access o housing o di e en ene gy op ions.
These esponses esul om bo h a neu al assessmen by a significan numbe o expe s
and he p esence o di e en conside a ions ega ding hei ele ance. In hese cases,
he esul s
could be jus ified by he ac ha , while in some u al a eas in Spain hese needs
a e adequa ely add essed, in o he s hey emain significan obs acles o hei de elopmen ,
which mo i a es he mig a ion o hei popula ion o mo e u ban municipali ies.
3.2. Need o P omo e De elopmen Policies Ta ge ed a Depopula ed A eas
In a second majo block o he p esen s udy, he aim was o iden i y he changes ha ,
in he
opinion o he expe s, should be in oduced in public policies implemen ed in Spain
o comba depopula ion, bo h a na ional and egional le els. Thus, as shown in Table 5,
he e was i ually unanimous ag eemen (97.1%) in he belie ha i is necessa y o conside ,
in public policies (Mean = 4.6 and Median = 5), in a ious a eas o economic and social
de elopmen , a g ea e ocus on e i o ial cohesion, in oducing posi i e disc imina ion
c i e ia o u al a eas a isk o depopula ion. This is in line wi h he p ocedu es applied in
cohesion and in es men policies o he Eu opean Union, aking in o accoun he le el o
de elopmen o he membe coun ies. This esul coincides wi h he s a emen s o se e al
au ho s, among hem [
32
] is Bello Pa ades (2023), who indica ed “ he need o e hink public
policies o lead o g ea e e i o ial cohesion and, ul ima ely, o o e solu ions o hese e i o ies”.
The e was also e y high consensus on he need o egula o y changes, pa icula ly
a highe le el o coo dina ion be ween public adminis a ions (wi h sha ed o exclusi e
compe encies in di e en a eas) in public policies aimed a suppo ing u al a eas. In his
sense, a o al o 91.4% o he Delphi panel ag eed o s ongly ag eed wi h he need o
mo e e o s in ho izon al and e ical coo dina ion be ween adminis a ions, as well as he
e o mula ion o egula o y amewo ks in a ious a eas, desc ibed in g ea de ail by [
19
]
CES (2021).
13

Ag icul u e 2024,14, 295
Table 5.
E alua ion o he need o changes in policies o comba depopula ion in u al a eas (N = 35).
Ra ings om 1 o 5 Rela i e F equency (%) Me Md
(1 = Comple ely Disag ee o 5 = Comple ely Ag ee) 12345
I is necessa y o in oduce he e i o ial cohesion app oach in na ional and
egional policies, paying pa icula a en ion o he challenges o depopula ed
u al a eas.
0.0 0.0 2.9 34.3 62.9 4.6 5
The e is a need o u he no ma i e de elopmen and coo dina ion among
public adminis a ions in he figh agains depopula ion. 0.0 0.0 8.6 34.3 57.1 4.5 5
I is necessa y o alloca e a la ge po ion o na ional and egional policy
unding o a eas a ec ed by depopula ion, e en a he expense o
o he policies.
2.9 0.0 28.6 34.3 34.3 4.0 4
Sou ce: esul s om he Second Round o he Delphi Panel.
Finally, he e was also a high consensus in he belie ha mo e financial esou ces
should be alloca ed o suppo na ional and egional policies o depopula ed u al a eas
(Mean = 4 and Median = 4), e en i his came a he expense o esou ces alloca ed o o he
pu poses o public policies. The lack o financial suppo o plans o p og ams was poin ed
ou by [
18
] CES (2018) as one o he easons ha had la gely p e en ed he de elopmen o
ag eemen s and commi men s o ini ia i es co-financed by he na ional adminis a ion and
he Spanish au onomous communi ies unde he Sus ainable Ru al De elopmen P og am,
as well as Law 45/2007 on Sus ainable Ru al De elopmen , which was ne e implemen ed.
In his con ex o inc eased unding and coo dina ion o unds, he expe ience o he
Agenzia pe la Coesione Te i o iale I aliana [
33
] (ENRD, 2020) is o in e es , as an example
o designing a comp ehensi e u al de elopmen s a egy, coo dina ing p ojec s financed
wi h Eu opean s uc u al and in es men unds.
In ano he ques ion, he Delphi panel was asked o assess ac ions and policies ecen ly
unde aken ha , in se e al a eas, could be an essen ial suppo o a mo e sus ainable
de elopmen o he e i o y, pa icula ly add essing he needs o u al a eas a isk o
depopula ion. One such example is he C oss-Cu ing Objec i e p oposed by he Common
Ag icul u al Policy (CAP) o he cu en budge a y pe iod, 2021–2027, ega ding he sup-
po o he digi iza ion o he ag i- ood sec o and u al a eas, aiming o b idge he digi al
di ide in u al a eas. In his s a emen , he e was unanimous consensus among he espon-
den s (Table 6), wi h 100% ag eeing o s ongly ag eeing wi h he impo ance o digi iza ion
suppo included in he na ional plans o he CAP in i s fi s pilla (Mean = 4.6). This esul
aligns wi h he essen ial ole ha he p o ision o digi al and financial se ices, along wi h
he de elopmen o aining p og ams in digi al skills o businesses and he popula ion in
u al a eas in Spain, plays in e i alizing u al a eas [12] (Allonza, e al., 2021).
Table 6.
E alua ion o s a egies implemen ed a he na ional le el in he figh agains depopula ion
in Spanish u al a eas (N = 35).
Ra ings om 1 o 5 Rela i e F equency (%) Me Md
(1 = Comple ely Disag ee o 5 = Comple ely Ag ee) 12345
S a egies aimed a digi iza ion should pay special a en ion o suppo ing u al
a eas and he ag i- ood sec o , b idging gaps wi h u ban a eas and o he sec o s.
0.0 0.0 0.0 40.0 60.0 4.6 5
The Nex -Gene a ion Reco e y Funds should p io i ize financing in es men s in
u al a eas and municipali ies a ec ed by depopula ion. 0.0 2.9 8.6 42.9 45.7 4.3 5
En i onmen al s a egies aimed a comba ing clima e change, deca boniza ion,
enewable ene gies, e c., should gi e special a en ion o suppo ing u al a eas.
0.0 0.0 17.1 51.4 31.4 4.1 4
The “Plan o Measu es o he Demog aphic Challenge” is an excellen s a ing
poin o he o mula ion o coo dina ed policies agains depopula ion. 0.0 0.0 28.6 48.6 22.9 3.9 4
Sou ce: esul s om he Second Round o he Delphi Panel.
14
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 295
The ele ance gi en o he Nex Gene a ion EU unds (NGEU) is also e y impo an ,
wi h a subs an ial majo i y o he panel (88.7%) ag eeing ha i is essen ial o NGEU
p io i ies o include financing in es men s in a eas a ec ed by depopula ion. Simila ly,
a significan
po ion o he panel o expe s (82.8%) conside ed ha subs an ial unds
di ec ed owa d en i onmen al measu es aimed a comba ing clima e change in u al
a eas in he coming yea s a e a new oppo uni y o he e i aliza ion and de elopmen o
depopula ed a eas in Spain, acco ding o [19] CES (2021).
Finally, a significan majo i y o he expe s conside s ha he “Plan o Measu es o
he Demog aphic Challenge” [
17
] (MITECO, 2021), desc ibed in he in oduc ion o his
s udy, is an excellen s a ing poin o he o mula ion o coo dina ed policies agains
depopula ion, wi h no expe exp essing disag eemen , co esponding o sco es o 1 o 2.
3.3. Expec a ions Rega ding he New CAP Pos -2023
I is essen ial a his poin o men ion ha , a he ime o conduc ing his Delphi
su ey, he nego ia ion p ocess o he Common Ag icul u al Policy (CAP) Pos -2020 was
s ill ongoing, a sec o al policy o significan impo ance o he en i e u al en i onmen .
The in ica e
nego ia ion p ocess led o an ex ension o he deadline o submi ing he
S a egic Plans o he Common Ag icul u al Policy (PEPAC) o he membe s a es, includ-
ing Spain, o 31 Decembe 2021 [
34
] (MAPA, 2021). This necessi a ed a pos ponemen o
he implemen a ion o he new CAP o 1 Janua y 2023. I is ele an o p o ide a b ie
desc ip ion o aspec s a ailable a he ime o his esea ch and on which se e al s a emen s
we e p esen ed o he expe s.
As shown in Table 7, 60.0% o he expe s indica ed hei ag eemen o s ong ag ee-
men ha he diagnosis p esen ed by his na ional s a egy ega ding he needs o he
ag icul u al sec o is app op ia e (Mean = 3.6; Median = 4). I is no ewo hy ha he
pe cen age o esponses gi ing equal conside a ion (42.9%) o he diagnosis o he needs o
he u al en i onmen is sligh ly lowe (Mean = 3.5; Median = 3).
Table 7.
Assessmen o he Common Ag icul u al Policy Pos -2020 and i s Na ional S a egic Plan
(N = 35).
Ra ings om 1 o 5 Rela i e F equency (%) Me Md
(1 = Comple ely Disag ee o 5 = Comple ely Ag ee) 12345
1. The Spanish S a egic Plan o he Pos -CAP accu a ely diagnoses he needs
o he ag icul u al sec o . 2.9 5.7 31.4 45.7 14.3 3.6 4
2. The Spanish S a egic Plan o he Pos -CAP accu a ely diagnoses he needs
o he u al en i onmen . 2.9 2.9 51.4 31.4 11.4 3.5 3
3. In i s design and implemen a ion, as in o he policies, he pa icipa ion o
key s akeholde s is insu ficien . 8.6 14.3 8.6 40.0 25.7 3.6 4
4. The g ow h o esou ces alloca ed o he en i onmen and clima e ac ion,
in line wi h he Eu opean G een Deal, is posi i e o socie y as a whole. 0.0 0.0 2.9 45.7 51.4 4.5 5
5. The inc ease in esou ces alloca ed o he en i onmen and clima e ac ion,
in line wi h he Eu opean G een Deal, is posi i e o he ag icul u al sec o . 0.0 2.9 2.9 54.3 40.0 4.3 4
6. The unds o Ru al De elopmen managed by Local Ac ion G oups should
be g ea e . 0.0 8.6 25.7 28.6 37.1 3.9 4
7. The inc ease in bu eauc acy and adminis a i e bu den associa ed wi h
moni o ing CAP aid is excessi e. 2.9 5.7 17.1 31.4 42.9 4.1 4
8. The inc ease in bu eauc acy o Local Ac ion G oups hampe s hei abili y
o e i alize e i o ies. 0.0 2.9 11.4 51.4 34.3 4.2 4
Sou ce: esul s om he Second Round o he Delphi Panel.
Rega ding he ongoing pa icipa ion p ocess in he design and implemen a ion o his
na ional s a egy, a high pe cen age o expe s (60.0%) also indica ed hei ag eemen o
15
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 295
s ong ag eemen ha he in ol emen o key s akeholde s was insu ficien , as is he case
in he design o o he policies.
Gi en ha one o he main changes in he new Common Ag icul u al Policy (CAP)
is ela ed o he ein o cemen o measu es agains clima e change and en i onmen al
p o ec ion, wo final s a emen s we e p oposed on his ma e . In line wi h he “Eu opean
G een Deal”, pa icula ly he “Fa m o Fo k” s a egy, he new CAP will alloca e 40%
o i s unds o his pu pose. The p opo ion o panel membe s exp essing ag eemen o
ull ag eemen wi h he posi i e e ec s o his en i onmen al o ien a ion on socie y as a
whole was maximum (97.1%), wi h a median esponse o fi e. I s posi i e conside a ion
was sligh ly lowe in he ag icul u al sec o (84%). I is wo h no ing ha in he p e ious
CAP, eco-condi ionali y measu es had al eady gained significan p ominence, wi h eco-
schemes and o he en i onmen al equi emen s becoming an uns oppable end. Despi e
he undeniable ac ha hese measu es will impose new demands on he ag icul u al
sec o , he esponses ob ained, conside ing commen s om in e iews, sugges ha a
significan pa o he p ima y sec o seems o ha e emb aced he inc easing connec ion
ha public suppo will ha e, beyond i s goals o income main enance o ensu ing ood
secu i y, o ag icul u e ha p o ides en i onmen al se ices o socie y as a whole.
The las wo s a emen s e e ed o he significan ole ha Local Ac ion G oups (LAGs)
play in Ru al De elopmen , wi hin he second pilla o he CAP. The le el o consensus is
high, wi h a median o ou , ega ding he need o LAGs, hei s o he Leade ini ia i e,
o ha e
a g ea e olume o esou ces, and how he adminis a i e bu den associa ed wi h
he managemen o CAP aid and bu eauc a ic obs acles hinde s he ope a ional capaci y o
hese e i alize s o u al a eas.
In line wi h he aspec s desc ibed ega ding he CAP and i s ele ance in u al de el-
opmen , he Eu opean Economic and Social Commi ee emphasized in se e al opinions
he impo ance o achie ing be e go e nance and pa icipa ion in he design and imple-
men a ion o policies impac ing he de elopmen o u al a eas. His o ically agmen ed,
disjoin ed, and bu dened wi h bu eauc acy [
35
] (Unión Eu opea, 2022), he e is a need o
con inue p omo ing g ea e alignmen o he CAP wi h o he cohesion policies (Cohesion
Funds, he Eu opean Regional De elopmen Fund, o he Eu opean Social Fund). These
objec i es a e among hose p oposed o ad ance in he coming yea s wi hin he EU Ru al
Ac ion Plan, wi h he Commission planning o publish impac epo s on policies and
imp o emen needs h oughou 2024.
3.4. P io i iza ion o Coo dina ed Measu es o Suppo Depopula ed Ru al A eas
Finally, Table 8 p esen s he assessmen p o ided by he panel o 35 expe s o
15 selec ed
measu es, many o which we e ad oca ed by [
20
] FEMP (2017) and g ouped
in o se en majo a eas: ins i u ional measu es and financing; economy and employmen ;
in as uc u e; social se ices; housing; demog aphic incen i es; and cul u e, iden i y,
and communica ion.
The ques ionnai e asked hem o iden i y he h ee mos impo an measu es ha
should be implemen ed wi h g ea e u gency, and hese we e o de ed based on he mos
equen ly men ioned as op p io i ies (Table 8). The gene a ed anking iden ifies 6 ac ions
ou o he 15 conc e e measu es in which a leas a qua e o he panel o expe s conside ed
hem o be among he op h ee p io i ies. The fi s one s ands ou , wi h 62.7% o he Delphi
panel conside ing i u gen , and is o es ablish (fi s ) plans o basic public se ices in he
heal h, educa ion, o social p o ec ion sec o s, equalizing he le el o access and co e age
be ween u al and u ban popula ions.
16
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 295
Table 8.
Ranking o specific measu es o be u gen ly implemen ed in Spain (Top 15) in he figh
agains depopula ion o u al a eas (N = 35).
Measu es and Ac ions o Suppo Ru al A eas A ec ed by Depopula ion
(1s = Fi s o Mos Impo an ; 2nd = Second; 3 d = Thi d)
Rela i e F equency (%)
1s 2nd 3 d To al
1. Es ablish plans o he co e age o gua an eed basic public se ices in u al
a eas, including heal hca e, educa ion, and social se ices, compa able o hose in
u ban a eas.
20.0 31.4 11.4 62.9
2. Implemen incen i es and suppo o he loca ion and c ea ion o businesses
and employmen in u al a eas. 17.1 14.3 5.7 37.1
3. Re iew he unding o local en i ies wi h c i e ia ensu ing hei subsis ence and
co e ing ex a cos s associa ed wi h p o iding basic se ices in small communi ies,
ein o cing c i e ia o accessing lines and plans o smalle municipali ies.
14.3 8.6 14.3 37.1
4. Es ablish special suppo plans o sel -employed indi iduals and en ep eneu s
in u al a eas, p omo ing aining and employmen , wi h special a en ion o
young people and women.
8.6 8.6 14.3 31.4
5. Explici ly include in he budge s o all Public Adminis a ions (AAPP),
a demog aphic s a egy wi h annual objec i es, means o achie e hem, and an
e alua ion o achie emen s.
17.1 2.9 5.7 25.7
6. P o ide ax c edi s and deduc ions o p o essional and business ac i i ies
ca ied ou in u al a eas o in pe sonal income ax o esiden s. 5.7 11.4 8.6 25.7
7. P o ide suppo o childbi h, bonuses o amilies wi h child en, o encou age
he p oximi y o dayca e se ices. 2.9 2.9 5.7 11.4
8. P omo e u ban egene a ion, ehabili a ion plans, and access o housing o he
popula ion o small municipali ies, c ea ing housing oppo uni ies, e c. 0.0 8.6 2.9 11.4
9. Facili a e he decen aliza ion o public ca e esou ces in he Au onomous
Communi y ( esidences, you h cen e s, day cen e s, home assis ance, e c.),
suppo ing he c ea ion o in e municipal associa ions.
0.0 5.7 5.7 11.4
10. Imp o e communica ion in as uc u e based on a dis ance map o basic
se ices and enhance public anspo a ion se ices o he popula ion o
u al municipali ies.
0.0 0.0 11.4 11.4
11. Reins a e he 2007 Sus ainable Ru al De elopmen Law, en isioned as a
na ional amewo k wi h common and ha monized guidelines in he figh agains
depopula ion in Spain, obliging he de elopmen o a ea plans as an
in e en ion scale.
5.7 0.0 2.9 8.6
12. P omo e and suppo in e municipal associa ions o social and public se ices.
5.7 0.0 2.9 8.6
13. When implemen ing depopula ion coun e measu es a he na ional, egional,
o au onomous communi y le els, clea ly define he compe ence, whe he unique
o sha ed.
2.9 2.9 2.9 8.6
14. Imp o e digi al in as uc u e and implemen ICT aining plans in u al a eas.
0.0 2.9 2.9 5.7
15. De elop communica ion s a egies o p omo e he ad an ages o u al a eas,
os e ing iden i y. 0.0 0.0 2.9 2.9
Sou ce: esul s om he Second Round o he Delphi Panel.
This ein o ces he line o wo k p oposed by a ious s udies ha e i y and quan-
i y how u al a eas in Spain ha e poo e accessibili y o se ices han hei Eu opean
coun e pa s
([36] Kompil, e al., 2019)
, e ealing significan defici s in he accessibili y o
basic se ices in u al municipali ies compa ed o u ban ones ([
12
] Allonza, e al., 2021; [
37
]
Goe lich e al., 2021).
As p e ious
epo s, such as he one conduc ed by he [
7
] BBVA Foun-
da ion (2019), sugges , making hese a eas economically and socially “a ac i e” is key o
hei epopula ion.
I should
be added ha , as his is no an exclusi e challenge o Spain
bu is also iden ifiable in Eas e n and Bal ic EU coun ies, as well as o he coun ies like
G eece, Po ugal, o egions in sou he n I aly, i p esen s an oppo uni y o he adop ion o
hese measu es as an essen ial pa o communi y policies.
In he field o employmen and economic oppo uni ies, wo p io i y ac ions we e
men ioned: es ablishing incen i es o loca ion and business c ea ion (second), as well as
suppo ing he ins alla ion o sel -employed indi iduals and en ep eneu s in u al a eas
( ou h), wi h special a en ion o young people and women, de eloping ax deduc ions and
incen i es o his pu pose (six h). Rega ding ins i u ional measu es, he panel o expe s
17
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 165
Communis Pa y o China (2022) emphasized ha “ensu ing people’s heal h should be
placed in a s a egic posi ion o p io i y de elopmen ”, “consolida ing and expanding
he achie emen s o po e y alle ia ion, and enhancing he endogenous de elopmen
momen um o po e y-s icken a eas and people”.
Income, housing, and financial asse s a e he las ba ie s ha p e en amilies om
alling back in o po e y due o illness. (Heal h insu ance, o example, is limi ed.) How-
e e , unde he eali y and expec a ion ha income inc ease is di ficul unde he impac o
he epidemic, he eal es a e ma ke is dep essed, and good in es men a ibu es ha e been
los (suppo ed by he cen al “housing does no specula ion” posi ioning), can financial
asse s become he p e e ed weal h app ecia ion and main enance channel o block he
e u n o po e y due o illness? The e ec i e in eg a ion o he financial ma ke and
he eal economy is he basis o he o de ly and sus ainable de elopmen o a coun y’s
economy, and he de elopmen po en ial is huge. Howe e , he a e age financial asse s
o u al households in China accoun ed o only 20.4% o o al household asse s, which is
a less han he nea ly 70% o eal es a e (U ban Household Asse s and Liabili ies Su ey
G oup o he Su ey and S a is ics Depa men o he People’s Bank o China, 2019). Thus,
wi h he expec ed s ong go e nmen suppo , mo ing in o financial ma ke s may be a
p omising and iable op ion. In Ma ch 2023, he Cen al Commi ee o he Communis
Pa y o China and The S a e Council decided o es ablish he S a e Financial Supe ision
and Adminis a ion based on he China Banking and Insu ance Regula o y Commission.
The bu den o heal h expendi u e is an impo an ac o a ec ing he ulne abili y
o mul idimensional po e y eg ession [
6
,
7
], which has a ac ed he a en ion o many
schola s and influenced he concep o ca as ophic heal h expendi u e (CHE) o measu e
i [
8
–
12
]. Howe e , he e a e ew s udies on he ole o financial de elopmen in po e y
educ ion due o illness o heal h. Gao P. (2009) s udied financial po e y educ ion
ea lie [
13
]. A e he 18 h Na ional Cong ess o he Communis Pa y o China in 2012,
many ele an s udies eme ged and eached a peak in he pas h ee yea s. Rele an s udies
ha e ound ha poo u al a eas can achie e a po e y educ ion e ec by educing he
incidence o po e y by conside ing he le el o financial de elopmen [
14
–
17
]. Howe e ,
he po e y educ ion e ec o finance has a ce ain income h eshold e ec in di e en
egions due o he di e ences in economic and income de elopmen le els [
18
–
21
]. When
pe capi a income jumps ou o he “po e y ap”, financial de elopmen has a clea
accele a ing e ec on po e y alle ia ion [
22
,
23
]. Mo eo e , digi al financial inclusion can
con ibu e o he po e y educ ion e ec by inc easing he a ailabili y o financial esou ces
o poo a me s [
24
–
28
]. Finally, he le el o financial li e acy o amily membe s, such
as pe sonal financial knowledge and social ne wo k ela ionships, plays a e y impo an
ole in he po e y ulne abili y o u al amilies [
29
–
33
]. All he abo e esea ch has
demons a ed he po e y educ ion e ec o financial de elopmen , bu he e is scan
esea ch ela ed o heal h po e y. Only Liu H and Wang H e al. (2018) ound ha he
p omo ing e ec o u al financial de elopmen on he alle ia ion o medical po e y has
g adually inc eased [34].
Meanwhile, he impac o heal h shocks on household financial in es men has been
confi med by some schola s [
35
–
37
]. Su eys in eigh y-nine coun ies co e ing 89 pe cen
o he wo ld’s popula ion sugges ha 150 million people globally su e financial ca as o-
phe annually because hey pay o heal h se ices. Howe e , he e is a ce ain wo-way
e ec be ween heal h expendi u e and household financial asse alloca ion, and household
financial asse alloca ion has a ce ain impac on heal h expendi u e and hen on po e y
o e u n o po e y due o illness. Howe e , he e a e ew pieces o ele an li e a u e,
and heal h ac o s a e mos ly discussed as one o he dimensions o he mul idimensional
po e y ulne abili y index. Fo example, Zhou D. and Wang M. (2019) [
38
] inco po a ed
heal h ac o s in o hei ulne abili y po e y alle ia ion heo y and used he da a o h ee
ounds o mic o-su eys in he China Household T acking Su ey (CFPS) om 2010 o
2014 and buil a condi ional Ma ko model o discuss he blocking e ec o household asse
endowmen , including financial asse s, on he e u n o po e y.
24

Ag icul u e 2024,14, 165
Mo eo e , om he pe spec i e o China’s cu en economic si ua ion, he main in es -
men channels o households a e he eal es a e ma ke and he financial ma ke . Howe e ,
due o he changes in he economic si ua ion and policy o ien a ion, he alue-added
unc ion o he eal es a e ma ke is expec ed o weaken, while h ough he con inuous
imp o emen and de elopmen o he financial ma ke and he con inuous imp o emen
o people’s financial li e acy, he au ho belie es ha mo ing owa ds he financial ma ke
will also become an impo an choice o u al amilies in China who ha e jus s epped
in o a well-o li e o p e en hem om e u ning o po e y in he u u e due o illness.
The e o e, based on he da a o he China Heal h and Re i emen Longi udinal Su ey
(CHARLS), his pape analyzes he ela ionship be ween u al households’ financial asse s,
heal h expendi u e, and ca as ophic heal h expendi u e o p o ide e idence o he de el-
opmen o financial ma ke s o help s op he e u n o po e y due o illness. Looking a
he p e ious esea ch li e a u e, i seems ha he e is no ele an esea ch li e a u e ha
has ca ied ou a clea in-dep h analysis o his. This cons i u es he ma ginal inno a ion o
his pape .
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Theo e ical Analysis
G ossman’s (1972) heal h demand model included human heal h as a special capi al
in he asse accumula ion p ocess, and heal h was ega ded as a dep eciable capi al good,
whose s ock was dynamically changing; o example, occu ence o diseases and he
g ow h o age would educe he s ock o heal h. Indi iduals need heal h ca e ( o example,
in es ing ime and consuming medical p oduc s and se ices) o eap he consump ion
benefi s ha heal h p o ides (heal h as a commodi y p o ides u ili y o he indi idual)
as well as he p oduc i e benefi s (heal hy indi iduals ha e g ea e income). The asse
accumula ion o mula can be exp essed as Fo mula (1):
.
A = A +Y[ s(H )] −πH
I −πZ
Z (1)
A
e e s o he s ock o financial asse s,
is he in e es a e ( a e o e u n), Y e e s o
labo income,
s
is a unc ion o “sick ime”,
H
is he s ock o indi idual heal hy capi al,
Z
is consume goods, and
I
is heal hy capi al in es men .
πH
and
πZ
a e he ma ginal (o
a e age) cos s o in es ing in heal h and consump ion.
Tha is, indi idual o household asse accumula ion is posi i ely co ela ed wi h
income and financial asse s and nega i ely co ela ed wi h heal hy capi al in es men
and commodi y consump ion. When discussing household asse s o po e y esea ch,
p edecesso s ha e a ely aken in o conside a ion he s abili y o financial asse s and hei
e u n a e as an impo an ac o . This also p o ides esea ch space o he possible
inno a ion o his pape .
2.2. Resea ch Hypo hesis
Fi s ly, in es ing in eal es a e is no longe a good way o p ese e and inc ease he
weal h o o dina y Chinese households. Household asse s e e o he p ope y, claims,
and o he igh s owned by he amily ha can be measu ed in money and can be di ided
in o financial asse s, physical asse s, in angible asse s, e c. F om he pe spec i e o mul idi-
mensional po e y, household asse s a e he collec ion o money, popula ion, and ma e ial
and social esou ces, including financial asse s, human asse s, ma e ial asse s, socie y and
na u e, e c. [
39
]. Household asse s a e mainly di ided in o financial asse s and non-financial
asse s; financial asse s include bank deposi s, bonds, s ocks, in es men unds, e i emen
unds, li e insu ance, and so on. Non-financial asse s include owne -occupied homes,
non-owne -occupied homes, comme cial asse s, au omobiles, consume du ables, gold,
sil e , jewel y, an iques, and a , among o he s. Zhou and Wang (2019) [
38
] di ided asse s
in o fi e ca ego ies when discussing household asse endowmen o p e en he e u n
o po e y, namely p oduc ion asse s ep esen ed by machine y and equipmen , sel -use
25
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 165
asse s ep esen ed by household du able consume goods, secu i y asse s ep esen ed by
medical insu ance, human asse s ep esen ed by educa ion le el, and financial asse s ep e-
sen ed by s ocks o unds. I is wo h no ing ha unlike Ha eman and Wol (2000) [
40
],
hey conside ed he limi ed numbe o eal es a e owned by poo amilies and he small
possibili y o selling hem, so hey ega ded eal es a e as a componen o sel -use asse s;
ha is, eal es a e in ela i ely low-income g oups basically does no ha e in es men
a ibu es, which is also consis en wi h he empi ical esul s o his pape . I is one o he
ocus poin s o his pape ’s iewpoin analysis. Coupled wi h he blessing o he cen al
go e nmen ’s u u e posi ioning o “housing wi hou specula ion”, his pape belie es ha
in es men eal es a e will no longe be he bes choice o u al amilies o block e u n o
po e y in he u u e.
Secondly, China’s heal h insu ance ma ke is inadequa e, inc easing he isk ha u al
amilies will all back in o po e y due o illness. To educe he incidence o ca as ophic
heal h expendi u e and a oid he e u n o po e y due o illness, p oduc ion asse s and
sel -use asse s do no cons i u e he necessa y condi ions o p e en ca as ophic heal h
expendi u e. The secu i y asse s ep esen ed by medical insu ance ha e ce ain p o ec ion
unc ions, bu he heal h insu ance ma ke in China is no pe ec . Basic medical insu ance
is no enough o cope wi h high heal h cos s; he comme cial medical insu ance ma ke is
s ill qui e imma u e and no p ac ical o u al low-income amilies; and long- e m ca e
insu ance, which has been pilo ed in 49 ci ies ac oss he coun y wice, namely in
2016 and
2020, is only in he explo a o y s age. Thus, he ole o asse p o ec ion in in e up ing
he e u n o po e y due o illness is no enough, a leas a his s age. The human
asse s ep esen ed by he le el o educa ion a e o g ea significance in consolida ing he
achie emen s o po e y alle ia ion in China in he u u e, achie ing and sus aining a
well-o socie y and mo ing owa ds common p ospe i y. Howe e , o he cu en u al
low-income amilies who ha e jus le po e y, he le el o educa ion is ela i ely low and
canno change in a sho pe iod o ime, and he only hope is placed on he gene a ional
eplacemen o he amily. Fo example, he younge gene a ion o u al amilies is mo e
educa ed and can u ilize mo e financial knowledge and concep s, and he imp o emen o
financial li e acy will help hem choose and in es in in es men channels (such as a ious
financial p oduc s) o he han eal es a e, which is di ficul o achie e wi h hei na i e
amily o pe sonal e o s, in o de o hwa he possibili y o e u ning o po e y.
Finally, financial asse s ep esen ed by s ocks o unds ha e significan ad an ages in
p e en ing u al amilies om e u ning o po e y due o illness o ou easons: Fi s , he
cu en in es men channels o main aining and inc easing he alue o household asse s
in ou coun y a e e y limi ed, and he in es men unc ion o he mos aluable eal es a e
in he pas is no an op imis ic op ion o he u u e. The e o e, financial in es men is a
good choice when o he good al e na i e channels canno no ound. Second, he financial
ma ke o ou coun y is cons an ly imp o ing and ma u ing, and he igo ous go e nmen
suppo , combined wi h he de elopmen o he ma u e financial ma ke in he Uni ed
S a es and o he coun ies, has gi en financial in es men a good, s able alue p ese a ion
and app ecia ion unc ion in he long e m. Thi d, he e a e a ious financial p oduc s,
including s uc u al colloca ion choices o long- e m and sho - e m p oduc s, as well as
high- isk and high-yield u u es op ions and low- isk and low-yield unds, which la gely
a oid he isk bias caused by he lack o financial li e acy o ela i ely low-income amilies.
Mo eo e , wi h he gene a ional change o ela i ely low-income amilies, he educa ion
le el is ising highe and highe , and he imp o emen o financial li e acy will g adually
co ec his isk bias. Fou h, benefi ing om he con inuous de elopmen o China’s
medical insu ance and long- e m ca e insu ance and o he secu i y asse ma ke s, u al
low-income amilies will be likely o a ain some addi ional asse s om he basic li ing
expenses ha may “d ip in o mo e” in o he financial ma ke . Compa ed wi h he huge
amoun o capi al equi ed o eal es a e in es men , he di e si y o financial p oduc s
and he low h eshold o he numbe o unds will cons i u e a s ong emp a ion o u al
low-income amilies o en e he financial ma ke . O cou se, he isks associa ed wi h his
26
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 165
emp a ion will also be educed wi h he imp o emen o financial li e acy caused by he
inc ease o educa ion le el in he p ocess o amily gene a ional change, he de elopmen
o he digi al economy, and he wide sp ead o he In e ne .
The e o e, in iew o he abo e analysis, household income and asse s such as eal
es a e and financial asse s cons i u e he las ba ie o p e en ing u al Chinese households
om alling back in o po e y due o illness. Howe e , he mo e han h ee-yea con inuous
epidemic has deal a hea y blow o u al household income; a he same ime, due o he
cu en eal es a e ma ke down u n, houses ha e los he eali y and expec a ion o good
in es men alue, while he financial ma ke is cons an ly imp o ing and de eloping.
The e o e, his pape p oposes he ollowing hypo hesis:
Hypo hesis 1.
Financial asse s a e an impo an ac o a ec ing household heal h expendi u es,
including he likelihood o isi ing a doc o (a p oxy o how conce ned people a e abou hei heal h).
Hypo hesis 2.
Financial asse s significan ly influence he incidence o ca as ophic heal h expendi-
u es ( ep esen ing he e u n o po e y due o illness) o u al households.
Hypo hesis 3.
Financial asse s ha e a g ea e impac on u al households’ ca as ophic heal h
expendi u es han housing. En e ing he financial ma ke , compa ed o en e ing he eal es a e
ma ke , is mo e likely o become a iable op ion o u al amilies o block hei e u n o po e y due
o illness in he u u e.
