Peshko, Vale iia
A icle
App en iceships and o mal business schooling in la e
impe ial Russia (1880-1917): A gende ed pe spec i e
Essays in Economic & Business His o y (EEBH)
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impe ial Russia (1880-1917): A gende ed pe spec i e, Essays in Economic & Business His o y (EEBH),
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59
Essays in Economic & Business His o y
2024, 42 (1): 59-89
Published Decembe 21, 2024
App en iceships and Fo mal Business Schooling in La e Impe ial
Russia (1880-1917): A Gende ed Pe spec i e
Vale ia Peshko, Uni e si y o Helsinki, ale iia[email p o ec ed]
Abs ac
Comme cial educa ion eme ged when women’s igh s we e limi ed and single-gende schools
domina ed. Ine i ably his sys em c ea ed di e ences in educa ional a ainmen and
con ibu ed o unequal gende oles in business o ganiza ions. This a icle examines an
al e na i e ajec o y in he ise o business educa ion by ocusing on a de eloping coun y,
whe e women had economic igh s—p e e olu iona y Russia. I inds ha in he adi ional
me chan app en iceship sys em women we e ypically amily membe s, so owne ship was
mo e impo an o hei au ho i y han expe ise. In comme cial schools, men and women
ecei ed simila aining, bu di e en assump ions abou emale educa ion and p o essional
li e made i much ha de o women o claim au ho i y based on hei quali ica ions.
JEL Classi ica ions: N33, I21, J16.
Key Wo ds: business educa ion, gende , specialized knowledge, au ho i y, business
owne ship, cle ical wo k.
Essays in Economic & Business His o y 42 (1) 2024
60
In oduc ion
Despi e ample e idence ha manage ial and lowe whi e-colla wo k a e seg ega ed by
gende ( o example, G ego y Ande son 1989; Ma ge y Da ies 1993; Angel Kwolek-Folland
1994; Debo ah Simon on 1998) and he pe sis ence o masculine opes in business discou se
(Eleano Hamil on 2013; F ida Je nbe g, Anna Lindbäck, and Annie Roos 2020; Ch is ian
Johnsen and Ben Sø ensen 2017), only a ew s udies ha e in e oga ed he eme gence and
p ac ice o business educa ion om a gende ed pe spec i e (Allison Elias 2020; Ei inn La sen
2011; K is in Williams and Albe Mills 2019). The ac ha he eme gence o o mal business
schooling in he nine een h cen u y occu ed when single-gende schooling was s ill dominan
in Eu ope has o en been o e looked in his o ical s udies.
1
Howe e , his sys em ine i ably
c ea ed di e ences in educa ional a ainmen be ween men and women, which con ibu ed o
unequal gende oles in in business o ganiza ions.
The eme gence o hese gende inequali ies in business p e-da es he nine een h
cen u y. In he majo i y o Eu opean ci ies women we e ba ed om en e ing app en iceships
and guilds, al hough some s ill had access o oca ional aining h ough hei amily
connec ions and schools (Sheilagh Ogil ie 2003, 80-99, 2019 ch. 5). In F ance om he 1650s,
women had access o oca ional aining in pa ish schools and special p o essional schools—
much ea lie han o mal schooling eached boys (Cla e C ows on 2008, 30-34). Howe e ,
hese oppo uni ies ex ended only o ades and occupa ions conside ed app op ia e o hei
class and gende , such as sewing and needlewo k. T aining wi hin amily i ms o cen u ies
ep esen ed he majo way bo h men and women de eloped app op ia e business skills, bu
he ins i u ionaliza ion o educa ion in he nine een h cen u y educed he signi icance o his
channel. As Leono e Da ido and Ca he ine Hall ema ked in hei seminal s udy on amily
i ms in ea ly-nine een h cen u y B i ain, lack o specialized knowledge made i mo e di icul
o women o command au ho i y on he shop loo , as he scale o manu ac u ing and
complexi y o ma ke ope a ions inc eased (Da ido and Hall 1987, 304). Conside ing o he
ac o s es ic ing women’s economic agency such as co e u e o limi a ions on p ac icing
ce ain ades, i is no su p ising ha business aining a ailable o women o en p epa ed
hem only o low-le el cle ical jobs. E en oday when women a e much mo e ep esen ed
among business school s uden s, esea che s obse e signi ican dispa i ies in academic
achie emen a ibu ed o gende s e eo ypes (A adnha K ishna and Yeşim O hun 2022). Bu
how would an al e na i e his o y o he business school look like, i i de eloped in a socie y
wi h less economic de elopmen bu mo e igh s o women?