2.3. Da a Sou ce
The da a o his s udy come om he China Heal h and Re i emen Longi udinal
Su ey (CHARLS), which aimed o collec a se o high-quali y mic o-da a ep esen ing
households and indi iduals aged 45 and abo e in China. The CHARLS Na ional Baseline
Su ey was conduc ed in 2011, co e ing 150 coun y uni s and 450 illage uni s. The samples
we e hen acked e e y wo o h ee yea s, wi h he mos ecen da a a ailable in 2018.
Fo his s udy, he la es 2018CHARLS da a we e selec ed, and 6103 u al samples we e
ob ained by sc eening he samples o middle-aged and elde ly people o e 45 yea s old and
emo ing missing alues. A he same ime, in he las pa , o compa e u al households
wi h u ban households, we also included he u ban sample (1009). The s a is ical so wa e
analysis p ocess was comple ed by STATA 17.0 (64bi ).
2.4. Va iable Selec ion
Ande son’s Beha io al Model o Heal h Se ices Use (BMHSU), a mains eam heo e -
ical model in Wes e n coun ies o explaining indi idual medical beha io s, was used o
selec he a iables in his pape .
2.4.1. Dependen Va iable
(1)
Heal h expendi u e (HE): Heal h expendi u e (HE) e e s o he cos s incu ed by an
indi idual o ea a physical illness and main ain a cu en s a e o heal h, including
ou pa ien and inpa ien medical expenses. As u al amilies g adually imp o e hei
heal h awa eness, he pu chase o heal h p oduc s has g adually become a end,
esul ing in p e en i e spending. The e o e, his pape also includes he consump ion
expendi u e gene a ed by he pu chase o heal h ca e p oduc s; ha is, he s udy
conside s he consump ion expendi u e o ou pa ien se ice, hospi aliza ion, pu -
chase o d ugs, and pu chase o heal h ca e p oduc s. Among hem, he numbe o
ou pa ien isi s ( he p obabili y o seeing a doc o ) also eflec s he ex en o u al
amilies’ a en ion o hei own heal h. To a oid he e oscedas ici y o skewness, we
added 1 o he ho izon al alue and hen ook he loga i hm;
(2)
Ca as ophic heal h expendi u e (CHE): Excessi e medical and heal h expendi u e
will undoub edly a ec he expendi u e o indi iduals o amilies in o he aspec s,
ha e a nega i e impac on hei li es, and may also occu due o illness o po e y,
27
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 165
and CHE indica o s can well eflec he amily’s “illness o po e y” s a us. The e a e
many defini ions o CHE, bu he one widely used by schola s is he one p oposed
by WHO in 2000: When an indi idual’s medical expendi u e exceeds 40% o his o
he a o dabili y, i means ha a cu en indi idual has incu ed ca as ophic medical
expendi u e [
41
], and a o dabili y is usually measu ed by he di e ence be ween
o al consume expendi u e and ood expendi u e.
When ca as ophic heal h expendi u e occu s, we can conside ha a e u n o po e y
due o illness (impo e ishmen ) has occu ed in u al households, so he incidence o
ca as ophic heal h expendi u e can also be ega ded as he incidence o e u n o po e y
due o illness.
2.4.2. Independen Va iable
Household income, as well as asse s such as eal es a e and financial asse s, cons i u e
he las ba ie agains u al households e u ning o po e y due o illness. The e o e,
income and o al asse s we e selec ed as he co e independen a iables, and he ein, o al
asse s a e composed o eal es a e and financial asse s: (1) income (inc): a e age house-
hold income, mainly including wage income, ans e income, ag icul u al income, and
inhe i ance o each membe o he amily; (2) o al asse s (ass): sum o financial asse s and
eal es a e; (3) financial asse s (fin_ass): including cash, elec onic money, bank deposi s,
bond unds pu chased, e c.; and (4) eal es a e (hs_ass): e e s o he alue o he house
owned by he amily (including he u al amily in he coun yside and he pu chase o
in es men p ope y in he own). Simila ly, o a oid ou lie s o ex eme obse a ions, we
added 1 o each o he abo e ou co e independen a iables. The eason why hese ou
a iables a e discussed sepa a ely is ha income and o al asse s a e di e en concep s
conce ning he flow and s ock o household weal h, espec i ely, and hei impac on and
expec a ions o heal h expendi u e a e di e en . Financial asse s and eal es a e we e aken
o compa a i e analysis.
2.4.3. Con ol Va iable
The con ol a iables a e mainly demog aphic cha ac e is ic a iables, socio-economic
cha ac e is ic a iables, and some heal h cha ac e is ic a iables: (1) demog aphic cha -
ac e is ics a iables: gende , age, and ma i al s a us; (2) socio-economic cha ac e is ic
a iables: educa ion le el, possession o no o medical insu ance, and possession o no
o pension insu ance, o example, possession o no o medical insu ance is specifically
eflec ed in he 2018 ques ionnai e o he China Heal h and Pension T acking Su ey: “Do
you cu en ly pa icipa e in he ollowing medical insu ance?”; (3) heal h cha ac e is ic
a iables: sel - a ed heal h s a us and su e ing o no om ch onic diseases.
2.5. Empi ical Me hod
Fi s ly, non-pa ame ic ke nel densi y eg ession was used o measu e HE le el and
CHE incidence unde di e en income and asse le els. Nonpa ame ic es ima ion is a
me hod in con as o pa ame ic es ima ion, which gene ally does no emphasize he spe-
cific dis ibu ion o he model and does no make any assump ions abou i . The pa ame e
es ima ion me hod assumes ha he popula ion ollows some specific dis ibu ion wi h
unknown pa ame e s, ocuses on es ima ing he pa ame e s o he assumed model, and has
s ong dependence on he assump ions made by he model. When compa ing he wo, he
non-pa ame ic es ima ion me hod is mo e obus . I s co e idea is ha he a e age alue
o each es ima e is fi s ob ained o yield an es ima e o he eg ession unc ion. Howe e ,
he obse ed alues o eal da a a e limi ed, and aking he a e age alue as he es ima o
will easily lead o excessi e a iance. In o de o a oid he p oblem o da a sca ci y, he
“locally weigh ed a e age es ima o ” is conside ed [
42
]. Specifically, in his s udy, ou
co e independen a iables o inc, ass, fin_ass, and hs_ass we e subs i u ed, and Gaussian
ke nel was selec ed o pe o m ke nel densi y eg ession o HE and CHE, espec i ely.
28
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 165
Secondly, he wo-pa model was used o es ima e he pa ame e s o he influenc-
ing ac o s o HE and CHE. Al hough he non-pa ame ic es ima ion me hod has some
ad an ages in p ac ical applica ion, i may ace he “cu se o dimension” because i has
high equi emen s on sample size and is no sui able o he case o oo many explana o y
a iables. To explo e he s a is ical ela ionship be ween a iables, his s udy employed
ano he me hod, he wo-pa model, o es ima e he pa ame e s o he influencing ac o s
o HE and CHE. In he sample size, nea ly 40% o HE is 0, showing a skewed dis ibu ion,
and a biased es ima e may be gene a ed i he con en ional OLS es ima ion is applied. To
a oid possible sample selec ion p oblems, he “ wo-pa model” was chosen in his s udy.
Tha is, indi idual beha io was di ided in o wo s ages (pa icipa o y decision making
and quan i a i e decision making).
Finally, in he discussion o ca as ophic heal h expendi u e, his pape adop s he
empi ical me hod o logi eg ession.
3. Resul s
3.1. Desc ip i e S a is ics
Specific a iable desc ip ions and desc ip i e s a is ics a e shown in Table 1.
Table 1. In oduc ion o a iables and desc ip i e s a is ics.
Va iable Name Va iable Desc ip ion Mean
Value
S anda d
De ia ion
Minimum
Value
Maximum
Value
Dependen
a iable
Heal h expendi u e
(HE) Loga i hm 2.960 2.640 0 10.60
Ca as ophic heal h
expendi u e (CHE)
Yes = 1 0.283 0.450 1 1
No = 0 0.717 0.450 0 0
Independen
a iable
Income Loga i hm 6.546 3.832 0 14.92
To al asse s Loga i hm 9.821 2.668 0 24.12
Financial asse s Loga i hm 8.717 2.042 0 18.52
House p ope y Loga i hm 4.856 5.726 0 24.12
Con ol
a iable
Age Con inuous a iable 61.67 9.509 45 108
Educa ion
Comple e
Seconda y educa ion and abo e = 1 0.291 0.454 1 1
Failu e o comple e compulso y
educa ion = 0 0.291 0.454 0 0
Gende Male = 1 0.450 0.498 1 1
Female = 0 0.550 0.498 0 0
Ma i al s a us Ha ing a spouse = 1 0.861 0.346 1 1
Di o ced, widowed, unma ied = 0; 0.139 0.346 0 0
Sel -assessmen o
heal h s a us
“Bad”, “ e y bad” = 1; 0.284 0.451 1 1
“Ve y good”, “good”, “a e age” = 0 0.716 0.451 0 0
Ch onic diseases Ch onic disease = 1 0.285 0.451 1 1
No ch onic disease = 0 0.715 0.451 0 0
Medical insu ance
Ha e ei he one
Heal h insu ance = 1 0.811 0.391 1 1
None = 0 0.189 0.391 0 0
Endowmen insu ance
Ha e ei he one
Basic endowmen insu ance = 1 0.944 0.231 1 1
None = 0 0.056 0.231 0 0
Fi s o all, as shown in Table 1, in his sample, he a e age loga i hmic alue o HE is
2.960, and he incidence o CHE is 28.3% (which can also be used o ep esen he incidence
o u al amilies in he sample e u ning o po e y due o illness o being in po e y
al eady). I can be seen ha he incidence o CHE ou s ipped 13.0% (o 2008) by a la ge
ma gin. Only 29.1% o middle-aged and elde ly people comple ed compulso y educa ion,
indica ing ha he cu en sample is sligh ly less educa ed. The p opo ion o people wi h
poo sel - a ed heal h and ch onic diseases was simila in he o al sample, accoun ing o
abou h ee- en hs o he sample popula ion. In addi ion, 86.1% o he people in he sample
29

Ag icul u e 2024,14, 165
ha e a spouse, he a e age age is 62 yea s old, he sample is mo e emale, and mos o he
people ha e heal h insu ance and pension insu ance.
Secondly, combined wi h Table 1 and Figu e 1, he dis ibu ion o income and asse s
o he sample popula ion has he ollowing cha ac e is ics: (1) F om he peak alue, bo h
income and eal es a e ha e a peak alue nea 0, which sugges s a significan p opo ion
o u al esiden s a e unemployed o p oduc ion-sel -su ficien . In addi ion, he income
is a double peak, and he p opo ion o people wi h lowe income is highe in he double
peak, indica ing ha he e is a ce ain income s uc u e in he sample. The asse class
a iables all ha e single peaks, which gene ally con o m o no mal dis ibu ion. (2) F om
he pe spec i e o span, he span o eal es a e is he la ges (max = 24.12), which also leads
o a la ge span o pe sonal asse s, which indica es ha indi idual di e ences a e la ge, and
he ealiza ion o common p ospe i y in he u u e is no ealis ic. The span o income is he
smalles , ollowed by financial asse s, indica ing ha he dis ibu ion is mo e concen a ed.
Figu e 1. Ke nel densi y o income and asse s.
3.2. Non-Pa ame ic Ke nel Densi y Reg ession Resul s
Fi s , he ke nel densi y eg ession o income, asse s, and HE has he ollowing cha ac-
e is ics (as shown in Figu e 2a): (1) Income: HE g adually declines wi h he inc ease in
income and ises ab up ly when i exceeds a ce ain h eshold. Locally, HE appea s a a
double peak be o e he qua e o he income quan ile and suddenly ises and alls. On
he one hand, i shows ha people’s conce n abou hei heal h has a ce ain co ela ion
wi h hei income. The ex emely low-income g oups do no ca e enough abou hei
heal h p oblems because hei heal h p oblems a e in a seconda y posi ion compa ed wi h
economic po e y, which is especially ob ious in he as u al a eas in he o me ly deeply
poo a eas. On he o he hand, i also shows ha u al households jus ou o po e y a e
e y sensi i e o heal h expendi u e; one eason is because hey a e mo e conce ned abou
hei heal h p oblems a e po e y alle ia ion, and he o he is ha a small change in heal h
expendi u e may a ec hei o he no mal consump ion expendi u e, inc easing he isk o
alling back in o po e y. (2) Asse s: Wi h he inc ease o financial asse s, al hough he e a e
ce ain fluc ua ions, he o e all cu e is ela i ely smoo h only a e a ce ain c i ical alue
is exceeded. I shows a posi i e co ela ion wi h HE in a small ange, which indica es ha
only he de elopmen o financial asse s can p omo e people’s demand o heal h quali y.
Howe e , he linea ela ionship be ween eal es a e and HE is no clea , which is mainly
mani es ed in he cu e peaks a he lowe and highe asse le els, espec i ely, showing
di e en mono onici y in di e en asse anges as well as a nonlinea ela ionship. This
30
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 165
shows ha financial asse s a e mo e sensi i e o heal h quali y demand han eal es a e,
and he u u e p ospec s a e mo e p omising.
Secondly, he ke nel densi y eg ession o income and asse s and CHE has he ollowing
cha ac e is ics (as shown in Figu e 2b): (1) Real es a e and o al asse s: Wi h he inc ease in
he amoun o asse s, CHE will inc ease o a ce ain ex en , bu hen, i shows a downwa d
end. Howe e , as he amoun o asse s inc eases u he , he CHE will inc ease and hen
dec ease. CHE inc eases app oaching he asse maximum. The influence o eal es a e and
o al asse s on CHE does no show ob ious cha ac e is ics. This may be because in he
cu en Chinese household, eal es a e accoun s o an absolu e majo i y o he o al asse s,
so he pe o mance cha ac e is ics a e he same. A he same ime, hey do no show a clea
signa u e o ca as ophic heal h expendi u es, sugges ing ha u al households canno
e ec i ely p e en e u n o po e y due o illness h ough housing in es men . (2) Income
and financial asse s: In addi ion o he ex eme alue o financial asse s a a lowe le el,
CHE dec eases significan ly wi h he inc ease in income and financial asse s as a whole.
This sugges s ha he impac o financial asse s on ca as ophic heal h expendi u es has a
h eshold e ec ha p o es Huang and Shi’s iew [
22
,
23
] om he pe spec i e o e u ning
o po e y due o illness. The explana ion is ha i financial asse s a e oo small, hey ha e
li le significance in p e en ing he e u n o po e y due o illness. The e o e, i is necessa y
o find ways o inc ease he financial asse s o u al households as soon as possible un il
he h eshold is eached.
3.3. Financial Asse s and Heal h Expendi u es
In Figu e 2a, income, asse s, and HE show a U-shaped ela ionship. To es whe he
his ela ionship is alid in s a is ical eg ession, he influence o he quad a ic e m was
also conside ed when s udying he influencing ac o s o heal h expendi u e (HE). The
eg ession esul s a e shown in Tables 2 and 3. In he ables, (2–1)–(2–4) show uni a i-
a e eg ession, (2–5)–(2–8) in oduce quad a ic eg ession, and he same is ue below
(Tables 3–6).
Figu e 2. Con .
31
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 165
Figu e 2.
Ke nel densi y eg ession o income, asse s, and HE and CHE. (
a
) Ke nel densi y eg ession
o income, asse s, and HE. (b) Ke nel densi y eg ession o income, asse s, and CHE.
Table 2. Influencing ac o s o seeking o no seeking medical ea men .
Ma gins (A e age Ma ginal E ec )
(2–1) (2–2) (2–3) (2–4) (2–5) (2–6) (2–7) (2–8)
inc 0.001 0.007
(0.002) (0.006)
ass 0.005 ** 0.015 *
(0.003) (0.008)
fin_ass 0.015 * 0.018
(0.009) (0.011)
hs_ass 0.002 0.002
(0.001) (0.003)
inc2 −0.001
(0.001)
ass2 −0.000
(0.000)
fin_ass2 −0.001
(0.001)
hs_ass2 −0.000
(0.000)
Age 0.001 * 0.001 * 0.001 * 0.001 0.001 0.001 * 0.001 * 0.001
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Educa ion 0.024 * 0.022 * 0.022 0.023 * 0.025 * 0.022 0.023 * 0.023 *
(0.013) (0.013) (0.013) (0.013) (0.013) (0.013) (0.014) (0.013)
Gende −0.062 *** −0.063 *** −0.063 *** −0.061 *** −0.062 *** −0.063 *** −0.063 *** −0.061 ***
(0.012) (0.012) (0.012) (0.012) (0.012) (0.012) (0.012) (0.011)
Ma i al s a us 0.006 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.001 0.001 0.003
(0.018) (0.018) (0.018) (0.018) (0.018) (0.018) (0.018) (0.018)
Heal h s a us 0.197 *** 0.199 *** 0.199 *** 0.197 *** 0.196 *** 0.199 *** 0.199 *** 0.197 ***
(0.013) (0.013) (0.013) (0.013) (0.013) (0.013) (0.013) (0.013)
Su e ing om
ch onic disease 0.116 *** 0.116 *** 0.116 *** 0.116 *** 0.116 *** 0.116 *** 0.116 *** 0.116 ***
(0.013) (0.013) (0.013) (0.013) (0.013) (0.013) (0.013) (0.013)
Medical insu ance 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.003 0.001 0.002
(0.015) (0.015) (0.015) (0.015) (0.015) (0.015) (0.015) (0.015)
Endowmen insu ance −0.001 −0.002 −0.003 −0.001 −0.000 −0.003 −0.002 −0.001
(0.025) (0.025) (0.025) (0.025) (0.025) (0.025) (0.025) (0.025)
S anda d e o s in pa en heses. * p< 0.1; ** p< 0.05; *** p< 0.01.
32
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 165
Table 3. Influencing ac o s o heal h expendi u e.
(3–1) (3–2) (3–3) (3–4) (3–5) (3–6) (3–7) (3–8)
inc −0.017 *** −0.040 *
(0.006) (0.023)
ass −0.001 0.012
(0.008) (0.030)
fin_ass −0.007 0.061
(0.013) (0.050)
hs_ass 0.002 0.010
(0.004) (0.011)
inc2 0.002
(0.002)
ass2 −0.001
(0.001)
fin_ass2 −0.004
(0.003)
hs_ass2 −0.001
(0.001)
Age 0.007 ** 0.005 ** 0.005 * 0.005 ** 0.008 *** 0.005 ** 0.005 * 0.005 **
(0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003)
Educa ion 0.037 0.031 0.034 0.029 0.032 0.030 0.040 0.029
(0.052) (0.052) (0.052) (0.052) (0.052) (0.052) (0.053) (0.052)
Gende −0.242 *** −0.225 *** −0.229 *** −0.225 *** −0.231 *** −0.226 *** −0.239 *** −0.229 ***
(0.063) (0.063) (0.063) (0.063) (0.064) (0.063) (0.063) (0.063)
Ma i al s a us −0.179 *** −0.193 *** −0.191 *** −0.193 *** −0.182 *** −0.194 *** −0.189 *** −0.193 ***
(0.046) (0.046) (0.046) (0.046) (0.046) (0.046) (0.046) (0.046)
Heal h s a us 0.062 *** 0.071 *** 0.074 *** 0.068 *** 0.070 *** 0.068 *** 0.064 *** 0.065 ***
(0.066) (0.066) (0.066) (0.066) (0.066) (0.066) (0.067) (0.066)
Su e ing om
ch onic disease 0.872 *** 0.882 *** 0.880 *** 0.883 *** 0.876 *** 0.884 *** 0.879 *** 0.883 ***
(0.047) (0.047) (0.047) (0.046) (0.047) (0.047) (0.047) (0.046)
Medical insu ance 0.066 0.075 0.074 0.077 0.069 0.076 0.072 0.076
(0.056) (0.056) (0.056) (0.056) (0.056) (0.056) (0.056) (0.056)
Endowmen
insu ance 0.279 *** 0.271 *** 0.273 *** 0.270 *** 0.278 *** 0.271 *** 0.277 *** 0.270 ***
(0.095) (0.095) (0.095) (0.095) (0.095) (0.095) (0.095) (0.095)
Cons an e m 4.014 *** 3.976 *** 4.051 *** 3.960 *** 3.947 *** 3.905 *** 3.818 *** 3.967 ***
(0.215) (0.242) (0.269) (0.215) (0.225) (0.293) (0.319) (0.215)
S anda d e o s in pa en heses. * p< 0.1; ** p< 0.05; *** p< 0.01.
As shown in Table 2, among he co e independen a iables, only o al asse s and finan-
cial asse s passed he significance es . The ma ginal e ec o o al asse s is 0.005 (
p< 0.05
),
indica ing ha e e y uni inc ease in o al asse s inc eases he p obabili y o seeking medi-
cal ea men by 0.5%. When he seconda y e m o o al asse s is in oduced, al hough he
e ec is igno ed, he p obabili y o seeking medical ea men is significan ly inc eased o
1.5% (p< 0.1). A he same ime, o e e y uni inc ease in financial asse s, he likelihood o
an indi idual seeking medical ea men inc eased by 1.5%. This sugges s no only ha
he e is a ela ionship be ween financial asse s and how conce ned people a e abou hei
heal h bu also, indi ec ly, ha housing plays a small ole. Among he con ol a iables, he
indi idual’s heal h s a us has a significan impac on he p obabili y o seeking medical
ea men , and he esul s passed he es a he significance le el o 1%. Among hem,
compa ed wi h hose wi h good heal h and hose wi hou ch onic disease, he p obabili y
o seeking medical ea men inc eased by nea ly 20% and 12%, espec i ely, wi h poo
heal h and ch onic disease. In addi ion, women wi h compulso y educa ion and olde age
p o ed mo e likely o seek medical ea men .
As shown in Table 3, in e ms o influencing ac o s o heal h expendi u e, among
he co e independen a iables, asse a iables did no pass he significance es , while
he inc ease o income le el significan ly educed HE by 1.7%, and he conclusion was
33
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 165
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Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e:
The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual
au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .
41
Ci a ion: Zhang, R.; Zhang, J.; Zhang,
K.; Xu, D.; Qi, Y.; Deng, X. Do Clean
Toile s Help Imp o e Fa me s’
Men al Heal h? Empi ical E idence
om China’s Ru al Toile Re olu ion.
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 128. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/ag icul u e14010128
Academic Edi o s: F ancisco
Ja ie Cas ellano-Ál a ez,
Ra ael Robina-Ramí ez and F ancisco
JoséFe ei a Sil a
Recei ed: 6 Decembe 2023
Re ised: 11 Janua y 2024
Accep ed: 13 Janua y 2024
Published: 15 Janua y 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
ag icul u e
A icle
Do Clean Toile s Help Imp o e Fa me s’ Men al Heal h?
Empi ical E idence om China’s Ru al Toile Re olu ion
Ruohan Zhang 1, Jialan Zhang 1, Kuan Zhang 1, Dingde Xu 2, Yanbin Qi 1and Xin Deng 1,*
1College o Economics, Sichuan Ag icul u al Uni e si y, Chengdu 611130, China;
[email p o ec ed] (R.Z.); [email p o ec ed] (J.Z.); [email p o ec ed] (K.Z.);
[email p o ec ed] (Y.Q.)
2College o Managemen , Sichuan Ag icul u al Uni e si y, Chengdu 611130, China; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
The men al heal h c isis poses a majo challenge o global sus ainable de elopmen . In
esponse, he Uni ed Na ions has launched an ambi ious plan o “ eshape he en i onmen ha a ec s
men al heal h”. Clean oile s a e an impo an measu e o ci iliza ion, ye i is unclea whe he hey
a e helping o alle ia e he global men al heal h c isis. The e o e, using da a om a la ge sample o
u al Chinese households and in oducing an ins umen al a iables app oach based on he IV-Tobi
model o add ess endogenei y, his s udy quan i a i ely discusses ha clean la ines ha e a posi i e
e ec on he men al heal h o a m households. The esul s showed he ollowing: (1) 89.8% o
Chinese u al households had clean oile s, while he a e age a m household dep ession index
was 12.568
; and (2) clean oile s helped o imp o e he men al heal h o a me s, which means ha
he dep ession index o a me s wi h clean oile s dec eased by 66.9% compa ed o a me s wi hou
clean oile s. The findings o his s udy can in o m he de elopmen o policies o mi iga e he global
men al heal h c isis and con ibu e o he esilience o global de elopmen .
Keywo ds: clean oile s; men al heal h; oile e olu ion; IV-Tobi model; China u al
1. In oduc ion
Men al diso de s a e a majo public heal h p oblem a ec ing pa ien s, socie y, and he
en i e na ion [
1
]. The Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion has announced ha nea ly 1 billion people
wo ldwide su e ed om men al diso de s in 2019, which means ha 1 in 8 people su e ed
om a men al diso de . Fo indi iduals, men al diso de s ha e a significan nega i e impac
on a pa ien ’s labo o ce pa icipa ion, wi h people wi h men al diso de s losing an a e age
o 10.52 addi ional yea s o wo k [
2
]. Men al illness can also lead o a g ea e likelihood o
lea ing school ea ly, a lowe likelihood o ob aining ull- ime employmen , and a educed
quali y o li e. In addi ion, all people wi h men al diso de s ha e an inc eased isk o
p ema u e dea h [
3
]. Fo he whole o socie y and he economy, men al diso de s can cause
an inc ease in o al economic cos s. A Canadian s udy sugges s ha he o al economic
cos s associa ed wi h men al illness will inc ease six- old o e he nex 30 yea s, and could
exceed $2.8 illion based on 2015 Aus alian dolla s [
4
]. As a esul , how o e ec i ely
cu b he sp ead o he global men al illness c isis has become a esea ch p io i y o he
academic communi y.
The li e ime p e alence o men al diso de s in China is 16.6%, meaning ha
230 million
people will su e om men al diso de s in hei li e ime. The insidious na u e o men al
illnesses has led o he equen p oblem o Chinese pa ien s su e ing om men al illnesses
and ailing o ecognize hei illnesses o seek imely medical a en ion. This will lead
o agic consequences, such as a u al suicide a e o 7.04 pe 100,000 in 2019, a suicide
a e among China’s elde ly ha is 2.75 o 7.08 imes highe han ha o he gene al pop-
ula ion, and a con inued ise in psychological p oblems among le -behind child en [
5
].
Ru e [
6
]; Cla k e al. [
7
]; E ans [
8
] showed ha he en i onmen can e ec i ely imp o e
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 128. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ag icul u e14010128 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ag icul u e
42
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 128
men al heal h. The e o e, his pape s a s om he pe spec i e o he oile e olu ion
in China’s habi a imp o emen , quan i a i ely in es iga es whe he his en i onmen al
e o m can imp o e he le el o human men al heal h, and p oposes Hypo hesis H1: The
oile e olu ion has a posi i e e ec on he men al heal h o a me s.
Fi s ly, he defini ion o men al diso de s. Cu en esea ch findings ha e classified
men al diso de s in o 11 condi ions: panic diso de , social phobia, simple phobia, majo
dep essi e diso de , obsessi e-compulsi e diso de , subs ance abuse/dependence, alco-
holism/dependence, pe sonali y diso de , schizoph enia, bipola diso de , and demen ia
in hose olde han 65 yea s o age [
9
]. This shows ha dep ession is an impo an pa
o men al diso de s. Acco ding o a WHO analysis, a qua e o he wo ld’s popula ion
su e s om a mix u e o he mo e common men al diso de s, usually anxie y and de-
p ession [
10
]. Thus, he key o e ec i ely add essing men al diso de s, an impo an
issue in global sus ainable de elopmen , is how o e ec i ely add ess dep ession, which
in u n comes o significan ly alle ia e he global p oblem o men al illness. S udies by
Slyepchenko e al. [11]
and Yang e al. [
12
] ha e shown ha he dis up ion o he gu mic o-
biome is associa ed wi h Majo Dep essi e Diso de (MDD) and ha dis up ion o he gu
mic obiome will lead o MDD h ough some mechanism. Phillips e al. [
13
] belie e ha he
li ing en i onmen has a posi i e impac on men al heal h, and Li and Zhou [
14
] belie e
ha li ing en i onmen in e en ions, such as en i onmen al imp o emen s o indoo
home acili ies, a e an e ec i e way o educe he isk o dep essi e symp oms in middle-
aged and olde Chinese people. This s udy hypo hesizes ha imp o ing physical heal h
and li ing en i onmen s can be e ec i e in imp o ing dep ession and alle ia ing men al
diso de s, ul ima ely con ibu ing o sus ainable global de elopmen a bo h indi idual
and socio-economic le els.
The s a e o physical heal h and li ing condi ions in u al a eas a e no encou aging.
I is es ima ed ha as o 2017, 880 million people we e li ing in slum-like condi ions,
wi h app oxima ely 50% li ing in u al a eas whe e condi ions s ill needed o con inue
o imp o e [
15
]. The UN Millennium De elopmen Goals (MDGs) epo sugges s ha
global basic sani a ion co e age was only 67% as o 2015, well below he 75% co e age
needed o achie e he MDGs. Poo sani a ion a ound he wo ld has led o inc eased disease
p e alence and en i onmen al pollu ion (MFA and UN, 2015, UNICEF and WHO, 2015);
1.5 million child en die om dia hea each yea [
16
]. This shows ha he oile e olu ion,
which is an impo an measu e o imp o e heal h and li ing condi ions, canno be delayed.
The oile e olu ion e e s o he eno a ion o oile s in de eloping coun ies, and
discussions abou a e olu ion in public oile s we e aised in public media in China as ea ly
as he ea ly 1990s. The Fi e-Yea Ac ion P oposal o he Imp o emen and Upg ading o
he Ru al Habi a En i onmen (2021–2025) p oposes ha du ing he implemen a ion o
he p oposal, he u al oile e olu ion should be p omo ed solidly, including impo an
ini ia i es such as g adually popula izing u al sani a y oile s, e ec i ely imp o ing he
quali y o oile con e sion, and s eng hening he ha mless ea men and esou ce ul
use o oile was e. The implemen a ion o hese elemen s will e ec i ely imp o e he
li ing en i onmen and de e he sp ead o he i us. As known om he p e ious con en ,
bo h physical heal h s a us and he le el o he li ing en i onmen ac as impo an ac o s
a ec ing men al heal h. Howe e , ew s udies ha e demons a ed he impac o he oile
e olu ion on psychological heal h based on he abo e ac o s. The e o e, his s udy will
use his o in es iga e he impac o he oile e olu ion on he psychological heal h o
a me s and o quan i y he ex en o he impac .
Men al diso de s a e sp eading globally, especially in de eloping coun ies. The e o e,
his s udy is based on China, he wo ld’s la ges de eloping coun y. While p e ious
s udies ha e ocused on he pallia ion o psychia ic diso de s by pha macological ea -
men s, his s udy ocuses on he pallia ion o psychia ic diso de s by non-pha macological
ea men s, which is one o he con ibu ions o he scien ific alue o his pape . Mos
exis ing s udies ha e used a single indica o o measu e he dep ession o a me s, such as
Co igan e al. [17]
, Hayes and Poland [
18
], and Makwana [
19
]. I is di ficul o a single
43
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 128
indica o o eflec he o e all men al s a e o a me s. In his s udy, he Like scale me hod
and en opy weigh ing me hod we e used o measu e he dep ession index o a me s.
Exis ing s udies ha e gene ally used simple empi ical me hods, such as he DID model [
20
],
Mul iple linea eg ession [
21
], o he O-p obi model [
22
]. In his way, he endogenei y
o a me s’ beha io al decisions is igno ed, and he esul s o he s udy may be biased.
Thus, his s udy uses he IV-Tobi model o in oduce ins umen al a iables o o e come
po en ial endogenei y p oblems.
2. Theo e ical Analysis and Resea ch Hypo hesis
Rose e al. [
23
] indica e ha app oxima ely 179 million a ming households will s ill be
using adi ional d y la ines by 2022. Howe e , his p ac ice poses a significan heal h isk
as human eces con ain high le els o o ganic pollu an s, i uses, pa hogenic bac e ia, and
pa asi e eggs. Fo ins ance, diseases such as COVID-19 can be sp ead h ough he ecal-o al
ou e as shown by Ca uso and F eeman [
24
]. The absence o p ope sani a ion acili ies
can c ea e an en i onmen ha p omo es he sp ead o bac e ia and i uses. Fu he mo e,
he imp ope handling o manu e can lead o he pollu ion o ai , soil, wa e , and ood,
esul ing in ad e se e ec s on he li ing en i onmen [
25
]. Resea ch has shown ha he
li ing en i onmen has a significan impac on men al heal h. Phillips e al. [
13
] ound ha
a posi i e li ing en i onmen could imp o e men al heal h. Li and Zhou [
14
] sugges ed
ha imp o ing indoo home acili ies could educe he isk o dep essi e symp oms among
middle-aged and olde adul s in China. S udies ha e also shown ha olde people benefi
om a a o able en i onmen [
26
–
30
]. No ling e al. [
31
] and Ishida e al. [
32
] ound ha
some oile en i onmen s a e pe cei ed as unsa e, di y, smelly, and unpleasan . Howe e ,
a i udes owa ds hese en i onmen s can be changed by modi ying hem, such as changing
he da k and damp en i onmen , inc easing p i acy, and educing exposed eces. Yang
and Yuan [
33
] sugges ed ha he en i onmen has a significan impac on people’s moods,
beha io s, and habi s, and he e o e imp o ing sani a ion acili ies can imp o e people’s
li ing condi ions and o e all well-being.
Ali e al. [
34
] and Paddy e al. [
35
] belie e ha he i us is ansmi ed h ough ae osols
p oduced when flushing wa e and ha he i us comes in o con ac wi h he human gu
h ough he espi a o y ac , esul ing in he onse o dia hea and mala ia. Wang and
Liu [
36
] indica ed ha COVID-19 ansmission is associa ed wi h eces, meaning ha ex-
posed eces ha e he po en ial o ansmi he i us. Some schola s belie e ha he lack o a
oile e olu ion o he poo condi ion o he oile s has led o a sha p inc ease in schis o-
somes and pa asi es h ough he con amina ion o wa e by exposed eces. This in u n has
a ec ed he a e o schis osomal in ec ions, inc eased he a e o ec o -bo ne o ganisms,
and inc eased he numbe o E. coli, hus a ec ing heal h [
37
,
38
]. Zhou e al. [
39
] ound
ha u ine and exc emen end o cling o d y conc e e oile s, eleasing unpleasan odo s
and bac e ia, and sp eading disease, posing a h ea o human heal h and en i onmen al
sa e y. Akaishi e al. [
40
] indica ed ha he es o a ion o oile hygiene was associa ed wi h
a educ ion in he p e alence o gas oin es inal in ec ious diseases. The u al oile e o m
significan ly educed a me s’ expendi u e on heal h ca e and had a significan posi i e
impac on he heal h le el o u al esiden s. Thus, a well-implemen ed oile e olu ion
can be a good way o imp o e people’s physical heal h. Kisele a and S ielkowski [
41
]
ound ha he mos impo an ac o a ec ing well-being is heal h, and based on his i can
be in e ed ha imp o ed physical heal h can help educe dep ession.
In summa y, he oile e olu ion will ha e a posi i e impac on a me s’ men al
heal h h ough wo mechanisms: changing he li ing en i onmen and imp o ing a me s’
physical heal h. This means ha a good implemen a ion si e o he oile e olu ion has a
significan posi i e impac on a me s’ men al heal h, as shown in Figu e 1. The e o e, his
pape p oposes Hypo hesis H1: The oile e olu ion has a posi i e e ec on he men al
heal h o a me s.
44
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 128
Figu e 1. Mechanism diag am.
3. Da a, Va iables, and Me hod
3.1. Da a
The da a used in his a icle a e mainly om he China Land Economic Su ey,
2020 and 2021 (h p://jsc .njau.edu.cn,
accessed on 1 Janua y 2022). This da abase su -
ey uses he PPS sampling me hod o sample 52 adminis a i e illages and 2600 a ming
households in 13 p e ec u e-le el ci ies in he Jiangsu p o ince, based on he es ablishmen
and su ey o fixed u al obse a ion poin s, co e ing aspec s such as ecological en i on-
men , g een de elopmen , po e y alle ia ion, u al go e nance, u al cons uc ion, e c.
The ques ionnai e includes ques ions abou he oile e olu ion, such as he ype o oile
and whe he i can be flushed, and ques ions abou men al heal h, such as whe he hey
ha e el dep essed and happy ecen ly.
The pu pose o his s udy is o examine he impac o he oile e olu ion on he men al
heal h o a ming households. Re e ence li e a u e o Cheng e al. [
15
] and
Wang and Shen [20]
,
among he a iables selec ed, we e hose ela ed o he oile e olu ion and men al heal h,
and he emaining sample o 5039 a me s was p ocessed by dele ing missing alues, and
so on.
3.2. Va iables
3.2.1. Explained Va iables
This s udy uses he men al heal h s a us o a me s as he explana o y a iable and
aims o discuss he impac o he oile e olu ion on he men al heal h s a us o a me s.
The ques ionnai e asks esponden s i hey ha e el any hing in he pas week including
a low mood, s uggling o do any hing, no sleeping well, eeling happy, eeling lonely,
li ing happily, eeling sad and upse , and eeling unable o go on wi h hei li es, and he
esponden s comple e a fi e-poin scale depending on he le el o impac . By no malizing
he eigh indica o s h ough he en opy weigh ing me hod, he sco e is calcula ed by
calcula ing he en opy alue and en opy weigh ing, ha is he dep ession index (0–100);
he highe he index he highe he deg ee o dep ession. The p ocess o calcula ing he
dep ession index is shown in Appendix A.
3.2.2. Explained Va iables
The “A ailabili y o flushable oile con eniences” was used as he co e explana o y
a iable in his s udy. The ques ion “ ype o oile ” in he China Land Economic Su ey was
selec ed, and oile s wi h flushing de ices we e assigned a alue o 1, which means
1 = clean
oile , while he es we e assigned a alue o 0, which means 0 = non-clean oile . As he
‘ oile e olu ion’ con inues, local go e nmen s a e op imizing hei s anda ds and equi e-
men s, om s anda d o com o able, and om idy o beau i ul. The sani a y code o
public oile s issued by he S a e Adminis a ion o Ma ke Supe ision and Adminis a ion
and he Na ional S anda diza ion Adminis a ion o China (h ps://opens d.sam .go .cn,
45

Ag icul u e 2024,14, 128
accessed on 1 Janua y 2022) clea ly s a es ha ha mless sani a y oile s a e he ollowing:
he sep ic ank ype wi h h ee o mo e compa men s wi h on -end ea men acili ies,
he diges e ype, he double and iple u n ype, he u ine and eces sepa a ion ype, and
he flush ype wi h comple e wa e and sewe age. Based on he abo e equi emen s, he
exis ing oile si ua ion can be ca ego ized in o oile s wi h flushing de ices and oile s wi h-
ou flushing de ices, while he models in he no ma i e s anda ds all belong o oile s wi h
flushing de ices. This s udy ocuses on sani a y oile s and he e o e uses he a ailabili y
o flushable oile con eniences as a c i e ion o he de elopmen o a oile e olu ion.
3.2.3. Con ol Va iables
To imp o e he es ima ion powe o he model, in selec ing he con ol a iables,
his s udy e e s o Al-Bu meh and Al-Kha aib [
42
], Feng e al. [
43
], Zeng and Jian [
44
],
Chang e al. [
45
] and Shields-Zeeman and Smi [
46
], While hese schola s selec ed age,
educa ion le el, and economic income as con ol a iables in hei s udies, his s udy
added some ac o s a ec ing he men al heal h o a me s as con ol a iables. These
con ol a iables include pe sonal cha ac e is ics o he a m household ( o example, age
o he a m household, educa ion le el o he a m household, whe he he a m household
is engaged in ag icul u al p oduc ion, sel - a ed heal h o he a m household), social
and economic cha ac e is ics o he household ( o example, he s uc u e o household
educa ion le el, household economic income, whe he he household is loca ed in a plain
a ea) and en i onmen al cha ac e is ics.
3.2.4. Desc ip i e S a is ics
Table 1 p esen s he defini ions o he a iables and desc ip i e s a is ics o his s udy.
The mul iple a iables used in he s udy we e bina y disc e e a iables. Fo example, he
oile e olu ion si ua ion whe e i is a clean oile ook he alue o 1 and he non-clean
oile ook he alue o 0. As can be seen om Table 1, he a e age dep ession index o
esponden s in he sample was 12.568, which was ela i ely good o dep ession, and 89.8%
o households had comple ed he oile e olu ion, indica ing ha he oile e olu ion
p ocess was ad ancing significan ly. The a e age age o esponden s was app oxima ely
62 yea s, indica ing ha he majo i y o hose li ing in u al a eas a e olde , middle-aged,
and elde ly and ha middle-aged and elde ly g oups we e mo e likely o su e om
men al diso de s, making i significan o ocus on hose li ing in u al a eas. Only 14.6%
o esponden s had a high school o highe deg ee o li e acy, wi h a gene ally low le el o
educa ion in u al a eas. A o al o 84.2% o he sample used sma phones, bu only 45%
used he in e ne . In o al, 85.5% o he households in he sample we e si ua ed in he plains
wi h ela i ely fla e ain, and 34.5% o hem conside ed hei illages o be pollu ed, hus
showing he need o habi a imp o emen .
3.3. Me hod
3.3.1. Baseline Model
This s udy aims o discuss he quan i a i e impac o he oile e olu ion on he
psychological heal h o a me s. The dependen a iable is he dep ession index o a me s,
which is a wo-sided es ic ed unca ed model wi h 0–100, and he independen a iable
is he s a us o he oile e olu ion, which is a bina y a iable: 1 = clean oile s, which
means a oile e olu ion is aking place; and 0 = non-clean oile s, which means no oile
e olu ion is aking place. Thus, his s udy uses he Tobi eg ession model as he baseline
model o he s udy o analyze he quan i a i e ela ionship be ween he oile e olu ion
and a me s’ men al heal h, wi h he ollowing es ima ed equa ion:
y∗=β0+β1Clean oile i+β2Xi+μi(1)
y=max(0, y∗)(2)
46
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 128
When
y∗
>0,y=
y∗
; o he s, y = 0. The explana o y a iable y is men al heal h s a us
(dep ession index),
y∗
is he obse ed alue o men al heal h s a us, and he explana o y
a iable is he s a us o he oile e olu ion, The andom e o e m
μi
ollows a no mal
dis ibu ion. The eg ession coe ficien
β0
is a cons an e m,
β1
measu es he impac o
he oile e olu ion on he men al heal h o a me s, and
β2
measu es he e ec o con ol
a iables on he men al heal h o a me s.
Table 1. Va iable defini ions and desc ip i e s a is ics esul s.
Va iable Name Meaning o Va iables Mean
Dep ession Index Dep ession Index,
(The highe he alue om 0 o 100, he deepe he dep ession) 12.568
Clean oile The oile e olu ion
(1 = clean oile ; 0 = non-clean oile ) 0.898
Age Age o in e iewees (yea ) 61.572
Gende Gende o in e iewees 0.712
Educa ion Whe he ha e a high school diploma o abo e (1 = yes; 0 = no) 0.146
Heal h Household esponden s’ sel - a ed heal h (1 = heal hy; 0 = no) 0.873
Job Whe he he household esponden is engaged in ag icul u al
p oduc ion (1 = yes;0=no) 0.701
En i onmen al pe cep ion Whe he he household esponden belie es he illage is
pollu ed (1 = yes;0=no) 0.345
Household income In e iewees’ annual household income 11.313
Household bu den Annual Household Bu den o In e iewees 39.904
Household educa ion P opo ion o high school and abo e ci ilian employees in he
household o o al household size (%) 21.817
Cad e Is a leade (1 = yes; 0 = no) 0.153
Fa m asse Asse s on he a m 0.188
Sma phone 1 = use o sma phone; 0 = o he 0.842
In e ne use 1 = use o he In e ne ; 0 = o he 0.450
Plain 1 = i he household is loca ed on he plain; 0 = o he 0.855
Dis ance Dis ance om own 6.184
Va iable name Meaning o a iables Mean
The Tobi model, as a unca ed- ailed eg ession model, is applicable o he da a
cha ac e is ics o his s udy. Howe e , he eason o no choosing he OLS model and DID
model is ha hese models do no fi well enough wi h he da a in his s udy. Fo example,
he OLS model is sui able o a s able linea ela ionship be ween he independen and
dependen a iables and he dependen a iable is a con inuous a iable. Howe e , he
independen a iable (explana o y a iable) in his s udy is a bina y a iable.
3.3.2. Desc ip ion o Model Endogenei y
This s udy no es ha he s a us o he oile e olu ion and he men al heal h o
a me s may be causal, which can lead o endogenei y p oblems in he abo e model se ing.
Specifically, he oile e olu ion may a ec he men al heal h s a us o a me s, which is
he a ea ha his s udy ocuses on. Howe e , he s a e o he oile e olu ion may also be
influenced by he men al heal h o he a me s.
Fo example, a a me wi h a men al diso de may need mo e ca e and a en ion om
amily, iends, and o he s. The cleane he oile , he close people will be o he household
and hus o he a me wi h a men al diso de who needs ca e and a en ion. Fu he , o
a ce ain ex en , he a me wi h a men al diso de can influence he beha io o o he s
and hus con ibu e o he p og ess o he oile e olu ion. O cou se, ano he possibili y
exis s: because OCD is one o he ob ious symp oms o dep ession, dep ession and anxie y
a e he eal causes o OCD [
47
]. The e o e, pa ien s su e ing om dep ession end o be
mo e compulsi e and will ha e s ic e equi emen s o hei li ing en i onmen , such
as ubbish mus be in he ash, and so on. Simila ly, hey will ha e a s onge desi e o
eno a e unclean oile s as a way o p omo ing a oile e olu ion.
47
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 128
In conclusion, ei he o he abo e scena ios implies ha he oile e olu ion is a
sel -selec ed
beha io o he a me s a he han a andom occu ence. This would lead o
he inabili y o his s udy o p ope ly in e he impac o he oile e olu ion on he men al
heal h o he a me s.
3.3.3. Selec ion o Tool Va iables
To sol e he endogenei y p oblem, his s udy p oposes o in oduce ins umen al
a iables o he IV-Tobi model. The c i e ia equi e ha he ins umen al a iables a e
co ela ed wi h he endogenous a iables and unco ela ed wi h he explana o y a iables.
Exis ing s udies chose he amoun o in es men in u al oile con e sion as an ins umen al
a iable o explain he endogenei y p oblem, bu no ele an da a we e a ailable in he
China Land Economic Su ey and could no be used in his s udy. This s udy, he e o e,
uses ano he mo e commonly used ins umen al a iable, he p opo ion o beha io al
occu ences o o he people wi hin he same illage, by calcula ing he p opo ion o
beha io al occu ences o o he people wi hin he same a ea. The beha io o o he s in he
same illage may influence he pe son’s choice. Fo example, i people in he same illage
ha e eno a ed he ex e io o hei houses o make he whole illage look nea and idy,
he pe son may also in olun a ily choose o eno a e he ex e io o hei house, ei he
because hey a e influenced by he he d men ali y o because hey do no wan hei house
o be ou o ha mony wi h he o e all en i onmen . Simila ly, when he numbe o a me s
who choose o build clean oile s inc eases h oughou he illage, i will lead o he es o
he people choosing o build clean oile s as well, ha is, i will lead o a oile e olu ion
o o he s. The p opo ion o oile cons uc ion occu ing in he same a ea is no ela ed o
men al heal h and is an exogenous a iable o men al heal h. Thus, he p opo ion o o he
people’s beha io occu ing in he same illage was chosen as he ins umen al a iable o
his s udy, which allows o good con ol o endogenei y issues.
4. Resul s
4.1. Tobi Empi ical Resul s
Table 2 p esen s he es ima ed esul s o he impac o he oile e olu ion on he le el
o dep ession o a me s. Since he le el o dep ession among a me s is a mul i a ia e
disc e e a iable, models (1) o (6) in Table 2 a e es ima ed using he IV-Tobi model. Fu he ,
conside ing ha he IV-Tobi model is a non-linea model, model (7) is an es ima e o he
ma ginal e ec based on model (6) o ease o in e p e a ion o he es ima ion esul s. In
addi ion, o maximize he accu acy o he es ima ion esul s, a s epwise a iable addi ion
s a egy was used in his s udy. Tha is, based on model (1), model
(2) o (6) p og essi ely
con ol o a m household cha ac e is ics, household cha ac e is ics, and illage cha ac e -
is ics. As can be seen om Table 2, all models we e significan a he 1% le el o significance,
which showed ha his model was significan .
Acco ding o he es ima ion esul s in Table 2, he clean oile a iables in
models (1) o (6)
we e all significan a he 1% le el, indica ing ha he oile e olu ion does educe he
le el o psychological dep ession o a me s, which means ha clean oile s help educe
he dep ession index o a me s. Acco ding o he es ima ion esul s o model (7), he
dep ession index o a m households wi h clean oile s will dec ease by 66.9% ela i e o
households wi hou clean oile s.
Cu en esea ch schola s a e mo e likely o conclude ha u al la ine con e sion has
a significan posi i e impac on he heal h o u al esiden s. Cao [
38
], Liu and Liu [
48
],
Chai and Liu [
49
], and Dong e al. [
50
] ound ha , by con olling he sou ces o in ec ion
and educing he densi y o ec o o ganisms, he a e o schis osomiasis in ec ion and
ec o o ganism ansmission will significan ly educe, which will, in u n, imp o e he
heal h le el. Consequen ly, he heal h le el will lead o he imp o emen o he esiden s’
men al ou look, which will, in u n, lead o he imp o emen o he appea ance and
men al heal h condi ion o he Chinese coun yside, consis en wi h he heo y o his s udy.
Howe e , his s udy conside s ha no only is he ansmission o he i us blocked, bu
48
Ag icul u e 2024,14, 128
he popula ion will be heal hie , ligh e , and happie wi hou illness. The imp o emen o
he human en i onmen can also imp o e he psychological well-being o a me s; when
he en i onmen is be e , he mood is na u ally be e .
Based on his, his s udy hypo hesizes ha he eason o he di e ence in findings
is mainly due o he ollowing wo aspec s. Fi s ly, he e a e geog aphical limi a ions in
he findings. This s udy ocuses on u al a eas, whe e he o e all li ing en i onmen is
wo se compa ed o u ban a eas, and he deg ee o influence o he human en i onmen
on he men al heal h o a ming households is g ea e han ha o u ban a eas. Hence,
he di e ence in he mechanisms o influence o he oile e olu ion on he men al heal h
o a me s. Secondly, he ocus o he s udy is di e en . P e ious schola s ha e ocused
mo e on people’s physical heal h, while men al heal h, o only “good men al ou look” is
eflec ed in he a icle as a co-benefi . Whe eas, his s udy ocuses on he men al heal h o
a me s, wi h mo e emphasis on he psychological aspec . Tha is, a me s wi h clean oile s
will expe ience a 66.9% dec ease in he dep ession index ela i e o households wi hou
clean oile s.
Table 2. Tobi empi ical esul s.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Clean oile −28.961 *** −26.839 *** −45.508 *** −40.278 *** −38.610 *** −38.147 *** −0.669 ***
(−9.091) (−8.675) (−6.146) (−5.592) (−5.180) (−5.079) (−5.064)
Age −0.083 *** −0.064 ** −0.063 ** −0.001 **
(−2.933) (−1.996) (−1.972) (−1.974)
Gende −3.989 *** −3.651 *** −3.636 *** −0.064 ***
(−6.006) (−5.536) (−5.520) (−5.550)
Educa ion −1.318 * −0.141 −0.144 −0.003
(−1.669) (−0.152) (−0.156) (−0.156)
Heal h −11.058 *** −10.293 *** −10.316 *** −0.181 ***
(−9.928) (−9.648) (−9.694) (−9.888)
Job −0.702 −0.873 −0.873 −0.015
(−1.134) (−1.400) (−1.403) (−1.403)
En i onmen al pe cep ion
2.810 *** 2.708 *** 2.679 *** 0.047 ***
(4.812) (4.738) (4.703) (4.722)
Household income −1.398 *** −1.402 *** −0.025 ***
(−5.010) (−5.039) (−5.073)
Household bu den −0.041 *** −0.041 *** −0.001 ***
(−3.572) (−3.588) (−3.595)
Household educa ion −0.008 −0.008 −0.000
(−0.532) (−0.541) (−0.541)
Cad e −2.494 *** −2.490 *** −0.044 ***
(−3.513) (−3.524) (−3.535)
Fa m asse 0.402 0.488 0.009
(0.497) (0.601) (0.601)
Sma phone 0.946 0.922 0.016
(0.825) (0.807) (0.807)
In e ne use −0.598 −0.614 −0.011
(−0.857) (−0.881) (−0.881)
Plain 1.104 0.019
(0.942) (0.942)
Dis ance −0.040 −0.001
(−0.741) (−0.741)
Cons an 36.065 *** 30.563 *** 42.490 *** 55.641 *** 69.409 *** 68.123 ***
(12.358) (10.691) (7.138) (8.827) (11.923) (11.219)
Yea dummies No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Ci y Dummies No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
ll −18,386.84 −18,290.34 −18,191.56 −17,927.71 −17,828.94 −17,827.45 −17,827.45
χ254.773 *** 48.195 *** 29.960 *** 25.470 *** 22.631 *** 21.727 *** 21.727 ***
Obs. 5039 5039 5039 5039 5039 5039 5039
No e: s a is ics in pa en heses. * p< 0.1, ** p< 0.05, *** p< 0.01.
49
Ci a ion: Cas ellano-Ál a ez, F.J.;
Robina-Ramí ez, R. Long-Te m
Su i al o In es men s
Implemen ed unde Endogenous
Ru al De elopmen P og ams: The
Case S udy o La Ve a Region
(Ex emadu a, Spain). Ag icul u e
2023,13, 2130. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/ag icul u e13112130
Academic Edi o : Janusz
Gołaszewski
Recei ed: 25 Sep embe 2023
Re ised: 8 No embe 2023
Accep ed: 8 No embe 2023
Published: 11 No embe 2023
Copy igh : © 2023 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
ag icul u e
A icle
Long-Te m Su i al o In es men s Implemen ed unde
Endogenous Ru al De elopmen P og ams: The Case S udy o
La Ve a Region (Ex emadu a, Spain)
F ancisco Ja ie Cas ellano-Ál a ez 1,* and Ra ael Robina-Ramí ez 2
1Economy Depa men , Uni e si y o Ex emadu a, 10071 Cáce es, Spain
2Business Managemen and Sociology Depa men , Uni e si y o Ex emadu a, 10071 Cáce es, Spain;
[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
One o he main objec i es o u al de elopmen p og ams is he economic di e sifica ion
o u al a eas. In he con ex o he Eu opean Union, he applica ion o he Leade Ini ia i e ( e e ed
o oday as he Leade App oach) is pe haps he bes example o his ype o policy. Based on he case
s udy me hodology, he objec i e o his wo k is o analyze he iabili y o he p ojec s p omo ed by
his ype o p og am. A long- e m scena io is aken as a e e ence, and his is p ecisely one o he
main me hodological inno a ions o his esea ch in ela ion o mos o he analyses ocused on he
impac s o u al de elopmen p og ams. The esul s o he esea ch show (a) an o ien a ion o he
de elopmen s a egy owa ds he p omo ion o u al ou ism and (b) di e ences in he su i al o
he p ojec s acco ding o he ype o p oduc i e measu e unde which hey ha e been implemen ed:
ag icul u al alo iza ion and ma ke ing p ojec s o e be e esul s han hose p omo ing u al
ou ism o he p omo ion o SMEs and c a s and se ices. These esul s call in o ques ion he no able
concen a ion o in es men in p ojec s aimed a c ea ing ou is accommoda ion.
Keywo ds:
Leade app oach; p i a e p omo e s; semi-s uc u ed in e iews; u al ou ism; SMEs;
c a s and se ices; ag icul u al alo iza ion; ope a ional; ailed and ans e ed p ojec s
1. In oduc ion
In he Eu opean Union (EU), he goal o he economic di e sifica ion in u al a eas ook
on new meaning when, in he ea ly 1990s, he Eu opean Commission (EC) app o ed he
fi s call o p oposals unde he Leade Ini ia i e [
1
]. Since hen, he Eu opean commi men
o u al economic di e sifica ion has been a cons an in he implemen a ion o EU policies.
The o igins o his Eu opean in e es in u al a eas lie in he significan in e nal and ex e nal
imbalances in he Common Ag icul u al Policy (CAP) [
2
–
9
]. This made CAP e o m a eal
p io i y. Th oughou he 1980s, he EC made his need clea in a ious documen s [
10
–
12
]
and epo ed abou some o he mos nega i e consequences (loss o ag icul u al jobs,
alling a m incomes). To coun e hese e ec s, he EC conside ed i necessa y o educe he
dependence o u al a eas on p ima y ac i i y and p omo e al e na i e ac i i ies o p o ide
new income sou ces supplemen ing u al and ag icul u al incomes.
F om he ou se , implemen ing he Leade Ini ia i e led o unp eceden ed mobiliza ion
o he Eu opean u al en i onmen [
13
]. In ac , some coun ies (like Spain) had o d aw
unds om he Communi y Suppo F amewo k (CSF) o implemen complemen a y u al
de elopmen p og ams applied in e i o ies unable o access managemen o Leade II [
14
]
o Leade + [15] ini ia i es. In Spain, hese p og ams we e called P ode I [16] and P ode
II [
17
]; hey had mino di e ences in hei managemen sys ems bu simila cha ac e is ics
o he de elopmen model p oposed by he Leade Ini ia i e.
Also om he e y beginning, applying he Leade Ini ia i e and o he p og ams men-
ioned abo e a oused g ea in e es in he scien ific and academic communi y, bo h among
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2130. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ag icul u e13112130 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ag icul u e
56

Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2130
hose ying o cha ac e ize he Leade App oach om a heo e ical s andpoin
[18–26]
and
hose in e es ed in quan i ying i s impac s om di e en pe spec i es [27–34].
In i s aim o achie e u al economic di e sifica ion, ou ism is one o he ac i i ies
in which implemen ing u al de elopmen p og ams gene a ed he highes expec a ions.
B yden [
35
], Lane [
36
], Bu le e al. [
37
], Sha pley and Robe s [
38
], Pa mo e [
39
] and
Pe due e al. [
40
] a e some o he pionee s o s udying his subjec . Thei esea ch is
essen ial o hose in e es ed in he po en ial o his sec o in u al a eas. Howe e , beyond
hese concep ual wo ks, mos esea che s a e in e es ed in quan i ying he impac s o u al
de elopmen p og ams on he ou ism sec o . I is common o hese wo ks o e e o
a specific geog aphic a ea, whe he a egion, p o ince, na u al a ea, e c. Fo example,
Ga cía[
41
] examines he Leade Ini ia i e’s impac on he ou ism in he no hwes e n
egions o Mu cia; Toledano and Gessa [
42
] s udy he ou ism p ojec s c ea ed unde Leade
II and P ode I in Huel a p o ince; Candela e al. [
43
] and He nández e al. [
44
] look a
he s eng hening o he ou ism sec o in moun ain a eas o Valencia h ough he Leade
Ini ia i e; and Ga cía and De la Calle [
45
] analyze he impo ance o u al de elopmen
p og ams in ans o ming ou ism in he Tié a Valley (Á ila). Along he same lines a e
he wo ks o Pé ez and López [46], Mondéja e al. [47], Má quez e al. [48] and Nie o and
Cá denas [
49
], which e e , espec i ely, o he Galicia, Cas illa La Mancha, Andalusia and
Ex emadu a egions.
In o de o achie e he desi ed economic di e sifica ion, u al de elopmen p og ams
conside i essen ial o eac i a e he esou ces a ailable in he e i o y. To his end, hey
place g ea impo ance on in ol ing he popula ion in defining de elopmen s a egies.
Al hough au ho s such as Guibe eau [
50
], Albe di [
51
], Na a o e al. [
52
,
53
] and Espa cia
e al. [
54
] a e skep ical abou eal pa icipa ion o he popula ion in de elopmen p ocesses,
i is ue ha om a sociological pe spec i e, many a e in e es ed in he abili y o hese
p og ams o boos he social capi al o u al a eas. As wi h analyzing he con ibu ion o
u al de elopmen p og ams o he ou ism sec o , esea ch on his issue also ends o ocus
on quan i ying impac s and on a specific geog aphical a ea. Examples include he wo k o
Buciega [
55
] analyzing social capi al wi hin u al de elopmen p og am implemen a ion in
Valencia p o ince; Saz-Gil and Gómez-Quin e o [
56
] s udying he same subjec in Te uel
p o ince; and Ga ido and Moyano [
57
] aking Leade II and P ode I implemen a ion in
Andalusia as a e e ence.
The e o e, e iewing he li e a u e on some o he challenges aced by u al de el-
opmen p og ams leads o he conclusion ha much o he esea ch is cha ac e ized by:
(a) a quan i a i e ision ocused on measu ing impac s; and (b) aking o ficial e alua ions
p oduced by local ac ion g oups (LAGs) as he main analy ical sou ce. Wi hou diminishing
he alue o hese con ibu ions, hei cha ac e is ics limi he scope, as hey o e a “s a ic”
ision o wha hey aim o s udy. Using LAGs’ final e alua ions as he main in o ma ion
sou ce in oduces bias, as hese documen s e e o when p og am implemen a ion con-
cludes, hus o e ing a “fixed pic u e” o esul s. This esea ch aims o go u he , o e ing a
dynamic and long- e m ision o he oo p in le on he e i o y by u al de elopmen
p og am implemen a ion [
58
], ocusing, in his case, on he economic iabili y o in es -
men s made unde p og ams implemen ed in La Ve a. To achie e his goal, he ollowing
esea ch ques ions a e posed:
1.
Wha is he impo ance o each o he p oduc i e measu es? Is in es men sp ead
ac oss di e en ac i i ies, os e ing desi ed economic di e sifica ion?
2.
Wha a e he numbe s o ope a ional, ailed and ca ied-o e p ojec s in di e en
p oduc i e measu es, and how much in es men has been commi ed o each?
3.
Fo ope a ional p ojec s, how do p omo e s assess iabili y, and a e he e di e ences
depending on he p oduc i e measu e?
The long- e m pe spec i e is no i ial; analyzing eal impac equi es going beyond
he subsidy eligibili y pe iod (fi e yea s, a e which non-ope a ional p ojec s mus e u n
aid). This in e es in analyzing he long- e m u al de elopmen p og am impac is sha ed
by Na a o e al. [
59
], e idenced by hei s udy on he con inui y o en e p ises c ea ed
57
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2130
unde Leade I and II in G anada; and Cañe e e al. [
60
] and Cejudo e al. [
61
] in hei
analyses o p og am implemen a ion and ailed p ojec s in Andalusia.
Wi h i s app oach, his esea ch sha es Na a o e al.’s [
62
] (p. 349) c i icism ha
o ficial e alua ions “do no su ficien ly conside he impac s hese p og ams gene a e in
he e i o y”. I also ollows p e ious s udies by Cas ellano-Ál a ez e al. [
63
] compa ing
ou ism de elopmen in La Ve a and Tajo-Salo ; and Cas ellano -Ál a ez e al. [
64
], also
based on he La Ve a case s udy, analyzing he applica ion o P ode I (1996–1999) and
P ode II (2000–2006). This new con ibu ion aims o upda e hose esul s and ex end
he esea ch ime ho izon o a new p og amming pe iod in which he Leade App oach
(
2007–2013
) was implemen ed [
65
]. These wo ks add o ex ensi e esea ch whe e he
au ho s s udied La Ve a’s de elopmen s a egy om di e en pe spec i es [66–70].
As shown by Ál a ez-Ga cía e al. [
71
] in hei bibliome ic s udy on cul u al he i age
and ou ism as bases o egional de elopmen , he e is ex ensi e in e na ional li e a u e
ha analyzes u al de elopmen and economic di e sifica ion wi hou he a o emen ioned
biases. Many o hese con ibu ions a e case s udies ha his esea ch akes as e e ences.
Fo example, Qua an a e al. [
72
] use a case s udy o a sou he n I aly egion o analyze
ou ism’s po en ial in ac i a ing u al social capi al; Iako idou e al. [
73
] and Apos olopou-
los e al. [
74
] s udy u al ou ism condi ioning ac o s in G eece; Ma ques [
75
] and Ga i
e al. [
76
] analyze wine ou ism’s capaci y as an elemen o u al de elopmen h ough
case s udies o egions in no he n Po ugal and Emilia-Romagna (I aly), espec i ely;
pe cep ion o he u al popula ions ega ding ou ism de elopmen impac s is add essed
by Milano e al. [
77
], Mu esan e al. [
78
,
79
], Ande eck e al. [
80
], Kaya e al. [
81
], and
B anko e al. [
82
]; Robina e al. [
83
] s udy he in angibles d i ing u al ou ism; and Ciolac
e al. [84] examine ag i ou ism’s po en ial as a u al de elopmen ool.
2. Resea ch Me hodology
F om a me hodological pe spec i e, many au ho s ha e explo ed he use ulness o
case s udies as a esea ch ool [
85
–
87
]. Yin [
88
] ad oca es applying his me hodology when
he e is in e ac ion be ween he elemen being s udied and i s en i onmen . This occu s in
his esea ch: i is impossible o sepa a e he longe i y o he p ojec s implemen ed unde
u al de elopmen p og ams om he esou ces and cha ac e is ics o he La Ve a egion;
he e is in e ac ion be ween he wo ac o s. Addi ionally, Colle [
87
] s a es ha one o
he equi emen s o applying he case s udy me hodology is ha he a ea unde s udy
should ha e well-defined bounda ies. La Ve a (Figu e 1) mee s his condi ion; made up o
19 municipali ies, i has a deep- oo ed sense o egional iden i y [
89
] and clea ly defined
bo de s: o he sou h by he i e Tié a ; o he no h, by he oo hills o he Sie a de G edos
and he Je e Valley; o he wes by municipali ies in he Plasencia egion; and o he eas ,
by he bo de be ween Cáce es and Á ila p o inces.
La Ve a is a pa adigma ic example o e alua ing u al de elopmen p og am impac .
This is because i possesses all necessa y po en ial o he success ully implemen ing o such
p og ams, and i is loca ed in he Ex emadu a egion o Spain, conside ed by González
Regido [90] as an ideal amewo k o s udying his issue.