This case s udy o he de elopmen o comme cial educa ion in Impe ial Russia o e s
an oppo uni y o examine his ques ion. Whe eas in Eu ope ained women en e ed cle ical
posi ions in en e p ises, whe e op execu i e posi ions we e domina ed by men, in Russia his
di ision was less s ong due o he unique posi ion o women in Russian law. Al hough he
pa ia chal amily s uc u e was ensh ined in Russian ci il law, economic ac i i ies o women
had almos no limi a ions e en a e ma iage. Women had ull p ope y igh s and we e able
o es ablish o inhe i businesses. As a esul , Russia had a ela i ely high a e o emale
business owne ship. Being a la e-indus ializing coun y, he Russian Empi e elied on
echnology and expe ise de eloped ea lie elsewhe e. So, when he Minis y o Finance
s a ed o c ea e a comme cial school sys em in he 1890s, i looked o exis ing Eu opean
1
The ise o o mal business schooling in he la e nine een h cen u y and i s sp ead h oughou
he wen ie h was p ima ily iewed in he con ex o changing co po a e s uc u es, indus ializa ion, and
c ys alliza ion o managemen science as a dis inc academic discipline (Al ed Chandle 1971; Robe
Locke 1984; Malcolm Wa ne 1987). Meanwhile, o ma ion o na ional business school models in he
US, Japan and Eu ope became he main amewo k o his o ies o business and managemen
educa ion (La s Engwall, Ma hias Kipping, and Behlül Üsdiken 2016; Engwall and Ve a Zamagni 1998;
Susanna Fellman 2001; And eas Kaplan 2018; Locke 1984).
Peshko: App en iceships and Fo mal Business Schooling in La e Impe ial Russia
61
models, in pa icula he Ge man one. As in Wes e n Eu ope, he Russian educa ional sys em
was la gely single-gende wi h gi ls’ schools ha ing sho e and less challenging p og ams.
Russian o icials we e gene ally skep ical abou g an ing women ull access o uni e si y-le el
aining, making concessions unde p essu e om he eminis mo emen and olling hem
back in imes o poli ical ins abili y. Howe e , he special s a us o comme cial schools allowed
he es ablishmen o mo e equal p og ams a he seconda y le el and e en inclusion o women
in highe educa ion.
These ci cums ances p omp new ques ions abou gende and business knowledge.
Wha access o business knowledge and aining did women ha e be o e he eme gence o a
o mal comme cial school sys em? How was hei compe ence pe cei ed and alued? How
did he implemen a ion o comme cial schools impac he cons uc ion o masculini ies and
eminini ies in business? I a gue ha while unde he app en iceship sys em women we e no
en i ely excluded om accessing specialized knowledge, comme cial schools signi ican ly
b oadened ha access, c ea ing a ai ly equal oo ing be ween men and women. Howe e ,
he p emises unde which emale educa ion and p o essional li e we e concei ed we e
ma kedly di e en , making i much ha de o women o claim posi ions o au ho i y based on
hei educa ion and expe ise.
Al hough Russian schola ship has p oduced conside able esea ch on me chan
app en iceship p ac ices (S e lana Fila o a 2016; I
U iĭ Goncha o 2004; Na alʹi
a Ko ee a
2018), he de elopmen o comme cial educa ion (Aleksand Bessoli syn 2012, 2014; Mikhail
B i
an
se 1999; 2000; I
U iĭ Maslo 2001; Oksana Vakh omee a 2009) and women’s
p o essional educa ion (Elena Kose chenko a 2007), hese issues we e ea ed sepa a ely.
Ano he g owing body o li e a u e on emale en ep eneu ship has e ealed he signi ican
p esence o businesswomen and p esen ed e idence o gende segmen a ion o he ma ke
(see, o example, Tanya Byke and Amanda G egg 2019; Fila o a 2016; Johannes Raschka
2006; Galina Uliano a 2009, 2022a, 2022b; see also he o e iew o his li e a u e in
Kons an in Abd akhmano 2017). How and why no ions o gende we e shaping he ma ke s
in his way emain unde explo ed. This a icle ocuses on links be ween business, gende and
class, bu I acknowledge ha hese we e a om he only s uc u ing ac o s in he Russian
Empi e, wi h egional di e ences, e hnic and eligious dis inc ions being he mos p ominen .