The egion’s ema kable en i onmen al and scenic esou ces de i e om i s loca ion
in he Sie a de G edos, which shapes i s o og aphy and clima e. La Ve a enjoys milde
empe a u es han i s la i ude would indica e, bo h in win e mon hs (when G edos p o ec s
i om cold Cas ilian pla eau winds) and summe mon hs (when he moun ain massi ’s
p oximi y mi iga es high empe a u es). In he summe , Sie a de G edos and i s many
go ges o e one o he a ea’s mos p ized ou is esou ces in he o m o coun less ba hing
spo s wi h icy, c ys al-clea wa e s ha isi o s g ea ly app ecia e [
91
]. In addi ion o i s
na u al and scenic esou ces, La Ve a boas s eno mous cul u al and a is ic he i age, as
e idenced by he Monas e y o Yus e, i s fi e municipali ies decla ed His o ic-A is ic Si es,
and i s many es i als and adi ions classified as being o egional ou is in e es . All his
makes he egion ideal o ou ism p omo ion in es men s.
58
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2130
Figu e 1. Loca ion o he egion o La Ve a. Sou ce: Cas ellano-Ál a ez e al. [63].
Also jus i ying he egion’s sui abili y as a case s udy is, i s p o en expe ience p ocess-
ing cha ac e is ic ag icul u al p oduc s (pap ika, goa cheese, obacco, e c.). This ype o
ac i i y (ag icul u al alo iza ion) is an impo an componen o de elopmen p og ams.
The main pa o he esea ch is fieldwo k in which (a) p ojec s implemen ed by
ADICOVER o e he h ee p og amming pe iods cons i u ing he esea ch ime ho izon
a e analyzed; (b) a p ojec sample is d awn; (c) p omo e s o selec ed sample p ojec s a e
in e iewed in pe son a p ojec si es o p o ide con ex o in e iewee esponses and
eflec ions; and d) an a emp is made o co ec any biases ha may ha e been incu ed
du ing he in e iews by iangula ing he esul s.
P io o fieldwo k, ADICOVER’s echnicians we e con ac ed o s udy he de elopmen
s a egy, p og am managemen applica ions, p ojec lis s, e c.
As is well known, u al de elopmen p og am s uc u e [
92
] consis s o six measu es,
h ee “non-p oduc i e” measu es used o small in as uc u e, public acili ies, finances o
he ope a ion o he LAG, and c oss-cu ing aining ac i i ies. The o he h ee measu es a e
o a p oduc i e na u e and a e aimed a : (a) u al ou ism de elopmen ; (b) SME and, c a s
and se ices suppo ; and (c) ag icul u al ma ke ing and de elopmen . P i a e p omo e
p ojec s unde hese las h ee measu es a e he fieldwo k ocus. Howe e , he p oduc i e
na u e o hese measu es does no p eclude financing public ac ions o gene al in e es
like egional ou ism p omo ion, ail es o a ion, business ai s, e c. To selec a p ojec
sample in he a o emen ioned p oduc i e measu es, c i e ia used by Cas ellano-Ál a ez
e al. [
63
,
64
] in p e ious s udies we e ollowed. These a e: (1) p ima ily p i a e in es men ;
(2) minimum
€
12,000 subsidy; and (3) he subsidy ep esen ing a leas one-fi h o o al
in es men . Table 1 shows esul s o applying hese c i e ia o o al p ojec s implemen ed
in he h ee p og amming pe iods cons i u ing he esea ch ime ame.
Table 1. Sample o p i a e p ojec s by p og amming pe iod and hei ep esen a i eness.
De elopmen
P og am P i a e P ojec s P ojec Samples In es men P i a e
P ojec Samples
% Sample o P i a e P ojec s o he
To al In es men o he Measu e
P ode I 36 26 2,947,795.40 82.24
P ode II 43 18 2,019,122.78 54.85
Leade App oach 90 38 4,462,697.52 78.91
To al 169 82 9,429,615.70 72.98
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
59
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2130
Table 2 complemen s he abo e in o ma ion wi h an o e iew o sample p ojec
impo ance wi hin he p oduc i e measu es. In he hi d sec ion, analyzing de elopmen
s a egy will show ha , o e he h ee six-yea pe iods, he sample p ojec dis ibu ion
co ela es wi h he weigh o each p oduc i e measu e in he de elopmen p og am.
Table 2. Sample o p i a e p ojec s by p oduc i e measu es and hei ep esen a i eness.
De elopmen
P og am P i a e P ojec s P ojec Samples In es men P i a e
P ojec Samples
% Sample o P i a e P ojec s o he
To al In es men o he Measu e
Ru al ou ism 67 42 6,146,533.27 77.18
SMEs, c a s and
se ices 73 27 2,110,311.47 69.96
Ag icul u al
alo iza ion 29 13 1,172,770.96 60.44
To al 169 82 9,429,615.70 72.98
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
Tables 1 and 2 show ha applying he a o emen ioned c i e ia o he 169 p i a e
p ojec s implemen ed unde he p oduc i e measu es allows selec ion o 82 ac ions whose
in es men ep esen s 72.98% o o al in es men in hese measu es. Howe e , in all
cases i is impossible o in e iew he o iginal p omo e s, as discussed ea lie , since some
p ojec s ceased ac i i y o we e ans e ed; mo eo e , some ope a ional p omo e s declined
pa icipa ion. Table 3 eflec s hese ac o s and fil e s he sample o de e mine in e iew
numbe s conduc ed in each p oduc i e measu e.
Table 3. Numbe o in e iews ca ied ou acco ding o he measu e o p oduc i i y.
P ojec Samples P ojec Failed P ojec
T ans e ed
Disin e es
o he P omo e
In e iews
Conduc ed
Ru al ou ism 42 12 8 2 20
SMEs, c a s and se ices 27 10 3 2 12
Ag icul u al alo iza ion 13 2 1 2 8
To al 82 24 12 6 40
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
Table 4 displays he cha ac e is ics o he p omo e s in e iewed. B oadly summa izing
he p ofile, he p omo e s in e iewed ended o be male, be ween 40 and 60 yea s old and
na i e o he egion and o ha e a basic le el o educa ion.
Table 4. Cha ac e is ics o he in e iewees in La Ve a egion.
Sex Age O igin Fo ma ion
Man Woman <40 Be ween
40 and 60 >60 Na i e Re u ned Neo u al Basic Uni e si y
Ru al ou ism 14 6 18 2 15 2 3 15 5
Accommoda ion c ea ion 8 3 9 2 6 2 3 7 4
Accommoda ion mode niza ion
43 7 7 6 1
Ca e ing 2 2 2 2
SMEs, c a s and se ices 8 4 2 9 1 10 2 6 6
Ag icul u al alo iza ion 8 7 1 8 7 1
To al 30 10 2 34 4 33 4 3 28 12
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
As he able shows, male p omo e s ou numbe ed emales by h ee o one and we e
p edominan ly 40–60 yea s old ac oss p oduc i e measu es. The majo i y we e also na i e
60
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2130
o he egion, while hose o neo- u al o igin we e concen a ed mo e in u al ou ism
p ojec s, specifically new accommoda ion es ablishmen s. These p omo e s also had highe
educa ion le els, con as ing wi h hose mode nizing exis ing accommoda ion o ca e ing
p ojec s who had lowe educa ion. The aining le el o SMEs and c a s and se ices p o-
mo e s was he e ogeneous. Ag icul u al alo iza ion p ojec p omo e s we e cha ac e ized
by basic le el educa ion and e y ew women.
Rega ding in e iew s uc u e, semi-s uc u ed in e iews we e chosen as an in e -
media e op ion be ween a closed model (unable o inco po a e p omo e obse a ions o
in e es ) and an open model (wi h di ficul ies ocusing a en ion on esea ch- ele an ques-
ions and in o ma ion p ocessing). In his wo k on quali a i e esea ch, Yin [
93
] highligh s
he alue o in e iews as a esea ch ool, conside ing hem a aluable in o ma ion sou ce
ha allows in e iewee in e ac ion and p ope esponse con ex ualiza ion.
Beyond analyzing budge execu ion and impac s, me hodologically, conduc ing hese
in e iews en iches he esea ch wi h quali a i e analysis ools. This ollowed Espa cia [
94
],
Viladomiu and Rosell [
95
], and Es eban e al. [
96
] who, ega ding analysis o egional, u al
and local de elopmen policies, ad oca e using such esea ch ins umen s o anscend he
o en excessi ely quan i a i e esul s p o ided by o ficial e alua ions.
As a final phase o fieldwo k, he ini ial esul s we e iangula ed o co ec any biases
ha may ha e a isen du ing he in e iews and o ein o ce he me hodological igo o he
esea ch. Fo his pu pose, wo king mee ings we e conduc ed wi h key pe sonnel in ol ed
in implemen ing he de elopmen p og am, including echnical manage s om he LAGs
and public ep esen a i es.
3. Resul s
3.1. Analysis o he De elopmen S a egy Implemen ed by La Ve a Region
Table 5 shows he in es men dis ibu ion ac oss measu es in he h ee p og ams
cons i u ing he esea ch ime ame. The analysis shows he ou is specializa ion inhe en
in his egion’s de elopmen s a egy. Resou ces o u al ou ism p omo ion accoun o
41.56% o o al in es men execu ed by he h ee p og ams and 61.63% o he in es men
in p oduc i e measu es. Th oughou he h ee p og amming pe iods, his specializa ion,
a om diminishing, in ensified unde he Leade app oach, wi h 45% o he esou ces
alloca ed o ou ism p omo ion.
Table 5. B eakdown by measu e o he in es men implemen ed.
P ode I % P ode II % Leade
App oach %
P oduc i e measu es 3,584,221.93 66 3,681,236.48 68 5,655,422.77 68
Ru al ou ism 2,157,490.16 40 2,072,606.99 38 3,733,694.87 45
SMEs, c a s and se ices 943,459.43 17 722,488.60 14 1,350,660.99 16
Ag icul u al alo iza ion 483,272.34 9 886,140.89 16 571,066.91 7
Non-p oduc i e measu es 1,835,873.69 34 1,764,438.74 32 2,640,410.60 32
Ope a ing cos s 608,532.98 11 666,967.20 12 1,297,185.49 16
Reco e y o he en i onmen
1,227,340.71 23 1,097,471.54 20 1,343,225.11 16
To al 5,420,095.62 5,445,675.22 8,295,833.37
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
A he o he ex eme is he scan impo ance gi en o ag icul u al de elopmen p ojec s
in he s a egy. This measu e accoun s o ba ely a en h o he o al implemen ed in es men
and 15% o p oduc i e measu e esou ces.
Th oughou he h ee pe iods, non-p oduc i e measu e impo ance emains cons an
a a ound one hi d o p og am esou ces. This is despi e a clea inc ease in he LAG’s
ope a ing cos s wi h Leade app oach implemen a ion (due o aining ac ions and echnical
epo p epa a ion).
61

Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2130
Figu e 2 shows in es men dis ibu ion in p oduc i e measu es by p ojec ype. Blue
depic s ou ism p ojec in es men . The concen a ion o in es men in he u al ou ism
measu es he condi ions o he p og am’s con ibu ion o i s economic di e sifica ion objec-
i e. Abo e any o he , in es men s in accommoda ion c ea ion o mode niza ion s and ou ,
accoun ing o almos 50% o all p oduc i e in es men . This unequal in es men dis ibu-
ion could hampe ou ism de elopmen i sel , as i minimizes esou ces o o he equally
necessa y ou ism p ojec s like complemen a y ac i i ies o ca e ing se ices. In e iews
wi h p omo e s will e eal whe he he applied s a egy has succeeded o in oduced a
bias hinde ing sec o and egional de elopmen .
Figu e 2.
Dis ibu ion by ype o ac ion o in es men in p oduc i e measu e. Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
Nei he o he p oduc i e measu e shows such high concen a ion in a single p ojec
ype. Figu e 2 dis inguishes in es men unde he SME and c a s and se ices p omo ion
measu e in o ange; and p ojec ypes financed unde he ag icul u al de elopmen measu e
in g een. Resou ce dis ibu ion in hese measu es aligns wi h he desi ed economic di e si-
fica ion objec i e. An example is in es men aimed a s eng hening he business ab ic
and se ice p o ision in u al a eas, p omo ing highly he e ogeneous businesses (physio-
he apy clinics, ga ages, axi se ices, consul ancies, aining cen e s, d i ing schools, local
shops, enewable ene gies, ca pen ies, pain shops, pho og aphy s udios) ha p o ide
basic se ices o u al li ing quali y.
In es men dis ibu ion o ag icul u al alo iza ion benefi s all he coun y’s p oduc-
ion, wi h p ojec s imp o ing goa cheese p oduc ion p ocesses s anding ou ; in es men s
in oil mills, pickle ac o ies, pap ika ac o ies, poul y a ming, e c. a e also wo h men-
ioning. The minimal impo ance o in es men s in obacco cul i a ion ( e y impo an in
some egional municipali ies) is because hese p oduc ions channel p ojec s h ough he
egional Depa men o Ag icul u e. Ag icul u al coope a i es in he egion use p og am
esou ces o mode nize acili ies and imp o e he se ices o membe s.
3.2. Ope a ional P ojec s, Ca yo e s and Failu es
Table 2 b eaks down sample in es men s by p oduc i e measu e. Table 6 de ails
ope a ional, ailed and ans e ed p ojec s and he impo ance o in es men linked o
each. Dis inguishing be ween ailed and ans e ed p ojec s is significan : al hough nei he
allows in e iewing he o iginal p omo e , a ans e ed p ojec o ms pa o he p og am’s
con ibu ion o egional de elopmen ; he o iginal p omo e s li e ci cums ances may ha e
changed bu he p ojec d i en by he LAG con inues ope a ing.
62
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2130
Table 6. Ope a ional p ojec s, ca yo e s and ailu es by p oduc i e measu es.
Tou ism SMEs and C a s Ag icul u al
Valo isa ion To al
Ope a ional p ojec s 22 14 10 46
In es men in ope a ional p ojec s 3,887,130.35 1,308,831.98 888,510.30 6,084,472.63
% o o al in es men in he sample 63% 62% 76% 65%
Failed p ojec s 12 10 2 24
In es men ailed p ojec s 1,261,780.24 580,879.99 122,803.36 1,965,463.59
% o o al in es men in he sample 21% 28% 10% 21%
P ojec s ca ied o e 8 3 1 12
In es men in p ojec s ca ied o e 997,622.68 220,599.50 161,457.30 1,379,679.48
% o o al in es men in he sample 16% 10% 14% 14%
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
Table 6 shows ha ela i e in es men impo ance associa ed wi h ope a ional p ojec s
is highe o ag icul u al ma ke ing and de elopmen compa ed o he o he wo p oduc i e
measu es. I also shows ha in es men commi ed o ailed p ojec s is less impo an
in his measu e han in u al ou ism o SMEs and c a s and se ices; his ep esen s a
pa adox since his measu e commi s he ewes esou ces (Table 5). On he o he hand, o
he 12 ans e ed p ojec s, 8 a e ou ism p ojec s, po en ially e idencing g ea e mobili y
among hese p omo e s o lowe p ofi abili y. In e iews wi h p omo e s should help
cla i y his issue.
Table 7 p o ides an analysis o ope a ional, ailed and ca ied o e p ojec s acco ding
o he p og ams unde which hey ha e been implemen ed. As Table 1 shows, sample
p ojec numbe s a y be ween p og ams, wi h some no iceable di e ences. The e o e, he
pe cen age o in es men linked o ope a ional, ailed and ans e ed p ojec s could be a
mo e eliable indica o he e. On his basis, Leade app oach esul s seem mo e posi i e
ac oss all h ee pa ame e s, possibly due o he sho e ime elapsed since implemen a ion
ended. Howe e , Table 7 also seems o show ha he ime elapsed since he p og am
end is no a majo de e minan o long- e m p ojec success o ailu e; e idence is he
clea ly highe pe cen age o in es men associa ed wi h ope a ional p ojec s unde P ode
I compa ed o P ode II.
Table 7. Ope a ional, ca ied o e and ailed p ojec s by p og amming pe iod.
P ode I P ode II Leade App oach To al
Ope a ional p ojec s 14 8 24 46
In es men in ope a ional p ojec s 1,794,918.21 969,758.41 3,319,796.01 6,084,472.63
% o o al in es men in he sample 61% 48% 74% 65%
Failed p ojec s 8 6 10 24
In es men ailed p ojec s 697,870.94 452,053.42 815,539.23 1,965,463.59
% o o al in es men in he sample 24% 22% 18% 21%
P ojec s ca ied o e 4 4 4 12
In es men in p ojec s ca ied o e 455,006.25 597,310.95 327,362.28 1,379,679.48
% o o al in es men in he sample 15% 30% 8% 14%
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
3.3. Assessmen o he Viabili y o he In es men s Made: In e iews wi h P omo e s
One o he mos in e es ing aspec s explo ed in p omo e in e iews was hei pe -
cep ion o in es men s iabili y. Table 8 p o ides an ini ial app oxima ion, classi ying he
p omo e esponses by p oduc i e measu e o p ojec implemen a ion.
63
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2130
Table 8. A e you sa isfied wi h he p ofi abili y o you business?
De elopmen P og am No Yes
Ru al ou ism 13 7
SMEs, c a s and se ices - 12
Ag icul u al alo iza ion - 8
To al 13 27
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
As he able shows, he p omo e esponses a y by p oduc i e measu e. In all
cases, hese a e ope a ional p ojec s, bu he ou ism p omo e s’ assessmen s o businesses’
p ofi abili y a e mo e nega i e han hose in o he p oduc i e measu es. O e 60% o
ou ism p omo e s admi hei p ojec s do no o e enough p ofi abili y o allow hem o
make a li ing om hem; in ac , 11 o he 20 in e iewed combine businesses managemen
wi h o he economic ac i i ies.
Table 9 classifies hese p omo e s’ esponses by ype o p ojec , showing ha only one
o ele en new u al accommoda ion p omo e s is sa isfied wi h business economic iabili y
(al hough hey admi complemen ing hei income wi h o he ag icul u al ac i i y). This
p ojec ype was chosen by he h ee neo- u al p omo e s and wo e u nees, none o whom
a e sa isfied wi h he p ofi abili y (al hough neo- u al p omo e s admi hei aim was no
p ofi bu li es yle change).
Table 9. A e you sa isfied wi h he p ofi abili y o you ou ism p ojec ?
De elopmen P og am No Yes
C ea ion o accommoda ion 10 1
Mode nisa ion o
accommoda ion 25
Res o a ion ac ions 1 1
To al 13 7
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
In con as , mos p omo e s a e sa isfied wi h iabili y when mode nizing u al ac-
commoda ion. All hese in es men s a e by egula esiden s dedica ed exclusi ely o
businesses managemen . Fu he mo e, mos combine accommoda ion and ca e ing ac i i-
ies (a ci cums ance o en highligh ed by his p omo e ype o jus i y hei in es men ’s
economic iabili y).
The alua ions o ou ism p omo e s necessi a e ein e p e ing he Table 4 da a.I
was ound hen ha he pe cen age o in es men associa ed wi h ope a ional ou ism
p ojec s was simila o he SMEs and c a s and se ices measu e (and, in bo h, lowe
han he ag icul u al alo iza ion measu e). Howe e , despi e emaining ope a ional,
ou ism p omo e s’ nega i e iabili y assessmen s a e no sha ed by p omo e s in he o he
wo measu es.
Howe e , a dis inc ion should be made be ween SME and c a and se ice p ojec s
and ag icul u al alo iza ion p ojec s: he o me a e mo e modes in scale and p o ide
p omo e sel -employmen , while he la e ha e g ea e income gene a ion po en ial by
enhancing aw ma e ials also p oduced by a me s and li es ock b eede s who indi ec ly
benefi om he in es men . Gi en he di e en iabili y assessmen s, a e age in es -
men o ope a ional sample p ojec s in he p oduc i e measu es was:
€
176,687.74 o he
u al ou ism measu e;
€
93,488 o SMEs and c a s and se ices; and
€
88,851.03 o he
ag icul u al alo iza ion and ma ke ing measu e.
Rega ding he in e iew con en [
63
,
64
], analyzing p omo e s’ iabili y assessmen s
equi es ocusing on hose in es ing in accommoda ion c ea ion, since iabili y is no
con o e sial o o he p omo e s. Gua an eeing anonymi y, some o hei mos in e es ing
eflec ions a e ansc ibed o iden i y ac o s hey belie e jeopa dize p ojec iabili y.
64
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2130
Mos in e iewees ag ee in denouncing he low demand. P omo e 1 eflec s his
eeling, s a ing “o ficial s a is ics speaking o o e 20% occupancy a e alse”. Simila ly, P omo e
2 conside s, “da a used by he adminis a ions ega ding occupancy le els a e o ally w ong”. In
addi ion o low demand, his p omo e blames hese low occupancy le els on excessi e
supply, no hesi a ing o blame wha he sees as “e oneous de elopmen p og am execu ion”;
in ac , he jus ifies his opinion by e e ing o he la es Leade App oach aid call, s a ing:
“whe e mos p ojec s ha e been p esen ed is in he ou ism sec o ; we a e changing obacco mono-
cul u e o ou ism monocul u e, and u al ou ism is no a panacea”. Ve y simila ly, P omo e
3 conside s, “ini ially, he de elopmen p og am was undamen al o accommoda ion c ea ion,
bu once ha fi s phase was o e , i did no eo ien i s ole. Mo e accommoda ion kep being
c ea ed, meaning he sec o became o e sized; he e is now mo e supply han demand”. P omo e
4 complains “we wen om a si ua ion wi h no accommoda ion capaci y o one o o e supply;
and his happened be o e demand dec eased due o he economic c isis (
...
) i I didn’ ha e o mee
subsidy equi emen s, I would conside closing down”. This idea is ai ly widesp ead among he
in e iewees; o example, P omo e 5 insis ed ha “ he e is an o e supply o accommoda ion
places and ye he de elopmen p og am con inues o subsidizing mo e and mo e u al ou ism
p ojec s, o e sizing he sec o ”.
Ano he no ed ac o condi ioning his p ojec ype’s iabili y is in es men s scale.
The p omo e is a p o essional a chi ec acknowledging pa icipa ing in c ea ing many
o he accommoda ion p ojec s. Rega ding hei a chi ec u al cha ac e is ics, he admi s
ha “all p ojec s I’ e designed ha e had quali y and scale a supe io o he expec ed
e u n. In es men s a e no jus ified and will ha dly be eco e ed”. A good example is
P omo e 7, who, s a es, “many hings ha e been done; eal p ojec iabili y is ano he
ma e . I will ne e eco e he in es men made in he ooms”. Simila ly, P omo e 2
conside s, “a bubble was c ea ed a ound u al ou ism and he u h is you can’ demand he
impossible; you can’ ask o wonde ul accommoda ion, wi h huge in es men s ha can’
be main ained, and wha abou p ofi abili y?” This p omo e con inues: “ he in es men
made was no jus ified by he exis ing demand. We did no conside he p ojec as a
business and now we a e paying he consequences; we ha e educed all expenses o he
max and s ill he numbe s don’ add up”.
O he ideas eme ging om in e iews condi ioning iabili y a e seasonali y inhe en o
ou is ac i i y and he necessa ily complemen a y na u e o he income de i ed. P omo e
8 summa izes his, s a ing “i ’s no possible o li e exclusi ely om he u al ou ism business.
The win e is e y long and he season almos depends on Augus ”. This assessmen is widely
sha ed by o he in e iewees, who would also ag ee wi h P omo e 1 when he conside s
ha :“i a s udy was done on u al ou ism businesses iabili y, he as majo i y o hem a e
un iable”. P omo e 2 s a es ha “ ou ism is no wha i seems and p ofi abili y is e y limi ed.
i ’s a complemen a y income sou ce, bu you canno li e on i alone”. P omo e 7 s a es ha
“whoe e wan s o make money wi h u al ou ism is w ong”; and P omo e 9 concludes “i
someone hough ou ism would be he u al emedy, hey we e w ong”.
The in e iews also explo ed neo- u al and e u nee p omo e mo i a ions and pe -
cep ions. Rega ding he fi s , he p ofi mo i e is o en no he main one. Fo example,
P omo e 1 acknowledges ha “c ea ing a Ru al Ho el was he way o change my li e, and
ha was he objec i e”. Simila ly, P omo e 5 conside s, “a Ru al House is no a business; i ’s
mo e a li es yle”. Like hese in e iewees, when asked abou mo i a ions o unde aking
his p ojec , P omo e 9 eplies, “I’d li ed in Mad id my whole li e. I did i o a li es yle and
pe sonal easons”. Fo none o hese in e iewees was he subsidy ecei ed a ele an ac o
in p ojec execu ion. In ac , P omo e 1 s a es: “ hose who decided o s a a business hanks o
a subsidy a e al eady closed because ul ima ely he numbe s don’ add up (
...
) we ca ied ou ou
p ojec wi hou going in o deb and hanks o his we su i ed”. Simila ly, P omo e 9 conside s,
“i someone ge s in o an in es men like his because o he subsidy, hey don’ know wha hey’ e
doing”. Rega ding his p ojec ’s iabili y, his las p omo e says, “i you ha e he mo gage
paid, maybe you can con inue li ing modes ly om you u al house, bu no as a business”.
65
Ci a ion: Zhang, Y.; Huai, J. A Case
S udy o Fa me s’ Beha io al
Mo i a ion Mechanisms o C ack he
F ac al Mul idimensional Rela i e
Po e y T ap in Shaanxi, China.
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2043. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/ag icul u e13112043
Academic Edi o s: F ancisco
Ja ie Cas ellano-Ál a ez, Ra ael
Robina-Ramí ez and F ancisco José
Fe ei a Sil a
Recei ed: 18 Sep embe 2023
Re ised: 16 Oc obe 2023
Accep ed: 17 Oc obe 2023
Published: 24 Oc obe 2023
Copy igh : © 2023 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
ag icul u e
A icle
A Case S udy o Fa me s’ Beha io al Mo i a ion Mechanisms o
C ack he F ac al Mul idimensional Rela i e Po e y T ap in
Shaanxi, China
Yao Zhang and Jianjun Huai *
College o Economics and Managemen , No hwes A&F Uni e si y, Xianyang 712100, China;
[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
China’s app oach o add essing u al po e y has e ol ed om a ho ough esolu ion o
absolu e po e y o a ocus on p o iding essen ial suppo o ulne able indi iduals and imp o ing
he income and wel a e condi ions o hose who a e ela i ely poo , aking in o accoun mul iple
dimensions. This s udy u ilizes a da ase consis ing o 526 esea ch se s collec ed om he cen al
egion o Shaanxi P o ince. The esea ch employs s uc u al equa ion modeling o examine he ac al
mul idimensional ela i e po e y ap expe ienced by a m households. Addi ionally, he s udy
in es iga es he beha io mo i a ion mechanism ha can po en ially alle ia e he mul idimensional
ela i e po e y ap a he a m household le el. The s udy ound ha (1) a m households in he
cen al Shaanxi egion a e caugh in a mul idimensional ela i e po e y ap, wi h educa ion po e y
and heal h po e y ha ing a conduc ion and amplifica ion e ec ; heal h po e y and educa ion
po e y ampli y employmen po e y; and consump ion po e y amplifies educa ion po e y and
heal h po e y, and educa ion po e y u he amplifies in o ma ion po e y. (2) Mul idimensional
ela i e po e y in a ming households c ea es a sel - ein o cing po e y ap, and communi y
ela i e po e y amplifies he mul idimensional po e y ap in a ming households. (3) Fa me s can
o e come he mul idimensional ela i e po e y ap h ough he beha io mo i a ion mechanism.
Keywo ds: mul idimensional ela i e po e y; po e y ap; beha io mo i a ion
1. In oduc ion
The deg ee o po e y a ies o e ime, depending on people’s subjec i e and objec i e
equi emen s as well as on hei en i onmen and social expec a ions. The Uni ed Na ions
has iden ified po e y e adica ion as he p ima y sus ainable de elopmen goal, wi h he
a ge yea o achie ing his objec i e se a 2030. In ecen yea s, he Chinese go e nmen
has implemen ed se e al measu es o add ess he issue o po e y, esul ing in a no able
inc ease in he a e age income le el among u al inhabi an s. Consequen ly, significan
p og ess has been made in alle ia ing absolu e po e y, leading o a shi in ocus owa d
add essing he issue o “ ela i e po e y”. Howe e , he cu en ocus lies on add essing
he issue o ela i e po e y. Despi e no able ad ancemen s, he e a e nume ous obs acles
o a aining inclusi e social de elopmen , educing he dispa i y in de elopmen be ween
u ban and u al a eas and egions, and gua an eeing comple e g ow h and equi able p os-
pe i y o all indi iduals [
1
]. China’s po e y alle ia ion s a egy has also shi ed om
ealizing “Two Assu ances and Th ee Gua an ees” (no wo ies abou ood, no wo ies
abou clo hing, and gua an ees o compulso y educa ion, basic medical ca e, and housing
secu i y) o alle ia ing he mul idimensional ela i e po e y o unbalanced and inadequa e
de elopmen . The issue o mul idimensional po e y wi hin he popula ion necessi a es u-
u e a en ion, encompassing no only income po e y bu also o he elemen s o economic
po e y and wel a e po e y [2].
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2043. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ag icul u e13112043 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ag icul u e
72

Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2043
F om a his o ical, geog aphic, en i onmen al, and ins i u ional pe spec i e, i is e i-
den ha he income g ow h o Chinese poo people has been sluggish. Consequen ly, he e
has been a widening dispa i y in he s anda d o li ing and wel a e be ween u ban and
u al a eas. This un o una e ci cums ance has esul ed in a significan p opo ion o poo
people expe iencing ela i e po e y ac oss a ious dimensions, including income, heal h,
cul u e, and consump ion [
3
,
4
]. In con as , wi hin he Loess Pla eau egion (loca ed in he
no h-wes o China), he p esence o dispa a e socio-economic de elopmen , significan
popula ion ou flow, and an aging demog aphic, oge he wi h he ongoing SARS-CoV
pandemic o e he pas h ee yea s, ha e all con ibu ed o a pe sis en and ele a ed s a e
o mul idimensional ela i e po e y among a ming households esiding in he a ea [5].
Academics summa ize his s a e o po e y as a pe sis en and sel - ein o cing ap. A
numbe o s udies ha e a gued ha ex e nal policy in e en ions ha e a long- e m posi i e
impac on b eaking he po e y ap [
6
]. In addi ion, some schola s ha e emphasized ha
indi idual a i udes and pe cep ions a e c i ical o c acking po e y [
7
]. I has also been
ound ha he e is a dynamic ap o socio-ecological in e ac ions in he coun yside [
8
].
Po e y aps mani es a bo h he indi idual and communi y le els among smallholde
a me s esiding in u al egions [9–12].
S udying he pa hways and c oss-scale e ec s wi hin he mul idimensional ela i e
po e y ap equi es conside a ion o h ee d i e s [
8
]. Fi s ly, one o he easons ha
can con ibu e o ag icul u al challenges is he indi idual a me ’s lack o capabili y [
13
]
and lack o ini ia i e [
14
]. Second is he influence o en i onmen al condi ions, such as
insu ficien u al economic secu i y, inadequa e u al communi y cohesion, and inadequa e
u al indus y in eg a ion [
15
]. Thi dly, due o policy ac o s, he necessi y o con inually
adjus po e y go e nance policies aimed a enhancing a me s’ p ospe i y in esponse o
e ol ing condi ions and empo al dynamics is e iden [
16
]. Fo example, China’s “P ecision
Po e y Alle ia ion” policy emphasizes p ecise iden ifica ion, p ecise managemen , and
p ecise assis ance [
17
]. Ex e nal policy incen i es place mo e emphasis on income po e y
alle ia ion, indus ial po e y alle ia ion, and labo po e y alle ia ion [18], whe eas op-
down policy incen i es lack he subjec i e and objec i e impac on smallholde a me s
and o he dimensions o po e y beyond income, making i di ficul o c ea e esilience
among po e y a me s. The pe sis ence o long- e m, mul idimensional ela i e po e y
has esul ed in he de elopmen o a po e y men ali y among a me s. This men ali y
is cha ac e ized by he belie ha he asse s and esou ces hey possess a e insu ficien
o ulfill hei ac ual needs o gene a e independen income. Consequen ly, a me s ha e
come o pe cei e hemsel es as apped in he p edicamen o mul idimensional ela i e
po e y, wi h li le hope o escaping i . This po e y men ali y can cause low-income people
o all in o he ela i e po e y ap, i.e., o hesi a e and wande and gi e up on ge ing
ou o po e y [
19
] and a lack o psychological capi al such as he cou age o ge down o
wo k and he confidence, op imism, and esilience o escape he ap o mul idimensional
ela i e po e y.
Some o he low-income a ming amilies in Shaanxi ha e “ esilience in ad e si y”
and ha e he psychological and physical capi al ha helps hem build hei esis ance
o he complex h ea s hey con on on a daily basis. The majo i y o mul idimensional
collec i es comp ised o a me s wi h limi ed financial esou ces o en exhibi a lack o
unde s anding ega ding income gene a ion and a lack o de e mina ion o o e come
po e y. These g oups end o display cau iousness in hei consump ion and in es men
decisions, p io i izing immedia e sus enance o e long- e m goals. Addi ionally, hey ha e
a endency owa d sho -sigh edness and a lack o ambi ion. S imula ed by he subsidy
policy, some a me s a e eluc an o lea e hei po e y s a us, and egali a ianism [
20
] may
lead hese a me s o ake ad an age o he loopholes in he policy and ealize hei own
in e es s in he ea men o poo households; behind his phenomenon o olun a y po e y
and unwillingness o li hemsel es ou o po e y is a lack o psychological esilience on
he pa o some u al households o li hemsel es ou o po e y. They lack he abili y o
73
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2043
iden i y po e y, ma ch esou ces, and choose ac ions o elimina e po e y, and hey a e
“psychological po e y” because o hei dependence on he cul u e o po e y [21].
Unce ain ies, such as he ins abili y o li elihoods and he a iabili y o en i onmen-
al condi ions, migh unde mine he confidence o indi idual a me s and p o ide hem
wi h a quanda y ega ding hei willingness o engage in p oac i e measu es. Highe
psychological esilience can help indi iduals cope wi h changing si ua ions and s eng hen
hei belie s in he ace o di ficul ies and isks. Enhancing psychological esilience equi es
he s imula ion o pe sonal e ec i eness and he use o a s ong will and a posi i e mindse
o maximize one’s own in e es s by in eg a ing a ailable esou ces, which is he fi s p e eq-
uisi e o escaping om he mul idimensional ela i e po e y ap. Enhance p ospec i e
p oduc i i y and well-being h ough he implemen a ion o incen i es ha encou age
indi iduals o ein eg a e cu en ly a ailable esou ces. De eloping s ong endogenous
dynamics o escaping mul idimensional ela i e po e y equi es imp o ing he iabili y
o a me s. This psychological expec a ion based on us can imp o e he sel - egula o y
capaci y o mul idimensionally ela i ely poo a me s [
22
], and i can u he p e en he
e e se e olu ion o abili y po e y in o “spi i ual po e y” [
23
]. On he o he hand, an
indi idual’s e o s o escape po e y a e also influenced by he communi y en i onmen .
Social wel a e [
24
], public se ices [
25
], and financial se ices [
26
] in u al China a e s ill
poo ly cons uc ed, and as he income gap be ween u ban and u al a eas is widening, he
mul idimensional ela i e po e y in u al a eas is unable o benefi om he ickle-down
e ec o economic g ow h. Fa m households esiding in unde de eloped u al communi ies
ace challenges in e ms o access, secu i y, and o e all well-being [
27
]. These challenges
a e exace ba ed by he absence o adequa e communi y suppo , subs anda d in as uc u e
condi ions, and he inadequa e p o ision o public se ices. Consequen ly, a me s in such
communi ies a e cons ained in hei op ions o pu suing iable li elihood s a egies.
To iew mul idimensional ela i e po e y among a m households simply as a p ob-
lem add essed by one dimension and one mechanism, and o analyze only he in e ac ions
be ween he beha io al choices o a m households and hei communi y en i onmen s,
igno es he in e play be ween he po e y ap o he a m household and he po e y
ap o he communi y. Imp o ing he psychological esilience o a m households and
es ablishing a pe ec dynamic mechanism and wel a e imp o emen mechanism o mul i-
dimensionally ela i ely poo a m households is he key o b eaking he mul idimensional
ela i e po e y ap. In o de o b eak he ap o low-le el mul idimensional ela i e
po e y, i is necessa y o s imula e a me s’ pe sonal capabili ies, imp o e hei ini ia i e,
s imula e he in e nal mo i a ion o a me s o become ich and li e happily, es ablish a
s able and sus ainable communi y mechanism o po e y e adica ion, and b eak he aps
o “po e y o abili y”, “wel a e po e y” and “spi i ual po e y”. The e o e, he esea ch
ques ions in his pape a e: (1) Wha dimensions o ela i e po e y exis in Shaanxi a ming
households? (2) How is he mul idimensional ela i e po e y ap o med, and wha is i s
in e ac ion mechanism? (3) How does beha io mo i a ion mechanism ac ion s imula e
he pe sonal e ec i eness o mul idimensional ela i e po e y a me s? (4) How does
he beha io mo i a ion mechanism ac ion b eak he mul idimensional ela i e po e y
ap? The e o e, he con ibu ion o his pape lies in e i ying he sel - ein o cing e ec
o he ac al mul idimensional ela i e po e y ap in which Shaanxi a me s li e and
p oposing a mechanism o a me s’ beha io mo i a ion mechanism ac ion o c ack he
mul idimensional ela i e po e y ap.
2. Theo y and Assump ions
2.1. Rela i e Po e y Dimension
Rela i e po e y emphasizes ha he po e y o indi iduals is below a e age. Mul-
idimensional ela i e po e y includes dimensions such as “spa ial po e y”, “in e gen-
e a ional po e y”, and “hidden po e y” [
28
–
30
], whose dynamic cha ac e is ics need
o be aken in o accoun . Exis ing s udies ha e examined he dimensions o income, edu-
ca ion, heal h, housing, li elihood, and asse s [
3
,
31
]; some schola s ha e also in oduced
74
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2043
in o ma ion echnology le els [
32
] wi h in as uc u e de elopmen [
33
], ood nu i ion
s uc u e [
34
], ene gy [
35
], and esiden ial dep i a ion [
36
] dimensions. The e is a down-
wa d end in he mul idimensional po e y le el in u al a eas o China, wi h ob ious
spa ial disequilib ium [
37
]. In cen al Shaanxi, he economic income o a ming house-
holds is ela i ely inadequa e compa ed o he equi emen s o educa ion, heal h, and
o e all well-being. This si ua ion is influenced by his o ical, geog aphic, cul u al, and
economic ac o s; he de elopmen o a ming households’ communi ies is hinde ed by
challenging na u al condi ions, emo e geog aphic loca ion, and egional de elopmen
dispa i ies (Table 1).
Table 1. Mul idimensional ela i e po e y.
Fi s Dimension Second Dimension Conno a ion
Rela i e economic po e y Rela i e income po e y
The income o a ming households is less han 50% o he
a e age income o socie y, eflec ing he ela i e dispa i y in
economic s a us and income inequali y [38].
Rela i e capabili y po e y
Rela i e educa ion po e y
Insu icien and poo quali y o public educa ion esou ces in
he u al a eas whe e indi iduals o amilies li e, e en o he
ex en ha hey a e unable o sa is y he need o all school-age
membe s o local u al amilies o pa icipa e in and comple e
he compulso y s age o educa ion, and he e is a gap be ween
hem and he a e age le el o educa ion [39].
Rela i e employmen po e y
Insu ficien labo o ce, insu ficien hou s o wo k, high
labo bu den coe ficien , inequali y, and ela i e dispa i y in
compa ison wi h socie y as a whole o wi h specific g oups
in a m households [40].
Rela i e heal h po e y
The exis ence o sub-heal h o disease s a es among
membe s o a ming households, including physical and
men al heal h po e y, eflec s inequali ies and ela i e
dispa i ies in he a ea o heal h [41].
Rela i e in o ma ion po e y
Fa me s s ill ha e a single way o ob aining ou side
in o ma ion, a weak awa eness o he use o new
in o ma ion, a low sensi i i y o new in o ma ion, and an
insu ficien abili y o judge he u h o alsi y o he
in o ma ion, eflec ing he inequali y and ela i e dispa i y
in in o ma ion acquisi ion and u iliza ion [8].
Rela i e wel a e po e y Rela i e consump ion po e y
Family consump ion o basic necessi ies, such as clo hing,
ood, housing, and anspo a ion, is lowe han he a e age
le el o social consump ion, making i di ficul o mee he
no mal li ing needs o amily membe s [42].
2.2. The F ac al Po e y T ap
The po e y ap is a s a e o pe sis en po e y ha is au onomously ein o ced a
he indi idual o communi y le el [
8
]. The po e y ap keeps he a m household o
communi y in a s able and ine ficien sys emic equilib ium [
43
]. The e o e, escaping om
ela i e po e y equi es b eaking his sel - ein o cing equilib ium sys em and placing
a me s o communi y g oups in an al e na i e equilib ium wi h a highe sense o well-
being [44,45].
F ac al Po e y T ap Theo y explains he simul aneous occu ence o mul iple le -
els o po e y aps [
46
]. F ac al po e y aps a e po e y aps ha a e sel - ein o cing
wi h mul iple dimensions, sel - ecycling and ampli ying a di e en le els a he same
ime, and sel - ein o cing h ough c oss- eedback. The e o e, in lowe p oduc i i y en-
i onmen s, dynamic po e y educ ion ocusing on only one dimension has li le e ec ,
while in eg a ed in e en ions in all dimensions can educe po e y significan ly. Some
a ming households in cen al Shaanxi a e in a ac al mul idimensional ela i e po e y
75
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2043
ap. Fa ming households a e con on ed wi h a ious ac o s ha con ibu e o hei
en apmen in mul idimensional ela i e po e y. These ac o s include popula ion aging,
a limi ed labo o ce comp ised o immedia e amily membe s, a high bu den coe ficien ,
possession o small plo s o a able land ha a e o low quali y, he po e y heal h s a us o
household membe s, and a decline in income [
47
]. In addi ion, communi y ac o s such as
indus ial de elopmen , social ne wo k ela ionships [
48
], and in as uc u al en i onmen s
de e mine he ela i e po e y aps in he communi ies whe e Shaanxi a me s li e. The
mul idimensional po e y ap a ises om a combina ion o ac o s. Fi s ly, i is influenced
by he alue choices made by a me s, he accumula ion o nega i e emo ions wi hin indi-
iduals, and he deple ion o esou ces ha a e essen ial o a me s’ li elihoods. Secondly,
i is exace ba ed by he inadequa e de elopmen o in as uc u e and public se ices, he
deg ada ion o he na u al en i onmen , and he un a o able subsis ence condi ions p e a-
len in he communi ies whe e a me s eside. Igno ing he key c oss-scale in e ac ions
be ween he ela i e po e y ap o he a m household and he ela i e po e y ap
o he communi y may lead o a w ong assessmen o mul idimensional ela i e po e y,
which in u n biases po e y educ ion s a egies and policy o mula ion. The e o e, in
analyzing he ac al ela i e po e y ap in Shaanxi, he in e play o mul idimensional
ela i e po e y ac oss le els should be emphasized. The sel - ein o cing o he po e y
ap posi s ha he e exis s a ecip ocal ela ionship be ween mul idimensional ela i e
po e y in ag icul u al households and mul idimensional ela i e po e y in communi ies,
whe eby each ein o ces he o he . The e o e, a hypo hesis is pos ula ed as ollows:
Hypo hesis 1 (H1):
The in e ac ion be ween communi y mul idimensional ela i e po e y and
a m household mul idimensional ela i e po e y esul s in a mu ually ein o cing ela ionship.
Sel - ecycling e ec s o po e y exis be ween di e en dimensions o he same di-
mension. I one dimension o mul idimensional ela i e po e y in he same dimension
is nega i ely co ela ed wi h ano he dimension o ela i e po e y, he e is an o se ing
e ec o hese dimensions o po e y; i di e en dimensions o ela i e po e y in he
same dimension a e posi i ely co ela ed, he e is a magni ying e ec be ween hem. Fo
ins ance, a me s wi h limi ed financial esou ces possess a modes amoun o li elihood
capi al. The majo i y o hei a ailable cash o sa ings is alloca ed owa ds mee ing es-
sen ial li e necessi ies, leading o a s a e o ela i e po e y in a ious aspec s such as
educa ion, skills, employmen , and heal h. Con e sely, a me s who possess s able and
subs an ial cash ese es a e mo e inclined o inc ease hei consump ion expendi u es.
This, in u n, ele a es he o e all consump ion le el o a me s, enhances he composi ion
o hei consump ion pa e ns, and acili a es he ansi ion om inflexible consump ion
o mo e adap able o ms o consump ion [
49
]. Fa me s engage in he di e sifica ion o
hei consump ion pa e ns, encompassing sec o s such as educa ion and heal h, which
consequen ly leads o a educ ion in ela i e po e y le els, pa icula ly in domains associ-
a ed wi h subsis ence consump ion. Rela i ely a fluen incomes can significan ly imp o e
he cogni i e abili y o a m households, he eby imp o ing hei ela i e educa ional
po e y [
50
]. The highe he le el o educa ion o a a m household, he mo e li elihood
op ions i has and he mo e income i gene a es om li elihood di e sifica ion; he e o e, a
educ ion in ela i e po e y in e ms o educa ion is be e able o educe ela i e po e y
in e ms o income [
51
]. A he same ime, educa ion p o ec s and imp o es a me s’ own
igh s and in e es s, enhances li e skills and hei inno a i e capaci y, p omo es di e sified
employmen o he labo o ce, and inc eases non- a m income [
52
]. Thus, educing ela i e
po e y in educa ion means educing ela i e po e y in employmen . Mo e income o
a m households enhances hei s ock o asse s such as physical capi al, du ables, and
p ope y [
53
], which in u n leads o be e li ing condi ions [
54
]. In conclusion, a he a m
household le el, he e is a posi i e co ela ion be ween mul idimensional ela i e po e y.
The e o e, a hypo hesis is pos ula ed as ollows:
76
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2043
Hypo hesis 2 (H2):
The e is an amplifica ion e ec wi hin he mul idimensional ela i e po e y
o a m households.
2.3. Mechanisms o Fa me s’ Beha io Mo i a ion o C ack he Mul idimensional Po e y T ap
The beha io mo i a ion mechanism consis s o wo componen s: pe sonal e ec i e-
ness and u u e alue o ien a ion. Pe sonal e ec i eness is one o he h ee elemen s o
an indi idual’s mechanism o add ess po e y [
55
] and e e s o he abili y o a a me o
change his o he po e y si ua ion h ough his o he own ac ions and e o s. This mecha-
nism places significan emphasis on he ac i e engagemen o economically disad an aged
a me s wi h di e se dimensions in enhancing hei socio-economic s a us. I also aims o
egula e he e ficacy o a me s in s imula ing hei own p oduc i i y, he eby es ablishing
a ounda ion o hei in ol emen in po e y alle ia ion ini ia i es and p e en ing elapse
in o po e y. Due o a deficiency in inhe en mo i a ion wi hin he u al impo e ished pop-
ula ion, u al households ha e expe ienced a educ ion in hei needs, a decline in cul u al
p ac ices, diminished confidence, inadequa e commi men o comba po e y and pu sue
independen de elopmen , and a pe sis en eliance on ex e nal assis ance h ough he
mindse o “wai ing, elying, and asking o help”. Consequen ly, hei beha io al ini ia i e
is insu ficien , and hei sense o pa icipa ion is weak. Beha io mo i a ion mechanisms
educe he isks and losses associa ed wi h shocks by mobilizing a me s’ own pe sonal
e ec i eness o adap o new modes o p oduc ion ac i i ies, policies, and en i onmen s
and o change adap i e beha io s in he ace o shocks [
56
] and losses [
57
]. The e o e,
he long- e m income-gene a ing mechanism o low-income a me s is a mechanism o
a me s o adap on hei own unde he go e nmen ’s p og am adap a ion and o ealize
a me s’ income inc ease by imp o ing hei li elihood capi al [
58
]. The e ec i e esolu ion
o he mul idimensional ela i e po e y ap is con ingen upon a subs an ial eliance on
ambi ion and p oac i e measu es o ele a e indi iduals om impo e ished condi ions [
59
].
Enhancing “income aspi a ions” cons i u es a significan elemen o indi idual ini ia i e, as
i can se e as a d i ing o ce behind in es men beha io , engagemen in non-ag icul u al
jobs, and consequen alle ia ion o po e y wi hin a m households and amilies.
Exis ing esea ch on he subjec i e ac o s influencing po e y highligh s he signifi-
cance o he u u e alue o ien a ion o impo e ished popula ions. This esea ch unde -
sco es he no ion ha indi iduals in po e y, such as a me s, engage in decision-making
p ocesses ha enable hem o b eak ee om mul idimensional ela i e po e y. These
decision-making p ocesses in ol e ca e ully conside ing a ious op ions and oppo u-
ni ies, as well as making p edic ions and o mula ing plans based on an icipa ed u u e
ou comes [
60
]. The u u e alue o ien a ion equi es ha mul idimensional g oups o
ela i ely poo people ha e long- e m goals and isions o hei p oduc i e li es, a e
able o g asp he s a e o hei u u e economies, and a e able o make clea and a ional
decisions in pu sui o hei u u e goals. I mul idimensional g oups o ela i ely poo
people belie e hey ha e he abili y o change hei li es, ha e a clea goal, ha e a high
le el o psychological esilience, and ha e confidence in hei u u e p ospec s as well as an
unambiguous unde s anding o hem, hen hey may be mo e mo i a ed o pu sue ha
goal and be willing o change he s a us quo. On he con a y, i hey do no ha e clea goals
o he u u e and a e no confiden ha hey will be able o achie e hem, hey may gi e up
and a e mo e likely o all in o he po e y ap, which also implies a lack o psychological
esilience. Pe sonal e ficacy belie s, pe sonal con ol belie s, ea o ailu e, and u u e
de elopmen planning influence po e y people o inc ease p oduc ion and income [
61
].
The e o e, he mechanism o beha io mo i a ion in his pape can s imula e pe sonal
e ec i eness, inc ease he willingness o ge id o po e y, enhance belie in ac ion, educe
conce n abou isk, inc ease he u u e alue o ien a ion o plan o he u u e and help
a me s choose amilia pa hs o ge id o po e y in ad ance. The e o e, a hypo hesis is
pos ula ed as ollows (Figu e 1):
77

Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2043
Figu e 1.
A heo e ical amewo k o a me s’ beha io mo i a ion o c ack he a me -communi y
ac al mul idimensional ela i e po e y ap. No e: The a ows in he figu e indica e po e y
sel - ein o cing e ec s, he solid a ows indica e he hypo heses o be es ed, and he ela ed concep s
a e shown in he lis o a iables. The yellow colo ep esen s he mul idimensional ela i e po e y
ap o he communi y, he blue pa indica es he mul idimensional ela i e po e y ap o he a m
household, and he g een pa ep esen s he beha io mo i a ion mechanism.
Hypo hesis 3 (H3):
Beha io Mo i a ion mechanisms a e e ec i e in educing mul idimensional
ela i e po e y among a m households.
3. Me hodology
3.1. Da a
In his pape , based on he documen s (The a o emen ioned documen s include he
Opinions on he Es ablishmen o a Po e y Wi hd awal Mechanism and he Implemen-
a ion Measu es o he Special Assessmen and Inspec ion o he Wi hd awal o Po e y
Coun ies in Shaanxi P o ince.) p esen ed by he Shaanxi P o incial Go e nmen , he las
exi ed po e y coun ies in Shaanxi P o ince we e selec ed as he s udy a ea, co e ing
10 dis ic s and coun ies in he no he n pa o Guanzhong, Shaanxi, including Fu eng
Coun y, Qianyang Coun y, Long Coun y, Linyou Coun y, Xunyi Coun y, Baishui Coun y,
Pucheng Coun y, Fengxiang Dis ic o Baoji Ci y, Yaozhou Dis ic o Tongchuan Ci y, and
Yin ai Dis ic (as shown in Figu e 2 below). We used egional s a ified sampling wi h he
sample andom sampling me hod; unde each dis ic and coun y, we andomly selec ed
h ee owns, and unde each own, we andomly selec ed h ee illages and conduc ed
household ace- o- ace in e iew ques ionnai e esea ch. Based on he p oposed calcula ion
o he income- ela i e po e y line based on a fixed p opo ional alue o 50 pe cen o
he median disposable income, income- ela ed po e y is used as he h eshold o de-
e mining mul idimensional ela i e po e y o a m households. Tha is when income
ela i e po e y exis s, hen indi iduals a e in mul idimensional ela i e po e y. We
collec ed 600 ques ionnai es in May–Augus 2022 and sc eened 526 alid ques ionnai es
om mul idimensional ela i e po e y g oups o empi ical analysis in his pape .
78
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2043
Figu e 2. S udy a ea loca ed in cen al Shaanxi.
3.2. Measu emen Scale
In o de o assess he mul idimensional ela i e po e y o a m households, we em-
ploy da a pe aining o income, employmen , heal h, educa ion, access o in o ma ion, and
consump ion. Simila ly, o gauge he mul idimensional ela i e po e y o he communi y,
we conside ac o s such as he na u al en i onmen , local educa ion and medical ca e,
and he local business en i onmen . The measu emen indica o s we e assessed using
Like fi e-poin scales. The desc ip i e s a is ical analysis o he en i e da ase (Table 2)
e eals ha he a e age alues o income, in o ma ion, and li ing consump ion among
a m households a e compa a i ely low. Con e sely, he le els o employmen , heal h, and
he na u al en i onmen wi hin he communi y, as well as he pe sonal e ec i eness and
u u e alue o ien a ion o a m households, a e ela i ely high.
Table 2. Measu emen scale and desc ip i e s a is ical analysis.
La en Va iable Indica o Desc ip ion Fi e-Poin Like Scale Mean SD Median
Income
Annual disposable household
income (IN1)
1 = ¥0–¥1400; 2 = ¥1400–¥2800;
3 = ¥2800–¥4200;
4 = ¥4200–¥5600;
5 = ¥5600–¥7000 (RMB)
2.049 1.213 2.000
Annual household income om
ag icul u e (IN2)
1 = ¥0–¥1000; 2 = ¥2000–¥3000;
3 = ¥3000–¥4000;
4 = ¥4000–¥5000;
5 = ¥5000–¥6000 (RMB)
2.103 1.170 2.000
Annual household income om
employmen (IN3)
1 = ¥0–¥1000; 2 = ¥2000–¥3000;
3 = ¥3000–¥4000;
4 = ¥4000–¥5000;
5 = ¥5000–¥6000 (RMB)
1.922 1.141 2.000
Discoun ed alue o he amily’s main eal
es a e, ca , and financial asse s (IN4) 1 = 0–1; 2 = 1–2; 3 = 2–3; 4 = 3–4;
5 = o e 4 (Ten Thousand RMB) 2.279 1.151 2.000
Employmen
Numbe o amily labo e s (EM1) 1 = 0;2=1;3=2;4=3;5=o e 3 3.951 0.988 4.000
Pe cen age o labo hou s pe yea o
household heads (EM2) 1 = 0–20%; 2 = 20–40%; 3 = 40–60%;
4 = 60–80%; 5 = 80–100% 4.139 0.895 4.000
Household labo bu den a io (EM3) 1 = 0–20%; 2 = 20–40%; 3 = 40–60%;
4 = 60–80%; 5 = 80–100% 3.850 1.028 4.000
79
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2043
Table 2. Con .
La en Va iable Indica o Desc ip ion Fi e-Poin Like Scale Mean SD Median
In o ma ion
Numbe o ag icul u al ma e ials
pu chased h ough he In e ne (INF1) 1=0;2=1;3=2;4=3;5=o e 3 1.677 0.935 1.000
Amoun o ag icul u al ma e ials
pu chased by households h ough he
In e ne (INF2)
1 = ¥0–¥50; 2 = ¥50–¥100;
3 = ¥100–¥150;
4 = ¥150–¥200; 5 = o e ¥200 (RMB) 1.819 0.972 2.000
Household access o ag icul u al
in o ma ion (INF3)
Numbe o de ices accessing
in o ma ion
1=0;2=1;3=2;4=3;5=o e 3 2.150 1.059 2.000
Educa ion
Numbe o amily membe s comple ing
p ima y educa ion (ED1) 1=0;2=1;3=2;4=3;5=o e 3 2.935 1.222 3.000
Family educa ion budge (ED2) 1 = Spend e y li le; 2 = Lowe
spending; 3 = Mode a e cos ;
4 = Mo e expenses; 5 = Spending a lo
2.504 1.315 2.000
Numbe o amily membe s comple ing
junio high school (ED3) 1=0;2=1;3=2;4=3;5=o e 3 2.641 1.263 2.000
Educa ional le el o he head o
household (ED4)
1 = Illi e a e; 2 = P ima y school;
3 = Junio high school;
4 = High school; 5 = Bachelo ’s deg ee
o abo e
2.359 1.281 2.000
Consump ion o li e
Mon hly household expendi u e on
a el (CL1)
1 = Spend e y li le; 2 = Lowe
spending; 3 = Mode a e cos ;
4 = Mo e expenses; 5 = Spending a lo
1.951 1.028 2.000
Mon hly household expendi u e on
uel (CL2) As abo e 2.338 1.211 2.000
Mon hly household spending on
clo hing (CL3) As abo e 1.589 0.857 1.000
Mon hly household expendi u e on
ood (CL4) As abo e 2.106 1.058 2.000
Heal h
Household spending on medical ca e in
he pas yea (HE1)
1 = Spending mo e han ¥5000;
2 = Spending ¥4000–¥5000;
3 = Spending ¥3000–¥4000;
4 = Spending ¥3000–¥2000;
5 = Spending less han ¥2000
2.648 1.197 2.000
Numbe o pe sons in he household who
a e incapable o sel -ca e due o illness o
disabili y (HE2)
1 = 4 and abo e;2=3;3=2;
4=1;5=0 3.846 0.847 4.000
Numbe o pe sons li ing in households
wi h ch onic diseases (HE3) 1 = 4 and abo e;2=3;3=2;
4=1;5=0 2.243 1.162 2.000
Na u al esou ces
Pe cen age o household c ops a ec ed
(NR1) 1 = 0–20%; 2 = 20–40%; 3 = 40–60%;
4 = 60–80%; 5 = 80–100% 3.570 1.063 4.000
Cul i a ed land a he disposal o he
household (NR2)
1 = 0–0.82 ac es; 2 = 0.82–1.65 ac es;
3 = 1.65–2.47 ac es;
4 = 2.47–3.29 ac es; 5 = mo e han
3.29 ac es
3.312 1.079 3.000
Le el o g een co e a ound household
cul i a ed land (NR3)
1 = S ongly disag ee; 2 = Qui e
disag ee; 3 = Neu al;
4 = Qui e ag ee; 5 = S ongly ag ee 3.738 1.072 4.000
Du a ion o c op damage (NR4) 1 = 0–5 days; 2 = 5–10days;
3 = 10–15 days;
4 = 15–20 days; 5 = o e 20 days; 2.323 1.105 2.000
Types o c ops a ec ed (NR5)
1 = 0 disas e s;2=1disas e ;
3 = 2 disas e s;
4 = 3 disas e s; 5 = mo e han
3 disas e s
2.108 1.073 2.000
80
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2043
Table 2. Con .
La en Va iable Indica o Desc ip ion Fi e-Poin Like Scale Mean SD Median
Educa ional
ins i u ions
The e a e enough schools in you
neighbo hood o mee you needs (EI1)
1 = S ongly disag ee; 2 = Qui e
disag ee; 3 = Neu al;
4 = Qui e ag ee; 5 = S ongly ag ee 1.968 1.041 2.000
The educa ional ins i u ion a ended by
he amily membe boas s a e y
compe en acul y (EI2) As abo e 2.414 1.161 2.000
The school in which he amily membe
esides has a commendable s anda d o
e-lea ning. (EI3) As abo e 2.243 1.093 2.000
The p o ision o educa ional en ichmen
wi hin he school a ended by amily
membe s. (EI4) As abo e 2.198 1.061 2.000
Medical ins i u ion
The quali y o se ice p o ided by he
physicians a he hospi al ha you amily
egula ly isi s is o excep ional
s anda d. (MI1)
As abo e 3.228 1.123 3.000
The quali y o medical acili ies p o ided
by he hospi al ca e ing o you amily is
o a commendable s anda d. (MI2) As abo e 3.017 1.112 3.000
The e a e enough hospi als, clinics, and
heal h cen e s nea you home (MI3) As abo e 2.850 1.120 3.000
Business
en i onmen
Numbe o people in you household
wo king in he e ia y sec o in he local
a ea (BE1) 1=0;2=1;3=2;4=3;5=o e 3 1.899 0.978 2.000
Numbe o people in you household
wo king in he seconda y sec o in you
local a ea (BE2) As abo e 2.502 1.109 2.000
Su ficien numbe o u al ins i u ions,
and coope a i e o ganiza ions in he
illage (BE3)
1 = S ongly disag ee; 2 = Qui e
disag ee; 3 = Neu al;
4 = Qui e ag ee; 5 = S ongly ag ee 2.703 1.104 3.000
The illage has a la ge a ea o coope a i e
acili y ag icul u e, sha ed a m
machine y and equipmen (BE4) As abo e 1.802 0.962 2.000
Pe sonal
e ec i eness
Rega ding a ming, you a e in a posi i e
s a e o mind. (PE1) As abo e 3.435 1.100 3.000
Th oughou he ag icul u al p oduc ion
p ocess, you ha e he abili y o
con inuously inspi e you sel . (PE2) As abo e 3.390 1.054 3.000
You’ e been able o main ain a sense o
no malcy in you p oduc i e li e (PE3) As abo e 3.819 1.067 4.000
You a e able o be conscien ious in he
ag icul u al p ocess (PE4) As abo e 3.517 1.041 4.000
Fu u e alue
o ien a ion
You a e ce ain o con inue you cu en
p oduc ion model in he u u e and a e a
an ad an age (FO1) As abo e 3.930 1.033 4.000
You a e op imis ic abou he u u e o he
ag icul u al p oduc ion you a e cu en ly
engaged in (FO2) As abo e 3.502 1.085 4.000
You ha e a clea plan o you u u e
p oduc ion s a egy (FO3) As abo e 3.593 1.089 4.000
You ha e a solid unde s anding o he
ag icul u al indus y’s u u e
g ow h (FO4) As abo e 3.152 1.088 3.000
3.3. Model Se ing
Based on he co a iance ma ix o a iables, s uc u al equa ion modeling can e ec-
i ely analyze he s uc u al ela ionship be ween la en a iables ha canno be di ec ly
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Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2043
A mul i-clus e analysis o wo ypes o a me s was conduc ed o analyze he di -
e ences in he mul idimensional ela i e po e y cycle aps as well as he beha io
mo i a ion mechanisms o he a me s. The RMSEA o bo h Model III and Model IV is
less han 0.1, and he GFI, AGFI, and CFI a e all g ea e han 0.8, esul ing in a be e model
fi . Table 7 shows ha he significance o he pa h coe ficien s is basically consis en wi h
Models I and II;
he cyclic e ec o mul idimensional ela i e po e y o high-endowmen
a me s is g ea e han ha o low-endowmen a me s, and he e ec o he beha io
mo i a ion mechanism o educe he cycle o mul idimensional ela i e po e y aps is
mo e ob ious. The eason is ha heal h and income a e he key media ing dimensions o
he mul idimensional ela i e po e y ap, and only when he endowmen o heal h and
income is high will he impac among o he dimensions be mo e significan , whe eas low-
endowmen a me s a e unable o sa is y hei basic needs on he media ing dimensions o
heal h and income, and i is di ficul o ha e a u he impac on he o he dimensions.
Table 7. Resul s o mul i-clus e analysis o high and low endowmen a me s.
Model III Highly Endowed G oup Low Endowmen G oup
Pa h Coe ficien pPa h Coe ficien p
IN←NR −0.018 0.843 0.421 ***
HE←IN 0.359 *** 0.019 0.821
ED←IN 0.093 0.180 0.046 0.538
HE←CL 0.040 0.799 0.068 0.277
HE←CL −0.459 *** −0.080 0.255
HE←MI −0.296 *** −0.372 ***
ED←EI 0.646 *** 0.056 0.383
EM←HE −0.523 *** −0.337 ***
INF←ED 0.661 *** −0.020 0.753
EM←ED 0.325 0.001 0.142 0.012
EM←BE −0.296 0.009 0.374 ***
Model IV Highly Endowed G oup Low Endowmen G oup
Pa h Coe ficien pPa h Coe ficien p
FO←CL 0.488 *** 0.149 0.018
PE←IN −0.101 0.267 0.340 ***
IN←ED 0.226 0.007 −0.062 0.461
IN←HE 0.358 *** −0.092 0.286
CL←HE −0.548 *** −0.17 0.019
PE←ED 0.428 *** 0.208 0.002
HE←EM −0.496 *** −0.098 0.121
ED←INF 0.629 *** −0.023 0.716
FO←EM 0.076 0.345 0.571 ***
No e: *** is significan a he 1% le els.
5. Discussions
The phenomenon o he mul idimensional ela i e po e y ap is influenced by a
ange o elemen s, encompassing es ic ed oppo uni ies o educa ion, heal hca e, and
jobs, wi h ins ances o disc imina ion and social ma ginaliza ion. A he a me le el,
mul idimensional ela i e po e y aps can occu when a me s lack access o basic se ices
such as heal h ca e, educa ion, clean wa e , and sani a ion acili ies [
44
]. A he communi y
le el, mul idimensional ela i e po e y aps can occu when en i e communi ies lack
access o basic se ices and oppo uni ies such as educa ion, heal h ca e, and employmen .
The absence o oppo uni y o ob ain necessa y esou ces can esul in ad e se heal h
ou comes, educed educa ional achie emen s, and es ic ed economic p ospec s, hence
pe pe ua ing in e gene a ional po e y. Fu he mo e, i is impo an o no e ha social
exclusion and disc imina ion can se e as addi ional ba ie s ha es ic he po en ial o
upwa d socioeconomic mobili y and pe pe ua e he sel - ein o cemen o po e y wi hin
ce ain communi ies.
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Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2043
Indi iduals belonging o impo e ished communi ies may ha e lowe le els o psy-
chological esilience due o a mul i ude o ac o s. (1) Insu ficien access o undamen al
necessi ies and se ices: Indi iduals esiding in impo e ished condi ions may encoun e
limi ed access o essen ial p o isions, including sus enance, po able wa e , adequa e hous-
ing, heal hca e, and educa ional oppo uni ies. This could po en ially es ic hei capaci y
o ulfill hei undamen al needs and achie e hei aspi a ions. (2) Cons ained economic
chances: Indi iduals esiding in impo e ished condi ions may ace es ic ed access o eco-
nomic oppo uni ies, including employmen p ospec s and en ep eneu ial en u es. This
could po en ially es ic hei capaci y o c ea e e enue and enhance hei socioeconomic
s a us. (3) Social exclusion and disc imina ion: Indi iduals expe iencing po e y may
encoun e social exclusion and p ejudice, cons aining hei abili y o ob ain esou ces and
a ail hemsel es o oppo uni ies. (4) Men al heal h issues: Po e y can exe de imen al
e ec s on men al well-being, p ecipi a ing condi ions such as dep ession, anxie y, and
a ious o he men al heal h diso de s. These ac o s may po en ially in ensi y sensa ions o
despondency and con ibu e o a diminished sense o ambi ion.