This complexi y mo i a es me o na ow he scope o in es iga ion o he wo la ges ci ies—
Sain Pe e sbu g, he capi al a he ime, and Moscow; howe e , e e ences o Uk ainian and
Bal ic examples a e made o addi ional con ex .
The a icle is di ided in o i e main sec ions. Following his in oduc ion, he nex sec ion
discusses heo e ical pe spec i es on he ole o specialized knowledge and gende in
business o ganiza ions and in oduces my me hodological app oach and sou ces. Following
his, I se he s age o he main a gumen by expanding on he cha ac e o Russian business
o ganiza ion and di e en modes o aining, namely app en iceship and o mal schools.
Finally, my empi ical analysis is p esen ed, ollowed by he concluding discussion.
Specialized Knowledge and Gende
E e since Al ed Chandle ’s in luen ial esea ch on he ise o he mode n co po a ion,
business en e p ise has been unde s ood as an o ganiza ion wi h a ixed hie a chy whe e he
dis ibu ion o asks equi es i s membe s o possess (o de elop) specialis knowledge
(Chandle 1971). As heo ized by Max Webe and la e by Heinz Ha mann, specialis
knowledge unde pins he au ho i y o manage s, jus i ying hei decisions and commands o
hei subo dina es (Ha mann 1959a, 6, 1959b, 436-441; Webe 2019). In his espec
ins i u ions and p ac ices ha supply his knowledge, such as app en iceships and business
schools, play a c ucial ole in he making o he manage . The e is a dynamic ela ionship
be ween educa ional ins i u ions and businesses: schools supply quali ied wo ke s, while
Essays in Economic & Business His o y 42 (1) 2024
62
businesses di ec ly and indi ec ly in o m schools abou he kind o wo ke s hey need. In o he
wo ds, educa ional ins i u ions ep oduce and ein o ce he no ms and p ac ices o business
o ganiza ions.
Al hough he impo ance o gende o o ganiza ion and manage ial au ho i y is ha d o
o e s a e (Joan Acke 1990; Susan Hal o d, Mike Sa age, and Anne Wi z 1997), i s ole in
managemen educa ion emains unde explo ed (Elias 2020, 126). P e ious esea ch la gely
ea ed he appea ance o gende ed comme cial educa ion as a ea u e o he la ge p ocess
o change in he o mula ion o masculine and eminine occupa ions (Gladys Ca na an 1989;
Kwolek-Folland 1994). While concu ing wi h his iew, I ollow La sen’s app oach o s udying
he his o y o business educa ion “no simply as a suppo ing pa o indus ializa ion and
bu eauc a iza ion o co po a e li e a he in de siècle, bu mo e as a socio-cul u al cons uc
ha su aced in esponse o hese e y same p ocesses” (La sen 2011, 26). Thus, he
de elopmen o comme cial educa ion is in e es ing bo h as a channel o ideas on masculine
and eminine wo k bu also as a g ound whe e hese no ions we e concep ualized,
( e) o mula ed and challenged. Th ough a dynamic ela ionship be ween educa ional
ins i u ions and businesses, specialized knowledge and skills hemsel es a e gende ed based
on he cha ac e is ic o he knowledge and i s hos . No only does hei gende ed
ca ego iza ion de i e om pe cep ion o i s p ope ies as mo e app op ia e o men o women
( o example, accoun ing is complex and hus masculine, yping is easy and eminine), bu
also he skill i sel gains o loses alue based on who possesses i .
My analysis elies on a combina ion o close and dis an eading me hods. My close
eading app oach is in o med by examina ion o he his o ical cons uc ion o masculini ies and
eminini ies h ough he s udy o discou ses (Joan Sco 1988). To econs uc he discou se
su ounding business educa ion I ely on ex s in ended o he public eye, which can be
di ided in o se e al g oups: 1) ma e ials di ec ly ela ed o comme cial schools, such as school
cha e s and epo s p oduced by schools, olun a y o ganiza ions and alumni associa ions;
2) discussions among expe s and p o essional educa o s, which appea ed in p o essional
con e ence ma e ials, books and essays; 3) jou nalis ic accoun s ela ed o comme cial
educa ion and whi e-colla wo k and women’s wo k mo e gene ally as well as le e s om he
gene al public on hese opics, which we e published in newspape s; 4) memoi s and ic ional
accoun s om obse e s in ima ely amilia wi h he business communi y. To con ex ualize my
indings, I use dis an eading o s a is ical sou ces such as u ban censuses and da a on
comme cial schools.
Backg ound
Businessowne s and hei Employees
T ade legisla ion in he Russian Empi e was a he libe al in e ms o gene al access o
comme cial ac i i y. O e he cou se o he nine een h and in o he ea ly wen ie h cen u y,
despi e changes in axa ion, he main p inciple emained he same: o conduc business, one
had o pu chase a ixed- e m license, he p ice o which was de e mined by he scale and ype
o ope a ion. In gene al, bo h men and women had he igh o pu chase hese licenses. E en
when ma ied, mos lawye s o he ime ag eed, hey had no limi a ions on comme cial ac i i y
(Niki a Bilenko 2018, 419).
2
2
The only con en ious issue was he in e p e a ion o he issue o he abili y o women o gi e
bills o exchange ( eksel’)—a c ucial inancial ins umen a he ime. Acco ding o he law, women,
whe he ma ied o no , could no gi e no ans e bills o exchange wi hou hei husband’s o pa en s’
pe mission, “unless hey ade in hei own name” (Polnoe Sob anie Zakono Rossiiskoĭ Impe ii.
Sob anie II. Vol. VII 1832 № 5462, 407). Despi e his la e clause some con empo a ies a gued ha
ma ied women s ill needed hei husband’s pe mission o gi e bills o exchange and had limi ed ading
Peshko: App en iceships and Fo mal Business Schooling in La e Impe ial Russia
63
Mo eo e , in he Russian legal adi ion women’s p ope y was sepa a ed much ea lie
han in o he Eu opean coun ies. As ea ly as he se en een h cen u y, he p ope y o
husbands and wi es was dis inguished by law and cus om (Vakh omee a 2008, 82-83). In he
eigh een h cen u y noble women’s p ope y igh s we e cla i ied and ex ended, and women o
all social classes acqui ed he same p o ec ions a e he Emancipa ion o he Se s in 1861
(Michelle Ma ese 2002, 46-70, 241; see also William Wagne 1994).
Whi e-colla employees in indus y and comme ce we e also equi ed o pu chase
licenses and sign employmen con ac s. In his case limi a ions o ma ied women we e
minimal: he husband could demand e mina ion o he con ac , bu lack o his pe mission did
no nulli y i (Vakh omee a 2008, 87). The mos common e m o desc ibe hese wo ke s in
o icial documen s and e e yday usage—p ikazchik o men, p ikazchi
sa o women—had a
ai ly b oad meaning (see Alexande Kapluno skiy 2006). B ie ly, a p ikazchik was an
assis an o a businessowne , o whom some manage ial and cle ical asks we e delega ed.
The deg ee o esponsibili y o p ikazchiki a ied, bu usually in ol ed ending o cus ome s in
he shop, bookkeeping and business co espondence, which makes hem la gely equi alen
o cle ks. In he ea ly wen ie h cen u y he e m began o be associa ed mo e s ongly wi h
e ail ade, while o ice wo k was e e ed o in mo e speci ic occupa ional e ms, o example,
o ice cle k (kon o shchik/kon o shchi
sa), bookkeepe o cashie .
The pe iod om he 1850s o he ea ly wen ie h cen u y was ma ked by mass en y o
women in o whi e-colla occupa ions, and he Russian Empi e ollowed his end, albei wi h
some delay. By he end o he 1900s women comp ised 38.9 pe cen o comme cial wo ke s
in F ance, 37.6 pe cen in he US, 30.5 pe cen in Ge many and 17.5 pe cen in B i ain
(Kwolek-Folland 1994, 4; Simon on 1998, 236). Meanwhile, in Sain Pe e sbu g he a e o
women’s pa icipa ion in hese jobs demons a ed a s eady g ow h om 4.6 pe cen in 1881
o 21.1 pe cen in 1910; in Moscow i ose om 9.1 pe cen o 13.2 pe cen (see Table 1). In
compa ison o he o e all emale employmen , he ade, se ices and anspo sec o ,
al hough being a om he la ges , demons a ed d ama ic g ow h in bo h ci ies (Anas asiya
Shino a 2020). These emale employmen a es could be conside ed e en a he high in
compa ison o Wes e n coun e pa s, conside ing he gende li e acy gap. Whe eas in
England and Wales by 1913 illi e acy a es o bo h men and women we e es ima ed o be
a ound 1 pe cen (R.S. Scho ield 1973, 443), in Sain Pe e sbu g a ound he same ime only
65 pe cen o women olde han six een we e li e a e, in con as o 88 pe cen o men.