Mul idimensional g oups o ela i ely poo people can become highly psychologically
esilien by de eloping a sense o collec i e iden i y and wo king oge he o add ess he
unde lying ac o s ha lead o po e y and limi ed ambi ion. (1) By building social capi al,
poo e g oups wi h sho e ambi ions can wo k oge he , sha e esou ces, and knowledge,
and suppo each o he o achie e hei goals [
65
]. (2) Encou age collec i e ac ion and
p omo e he ac i e pa icipa ion o indi iduals and g oups in de elopmen . This includes
he o ma ion o communi y-based o ganiza ions, pa icipa o y planning p ocesses, and
o he mechanisms ha enable indi iduals o ha e a say in how esou ces a e alloca ed and
policies a e de eloped [
66
]. (3) P omo e Leade ship De elopmen : P omo ing leade ship
de elopmen includes iden i ying and de eloping eme ging leade s in he communi y [
67
].
(4) Mi iga ing s uc u al ba ie s: The p ocess o mi iga ing s uc u al ba ie s includes
he iden ifica ion and esolu ion o undamen al p oblems ha con ibu e o he exis ence
o po e y and hinde he de elopmen o aspi a ion. This may en ail he implemen a-
ion o policies and ini ia i es aimed a os e ing inclusi e economic g ow h, mi iga ing
disc imina o y p ac ices, and enhancing accessibili y o esou ces and oppo uni ies [
68
].
(5) Commemo a e accomplishmen s: Commemo a ing success en ails acknowledging and
app ecia ing he achie emen s o a communi y. By engaging in he p ac ice o acknowledg-
ing and commemo a ing accomplishmen s, socioeconomically disad an aged communi ies
wi h limi ed aspi a ions can cul i a e a collec i e sen imen o sel -es eem and assu ance in
hei capaci y o su moun obs acles and a ain objec i es.
In o de o u he assis po e y g oups wi h low psychological esilience o escape
he mul idimensional ela i e po e y ap, i is impo an o add ess he unde lying ac o s
ha lead o po e y and ha ing limi ed aspi a ions wi h e ec i e s a egies, including he
ollowing: (1) Facili a e educa ional and aining oppo uni ies: The p o ision o access o
educa ion and aining can enable indi iduals o gain he necessa y skills and knowledge
equi ed o seek economic oppo uni ies and enhance hei o e all quali y o li e. This
in e en ion has he po en ial o dis up he pe pe ua ion o po e y and os e a heigh ened
sense o ambi ion. (2) Fos e ing en ep eneu ship and inno a ion: The p omo ion o
en ep eneu ship and inno a ion can se e as a ca alys o gene a ing no el economic
p ospec s and s imula ing economic ad ancemen . This can po en ially o e a means o
upwa d social mobili y o people and amilies wi h ambi ious aspi a ions, enabling hem
o escape po e y. (3) P o ision o suppo and esou ces: The p o ision o assis ance and
esou ces o indi iduals and amilies esiding in impo e ished condi ions migh con ibu e
o he dis up ion o he cyclical na u e o po e y, hence acili a ing social mobili y. This
may encompass he p o ision o financial esou ces, heal hca e, and se e al o he social
se ices. (4) I is impe a i e o engage he communi ies ha a e di ec ly impac ed by
in e en ions in bo h he design and implemen a ion p ocesses. This app oach ensu es ha
in e en ions a e ailo ed o add ess he specific needs and p io i ies o hese g oups.
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Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2043
6. Conclusions and Implica ions
Based on a su ey o 526 mul idimensionally ela i ely poo households in cen al
Shaanxi, his pape used s uc u al equa ions o iden i y he ac al ela i e po e y aps
o a m households and communi ies and hei beha io mo i a ion mechanisms. The
s udy eached he ollowing conclusions: Fi s , he e is a sel - ein o cing po e y ap in
he mul idimensional ela i e po e y o a m households. Second, he e is a ansmission
mechanism be ween communi y mul idimensional ela i e po e y and a m household
mul idimensional ela i e po e y, which amplifies he o e all ac al mul idimensional
ela i e po e y ap. Thi dly, he mechanism o beha io mo i a ion o a me s can b eak
he ap o mul idimensional ela i e po e y o a me s. Pe sonal e ec i eness s imula es
he p oduc ion will and income-gene a ing d i e o a me s, and enhances hei confidence
in educa ion in es men , hus sol ing he ela i e po e y o a me s in he dimensions
o educa ion, heal h, income, employmen , and in o ma ion; u u e alue o ien a ion has
a s abilizing e ec on he p oduc ion and li e o a me s, enabling he p ope alloca ion
o esou ces wi hin limi ed esou ces. The u u e alue o ien a ion will ha e a s abilizing
e ec on he p oduc ion and li e o a me s, enabling hem o alloca e esou ces p ope ly
wi hin limi ed esou ces and sol e consump ion and employmen po e y.
The s udy’s findings sugges se e al key insigh s. Fi s ly, i is ecommended o in-
c ease in es men in in as uc u e de elopmen wi hin u al communi ies loca ed in
cen al Shaanxi. Addi ionally, i is ad ised o enhance go e nmen expendi u e on com-
muni y educa ion and heal h ca e se ices. These measu es aim o e ec i ely add ess
he mul idimensional ela i e po e y ap wi hin he communi y, aking a op-down ap-
p oach. Fu he mo e, indi iduals can enhance hei psychological esilience by o ming
cohesi e g oups, cul i a ing a sha ed sense o iden i y, and collabo a ing o ackle he oo
causes o po e y and he cons ain s on hei goals. Addi ionally, i is c ucial o enhance
educa ional oppo uni ies and aining, os e en ep eneu ship and inno a ion, alloca e
necessa y assis ance and esou ces, and engage impac ed communi ies in he de elopmen
and execu ion o s a egies aimed a assis ing impo e ished popula ions in b eaking ee
om he mul idimensional s a e o ela i e po e y. Fu he mo e, he e is a p essing need
o u he esea ch in he c ucial field o examining mul idimensional ela i e po e y
aps. (1) The e is he e ogenei y in ela i e po e y aps a he indi idual le el ac oss
di e en demog aphics, ages, geog aphies, and modes o ag icul u al ope a ion. (2) The
ope a ional p ocesses by which communi y-le el mul idimensional po e y aps unc ion
emain unclea . The in ol emen o communi y g oups and he c ea ion o policies ha e a
significan impac on he in e nal dynamics o mul idimensional ela i e po e y wi hin
communi ies, as well as he in e ac ions ha occu ac oss di e en le els. (3) In he u u e,
he e will be an expansion o esea ch e o s o encompass a b oade a ea, hence enhancing
he gene alizabili y and alue o he findings. Ul ima ely, i is an icipa ed ha his esea ch
will se e as a ca alys o gene a ing in e es in he examina ion o u al ela i e po e y,
as well as o he explo a ion o po e y aps ac oss se e al le els o analysis.
The ope a ional p ocesses by which communi y-le el mul idimensional po e y aps
unc ion emain unclea .
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, Y.Z.; me hodology, Y.Z. and J.H.; so wa e, Y.Z.; alida ion,
Y.Z. and J.H.; o mal analysis, Y.Z.; in es iga ion, Y.Z.; esou ces, Y.Z.; da a cu a ion, Y.Z.; w i ing—
o iginal d a p epa a ion, Y.Z.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, Y.Z. and J.H.; isualiza ion, Y.Z.;
supe ision, J.H.; p ojec adminis a ion, J.H.; unding acquisi ion, J.H. All au ho s ha e ead and
ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding:
This esea ch was unded by he Na ional Na u al Science Fund o China (Nos. 42075172,
71473196).
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable wi hin he a icle.
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Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2043
Conflic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no conflic o in e es .
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93

Ci a ion: Widawski, K.; K zemi´nska,
A.; Za ˛eba, A.; Dzikowska, A. A
Sus ainable App oach o Tou ism
De elopmen in Ru al A eas: The
Example o Poland. Ag icul u e 2023,
13, 2028. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
ag icul u e13102028
Academic Edi o s: Ra ael
Robina-Ramí ez, F ancisco
Ja ie Cas ellano-Ál a ez and
F ancisco JoséFe ei a Sil a
Recei ed: 15 Sep embe 2023
Re ised: 2 Oc obe 2023
Accep ed: 9 Oc obe 2023
Published: 20 Oc obe 2023
Copy igh : © 2023 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
ag icul u e
A icle
A Sus ainable App oach o Tou ism De elopmen in Ru al
A eas: The Example o Poland
K zysz o Widawski 1,*, Alicja K zemi´nska 1, Anna Za ˛eba 1and Anna Dzikowska 2
1Depa men o Ea h Sciences and En i onmen al Managemen , Ins i u e o Geog aphy and Regional
De elopmen , Uni e si y o W ocław, Uniwe sy ecki Squa e 1, 50-137 W ocław, Poland;
alicja.k zeminska@uw .edu.pl (A.K.); anna.za eba@uw .edu.pl (A.Z.)
2Facul y o Secu i y Sciences, Ins i u e o Sa e y Enginee ing, Depa men o Sa e y and Technical Rescue,
Gene al Tadeusz Ko´sciuszko Mili a y Uni e si y o Land Fo ces in W ocław, Czajkowskiego S . 109,
51-147 W ocław, Poland; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: k zysz o .widawski@uw .edu.pl
Abs ac :
The esea ch p esen ed in his a icle conce ns he issue o u al ou ism, which is associa ed
wi h significan economic and landscape changes in he coun yside. I is impo an ha ou is
de elopmen in hese a eas be subjec o he p inciples o sus ainable de elopmen , which a e
impo an o he p ese a ion o he en i onmen in which ou ism ope a es. The esea ch opic is
ela ed o wo o he mos salien ea u es o u al ou ism oday, en i onmen al sus ainabili y and
p o-en i onmen al beha io , which a e conside ed he igh ways o achie e sus ainabili y goals. The
main esea ch aim p esen ed is o indica e which o he pos ula es o sus ainable de elopmen a e
being implemen ed and how conce ning he unc ioning and de elopmen o u al ou ism is on he
Polish ou ism ma ke . Ano he goal is o indica e wha ypes o esou ces in he u al en i onmen
a e he basis o he p epa a ion o a ou is p oduc ; o whom and how hese esou ces a e o be used;
as well as he pa icipa ion o he local communi y in he managemen o he esou ces ha cons i u e
i s own en i onmen , one o he basic p inciples o sus ainable de elopmen . The p ima y me hod
used was a documen analysis and an analysis o selec ed websi es p esen ing u al en i onmen al
esou ces used in his o m o ou ism. The esea ch iden ified ha sus ainable app oaches o ou ism
de elopmen in u al a eas in Poland a e app op ia e wi h espec o he esou ces a ailable he e and
o bo h na u al and cul u al alues. Fo esou ces used in a u al en i onmen , emphasis is placed on
he p o ec ion o bo h elemen s. I has been iden ified ha one idea o hei p o ec ion is sus ainable
sha ing, which assumes a ional use o an ex en ha would no a ec he na u e o he asse s bu
a he same ime could benefi he local communi y. Bo h alues a e used in di e en ways bu , in
addi ion o hei pu ely ec ea ional alue, hei educa ional alue is equally impo an each ime.
Keywo ds:
sus ainable de elopmen ; u al ou ism; educa ional homes eads; pa icipa ion; local
ac ion g oup
1. In oduc ion
Nowadays, i comes as no su p ise ha ou ism can be coun ed as one o he mos
significan global economic sec o s. Since he end o Wo ld Wa II, i has become one o he
as es -g owing sec o s o he wo ld economy [
1
]. The mul iplici y o o ms o ou ism and
leisu e ac i i ies is due o many ac o s. These could be a ou is ’s in e es s, cu iosi y abou
he wo ld, cul u al o ec ea ional o e ings, ou is esou ces, in as uc u e, echnical
possibili ies, o a des ina ion unde s ood as a specific a ea o ype o landscape. One o he
mo e popula o ms nowadays, which combines some o hese ac o s, is u al ou ism.
Recen decades ha e been a pe iod o pa icula ly in ensi e de elopmen o his ype
o ou ism [
2
,
3
], and his is connec ed o changes in he u al economy and landscape.
I is sa is ying, howe e , when such ou is de elopmen is subjec o he p inciples o
sus ainable de elopmen . These a e impo an o he p ese a ion o he en i onmen in
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2028. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ag icul u e13102028 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ag icul u e
94
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2028
which ou ism ope a es on he one hand and, on he o he , o he possibili y o a ype o
ou ism ha minimizes i s nega i e impac on bo h na u al and social en i onmen s. Many
s udies poin ou [
4
–
7
] ha u al ou ism is becoming inc easingly impo an all o e he
wo ld and is seen as a kind o subsidia y s a egy o he sus ainable de elopmen o u al
a eas. Ru al ou ism, h ough he concep o sus ainabili y, ocuses on he p o ec ion o
na u al and cul u al en i onmen al esou ces, and explici ly emphasizes he pa icipa ion o
local people and he esponsibili y o he ou is s using i s esou ces [
8
,
9
]. The cen al, o one
o he main oles in he de elopmen o sus ainable u al ou ism, is poin ed ou by many
esea che s [
10
–
12
]. I is emphasized in EU documen s ha sus ainabili y is a con ibu ing
ac o in he compe i i eness o a des ina ion, including u al en i onmen s [
13
], and
u al ou ism is a iable al e na i e ha can posi i ely influence sus ainable egional
de elopmen in illages and communes wi h less en i onmen al impac compa ed wi h
classic ou ism models [14–16].
Fu he mo e, global agendas indica e he need o apply sus ainable de elopmen o
he managemen o u al a eas o c ea e a quali y ou ism p oduc . Agenda 21 poin ed ou
en i onmen al p oblems and how o manage esou ces in e ms o eco-de elopmen abo e
all, as well as gua an eeing a pa icipa o y managemen sys em o hese a eas [
17
]. Ru al
sus ainable ou ism also fi s in wi h he objec i es se by Agenda 2030 [
18
] by e e ing o
he ollowing:
•
Objec i e 1: end po e y (d awing a en ion o he ea ning po en ial o hose li ing in
u al po e y).
•
Objec i e 4: good quali y educa ion (imp o ing he quali y o educa ion h ough
lea ning by example and exposu e o na u e).
•
Objec i e 7: clean and accessible ene gy (p omo ing enewable ene gy sou ces in
he coun yside).
•
Objec i e 10: less inequali y ( ed essing gende inequali ies in ou ism p oduc
de elopmen ).
•
Objec i e 12: esponsible consump ion and p oduc ion (sus ainable use o space o
cul i a ion and ecycling).
•Objec i e 13: clima e ac ion (sus ainable c ops and ag icul u al p oduc ion).
•Objec i e 15: li e on land (p o ec ion o biodi e si y).
In he coming yea s, he implemen a ion o he goals con ained in Agenda 2030 o
he economy, including u al ou ism, and he moni o ing o hei implemen a ion, will
become one o he mos impo an challenges o he poli ics and economics o coun ies
wo ldwide [19].
The need o consul a ion when ini ia ing a ou ism de elopmen p ocess in a egion
is poin ed ou by many au ho s [
20
–
22
]. In ecen yea s and e en decades, ou ism has
become one o he main economic ac i i ies in u al a eas. I has he po en ial o defini i ely
gene a e new sou ces o income and employmen [
23
] and appea s o be c ucial o he
long- e m sus ainabili y o u al a eas ha a ac ou ism [
24
]. Ru al ou ism can be
used as a di e sifica ion o adap a ion s a egy o supplemen exis ing li elihoods and
imp o e he abili y o local people o secu e income o educe he isk o economic decline.
Howe e , his will no ake place wi hou he in ol emen o he people li ing in hese
a eas [
5
]. As long as he local communi y is inc easingly awa e o he ole o ou ism in
p o iding hem wi h addi ional income o e en weal h, a shi in he local economy owa ds
ou ism o imp o e li elihoods is an almos na u al di ec ion [
23
,
25
]. I can also be a ool
o e i aliza ion.
Con empo a y app oaches o ou ism ha add ess nega i e impac s a e no only con-
ce ned wi h minimizing he impac s o ou ism bu also look a he long- e m iabili y o
good quali y na u al and social esou ces, he quali y o li e o communi ies ecei ing ou ism,
isi o sa is ac ion, and he conse a i e use o na u al and social esou ces in he con ex o
sus ainable ou ism de elopmen [
26
–
28
]. The ou ism indus y was one o hose ha des hi
by he COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. In addi ion o being an impo an b anch o an economy
95
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2028
wi h a la ge impac on he alue o i s g oss domes ic p oduc (GDP), i is also a powe ul job
base, p o iding employmen o many inhabi an s o depopula ing illages.
The main goal o he analysis p esen ed is o indica e which pos ula es o sus ainable
de elopmen o u al ou ism a e conce ned wi h he Polish ou ism ma ke . The esea ch
is ela ed o u al a eas in Poland ha , acco ding o he defini ion, a e a eas ou side he
adminis a i e bounda ies o ci ies, consis ing o u al communes and u al pa s o u ban–
u al communes. Acco ding o EUROSTAT, ‘ u al a eas’ a e all a eas ou side u ban clus e s.
‘U ban clus e s’ a e clus e s o con iguous g id cells o 1 km
2
wi h a densi y o a leas
300 inhabi an s pe km
2
and a minimum popula ion o 5000 [
9
]. Fo s a is ical su eys in
Poland, hey a e dis inguished on he basis o he e i o ial di ision o he coun y using
he iden ifie s o he Na ional O ficial Regis e o he Te i o ial Di ision o he Coun y
(TERYT) [
29
]. Acco ding o da a om he Cen al O fice o Geodesy and Ca og aphy,
in 2020, u al a eas occupied 29.0 million ha, which accoun ed o 92.9% o Poland. In
2020, he e we e 1533 u al communes and 642 u ban– u al communes, and he la ges
pe cen age we e hose wi h a popula ion o less han 5000 (37.8%) [30]. As o 31 July 2020,
he e we e 4700 ou is accommoda ion acili ies in u al a eas (45.6% o all such acili ies),
which had 30,690 beds (39.6% o he o al). Compa ed wi h 2010, he numbe o acili ies in
u al a eas had inc eased by 61.9% and he numbe o beds by 29.7%.
2. Sus ainable Tou ism in he Ru al En i onmen : Li e a u e Re iew
In ou ism, sus ainabili y is usually linked o he issue o de elopmen and is defined
as ‘new ou ism’ [
31
,
32
], he essence o which is i s low en i onmen al impac . Sus ainable
ou ism in u al a eas is o en educed o a ms hos ing ou is s, local ood and c a s, small-
scale businesses, and anspo . Almos always in andem wi h he de elopmen o u al
ou ism, which emphasizes a sus ainable app oach, is he need o na u e conse a ion [
30
].
I s absence can ha e consequences o he u u e quali y o li e o he local communi y bu
also o he ou ism p oduc o e ed [
33
]. Sus ainable ou ism, including ha p ac iced
in he u al en i onmen , ocuses on na u al and cul u al en i onmen al esou ces in
o de o p o ec hem, and emphasizes he esponsibili y o ou is s and he need o he
local communi y o pa icipa e in hese e o s [
34
]. One o he mos salien ea u es o
u al ou ism oday is en i onmen al sus ainabili y, and p o-en i onmen al beha io is
ecognized as one o he ways o achie e his goal [
34
–
39
]. Such de elopmen is mo e
han jus sus ainable economic g ow h. The concep o sus ainable de elopmen akes
in o accoun en i onmen al, economic, cul u al, and social ac o s in u al a eas. As
E okhin [
40
] emphasizes, each elemen ma e s, and u al ou ism ep esen s a new elemen
o sus ainable de elopmen in he ou ism indus y [41,42].
Acco ding o Gilbe and Tung [
43
], u al ou ism is a o m o ou ism in which
a me s play an impo an ole, p o iding ou is s wi h accommoda ion and he necessa y
condi ions o a ious leisu e ac i i ies in a a m en i onmen . I can be seen ha u al
ou ism is mul i- ace ed, no only because o a ming ac i i ies bu also in e ms o he
ou is p oduc o e ed. B amwell and Lane [
44
] emphasize o he o ms such as na u e
ou ism, eco ou ism, explo a o y ou ism, spo s ou ism, heal h ou ism and o he o ms
o ac i e ou ism such as hiking, moun ain biking, ho se iding, fishing, e c. They also
poin o o ms o ou ism ela ed o he i age such as cul u al and adi ional ou ism, olk
and e hnic ou ism [
44
–
46
], and educa ional ou ism. Many esea che s [
47
,
48
] emphasize
he link be ween ou ism ac i i ies and he u al en i onmen . So a , li e a u e on he
subjec has emphasized he small scale o he u al ou ism ma ke and ew ha e no iced
ha i is no only seasonal ou ism bu all yea ound. This ype o ou ism has been
pa icula ly app ecia ed since lockdown when he excellen o ganiza ion o his ma ke was
no iced. Two decades ago, Robe s e al. [
4
] had al eady emphasized ha i is a small-scale
bu well-managed ma ke , o en o g ea educa ional alue. Thus, p ope managemen
and a esponsible policy influencing he p omo ion o u al ou ism is c ucial. In he EU,
he de elopmen o u al a eas is pi o al. Bo h Co k decla a ions 1.0 and 2.0, conce ning
he u u e o u al a eas, se ou he main policy goals o e e se u al mig a ion; figh
96
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2028
po e y in he u al en i onmen ; s imula e employmen ; and, finally, mee he demand
o quali y, heal h, sa e y, and pe sonal g ow h o inc ease u al en i onmen al quali y.
Decla a ion 2.0 goes e en u he , ad oca ing he p omo ion o p ospe i y in u al a eas
wi h an emphasis on en ep eneu ship, in es men , and inno a ion. I emphasizes he
need o in es in hei i ali y, and his would include he elimina ion o digi al exclusion.
An impo an demand is he p o ec ion o he en i onmen , and his should ansla e
in o local economic de elopmen ; he de elopmen o ecological o ms o ou ism; and,
mo e b oadly, ec ea ion in u al a eas. I is also impo an o suppo clima e ac ion,
especially in he p oduc ion o sus ainable ene gy om enewable sou ces, and o inc ease
knowledge and inno a ion [
49
]. These pos ula es ha e a di ec o indi ec impac on he
de elopmen o ou ism in u al a eas. Sus ainable u al ou ism is seen in his con ex
as a ool o he de elopmen no so much o ag icul u e (al hough ha oo) bu as an
elemen s imula ing he de elopmen o he u al collec i e economy, which will inc ease
employmen oppo uni ies o a me s, p omo e he ma ke ing o ag icul u al and o he
local p oduc s, ul ima ely imp o e p oduc ion in u al a eas, and imp o e li ing condi ions
by e ec i ely inc easing he income ecei ed by u al esiden s [
50
–
52
]. Non-ag icul u al
ac i i ies in he coun yside can con ibu e o he economic g ow h o a egion [
14
,
15
,
53
],
and u al ou ism p o ides he oppo uni y o egional economic, socio-cul u al, and
en i onmen al sus ainabili y [
54
–
56
]. This elemen may also be impo an in building
global ood secu i y. Clima e change along wi h he libe aliza ion o ade a ec u al
ag icul u al a eas and, consequen ly, he p ac ical su i al o small a me s all o e he
wo ld [
57
–
59
]. The e o e, he pos ula e o de eloping sus ainable u al ou ism, e e ing o
he p inciples o social jus ice and economic p ofi abili y, is all he mo e impo an [
60
–
62
].
2.1. The Concep o Sus ainable De elopmen in Ru al Tou ism
Sus ainabili y in ou ism is eflec ed in h ee dimensions: economic, social, and en-
i onmen al. The fi s e e s o income managemen and he de elopmen o ins i u ions
and business en u es; he second ansla es in o mu ual coope a ion, inno a ion, and
c ea i i y; while he hi d includes en i onmen al awa eness, he managemen o en i-
onmen al esou ces in he spi i o a ional use, and he managemen o ou ism ha
occu s in he egion [
63
]. Howe e , o he esea che s [
64
,
65
] poin o ou dimensions o
sus ainable ac i i ies in he u al en i onmen , which should be cohe en a economic,
social, en i onmen al, and ecological le els so as o be able o sa is y p esen needs wi hou
ha ming u u e gene a ions who will use he same esou ces. Sus ainable de elopmen
in ol es app op ia e p og ess simul aneously in all ou dimensions [
66
,
67
]. This eaches
back o he defini ion p oposed in he 1987 B und land Repo , which defines sus ain-
able de elopmen as de elopmen ha mee s he needs o he p esen wi hou dep i ing
u u e gene a ions o he oppo uni y o mee hei needs [
68
]. Th ee cha ac e is ics o
sus ainable de elopmen a e men ioned by He [
69
]. Fi s ly, bo h p esen and u u e de el-
opmen should be aken in o accoun o a oid ha ming u u e gene a ions. Secondly, he
de elopmen o one aspec should no unde mine o es ic he de elopmen o o he s.
Thi dly, na u al esou ces—o mo e b oadly, he na u al en i onmen —should be p o ec ed
wi hou abandoning he de elopmen o he economy; howe e , ca e should be aken o
ensu e a ha monious ela ionship be ween he economy, socie y, and na u al esou ces. In
his iew, sus ainable ou ism de elopmen has become widely accep ed and is seen as
an impo an and poli ically app op ia e ool o ou ism de elopmen [
70
]. I esona es
wi h an app oach o ou ism as a ool o imp o ing he li elihoods o local communi ies
by iden i ying ou ism as he main emedy o e adica e po e y [
71
,
72
]. This is also he
case o u al ou ism, whose objec i es a e essen ially aligned wi h hose o sus ainable
de elopmen , e.g., e adica ing po e y (Objec i e 1), p omo ing inclusi e and sus ainable
economic g ow h as well as ull and p oduc i e employmen and wo k (Objec i e 8), and
ensu ing sus ainable consump ion and p oduc ion (Objec i e 12) [73].
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Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2028
Figu e 4.
Examples o hema ic ac i i ies ca ied ou on he a ms belonging o he Na ional Ne wo k
o Educa ional Homes eads (c ea ed by he au ho s based on da a [115]).
The Na ional Ne wo k o Educa ional Homes eads defines he a ge g oups o which
i add esses i s o e [
115
]. The e a e six main g oups: child en and adolescen s wi hou
adul supe ision, kinde ga en child en, p ima y-school-aged child en, special g oups,
adul s, and school-aged adolescen s (Figu e 5).
Figu e 5.
Main add essees o an educa ional homes ead o e : analysis based on applica ions o a ms
belonging o he Na ional Ne wo k o Educa ional Homes eads (c ea ed by he au ho s based on
da a [115]).
The esea ch indica es ha o he six a ge g oups defined by he Ne wo k, hey a e
mainly o med o g oups o child en o schoolchild en; howe e , 263 educa ional home-
s eads ha e mixed o e s o adul s wi h child en. The e is also an impo an educa ional
o e o special g oups, emphasizing he he apeu ic na u e o he esou ces impo an o
hose g oups, as well as an o e aimed a specialis s. S aying and pa icipa ing in ac i i ies
a he educa ional homes eads can a y in du a ion and p ice (Figu e 6).
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Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2028
Figu e 6.
Scope o he o e in an educa ional homes ead: analysis based on applica ions o a ms
belonging o he Na ional Ne wo k o Educa ional Homes eads (au ho s based on da a [115]).
P e iously, he educa ional o e was complemen a y o he basic ou ism ac i i y
p esen in he u al en i onmen , which was accommoda ion. Nowadays, educa ion is
an equally impo an ac i i y, which o en does no p esuppose he possibili y o s aying
longe han one day, and his is enough o isi a a m o ake pa in a p oposed p og am.
4.2. The ‘Hea he Land’ Associa ion: An Example o In eg a ing a Region’s Po en ial
The ‘Hea he Land’ Associa ion, a local ac ion g oup (LAG), is an example o an o gani-
za ion able o o eg ound he egion’s po en ial. The associa ion is loca ed in Lowe Silesia
in sou hwes e n Poland—a geog aphical egion and a he same ime an adminis a i e
one a he ank o oi odeship. The o al a ea o he communes comp ising he associa ion
is 1590.32 km
2
, which is sligh ly mo e han 10% o he oi odeship’s a ea. The popula ion,
howe e , accoun s o app oxima ely 3% o he o al o he egion wi h 94,860 inhabi an s.
‘Hea he Land’ is in he eas o he Lowe Silesian Fo es s, one o he la ges o es ed
a eas in Cen al Eu ope ( o es co e a io—44%), which influences he p ofile o ou is
use. Na u e ou ism, g een ou ism, eco ou ism, and sus ainable ou ism na u ally fi
in o he economic ac i i y in he egion. Monumen s o na u e, fi e Na u a 2000 a eas,
six na u e ese es, and he P zemków Landscape Pa k mean ha almos 80% o he a ea
is p o ec ed; he e o e, ou ism in his a ea should be ca ied ou in a sus ainable way.
The associa ion is commi ed o en i onmen al sus ainabili y in i s s a egy by ope a ing
wi hin he Eu opean G een Deal, which will imp o e he quali y o EU ci izens’ li es while
helping o play a leading ole in he global figh agains clima e change. The Common
Ag icul u al Policy (CAP) combines social, economic, and en i onmen al app oaches o
build sus ainable ag icul u al sys ems in he EU. The CAP also ecognizes and p omo es
he links be ween u al communi ies and he u al en i onmen . Measu es ha p o ec he
landscape, wildli e, and na u al esou ces, such as clean ai and i e s, benefi no only
ag icul u e and he en i onmen bu also con ibu e o imp o ing he quali y o li e in u al
a eas and open up oppo uni ies o ec ea ional ac i i ies and ou ism, all while se ing o
suppo u al communi ies [111].
In addi ion o he mos aluable na u al esou ces, cul u al esou ces a e also impo an
o he ou is o e ( he he i age o he local communi y o ganized in a ious ways, om
local p oduc s o eco-museums, educa ional homes eads, and hema ic illages). This
he i age is a eflec ion o he complica ed his o y o Poland and he egion. A e Wo ld
Wa II, he a ea whe e he associa ion now ope a es was se led by immig an popula ions
om a ious egions o p e-wa Poland. The communi ies b ough hei own adi ions
and cus oms o hei new, small homeland, which a e ansla ed in o he cu en way o
li e, weal h, and di e si y o esou ces. This is seen in egional p oduc s ha ing hei oo s
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Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2028
ei he he e o coming om a eas hund eds o kilome e s away ha a e ecognized as i s
own. These include he ollowing:
•
P ese es, especially hea he honey om he Lowe Silesian Fo es s, which has held a
Eu opean P o ec ed Geog aphical Indica ion ce ifica e since 2008, as well as nu s in
honey, bee pla e in honey, and jams and ui p ese es;
•Venison sausage and pâ é om ‘Hea he Land’;
•Keselica—smoked P zemków ca p;
•Wine inega s wi h he bs;
•P essed oils;
•Local wines;
•Honey ginge b ead om P zemków;
•Coun y b ead.
Local p oduc s and adi ions a e a p e ex o o ganizing cul u al e en s o ou is
alue as well (Figu e 7). Tou is asse s a e accompanied by ou is in as uc u e and
he ou is s ha use hem. In 2021, he egion o e ed 53 ca e ing es ablishmen s and
51 accommoda ion acili ies, which we e used by 26,873 ou is s ( his is an inc ease o
11.5 pe cen compa ed o 2014), and he numbe o nigh s p o ided amoun ed o 49,026
in 2021. I should be no ed ha he abo e figu es do no ake in o accoun he numbe o
ou is s using he ag o ou ism o e ; he e o e, i sligh ly unde es ima es he olume o
ou ism in he egion [111].
The beginning o he ‘Hea he Land’ Associa ion was he P zemków Landscape Pa k
Pa ne ship G oup, es ablished on 17 Sep embe 2004 and co- ounded by ep esen a i es
o local go e nmen s, companies, NGOs, and s a e and scien ific ins i u ions. The aim
was o p epa e and implemen ac ions o sol e he economic, social, and en i onmen al
p oblems o he associa ed municipali ies. In 2005, he name was changed o he ‘Hea he
Land’ Pa ne ship G oup, and in 2006, he ‘Hea he Land’ Local Ac ion G oup Founda ion
was es ablished. In 2008, he ‘Hea he Land’ Founda ion and local go e nmen uni s we e
es ablished, which s ill ope a e oday. The associa ion wo ks on he basis o he Ac o
7 Ma ch 2007, suppo ing u al a eas h ough he pa icipa ion o he Eu opean Ag icul-
u al Fund o Ru al De elopmen [
131
], and Council Regula ion (EC) No 1698/2005 o
20 Sep embe 2005, suppo ing u al de elopmen by he Eu opean Ag icul u al Fund o
Ru al De elopmen [
132
]. The associa ion co e s he u al communes o G omadka, Lubin,
Chojnów, Bolesławiec, Miłkowice, and Kunice; he u ban– u al communes o P zemków
and Chocianów; and he own o Chojnów.