3
Despi e he conside able ise o women’s sha e in comme cial whi e-colla occupa ions
since he 1880s, he sha e o emale businessowne s emained s able in he capi al and
inc eased only mode a ely in Moscow (see Table 2). The Moscow popula ion census o 1912
also p o ides e idence o he gende balance in a ious comme cial occupa ions (see Table
3). The highes numbe o women in absolu e e ms and second highes as sha e o o al we e
p op ie o s, whe eas he numbe o employed women was much lowe , bu di isions be ween
di e en kinds o whi e-colla wo k a e e iden . Women’s sha e was he highes among amily
membe s employed in cle ical posi ions (almos 40 pe cen ), bu he o e all numbe o wo ke s
in his ca ego y was qui e small. Women comp ised a ound 7 pe cen o di ec o s and
p ikazchik-cle ks, while in mo e specialized occupa ions such as accoun ing and o ice wo k
hei sha e is close o 20 pe cen . Moscow’s example se es as a good illus a ion o
Simon on’s c i ique o desc ibing women’s pa icipa ion in whi e-colla wo k as “ eminiza ion”,
capaci y as a esul (Bilenko 2018, 419). O he s, meanwhile, belie ed ha in ade ma i al s a us played
no ole (see, o example, Alekseĭ Guli
ae 1912, 13-14).
3
My calcula ions a e based on he 1910 Sain Pe e sbu g popula ion census (Pe og ad po
pe episi naselenii
a 15 dekab i
a 1910 goda. Ch. 1. Chislennos ʹ i sos a naselenii
a po polu, oz as u,
g amo nos i, s epeni ob azo anii
a, mes u ozhdenii
a, emeni poselenii
a Pe og ade, semeĭnomu
sos oi
anii
u, e oispo edanii
u, soslo ii
u i odnomu i
azyku n.d., 5 able II).
Essays in Economic & Business His o y 42 (1) 2024
64
which implies subs i u ion o male by emale wo ke s. In he de eloping e ia y sec o a lo o
he jobs we e new, and he di ision o labo be ween men and women was no clea ye
(Simon on 1998, 235). In Moscow he “old wo k” o he p ikazchik emained male-domina ed,
while women had mo e access o “newe ” whi e-colla occupa ions ha equi ed o mal
aining, like bookkeeping.
Table 1
Whi e-colla comme cial wo ke s in Sain Pe e sbu g and Moscow, 1880s-1910s
Ci y
Yea
Men
Women
Women, pe cen age o o al (%)
Sain
Pe e sbu g
1881
8,752
427
4.65
1890
9,352
1,001
9.67
1900
21,517
4,164
16.21
1910
28,727
7,697
21.13
Moscow
1882
18,199
1,823
9.10
1902
61,723
8,703
12.36
1912
84,612
12,870
13.20
No e: Numbe s o whi e-colla comme cial wo ke s in Sain Pe e sbu g ep esen
adminis a
sii
a (adminis a ion) ca ego y. Numbe s o whi e-colla comme cial wo ke s in
Moscow ep esen p ikazchiki in 1882; a sum o sluzhashchie ab ik i za odo (whi e-colla
wo ke s in ac o ies), sluzhashchie p ochikh ido p omyshlennos i (whi e-colla wo ke s in
o he en e p ises), sluzhashchie anspo nykh p edp ii
a iĭ (whi e-colla wo ke s in
anspo a ion) sluzhashchie doтo ladenii
a i ak i nogo p omysla (employees o landlo ds
and innkeepe s), sluzhashchie o go ykh za edeniĭ i k edi nykh uch ezhdeniĭ (whi e-colla
wo ke s in comme ce and banking) and pomogai
ushchie p omysle chleny sem’i ( amily
membe s assis ing wi h business) in 1902; and a sum o sluzhashchie o go o-
p omyshlennykh p edp ii
a iĭ and p ikazchiki i abochie o go le among amily membe s
aiding wi h business in 1912.