Acco ding o he s a u e o he ‘Hea he Land’ Founda ion, i s objec i es include
suppo ing he de elopmen o he u al a eas o he communes ha a e i s membe s,
p omo ing i s a ea; s imula ing he ini ia i es o he local communi y; p o ec ing wha
is o his o ical, cul u al, u ban, na u al, o landscape alue; as well as gi ing opinions
on unde akings ela ed o he de elopmen o he egion. Finally, i p omo es social
in eg a ion, ac i i ies on he labo ma ke , as well as building a common iden i y. Acco ding
o §8 o he s a u es, he Founda ion pu sues i s objec i es h ough he ollowing:
•
C ea ing and implemen ing s a egies, p og ams, plans, and p ojec s ela ed o he
de elopmen o he egion;
•
Ca ying ou esea ch, analyses, gi ing expe opinions, and collec ing ma e ials
conce ning he a ea;
•
O ganizing mee ings, semina s, aining cou ses, con e ences, compe i ions, exhibi-
ions, conce s, and o he o ms o cul u al li e;
•Conduc ing in o ma ional, p omo ional, and publishing ac i i ies;
•O ganizing and suppo ing cha i able ac i i ies;
•Ac ing as an opinion- o me wi h ega d o he decisions o local au ho i ies;
•
P o iding ee ad ice on he p epa a ion o p ojec s ela ed o he implemen a ion o
he In eg a ed Ru al De elopmen S a egy o he egion;
•
Coope a ion and exchange o expe ience wi h public ins i u ions and NGOs a na ional
and in e na ional le els [133].
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Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2028
Figu e 7.
‘Hea he Land’ (
A
); Village o as es (
B
); Ag i ou ism a m: Village o Da ów Lasu (
C
);
Cape caillie hea h (
D
); Gajówka Głuszec Eco-museum (
E
); Village o Gi s, Fo es Lipa W ó˙
zka, Mill
Pond (
F
); Village o Gi s o he Fo es Bluebe ies Pa h o he Senses, a pa h on which ou is s walk
ba e oo (G) (pho os aken by he au ho s).
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Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2028
The objec i es o he associa ion a e defined in he Local De elopmen S a egy o be
implemen ed in he yea s 2023–2027:
•Objec i e 1. De elopmen o he ou is o e and he local b and ‘Hea he Land’.
•Objec i e 2. Ac i a ing he local communi y o s eng hen local capi al.
Ac i i ies suppo ing Objec i e 1 a e add essed o en i ies ope a ing in ou is and
ou ism- ela ed se ices who wan o ope a e unde he ‘Hea he Land’ b and. The imple-
men a ion o his objec i e will os e he de elopmen o en ep eneu ship and he c ea ion
o new jobs; his will ansla e in o economic de elopmen in he spi i o inno a ion and
an inc ease in esiden s’ incomes, which i sel will ansla e in o a be e quali y o li e
o he egion’s inhabi an s. Emphasis is placed on gi ing p e e ence o unde akings o
an inno a i e na u e, and p o-clima e in es men s will allow syne gies o be achie ed in
e ms o na u al esou ces and en i onmen al p o ec ion. Reducing emissions, inc easing
ene gy e ficiency, and implemen ing good p ac ices o na u e and clima e p o ec ion will
allow he local communi y o gain addi ional benefi s om li ing in a heal hy and clean
en i onmen . A conscious app oach o en i onmen al p o ec ion and he i age conse a ion
in he egion will p omo e esponsible ou ism and suppo he educa ion o bo h local
esiden s and ou is s on ecological o ms o a el and he p ese a ion o local cul u e
and adi ions [
111
]. Wi hin his objec i e, wo main unde akings ha e been iden ified:
in as uc u e o ou ism and local he i age as well as suppo o en ep eneu ship in
ou ism and local b anding. Wi hin he in as uc u e amewo k, suppo will be gi en
o hose ac i i ies ha will imp o e he ou is a ac i eness o he a ea h ough he c e-
a ion o new places o ec ea ion and ou is ac i i ies along wi h a dispe sion o ou is s
h ough a ne wo k o cycle ou es and educa ional pa hs, aking in o accoun he p omo ion
o na u al po en ial. Suppo o en ep eneu ship will gi e p e e ence o hose ou ism
se ice ac i i ies ha will ela e o in es men s o an inno a i e and p o-clima e na u e,
such as RES (Renewable Ene gy Sou ces) ins alla ions in local ou is en i ies. Objec i e 2
suppo s ini ia i es o he b oadly defined ac i i ies o he local communi y, especially o
young people; he implemen a ion o he Sma Village concep ; and he social inclusion o
he elde ly and iden ified socially disad an aged g oups. The s a egy defines qui e p e-
cisely he g oups o people who a e disad an aged o a isk o exclusion, which includes
women, hose wi h disabili ies and hei ca e s, hose seeking employmen , low-skilled and
young people wi hou wo k expe ience, subsis ence a me s, young people unde 25, and
senio s olde han 60. Measu es o s imula e social ac i i y and comba digi al exclusion
a e impo an he e.
4.3. The Pa icipa o y Na u e o Associa ions P omo ing Ru al Tou ism Based on he Example o
‘Hea he Land’
The ‘Hea he Land’ LAG elies on a holis ic app oach in ac ing and in implemen ing
asks. The idea o he LAG is o wo k in each o he h ee sec o s—public, social, and
economic— oge he wi h he inhabi an s. The LAG’s 104 co- ounding membe s include
15 ins i u ions ep esen ing he public sec o , 69 membe s om he social sec o , and
20 en i ies om he economic sec o [
111
]. Decisions made wi hin he LAG a e aken by a
15-membe council comp ising ep esen a i es o all h ee sec o s. In addi ion, each mem-
be o he council should be a esiden o he LAG a ea. The pa icipa o y cha ac e o he
LAG is bes seen in i s ac i i ies, which a e egula ed and o med h ough ac ions defined
in de ail in ele an documen s and de elopmen s a egies o mula ed o specific pe iods
o ime. In s a egy de elopmen , many bodies ha e been in ol ed, ep esen ing all sec o s
co- ounding he LAG, i.e., local en ep eneu s; ou ism se ice p o ide s; ep esen a i es
o ins i u ions coope a ing wi h excluded g oups such as Social Assis ance Cen e s o he
Po ia Employmen O fice; ep esen a i es o hose excluded g oups; local leade s om
each commune; he local communi y; ep esen a i es o he senio ci izens’ communi y;
ep esen a i es o educa ional ins i u ions; he Na ional Ag icul u al Suppo Cen e; he
Social Economy Suppo Cen e in Legnica; membe s o he Council and he Managemen
Boa d; he Gene al Mee ing and employees o he LAG o fice; communes and hei em-
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Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2028
ployees; ep esen a i es o cul u al cen e s; and, finally, ep esen a i es o eco-museums,
educa ional homes eads, and hema ic illages. The Local De elopmen S a egy was
d awn up based on widely applied pa icipa o y me hods, including in o ma ion mee ings,
se ing up a wo king g oup o he Local De elopmen S a egy, se ing up an on-line in o -
ma ion and consul a ion poin wi h he use o he ZOOM pla o m, holding call-in mee ings
in he LAG o fice, ques ionnai e su eys among he egion’s inhabi an s and in e es ed
g oups, consul a ion mee ings wi h LAG membe s, consul a ions wi h g oups o excluded
people, social consul a ions on he d a documen , da a collec ion using a con ac o m,
hema ic mee ings o LAG au ho i ies, and making e e y hing a ailable on he websi e
dedica ed o he documen . Ac i i ies using he abo e me hods we e ca ied ou be ween
June 2022 and May 2023 [
116
]. I was also decided o se up a wo king eam o he Local
Ac ion S a egy, an En e p ise Club, a Senio Ci izens’ Fo um, and an e-spo s league o
young people. I was assumed ha hey will be ac i ely in ol ed in he implemen a ion o
he documen unde de elopmen as well as in he implemen a ion o egional inno a ions
o LAG ac i i ies. They will also become pla o ms o coope a ion in he implemen a ion
o new ideas and concep s.
The idea o sus ainable de elopmen is included in he decla a ion signed when
joining he ‘Hea he Land’ Associa ion as a membe , which is an annex o he s a u e and
con ains a significan sec ion speci ying he means o achie ing he objec i es se ou in
ha documen . In he fi s place, emphasis is pu on he sus ainable de elopmen o u al
a eas wi h ega d o he p o ec ion and p omo ion o he na u al en i onmen as well as he
landscape, his o ical and cul u al esou ces, and equal oppo uni ies. Some o he poin s
a e as ollows:
•To ac i a e he u al popula ion.
•To p omo e u al a eas and LAG communes.
•
To mobilize he local communi y o pa icipa e in he p ocess o sus ainable u al
de elopmen in he LAG a ea.
•
To ake ini ia i es and ac ions o s imula e he ac i i y o local communi ies and hei
ac i e pa icipa ion in he de elopmen and implemen a ion o he Local De elopmen
S a egy (LDS) and o he p og ams, and o suppo and dissemina e he idea o sel -
go e nance in his amewo k.
•
To unde ake ini ia i es and ac ions o he de elopmen o he LDS a ea aimed a
he de elopmen o egional p oduc s, ou ism, en ep eneu ship, human esou ces,
and ci il and in o ma ion socie y; imp o emen o he aes he ics o he illages in
he LAG a ea and he sa e y o he inhabi an s; aes he ic and a is ic educa ion o he
inhabi an s; economic and p o essional ac i a ion; coun e ac ing social exclusion and
social pa hologies; p omo ion o a heal hy li es yle; and he p ese a ion o cul u al
he i age in he LAG a ea.
•
The c ea ion o local p oduc s and se ices, pa icula ly ou is se ices and he c e-
a ion o a ou is in as uc u e in he a ea co e ed by he LDS.
•
P o ec ion o women’s igh s and ac i i ies o equal igh s o women and men [
134
].
One o he main asks o sus ainable u al de elopmen is o aise he s anda d o
li ing o local communi ies wi hou hem ha ing o lea e hei home en i onmen . This is
impo an in he case o Poland because a significan pa o he communi y li es in he
coun yside and, wo decades ago, made a li ing om ag icul u al ac i i y. In addi ion,
economic changes and accession o he EU ha e caused a decline in he p ofi abili y o
ag icul u al p oduc ion. The e was a h ea ha he illage, o economic easons, migh
begin o depopula e. Hence, he idea o c ea ing a cen e coo dina ed a he minis e ial
le el (which indica es he impo ance a ached o i by he na ional adminis a ion and he
go e nmen ) was pu o h, which wo ks o u al de elopmen in ou main a eas:
•
Suppo ing non-ag icul u al o ms o economic ac i i y o a me s and hei amilies;
•Cul u al he i age o he coun yside;
•Suppo o u al ou ism;
•Suppo o u al households.
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Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2028
Th ee o hem di ec ly o indi ec ly ela e o non-ag icul u al ac i i ies linked o he
de elopmen o ou ism. The key is a balanced app oach ha gi es local communi ies a
chance o p epa e a ou is p oduc ha conce ns spa ially dispe sed, small-scale ac i i ies.
This excludes mass ou ism and gi es an oppo uni y o he de elopmen o small amily
businesses ha will be able o p o ide unds o unc ion in hei home a eas wi hou ha ing
o lea e hem. One o he main ini ia i es, i no he main one, in he field o u al ou ism is
he Educa ional Homes eads p ojec . I has been planned in de ail so ha i can unc ion in
a u al en i onmen wi hou he isk o deg ada ion, hus ansla ing in o he quali y o he
o e . Quali y is also an impo an ea u e o hose ou is p oduc s equi ed by he mode n
ou is , which is why i is so impo an o analyze he assump ions ha unde lie he c ea ion
o his idea. The fi s s ep o he de elopmen o ou ism in a sus ainable way is o p ope ly
design he ules o ope a ion. These p inciples ha e been cla ified in documen s ha , on
he one hand, limi o e en elimina e he isk o undesi able phenomena appea ing on he
u al ou ism ma ke , ha ming bo h he en i onmen and he local communi y, as well as
he image o a u al egion, usually pe cei ed as a p o-ecological a ea. The assump ions
con ained in he documen s a e c ucial o he sus ainable unc ioning o he u al ou is
en i onmen and a e he s a ing poin o all ac i i ies, which is why i seems so impo an
o p esen hese elemen s because hey shape u al ou ism, indica e he po en ial and use
o esou ces, and a e a signpos and ool o local communi ies ha allows hem o ac in a
sus ainable way.
5. Discussion
Sus ainabili y is he key wo d o he unc ioning o mode n ou ism in u al
a eas [
8
,
11
–
13
,
135
,
136
]. I e e s o many ac o s such as en i onmen al p o ec ion and he
economy, as well as he pa icipa ion o local communi ies, which leads o comba ing social
exclusion [
17
–
19
]. One o he main aspec s o he sus ainable app oach is he p o ec ion o
he esou ces a ailable in he u al en i onmen . Two ypes o ou is alue a e a ailable,
na u al and cul u al, complemen ing each o he and making ou is s awa e ha people
and hei cul u e canno and do no unc ion isola ed om he na u e ha hey use o hei
needs. I is impo an o demons a e in he educa ional p og ams ( he case o Poland is
qui e a good example) [
111
,
112
,
125
] how o use hese esou ces in a sus ainable way, whe e
no only he p esen coun s bu also he u u e. I is no so much ha we pass on esou ces
o he nex gene a ion bu a he we bo ow hem om u u e gene a ions.
I seems ha he economic aspec shapes he sus ainabili y o u al ou ism and con-
inces a me s o go g een. The economic s a us o he communi ies ha li e in u al a eas
is e y impo an , and he opinion o he g oups unning bo h ‘Hea he Land’ and ‘Educa-
ional Homes eads’ is also eflec ed in he li e a u e [
133
,
134
,
137
,
138
]. Nowadays, in he
e a o commodi y ag icul u e, i is inc easingly di ficul o p ese e smalle a ms ha a e
unable o compe e in his ma ke . Fa me s lea ing hei businesses, hei home, and hei
adi ions a e a eal h ea o he he i age o u al a eas. Such a si ua ion is seen in he u al
a eas in Poland. This is why he e is an u gen need o di e si y u al ac i i ies in o de o
p e en his h ea , which is a common p oblem o de eloped coun ies globally [
139
–
141
].
One such ool is a sus ainable app oach o u al ou ism, which akes ca e o he esou ces
and, hus, inc eases he quali y and a ac i eness o he o e ( hese a e he ac o s ha he
mode n ou is is looking o ). This fi s in wi h he iew exp essed in he li e a u e empha-
sizing he mul i- asking o sus ainabili y in u al ou ism [
5
]. I ac i i ies a e supposed o
be e ec i e, hey canno be educed o na u e conse a ion alone. The aim should also be
o p ese e he cul u e and cha ac e o he communi ies ha a e opening up o ou ism,
he sus ainabili y o he landscape and habi a s, he sus ainabili y o he u al economy,
and main aining a ou ism indus y ha is iable in he long e m a he han ocused on
sho - e m p ofi . Finally, he implemen a ion o a sus ainabili y s a egy should in ol e
o ganizing he local communi y a ound he goal: om de eloping an unde s anding o
he need o such ac ion o shaping leade ship and ision among decision-make s so ha
e e yone is awa e o bo h he benefi s bu also he isks o elying oo much on ou ism
110
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2028
alone, and con inuing o wo k owa ds a sus ainable and di e se u al economy [
142
–
144
].
Such an app oach, seen in he li e a u e, appea s in his a icle in bo h he case s udies
p esen ed, i.e., Educa ional Homes eads as well as ‘Hea he Land’. A sus ainable app oach
o esou ces is pi o al in many documen s desc ibing hei ac i i ies [
111
,
125
]. In o de
o de elop he igh app oach, i is impo an o in ol e many ac o s and i ually he
whole communi y; al hough, o cou se, he deg ee o in ol emen a ies. A key wo d
ha is impo an o a sus ainable app oach is pa icipa ion [
145
–
147
]. The ac i i ies o
‘Hea he Land’ a e a good example o such bo om-up ac i i ies whose bases a e cons an
con ac wi h he local communi y and he use o he esou ces in a sus ainable manne ,
which a e emphasized in i s s a egy and o he documen s in many places [
111
,
133
,
134
].
The economic benefi o p epa ing a ou is o e is no he main objec i e bu , a he , a
means used o in eg a e he communi y; educe exclusion by con inuously in ol ing hese
g oups [
4
,
144
] in ou ism and ec ea ional ac i i ies; and educe mig a ion om he a ea by
showing new kinds o economic ac i i y, hus spa ing he necessi y o lea ing he egion.
The ac i i ies o ‘Hea he Land’ and Educa ional Homes eads s ess he ole o women in
planning and ealizing he ou is o e in he u al a ea [
134
], and his is pa o a wo ld
end. Many emphasize he need o engagemen [
148
,
149
], poin ing o he impo ance
o suppo o small-scale, communi y- ocused ou ism ini ia i es because his o e s he
g ea es po en ial o enhancing he li es o economically ma ginalized g oups, including
u al women. The o e desc ibed in his a icle is an excellen example o a sus ainable
app oach o ou ism based on esou ces o local social capi al no necessa ily app ecia ed in
mass ou ism, which o en a ac s ansna ional co po a e ou ism businesses and ex e nal
labo [2].
An equally impo an elemen is o poin o such di ec ions o de elopmen ha
ansla e in o ca e o he na u al and cul u al en i onmen s o he egion. App op ia e
educa ion shows he local communi y a way o de elopmen hanks o which esou ces
will be p ese ed because o hei egional o sup a- egional uniqueness, as well as an
elemen hanks o which a new kind o ac i i y enabling a isi o o s ay in he egion is
possible [
150
,
151
]. This app oach, he p ese a ion o na u e and local cul u e h ough
i s economic a ac i eness o he local communi y, also esponds o he demand o
sus ainable de elopmen . An asse ha is only a ou is esou ce i i emains in ac and
is p ese ed o u u e gene a ions fi s in wi h he philosophy o local g oups, including
‘Hea he Land’.
Finally, a sus ainable app oach o u al ou ism can also be spoken o in e ms o
he in o ma ion dis ibu ed abou ou ism asse s and, mo e b oadly, he ou ism ac i i ies
o u al ope a o s. A co ela ion can be d awn be ween he de elopmen o ou ism,
including u al ou ism, and he use o new echnologies [
152
–
155
]. The ole o his ool has
been no iced and app ecia ed in u al en i onmen s whe e ou ism has de eloped. Bo h
‘Hea he Land’ as well as Educa ional Homes eads ecognize his means o communica ion
as he mos e ec i e way o mee ing he po en ial ecipien o hei o e .
6. Conclusions
A sus ainable app oach o ou ism de elopmen in u al a eas is exp essed in an
app op ia e app oach o he esou ces a ailable o he u al en i onmen including bo h
na u al and cul u al asse s. Fo esou ces used in he u al en i onmen in Poland an
emphasis is placed on he p o ec ion o bo h ypes. One idea o his p o ec ion is sus ainable
sha ing, which assumes a ional use o an ex en ha would no a ec hese asse s bu a
he same ime could benefi he local communi y. Bo h asse s a e used in di e en ways;
howe e , each ime, in addi ion o hei pu ely ec ea ional alue, hei educa ional alue
is impo an . This s ems om he belie ha only wha is known and liked is easie o
p o ec , as i s ems om an awa eness o hei uniqueness, agili y, and ansience i hey
a e subjec ed o he mass p essu e ha usually accompanies mass ou ism. Fu he , i is
no only abou na u al alue. I migh e en be asked which ype is mo e h ea ened: Is i
he na u al, which is now mo e and mo e s ic ly and o mally p o ec ed, and whe e he
111
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2028
law p o ides clea and s ong ools o s and up o i ? O is i pe haps he cul u al ones?
Cul u e being a communi y ea u e is pe haps e en mo e di ficul o de end, especially
in an e a o globaliza ion and o e - ou ism, as i is o en no p o ec ed by specific laws
designed o p ese e he adi ions o cus oms o a egion. Cul u e depends on he s eng h
o a communi y ha is awa e o i s adi ions and app ecia es hei alue, which esul s in a
posi i e a i ude and p ide abou such cus oms and adi ions. This is he fi s s ep owa ds
p ese ing and p omo ing his kind o asse , and his philosophy seems o be he one mos
o en implemen ed nowadays o he de elopmen o ou ism in u al a eas in Poland.
An excellen ool in he ba le o main ain and dissemina e cul u al esou ces is ed-
uca ion. Knowledge is he fi s and necessa y s ep in he s uggle o p ese e alues.
Knowledge needs o be passed on in a ious ways so ha bo h hos and isi o commu-
ni ies app oach he isi ed en i onmen in a sus ainable manne . The local communi ies
li ing in u al a eas in Poland do no conside which should be ca ed o as hey use a
holis ic app oach (na u al and cul u al) o hei p o ec ion in he educa ion p ocess. One
o he mos impo an ools in his educa ion p ocess is he ou is o e in he u al en i-
onmen , as can be seen om he example o Educa ional Homes eads; his is a concep
ha has been p esen in he u al en i onmen o Poland o a leas wo decades and is
based on eaching o hink ou side he box. Ins ead o class ooms, he e is he coun yside,
homes eads and meadows, and o es s and lakes; ins ead o eache s, he e a e hei hos s
who sha e hei skills, knowledge, and daily li e; ins ead o a lec u e, he e is in e ac ion, in
which each pa icipan eels pa o he en i onmen . The o e o Educa ional Homes eads
is p ac ically ne e only abou cul u al alues o only na u al alues.
I is wo h s essing he ole o u al ou ism in Poland in he con ex o i s unc ioning,
which is ypical o wo ld ends whe e he economy coun s as much as ecology, local com-
muni y pa icipa ion, and sus ainabili y. A p esen , in Poland, smalle -scale u al ou ism
is p omo ed, which uses en i onmen al esou ces o ad oca e bo h ‘ge o know’ and ‘no o
ha m’. Ru al ou ism in Poland uses he in e ne . I s use, which is emphasized, is op imal
o many easons. This is a end in which basically he whole wo ld o con empo a y
in o ma ion and i s dis ibu ion is al eady globally sus ainable. In conclusion, one can isk
s a ing ha he success o sus ainable u al ou ism de elopmen lies in he ollowing:
•
The desc ip ion and p ope u iliza ion o he na u al and cul u al alue o an a ea
emphasizing i s uniqueness;
•
A local communi y ha is awa e o and ac i ely shapes he image o ou ism in
i s a ea;
•
An app op ia e p esen a ion o he po en ial o using he la es echnology and i s
abili y o shape and modi y in o ma ion in eal ime.
I is wo h adding ha he whole o e based on sus ainable u al ou ism is a
knowledge-based endea o esul ing om he app op ia e educa ion o bo h he local
communi y and hose using i s po en ial. This has mul i-dimensional significance o
ou is s, he a ea’s inhabi an s, and he na u al en i onmen , and only app op ia e manage-
men o hese asse s can posi i ely influence he na u al esou ces o a ou is egion.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, K.W.; me hodology, K.W. and A.K.; so wa e, K.W., A.K.
and A.Z.; alida ion, K.W., A.K. and A.Z.; o mal analysis, K.W., A.K. and A.Z.; in es iga ion, K.W.,
A.Z., A.K. and A.D.; esou ces, K.W., A.K., A.Z. and A.D.; da a cu a ion, K.W. and A.D.; w i ing—
o iginal d a p epa a ion, K.W.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, A.K., A.Z. and A.D.; isualiza ion,
A.K.; supe ision, K.W., A.K. and A.Z.; p ojec adminis a ion, K.W. unding acquisi ion, A.D. All
au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : Da a a e con ained wi hin he a icle.
Conflic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no conflic o in e es .
112
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2028
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Falak, S.; Chiun, L.M.; Wee, A.Y. A eposi ioning s a egy o u al ou ism in Malaysia—Communi y’s pe spec i e. P ocedia Soc.
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Saa inen, J.; Lenao, M. In eg a ing ou ism o u al de elopmen and planning in he de eloping wo ld. De . Sou h. A .
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zonego Rozwoju w Polsce w ´
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113
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2078
he di e en au onomous communi ies ha make up he go e nmen a e seeking o hal
he p ocesses o depopula ion, aging, and he loss o na u al and semi-na u al ecosys ems
cha ac e is ic o u al en i onmen s [
15
]. Tou ism also con ibu es o a mo e equi able
e i o ial planning, g ea e e i o ial cohesion, and g ea e socioeconomic de elopmen
o he popula ion, among o he s. This economic ac i i y has accoun ed o an a e age o
10.4% o he na ional GDP in he las decade, and in 2022 accoun ed o 12.1% o he o al
employmen in Spain [
16
]. Ru al ou ism was p omo ed as a sus ainable al e na i e o he
o e c owded sun and beach ou ism ha had p e ailed un il hen [
17
–
20
]. I is cha ac e -
ized by i s de elopmen in a u al en i onmen , which is pe cei ed by ou is s and ou
ope a o s as [
21
,
22
] (a) an en i onmen cha ac e ized by an abundance o na u al spaces
wi h li le ans o ma ion, in e spe sed wi h spaces dedica ed o adi ional ag icul u al
ac i i ies; (b) small u al illages (especially hose wi h ewe han 5000 inhabi an s); and
(c) he su i al o a adi ional cul u al he i age and a local way o li e, in many cases
associa ed wi h he use o his en i onmen , among o he ac o s.
Al hough he implemen a ion o u al ou ism in dep essed municipali ies was ini ially
an a ac i e and e ec i e complemen a y ac i i y, he ac is ha he excessi e g ow h o
u al lodgings associa ed wi h his ype o ou ism and he eno mous e i o ial coincidence
o many o hem (in Ex emadu a a la ge pe cen age is concen a ed in he no h o he
p o ince o Cáce es) has made i a less iable op ion om an economic poin o iew [
23
].
In his ega d, he measu es desc ibed by Mon iel [
24
] and Muñoz [
25
] o conside in
he sus ainable implemen a ion o new u al accommoda ion in hese en i onmen s a e
ema kable. The inclusion o a model o equipmen wi h a low impac on he en i onmen ,
ob aining esou ces on a local scale, and he conside a ion o he ou is ac i i y i sel
as complemen a y and no he only impo an one, while in ol ing he local popula ion
in he managemen o he ou is ac i i y (inco po a ing in o he o e ac i i ies linked
o knowledge o he cul u al he i age, expe iences, cus oms, e c., ha p omo e dialogue
be ween popula ion and ou is ), a e some o he mos impo an measu es in his ega d.
Wi hin u al ou ism and conside ing he measu es o Muñoz in 2015 [
25
] and Shen
e al. in 2022 [
26
], ag o ou ism is beginning o be seen as a easible model wi h which o
p omo e economic di e sifica ion and iabili y in u al en i onmen s and less- a o ed
a eas o LFAs acco ding o he EU [
27
], which a e cha ac e ized by popula ion densi ies o
less han 150 inhabi an s/km
2
and he p esence o ou s anding ag icul u al ac i i y [
28
],
while p ese ing hei he i age and associa ed landscapes [
29
], as in he Spanish case in
Ex emadu a’s municipali ies [
30
–
33
]. This ype o ou ism a ies widely depending on he
coun y ha legisla es i and he ac i i ies ha he p omo e wishes o o e , bu basically, i
is closely ela ed o a me s who o e on hei ac i e a ms local ood o ou doo ec ea ion
linked o he usual ac i i y on ha a m [
34
]. In he pa icula case o he au onomous
communi y o Ex emadu a, his is ela ed o p o iding lodging on a ms whe e he ou is
can enjoy he ypical local cuisine and/o ac i ely pa icipa es in some o he adi ional
ag icul u al p oduc ion asks ha occu in ha a ea [
35
]. Some o he benefi s o his ype o
u al ou ism a e he imp o emen in complemen a y incomes o hose acqui ed h ough
he ag icul u al ac i i y (which should con inue o be he main economic ac i i y) [
31
,
36
],
he inc ease in local employmen , and he p ese a ion o a adi ional u al landscape
ha would o he wise disappea [
37
,
38
]. Howe e , in Ex emadu a he ag o ou ism phe-
nomenon has ye o be exploi ed, despi e he po en ial ha his e i o y ha bo s (acco ding
o he MAPA in 2023 [
1
], mo e han 324.324000 hec a es in Ex emadu a a e unde cul i a-
ion, which ep esen s 34% o he Spanish cul i a ed a ea, and obacco and oma oes s and
ou as he c ops whose pe cen ages in Ex emadu a exceed 80% o he na ional a ea), and
he olume o i s su ace a e des ined o he p ima y sec o in gene al and o he dehesa in
pa icula : 97.4% o he municipali ies (378) and 98.5% o he popula ion o Ex emadu a,
acco ding o he INE [
39
], ha e pas u e land in hei municipali ies ( ep esen ing 24.4% o
he o al su ace a ea o 1,014,865 hec a es). In addi ion, i is no ewo hy ha 68.3% o he
dehesa in Ex emadu a is concen a ed in municipali ies wi h a popula ion o ewe han
5000 inhabi an s (Figu e 2 and Table 1). Al hough he e is a significan pe cen age o he de-
120

Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2078
hesa in he municipal g oup wi h he la ges popula ion, he e is a p edominan dedica ion
o he se ice sec o , wi h a e y educed weigh gi en o he p ima y sec o (o ien ed o
i iga ion and he sca ce ag i- ood ans o ma ion indus y which has li le o do wi h he
dehesa). In addi ion, he municipali ies a e gene ally e y ex ensi e, and o his is added
he ac ha he e is an eno mous popula ion concen a ion in he main cen e s, lea ing
mos o he e i o y wi hou demog aphic esou ces. This means ha he link be ween
he la ge municipali ies o Ex emadu a and he dehesa is e y esidual. On he o he
hand, municipali ies wi h ewe han 5000 inhabi an s (conside ed u al en i onmen s)
a e much mo e socioeconomically dependen on he ecosys em se ices o e ed by he
dehesa; hey a e adi ionally e y dependen on he p ima y sec o , wi h a ma ked use o
a adi ional o less mechanized ype [
40
]; hey concen a e mos o he dehesa su ace a ea
in hei municipali ies and, in addi ion, hese a e on a e age much smalle han hose o
he la ge municipali ies. These a e also he en i onmen s ha concen a e he la ges aces
o cul u al he i age linked o adi ional uses. On he o he hand, i we conside he densi y
limi es ima ed by he EU o speak o he isk o depopula ion (12.5 inhabi an s/km
2
),
in Ex emadu a 44% o he municipali ies (171) would mee his s anda d. Hence, u al
en i onmen s a e he ones chosen o e alua e he implemen a ion o ag i ou ism ac i i ies
as a complemen o hei income wi hin he use o he dehesa (Table 1).
Figu e 2. S udy a ea.
Table 1. Dehesa a ea and popula ion ela ed by municipal g oup in 2022.
Municipal
Size (Inhab.) Inhab. %
Inhab.
Coun
Muni.
%
Muni.
A e age Su .
Muni (ha.).
Inhab./km2
A e age
A e age Su .
Dehesa (ha.)
%
Dehesa
≥20,000 441,025 41.8 7 1.8 73,712 121.02 128,827.96 12.68
10,000–19,999 85,482 8.1 6 1.6 16,297 127.98 27,896.99 2.74
5001–9999 137,133 13.0 21 5.4 25,547 92.47 165,038.43 16.24
<5000 375,706 35.6 344 88.7 8476 19.66 694,620.36 68.34
To al 1,039,346 98.5 378 97.4 10,757 127.30 21,016,383.75 100.00
1–2 A e age weigh ed by he numbe o municipali ies included in each g oup.
121
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2078
A good way o analyze he le el o implemen a ion o his ype o ag i ou ism ac i i y
in a e i o y, and o iden i y i s esou ces wi h g ea e ou ism po en ial, as well as he
ela ionships among economic ac o s, is o gene a e a alue chain. This is a ep esen a ion
o all he p omo e s ha o e goods o se ices, hei esou ces, and he ela ionships
among hem. The pu pose is o gene a e added alue o he ac i i y in which hey in e ac
(in his case ag i ou ism) om an economic, social, cul u al, he i age, and iden i y poin o
iew [
41
]. In he alue chain, each specific ac i i y is e alua ed wi hin ou la ge blocks o
componen s (p oduc ion, ans o ma ion, dis ibu ion, and ma ke ing) o de ec p oblems
ha p e en goods o a se ice om being economically iable and gene a ing he alue
o which i was c ea ed [
42
,
43
]. The alue chain has been applied o ou ism o qui e
some ime, bu i we conside hose ecen ones ha ake in o accoun he e i o y as a key
elemen , he wo k epo ed in [
44
] is in e es ing. I p oposes a me hodology o iden i ying
alue chains associa ed wi h gas onomic ou ism. In i , he au ho s ake in o accoun he
e i o iali y o he componen s o he ou ism alue chain, and he sensi i e and specialized
demand o his ype o ac i i y, which seeks quali y o e quan i y in non-mass ou ism,
and he assessmen o he po en ial ( he impo ance o an elemen o he es o he chain
acco ding o he in e es i has o he demand) and unc ionali y concep s (whe he a
esou ce has he se ices conside ed basic by he demand o a sa is ac o y expe ience) o
he esou ce. The me hodology consis s o ou g oups: g oup 1 includes all he elemen s
ex ac ed di ec ly om he e i o y and wi h a e y di ec link and iden i y associa ed wi h
i ( hey a e he indispensable elemen s o he de elopmen o he ou ism ac i i y); g oup
2 is o med by elemen s ha do no come om he e i o y i sel bu a e e y impo an
o ma ke ing; g oup 3 is composed o hose elemen s ha make up he ou ism o e
( es au an s, accommoda ions, ac i i y p omo e s, e c.; hey a e no essen ial bu con ibu e
a lo o alue o ou ism); and g oup 4, he final g oup, co esponds o elemen s ha a e
ans e sal o he es o he g oups, such as he con ibu ions o inno a ion, and aining
in all he links o he ou ism chain.