Sou ces:
Sain Pe e sbu g: Au ho ’s calcula ions based on popula ion census agg ega ed s a is ics o
1881 (S.-Pe e bu g po pe episi 15-go dekab i
a 1881 goda. T. 1: Naselenie 1884, 308 able I),
1890 (S.-Pe e bu g po pe episi 15 dekab i
a 1890 goda. Ch. 1. Naselenie. Vyp. 2 :
Rasp edelenie naselenii
a po zani
a ii
am 1892, 50 able IV), 1900 (S.-Pe e bu g po pe episi 15
dekab i
a 1900 goda. Naselenie. Vyp. 2. Rasp edelenie naselenii
a po zani
a ii
am 1903, 88 able
II-A), 1910 (Pe og ad po pe episi naselenii
a 15 dekab i
a 1910 goda. Ch. 2. Rasp edelenie
naselenii
a po g uppam zani
a iĭ n.d., 23 able I).
Moscow: Au ho ’s calcula ions based on popula ion census agg ega ed s a is ics o 1882
(1885, 68 able XI), 1902 (Pe episʹ Mosk y 1902 goda. Ch. 1 : Naselenie. Vyp. 2 Naselenie g.
Mosk y (bez p igo odo ) po zani
a ii
am, e oispo edanii
u i odnomu i
azyku. Bez abo nye i
u echnye 1906, 2-5 able I), 1912 (S a is icheskiĭ ezhegodnik go oda Mosk y i Mosko skoĭ
gube nii. S a is icheskie dannye po go odu Mosk e za 1914-1925 g.g 1927, 69 able 14).
Peshko: App en iceships and Fo mal Business Schooling in La e Impe ial Russia
65
Table 2
P op ie o s wi h employees in Sain Pe e sbu g and Moscow, 1880s-1910s
Ci y
Yea
Men
Women
Women, pe cen age o o al (%)
Sain
Pe e sbu g
1881
21,296
7,148
25.13
1890
22,506
9,268
29.17
1900
27,086
11,694
30.15
1910
27,031
10,934
28.80
Moscow
1882
22,133
6,533
22.79
1902
28,355
9,653
25.40
1912
37,647
13,371
26.21
No e: Numbe s o p op ie o s wi h employees in Sain Pe e sbu g a e gi en o he ca ego y
o khozi
ae a (p op ie o s). Numbe s o p op ie o s in Moscow ep esen khozi
ae a s
naemnymi abochimi (p op ie o s wi h employees) in 1882 and a sum o khozi
ae a s
naemnymi abochimi and khozi
ae a, abo ai
ushchie ol’ko p i pomoshchi chleno sem’i
(p op ie o s, who employ only amily membe s) in 1902 and 1912.
Sou ces:
Sain Pe e sbu g: Au ho ’s calcula ions based on popula ion census agg ega ed s a is ics o
1881 (S.-Pe e bu g po pe episi 15-go dekab i
a 1881 goda. T. 1: Naselenie 1884, 308 able I),
1890 (S.-Pe e bu g po pe episi 15 dekab i
a 1890 goda. Ch. 1. Naselenie. Vyp. 2 :
Rasp edelenie naselenii
a po zani
a ii
am 1892, 50 able IV), 1900 (S.-Pe e bu g po pe episi 15
dekab i
a 1900 goda. Naselenie. Vyp. 2. Rasp edelenie naselenii
a po zani
a ii
am 1903, 86 able
II-A), 1910 (Pe og ad po pe episi naselenii
a 15 dekab i
a 1910 goda. Ch. 2. Rasp edelenie
naselenii
a po g uppam zani
a iĭ n.d., 22 able I).
Moscow: Au ho ’s calcula ions based on popula ion census agg ega ed s a is ics o 1882
(Pe episʹ Mosk y 1882 goda. Naselenie i zani
a ii
a 1885, 60 able IX), 1902 (Pe episʹ Mosk y
1902 goda. Ch. 1 : Naselenie. Vyp. 2 Naselenie g. Mosk y (bez p igo odo ) po zani
a ii
am,
e oispo edanii
u i odnomu i
azyku. Bez abo nye i u echnye 1906, 3-5 able I), 1912
(S a is icheskiĭ ezhegodnik go oda Mosk y i Mosko skoĭ gube nii. S a is icheskie dannye po
go odu Mosk e za 1914-1925 g.g 1927, 68 able 14).