As a esea ch p oblem and a ecommended s age owa ds he implemen a ion o hese
ag i ou ism ac i i ies in a e i o y such as Ex emadu a, he aim o his wo k is o analyze
hose ag i ou ism expe iences in a eas simila o he a mscape [
45
] o he dehesa and
u al en i onmen s in Ex emadu a ha ha e been collec ed in a bibliog aphy, in o de o
subsequen ly iden i y he adi ional ag icul u al ac i i ies and esou ces wi h su ficien
ou is po en ial o sa is y he inc easing demand o his ype o unique expe ience linked
o he Ex emadu a pas u e and o e alua e hei possibili ies o implemen a ion. To his
end, we s a om he p emise ha such ag i ou ism ac i i ies mus se e as a complemen
o he main adi ional ac i i y and no as a subs i u e model (a p edominan end in
Ex emadu a since he end o he las cen u y). S udies ela ing ag i ou ism ac i i ies
wi h dehesas such as his one a e no e y abundan in he li e a u e (as hey a e mos ly
linked o moun ain a eas, pas u es, ineya ds, and oli e g o es, among o he s, as epo ed
in [
46
,
47
]), despi e he ac ha he ex ensi e use o hese semi-na u al ecosys ems has been
educed in ecen yea s due o he lack o gene a ional eplacemen , among o he issues,
and whe e ou ism as a complemen has no been p oposed as an al e na i e o mi iga e
such p oblems [
48
–
50
]. Fo his eason, and h ough a ecen bibliog aphic analysis o he
ag i ou ism and i s alue chain in u al en i onmen s, his a icle pu sues he ollowing
specific objec i es:
1.
Iden i y he mos influen ial sec o s in ag i ou ism associa ed wi h he dehesa and he
esou ces wi h he g ea es po en ial o ou ism;
2.
Conside which ela ions can exis be ween he supply o ag i ou ism p oduc s and
li es ock a ming in he dehesa, conside ing hei specific alue chain;
3. De e mine he possible p oblems o be aken in o accoun when implemen ing hese
ypes o ag o ou ism ac i i ies in gene al and in hose less a o ed Eu opean a -
eas (LAZs) linked o he dehesa, as is he case o he au onomous communi y o
Ex emadu a in pa icula .
122
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2078
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. S udy A ea
Ex emadu a is an au onomous communi y loca ed in he sou hwes o Spain and
Eu ope and on he bo de wi h Po ugal. This au onomous communi y is di ided in o
wo p o inces, no h and sou h, Cáce es and Badajoz, espec i ely, wi h a o al o
388 municipali ies. The a e age popula ion densi y o his egion is 27 inhabi an s/km
2
,
al hough he a e age densi y o he u al en i onmen s d ops o 19.6 inhabi an s/km
2
,
well below he na ional and Eu opean a e age (jus o e 95 inhabi an s/km
2
and
109 inhabi an s/km2, espec i ely).
The main axes o socioeconomic de elopmen a e loca ed a ound he A66-Ru a de la
Pla a highway (no h–sou h in he cen e o Ex emadu a) and he A5-Badajoz/Mad id
highway (sou hwes –no heas ), which concen a e eigh o he nine main popula ion
cen e s in Ex emadu a ( hose wi h mo e han 20,000 inhabi an s, lis ed in Figu e 2).
This ex ensi e Spanish egion is home o nume ous unique na u al, semi-na u al,
and a ificial ecosys ems, as shown by he ac ha 30.6% o i s su ace a ea is unde
en i onmen al p o ec ion and he e a e e en o e laps be ween hem. Special P o ec ion
A eas o Bi ds (SPAs) and Special A eas o Conse a ion (SACs), bo h included in he
Na u a 2000 Ne wo k, a e wo h men ioning. In addi ion, he e is also a Ne wo k o
P o ec ed Na u al Spaces (ENP) made up o Na u al Pa ks, Na u al Rese es, Na u al
Monumen s, e c. O cou se, he e is also a Na ional Pa k, h ee Biosphe e Rese es o
Ramsa A eas, and a Geopa k decla ed by UNESCO in 2011 [
51
]. Landscape di e si y and
bio ic he e ogenei y a e complemen ed by di e en ag o-li es ock and o es y ac i i ies,
which o decades ha e coexis ed in pe ec balance. One o he examples o coexis ence
and adi ional sil opas o al and o es uses ha a e mos espec ul o he su ounding
en i onmen is he dehesa. The e is qui e a lo o li e a u e dedica ed o he analysis o
ag i ou ism in na u al and semi-na u al ecosys ems o pas u es, moun ain a eas, and mixed
a eas. Howe e , he e a e ha dly any s udies ha analyze he dehesa as an ag i ou ism
esou ce, o ha desc ibe alue chains associa ed wi h his specific ac i i y and ecosys em.
The dehesa is no in i sel a pas u eland (such as, e.g., hose exis ing in he icini y o
ˇ
CeskýK umlo in he Czech Republic), much less a moun ain a ea (such as hose ound
in he Alpine o Py enean egions). Acco ding o [
52
], his is defined as a mul i unc ional
li es ock and/o hun ing exploi a ion sys em in which a leas 50% o he su ace a ea is
occupied by pas u eland wi h sca e ed adul aco n-p oducing ees and wi h a ac ion
o he a ea co e ed be ween 5 and 60%. To his defini ion he Ex emadu a law [
53
] adds
an exploi a ion uni whose minimum su ace a ea exceeds 100 hec a es. These la ge semi-
na u al expanses o open pas u es wi h holm oak (Que cus ilex) and co k oak (Que cus
sube ) woodland, whose o igins da e back o he middle o he 7 h cen u y, a e ound
exclusi ely in he cen e –sou h o he Ibe ian Peninsula and a e linked o plains o sligh ly
undula ing elie s wi h li le slope ( he Spanish o Po uguese mid-moun ain a eas a e
al eady home o he Medi e anean o es om which i o igina es). The dehesa ecosys ems
a e cha ac e ized by a mul i ude o adi ional ecosys em uses closely linked o he nea by
u al en i onmen and i s economy, in which he p ima y sec o is e y impo an . The e is
ex ensi e g azing wi h na i e species o sheep, such as he Me ino b eed, ca le (some o
hem b a e b eeds), and pigs (highligh ing he Ibe ian b eed o i s gou me p oduc s) [
54
];
he complemen a y ag icul u al uses a e e y ocused on he cul i a ion o ce eals (mainly
whea , ba ley and ye) and he di e en seasonal o es y uses o he exis ing que cus ees,
such as he p uning o he ees o ob ain fi ewood, he di e en ypes o cha coal wi h a
high calo ic powe and du abili y, and he ex ac ion e e y eigh o en yea s o he ba k
o he co k oak o ob ain co k. Fu he mo e, he ui o hese species, aco ns, a e used
as a human ood base (in b ead and di e en swee s) and as eed o he li es ock ( he
ichness o aco ns as heal hy a s o li es ock such as he Ibe ian pig is well known), as
well as hun ing ac i i ies i sel . To his mul i ude o economic esou ces a e added o he s
o a scenic na u e linked o he ag icul u al sec o ha make i unique in Eu ope, nume ous
adi ional ades and associa ed cul u al he i age which a e o no less magni ude, and i s
123
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2078
ecological unc ions o endange ed o e y ulne able species as p omo e s o ecological
connec i i y o hei habi a s, which o m an en i onmen wi h g ea po en ial o ou ism
ha so a has no been exploi ed [
28
,
34
]. All his has led o i s conside a ion by he EU as a
High Na u e Value Fa ming and Fo es y (HNV) a ea, which, wi h mo e su ace a ea and
one o he mos aluable a eas in Eu ope, is wo hy o being p o ec ed and main ained o e
ime wi h i s adi ional o ms o exploi a ion [
55
,
56
]. This is he ecosys em o which his
a icle associa es he esou ces wi h he po en ial o implemen ag i ou ism ac i i ies in
LFAs such as Ex emadu a, and which is so closely linked o he economic sys em o many
o he municipali ies in he egion, mos o hem u al en i onmen s.
2.2. Me hods o he Li e a u e Re iew
To achie e he objec i es, a bibliog aphic sea ch o ecen wo ks ( om Janua y 2016
o June 2023, bo h included) ela ed o ag i ou ism and hose alue chains ha link u al
ou ism wi h adi ional ag icul u al use o u al en i onmen s was pe o med, wi h special
emphasis on uses linked o Spanish and Po uguese dehesas o la ge ex ensions o a ms in
he case o o eign wo ks.
The bibliog aphic selec ion was made on he Web o Science, Scopus, Google Schola ,
and Dialne pla o ms, he la e mo e ocused on Spanish p oduc ion. The keywo ds used
in all o hem as sea ch engines we e ag o ou ism, u al ou ism, ou ism and ag icul u e,
u al ou ism in dehesas, a m ou ism, and a m ou ism in EU. F om mo e han 8000 ini ial
e e ences, 250 we e selec ed. The c i e ia o selec ing he e e ences we e ela ed o he
loca ion o he s udies (cen e ed mainly in Spain, o a leas in sou hwes e n Eu opean
egions), he subjec ma e add essed (success ul expe iences in implemen ing ag i ou ism
ac i i ies in la ge a eas simila o he Ex emadu a dehesa, o analysis o p oblems ela ed
o u al ou ism e sus ag icul u e and/o li es ock a ming on a local scale).
Rega ding he iden ifica ion o elemen s ha make up he alue chain o ag i ou ism
in dehesas, wi h special emphasis on he case o Ex emadu a, he wo k o [
44
] is e y
ascina ing, in which hey p opose a me hodology o iden i y alue chains (in his case o
gas onomic ou ism) conside ing he ollowing:
•
The e i o iali y o he elemen s o he alue chain o a gi en ou ism, dis inguishing
hose ha a e key om he o he essen ial bu mo e ancilla y elemen s;
•
The demand o such ou ism, which is e y ocused on expe iences, sensi i i y, and
he quali y o hese, a he han quan i y;
•
In ela ion o he fi s concep , hey e alua e he deg ee o impo ance o an elemen in
he alue chain in e ms o whe he i mee s he equi emen s ha make i a ac i e
o isi om he poin o iew o he demand o he ou ism sec o analyzed; in
ela ion o ou ism unc ionali y, he au ho s iden i y whe he he elemen s e alua ed
ha e a se ies o basic minimum se ices so ha he isi o can ha e a sa is ac o y
ou ism expe ience.
In he case o his s udy, he gene ic elemen s o he ag i ou ism alue chain o
he Ex emadu an dehesa we e adap ed om he li e a u e consul ed, wi hou losing
sigh o he gene al app oach p oposed by [
44
]: e i o iali y, he ela ionship be ween
p oduce s/supply and demand as pa o he alue chain i sel , and he ou ism po en ial
and unc ionali y o he elemen s o he chain. This a icle ocuses on he iden ifica ion and
g ouping o elemen s ha make up he dehesa alue chain in Ex emadu a ( he equi alen
o Phase 1 o he ela ed pape ).
3. Resul s
The alue chain conside s he main elemen s ela ed o he use o Ex emadu a’s
dehesas. I is based on he p emise ha ou is s seeking ag i ou ism ac i i ies seek a
a ie y o ac i e lea ning expe iences. Among hem, he li e a u e includes lea ning and
connec ion wi h he u al en i onmen , he land uses, he ag icul u al and li es ock use, and
he di ec con ac wi h he people who li e in ha en i onmen . Fu he mo e, he li e a u e
discusses he ema kable na u al and cul u al, angible and in angible ou ism po en ials o
124
Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2078
Ex emadu a [
57
]. The e o e, in he li e a u e analyzed, a se ies o ac i i ies and dis inc i e
cha ac e is ics o ag i ou ism a e highligh ed. Many o hem can be de eloped in he
Ex emadu a dehesas, since hey main ain unique adi ional ag icul u al and li es ock
ac i i ies in he local en i onmen in which hey a e loca ed [23,58,59].
3.1. The Dehesa as a Tou is Resou ce
On his basis, he Ex emadu a dehesa o e s a mul i ude o possibili ies linked o
adi ional economic ac i i ies, wi h sheep and ca le g azing, co k ex ac ion, ce eal sowing,
o uses de i ed om oak o co k oak wood (cha coal, picón and fi ewood), and hun ing,
pe haps some o he mos ou s anding [60,61].
Associa ed wi h he p e ious uses, he e a e a se ies o ac i i ies and c a s ha a e
cu en ly a a high isk o disappea ing, such as d y s one cons uc ions o he dema ca ion
o a ms, hu s o he pe sonnel who wo k he fields, he ools used by he shephe ds in
hei daily li es (bowls, spoons, bags, e c.), o e en he knowledge o medicinal plan s in
his en i onmen .
A key elemen o he bibliog aphy is he de elopmen o ag i ou ism ac i i ies cha -
ac e ized by being ac i e expe iences. These include he obse a ion o he na u al and/o
ag icul u al landscape, whe e si ua ions o ac i i ies ypical o daily p ima y ac i i ies a e
ec ea ed and, in many cases, he e is an o e o adi ional p oduc s o di ec sale and
he hospi ali y o he lodging, in which bo h pa ies benefi : a me s and local popula ion,
as well as ou is s [
41
,
58
]. In ela ion o his, some au ho s highligh he low p edisposi-
ion o ag icul u al p oduce s o collabo a e in he c ea ion o connec ions and associa i e
ne wo ks o di e si y hei economies owa ds ag i ou ism asks om he poin o iew
o maximizing sus ainabili y in he sec o . S uc u ed associa ionism is key in a u al
ou ism model based la gely on he p i a e sec o , such as ag i ou ism, o p omo e e ficien
and equi able de elopmen ha helps o p ese e he ela ed he i age (na u al, cul u al,
in angible, e c.) [
62
]. In addi ion, in hese cases, a lack o in o ma ion, aining, and skills
aining necessa y o mee he inc easing olume o ou is s seeking expe iences linked o
ag i ou ism in some o i s a ie ies is de ec ed [
63
]; i is also essen ial ha en ep eneu s o
ag i ou ism ac i i ies a e included in he main ou ism dissemina ion websi es, gi en ha
much o he demand chooses accommoda ion h ough his ou e [64].
Ano he ac i i y ha is highly applauded by he scien ific communi y is he exis ing
ela ionship be ween he u al en i onmen in gene al and he ag icul u al and li es ock
a ming sec o in pa icula , wi h a se ies o ypical p oduc s o he a ea and a ious ypes
o ag icul u al and li es ock a ming ac i i ies, e en a ce ain imes o he yea , depending
on he a ming ac i i ies ha we e ca ied ou in each o hem. Gas onomic ou ism is
ano he complemen o he ag i ou ism o e [44,65,66].
3.2. The Value Chain o Ag i ou ism in he Dehesa
A e y in e es ing s udy on ag i ou ism ac i i ies wi h an analysis o he mos influen-
ial ac o s a ec iung he inc ease o income in he a ms ha implemen ed hem is [
67
]. I s
au ho s showed ha he ag i ou ism ac i i ies ha o e ed he g ea es oppo uni ies o
inc easing incomes we e hose ela ed o he as ing and di ec sale o ypical local p oduc s,
o he o e o cul u al and spo s ac i i ies (ac i e) in he en i onmen o he a m. These
wo g oups o al e na i e ac i i ies a o he p ese a ion o he cul u al and landscape
he i age and he economic ac i i y o he p ima y sec o o he nea by local en i onmen ,
while a he same ime inc easing he economic benefi s o he business, elimina ing unnec-
essa y in e media ies and a o ing he app ochemen be ween p oduce s and consume s.
On he o he hand, i is also necessa y o iden i y which esou ces a e he mos app op ia e,
o which ac o s and se ices o he alue chain we ha e o make ou o e known o in
o de o maximize he endogenous esou ces o he e i o y in ques ion.
Thus, ollowing he me hodology p oposed by [
44
] o iden i y he elemen s o he
ag i ou ism alue chain, and aking in o accoun pa o he me hodology p oposed by [
68
],
he alue chain o ag i ou ism in dehesas is shown below, adap ed o he pa icula i ies o
125

Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2078
hese ecosys ems and u al en i onmen s in Ex emadu a (Figu es 3 and S1). While Figu e 3
lis s he elemen s and hei ela ionships ha could be in ol ed in he implemen a ion o
ag i ou ism, Figu e S1 in he annex p o ides an expanded iew o his chain. I iden ifies,
among o he issues, he ela ionship o he di e en elemen s wi h he e i o y and he
ans e sali y o esea ch, inno a ion, and de elopmen esou ces in all a eas o he alue
chain analyzed.
Figu e 3.
Simplified alue chain o ag i ou ism in he dehesa land use. Sou ce: own elabo a ion
based on he esea ch wo ks o [44,68].
As can be seen in Figu e 3 and Figu e S1, he fi s g oup o elemen s in he alue
chain is made up o all he p oduc s ex ac ed om he Ex emadu a dehesa. This is a e y
he e ogeneous g oup o elemen s because i is possible o find p oduc s des ined o gas-
onomic ou ism (lamb, bee , and Ibe ian po k wi h a Denominación de O igen p oduc s
(DO). decla a ion o Ex emadu a, a Spanish quali y label ha dis inguishes p oduc s o
hei high quali y, o being o na u al o igin, and because hei p oduce s ha e elabo a ed
hem ollowing adi ional p oduc ion me hods and espec ing he en i onmen ) [
69
,
70
],
o he s linked o eco ou ism ( he dehesa landscape i sel is a unique place o ac i i ies
such as hiking and aking ad an age o he collec ion o wild seasonal p oduc s), and
p oduc s associa ed wi h adi ional c a ac i i ies ( he p uning o oak and co k oak o
he use o fi ewood as a g een uel, he c ea ion o cha coal, he ex ac ion o co k, and d y
s one cons uc ions associa ed wi h he dehesa decla ed In angible Cul u al He i age by
UNESCO in 2018). A la ge numbe o hese p oduc s o he fi s g oup a e cha ac e ized by
hei high quali y and o being he esul o adi ional uses and exploi a ion by he local
communi y in which hey a e p oduced, which gi e hem a g ea uniqueness and a e pa
o he cul u al he i age o some unique pas u eland a eas in Eu ope.
In he second g oup we can find di e en ypes o p oduce s and in as uc u es
di ec ly associa ed wi h he mul iple uses hey ha e been associa ed wi h o decades in
he Ex emadu a dehesa. Thus, p oduce s such as ca le b eede s, a me s, and o es e s
who ha e aken ad an age o he pas u es o sow ce eal, o he semi-na u al o es a eas o
ake ad an age o he wood om he ees, a e joined by o he ances al ades al eady in
dange o disappea ing, such as he cha coal make (who makes cha coal om he wood
o he ees in he pas u e), he cha coale (who makes cha coal as a adi ional means o
hea ing he houses), he co k cu e (who ex ac s co k om he co k oak, a ypical ee
o he dehesa), he u ie (an in e media y who bough he wool om he sheep in he
dehesa o sell o ex ile companies), o e en he shea e (who was in cha ge o emo ing
he wool om he sheep in sp ing as a measu e o elie e hem o he summe hea and
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a he same ime o ob ain a highly alued p oduc in he ex ile indus y), among o he s.
C a ades s and ou as in angible cul u al he i age o he local communi ies linked o he
use o he pas u es. Howe e , he in as uc u es and ools used o ag icul u al wo k a e
also o g ea in e es . The ypical ins ances and spaces o a dehesa a e ex emely a ac i e
because each one o hem is concei ed o a e y clea unc ion ( om he housing a ea, o
he silo and s o e g ain, wa e in as uc u e o he wo ke s and li es ock, he ne wo k o
oads and pa hs o mo e a ound he pas u e, and he in as uc u e o p e en li es ock
om escaping om one plo o ano he on he a m, among o he s). Fu he mo e, some o
he ools used in he pas u e a e also special, such as he ca lanca (a spiked colla ha was
pu on he dogs ha gua ded he li es ock o p e en wol es om killing hem), and he
celemín (an ins umen used o ca ching and mo ing he g ain o he ha es and also a
uni o measu emen ha was equi alen o app oxima ely 4.6 L). In his second g oup a e
he di e en uses and o ms o exploi a ion o he pas u e: g azing, b owsing (consis ing
o he ca le ea ing he lea es o he b anches on he g ound a e p uning he ees o he
pas u e as a u he use o esou ces), co k ex ac ion, hun ing, and he collec ion o ui s
such as aco ns ( ui o he oak) o be used as ood o li es ock (Ibe ian pig), o e en o
liquo s and diges i es (aco n liqueu is well known).
In he hi d g oup, men ion is made o he po en ial demand o ag i ou ism in Ex-
emadu a’s dehesas. Acco ding o he bibliog aphy consul ed, he as majo i y coincides
wi h a e y clea p ofile o ou is : a use a ac ed by quali y a he han quan i y, who is
keenly awa e o he concep o sus ainabili y (especially wi h i s en i onmen al p o ec ion
pilla ), who a oids c owded spaces and seeks ac i e lea ning expe iences in which he is
in ol ed wi h he en i onmen o ge o know he pa icula i ies and way o li e o he local
communi ies in ha a ea (and who is excep ionally a ac ed, he e o e, by he local cul u e
and adi ions). To hese cha ac e is ics and in he case o ou is s a i ing in Ex emadu a
(an au onomous communi y close o la ge Spanish ci ies such as Mad id and Se ille, and
Po uguese owns such as Cas elo B anco, E o a, Beja, and e en Lisbon, which is jus o e
2 h away om he Ex emadu a ci y o Badajoz) is added he ac ha hey seek in he
u al en i onmen (among which is he dehesa) a place o elax om he s ess o he ci y
(disconnec ) and seek a heal hie way o li e.
In he ou h g oup a e hose elemen s o he alue chain ela ed o he dis ibu ion o
p oduc s and se ices. In he case o he Ex emadu a dehesa, he dis ibu ion po en ial
is high, gi en he exis ing oad in as uc u e, which allows he egion o be c ossed om
no h o sou h in 2.5 h, and om eas o wes in ba ely 2.15 h (despi e he exis ing deficien
ailway in as uc u e). This allows he p oduce s o he Ex emadu a dehesa o conside
a dis ibu ion o hei p oduc s on a local and egional scale ha , i well planned, can be
success ul. In he case o local comme ce, p oduce s’ dis ibu ion o di ec sales spaces
(local s o es and supe ma ke s, s o es specializing in a isanal p oduc s, e c.) whe e hey
can make hei p oduc s known, as well as a ending specific dis ibu ion e en s (li es ock
ai s, mul isec o ial ag icul u al ai s, e c.), can undoub edly help hem o imp o e hei
economic income and di e si y hei economic ac i i y. In his sense, social ela ions wi h
di e en sec o s o ac i i y nea by and belonging o collec i es wi hin he alue chain
a e key.
G oups 5, 6, and 7 a e pa o he comme cializa ion o p oduc s and hei supply
o he final consume . In he case o he fi h g oup, i is made up o ca e ing elemen s
whe e he sale o ag i- ood p oduc s o gas onomic ou ism can ake place. Thus, in
addi ion o he la ge es au an s in Ex emadu a ( his au onomous communi y has 26 la ge
es au an s, which hold se e al Michelin S a s and Repsol Suns, among which he A io
Res au an in Cáce es s ands ou , wi h 3 S a s and 3 Suns), hese endogenous p oduc s can
be e y well ecei ed in adi ional and popula cuisine spaces and o he s specialized in
hun ing cuisine. No should we lose sigh o he exis ing apas cul u e in he au onomous
communi y o Ex emadu a.
The six h g oup e e s o he supply o accommoda ion. Al hough Ex emadu a has an
ex ensi e ne wo k o u al accommoda ion (acco ding o [
71
], in 2022 he e was a ne wo k o
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Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2078
1056 u al accommoda ions, which housed 238,298 ou is s, ha is, 12.8% o he ou is s who
came o Ex emadu a in ha yea ), he ac is ha he amoun o accommoda ion dedica ed
o ag i ou ism is less han 0.5% o he supply. A ype o ag i ou ism accommoda ion
in which ac i e lea ning ac i i ies a e o e ed (including ou doo and indoo ec ea ion),
wi h ou s, oppo uni ies o lea n abou he po en ial o he associa ed ag icul u al and
na u al landscape, as ings o adi ional p oduc s (and he possibili y o buying hem
di ec ly), wi hou losing sigh o he basic and di e sified p oduc ion o he pas u e o
he main enance o adi ional spaces and uses, would be he ideal concep . This ideal
business concep could pe ec ly fi among he people o Ex emadu a and on a na ional
and in e na ional scale ( his ype o ou ism is highly demanded by ou is s om Po ugal
and cen al and no he n Eu ope). O cou se, i is essen ial o coun on he local popula ion
o de elop all he ac i i ies, om he uses ha keep he dehesa ali e, o he complemen a y
ac i i ies o he ag icul u al economy (ag i ou ism). I is also necessa y o coun on he
local popula ion and businesses compa ible wi h he ag i ou ism p ojec in he dehesa in
o de o gene a e ne wo ks o mu ual use in hose se ices no o e ed by some bu o e ed
by o he s.
The se en h g oup o elemen s in he chain is ela ed o leisu e and ec ea ional o
al e na i e ac i i ies. In his sense, he ange o ac i i ies o be de eloped is e y di e se,
going om as ing, show cooking, and as ings o endogenous ga den p oduc s, mea s,
o ce eal de i a i es, o excu sions and a ious ou es (hiking, ho seback iding, cycling,
elec ic ehicles, e c.) in o de o lea n abou he benefi s o he wild p oduc s o he dehesa
(aspa agus, wild po a o, his les, medicinal plan s, e c.) and he di e si y o he landscape.
Al e na i e ac i i ies include pho og aphic sa a is, fishing ac i i ies in he small exis ing
lagoons, and e en nigh -based ec ea ion in ol ing es i i ies and Ex emadu an olklo e
( adi ional songs and dances o he local communi y).
Finally, al hough i s associa ed elemen s o m pa o he eigh h g oup, he ac is ha
his g oup o aining, esea ch, and inno a ion is common o he es o he g oups and
phases o he alue chain (which is why i appea s in he cen e o he ela ionships in
Figu e 3). The aim is o eflec he need o cons an inno a ion in all a eas o he chain as
an added alue ha singles ou and op imizes he esou ces o he ag i ou ism business
concep associa ed wi h he dehesa. Key o his is he aining (among o he aspec s in he
digi al field) o employees in he ag i ou ism ac i i y (bo h in he ag icul u al and li es ock
exploi a ion sec o s, as well as he associa ed ou ism) h ough he uni e si y, by p o iding
aining cou ses ela ed o he ho el and ca e ing indus y, he p ima y sec o in gene al,
and he en i onmen al and landscape b anch. E en s o dissemina e hese inno a ions
applied o he field o ag i ou ism in dehesas a e also e y impo an , aking in o accoun
ha hey ep esen a ma k o quali y and dis inc ion o his ype o ou ism.
In addi ion o he g oups desc ibed in Figu e 3, Figu e S1 shows he hie a chies ha
gi e impo ance o all hese esou ces wi hin he alue chain: he fi s h ee g oups (1, 2,
and 3), oge he wi h g oup 8 (which is ound in all he g oups) o m pa o he basic,
indispensable co e (Le el 1) o elemen s ha make up he chain and ha e much o do wi h
he elemen s mos closely linked o he e i o y and i s po en ial. These elemen s e e o
he p oduc s, p oduce s, and singula i ies o he Ex emadu a pas u eland a ea in ela ion
o he associa ed ag i ou ism p oposal. Behind his basic nucleus is Le el 2, which is made
up o wo a ie ies o g oup 4 ( oge he wi h g oup 8 o R&D&I), which allude o he
dis ibu ion a eas o he p oduc s and se ices linked o ag i ou ism in he dehesa. This is a
complemen a y le el o he basic Le el 1, bu i is equally essen ial o p o ide an ou le o
p oduc s and se ices linked o he u al en i onmen and he local communi y in gene al,
and o he dehesa in pa icula . This is also he le el wi h he mos deficiencies in e ms o
ela ions be ween economic sphe es, since cu en ly in he majo i y o cases in Ex emadu a
he ela ions wi h ou is se ice en i ies a e e y esidual ( hey a e closely linked o he sale
o quali y mea s and, o a lesse ex en , he use o ce eals). Finally, he e is Le el 3, which is
aimed a he ma ke ing o ag i ou ism p oduc s and se ices o he dehesa o he case o
Ex emadu a. He e we find g oups 5, 6, and 7 (along wi h g oup 8, which is common o all
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Ag icul u e 2023,13, 2078
le els), which a e linked o ca e ing, accommoda ion, leisu e, and pa allel ac i i ies. This
le el o e s many possibili ies, gi en ha he in as uc u e (ca e ing, u al accommoda ion,
hos els, and campsi es) and he en i ies o he o ganiza ion o e en s al eady exis and a e
o good quali y. The p oblem lies in including in he alue chains he ac i i ies ela ed o
ag i ou ism in he dehesa and dissemina ing hem app op ia ely.
3.3. S eng hs and Weaknesses o Ag i ou ism in he Ex emadu an Dehesa
One o he mos in e es ing analyses when e alua ing he epe cussions o ag i ou ism
in he u al en i onmen s whe e i is implemen ed is ha which e e s o i s impac s on he
economy, socie y, and he local en i onmen . Despi e i s impo ance, his ype o s udy is
no abundan in he ecen li e a u e and he ew s udies ha do exis iden ified wo ac o s
ha g ea ly influence he ela ionship be ween local ag o- a me s and ou ism en i ies: he
ype o ou ism business and, abo e all, i s owne ship [
72
]; and i s di e sifica ion and he
exis ence o e ec i e social ne wo ks be ween he wo. Thus, he e is a g ea e p obabili y
o implemen a ion o ag i ou ism ac i i ies in hose cases whe e he owne is a a me
o li es ock a me (male o emale, p e e ably unde 40 yea s o age, since his g oup is
mo e in a o o he implemen a ion o ag i ou ism and aining in his ype o ac i i y
han olde people) [
68
], who al eady has hei own ag icul u al land, wi h adequa e access
and p oduc ion in as uc u es [
73
], and who can also supply hei p oduc s and se ices
in a quan i y and a a quali y ha is in acco dance wi h he needs o he exis ing ou is
demand [74,75].
In addi ion, some s udies confi med ha being pa o he ag i ou ism alue chain
gi es local people mo e oppo uni ies o op o ex a se ices ( om he p omo ion o ex-
cu sions o ec ea ional ac i i ies, o as ings and gas onomic ou ism, among o he s) and,
he e o e, o ob ain mo e income han i hey we e ou side hese ci cui s. In addi ion, he e
a e o he benefi s such as inc eased employmen in he local en i onmen , p ese a ion o
he local angible and in angible he i age, and di e sifica ion o ac i i ies [
76
,
77
]. Among
he mos ou s anding p oblems in he ela ions be ween local communi ies and he a ious
o ms o u al ou ism a e hose ela ed o he di e ence in he su ficiency and quali y o
p oduc ion o ag icul u al p oduc s, whe e in some cases he local popula ion canno supply
he ou is demand, nei he in quan i y o ag icul u al p oduc s, no some imes in quali y
acco ding o wha he ou is demands. Ha ing a qualified labo o ce, adequa e in as-
uc u e [78], imp o ing he exchange o in o ma ion be ween ag icul u al p oduce s and
in e media y ou is en i ies in he supply, en o cing he applicabili y o minimum quali y
s anda ds, aking ad an age o web dissemina ion and digi al suppo ools [
79
], oge he
wi h co ec in e en ions by he adminis a o s is he basis o hese local communi ies o
be e ec i ely included in he ag i ou ism alue chains in Ex emadu a [80–84].
4. Discussion
Pe haps one o he mos ele an ideas o his s udy is he confi ma ion ha he im-
plemen a ion o ag i ou ism ac i i ies a ound he uses and exploi a ion o he dehesa is
easible. Mo eo e , he po en ial a ac i eness o hese spaces combines na u e and cul u e
in a e y unique way [
85
]. In addi ion, i o e s mul iple benefi s o he local communi ies
whe e hey a e implemen ed, wi h an imp o emen o he sus ainabili y (in i s h ee pilla s)
o he u al en i onmen and i s popula ion, he inc ease in employmen and oppo u-
ni ies o socioeconomic de elopmen mainly in e ms o he young popula ion, and he
oppo uni y o di e si y economic ac i i ies in an e ficien manne [
86
,
87
], main aining he
in as uc u e [
84
] and he adi ional ag icul u al and li es ock use, while complemen ing
hem wi h na u al spaces and bodies o wa e in a nea by en i onmen [
87
], a e some o
he mos ou s anding benefi s [
85
]. These s a emen s coincide wi h mos o he e iewed
wo ks and his s udy a emp s o espond o he need o in es iga e ag i ou ism associa ed
wi h ano he geog aphic space and ou ism po en ial [71].
In o de o implemen hese ypes o ag i ou ism ac i i ies in u al en i onmen s
such as Ex emadu a, a me s mus fi s conside wha model o ag i ou ism hey in end
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89.
A u, B.; Fu esi, R.; Madau, F.B.; Pulina, P. Economic pe o mance o ag i ou ism: An analysis o a ms loca ed in a less a ou ed
a ea in I aly. Ag ic. Food Econ. 2021,9, 27. [C ossRe ]
90.
Pé ez, A.; Rengi o, J.I.; Leco, F. Ag o ou ism: A complemen o he ba e ed economy o he dehesa. In P oceedings o he Ac as
del VI Jo nadas de In es igación en Tu ismo, Se illa, Spain, 3–4 July 2013.
Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e:
The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual
au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .
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