Table 3
P op ie o s and whi e-colla occupa ions in Moscow, 1912
Occupa ion
Men
Women
Women, pe cen age
o o al (%)
P op ie o s wi h employees
37,647
13,371
26.21
Employed amily membe s
(p ikazchiki and o he comme cial
employees)
3,071
2,036
39.87
Bookkeepe s, cashie s
4,376
1,268
22.47
Di ec o s
3,516
256
6.79
Cle ks / Re ail cle ks (p ikazchiki)
31,478
2,407
7.10
O ice cle ks (kon o shchiki, e c.)
16,074
3,130
16.30
Agen s, b oke s e c.
1,954
28
1.41
Employed a isans
4,442
7
0.16
Sou ces: Moscow 1912 popula ion census esul s (S a is icheskiĭ ezhegodnik go oda Mosk y
i Mosko skoĭ gube nii. S a is icheskie dannye po go odu Mosk e za 1914-1925 g.g 1927, 68-
69 able 14).
Essays in Economic & Business His o y 42 (1) 2024
66
App en iceships and Fo mal Comme cial Educa ion
App en iceship did no ha e o mal ies o a me chan guild s uc u e, bu was s ill pe cei ed
as a s ep owa d acqui ing me chan s a us. As men ioned abo e, en e ing he me chan
es a e in he nine een h cen u y equi ed he pu chase o a license, i espec i e o aining. A
he age o six een ( om 1863, se en een) app en ices we e legally conside ed o be second-
le el cle ks, and hus equi ed a special license (Kapluno skiy 2006, 383). Hi ing an
app en ice also equi ed a con ac wi h speci ied e ms and du a ion o se ice, bu mos
app en iceships we e p obably a anged in o mally (O khozhie p omysly 1907, 9; see
examples o con ac s in Ko ee a 2018, 121). They we e no limi ed o boys, bu u ban
censuses sugges ha he numbe o gi ls unde going a ade app en iceship was ex emely
small (see Tables 4 and 5). App en iceships usually began a he age o i een o six een and
las ed om wo o six yea s, bu app en ices as young as wel e we e no uncommon.
Unde age app en ices we e he mos ulne able ca ego y o wo ke s: he law limi ed he alue
o goods an unde age app en ice could o e see (and hus be liable o ) o hi y ubles, bu
he e we e no es ic ions on wo king hou s o co po al punishmen (G igo iĭ Be gold 1900,
XXVIII).
4
Me chan s o en app en iced hei own sons, bu also accep ed child en o o he
me chan s o membe s o lowe es a es. A e inishing hei se ice app en ices could become
cle ks in he same i m o seek employmen elsewhe e. Young men who wo ked in hei amily
business we e expec ed o assume he leade ship posi ion once he leade o he i m passed
away o s epped down. Many membe s o Moscow me chan eli es wo ked as app en ices
and cle ks be o e becoming ull owne s (Uliano a 2000, 447). Howe e , cle ks om a non-
me chan backg ound aspi ed o become pa ne s in he i m o hei boss o o es ablish hei
own business.
5
Acco ding o con empo a y obse e s, o many u ban esiden s and peasan s,
secu ing me chan app en iceships o hei child en mean gi ing hem a chance a imp o ing
hei o unes (see, o example, A. Kolyche 1905, 164).
E en so, especially owa d he end o he nine een h cen u y, many obse e s spoke
abou he ine iciencies o app en iceships as a means o aining. They a gued ha
app en ices we e mos ly engaged in menial asks such as cleaning and unning e ands,
lea ing no ime o any meaning ul aining (see, o example, Kolyche 1905, 165; O khozhie
p omysly 1907, 9). The low educa ional quali y o app en iceships and incompe ence o
app en iced cle ks became one o he main a gumen s o es ablishmen o o mal comme cial
schools (Mikhail Kechedzhi-Shapo alo 1911, 258).
The i s wa e o o mal comme cial schools (la gely equi alen o seconda y schools)
occu ed in Eu ope in he second hal o he eigh een h cen u y (Hans Bödeke 2012; Lúcia
Lima Rod igues, Russell C aig, and Del ina Gomes 2007), and he Russian Empi e was no
an excep ion. I s i s o mal ins i u ion o ien ed o p o iding comme ce-speci ic knowledge
was ounded as ea ly as 1772 in Moscow by I an Be skoĭ, Ca he ine II’s ad ise on educa ion,
and p ominen indus ialis P oko iĭ Demido (Maslo 2001, 45-46). This school was supposed
o inspi e me chan s ac oss he Empi e o open simila ins i u ions (Polnoe Sob anie Zakono
Rossiiskoĭ Impe ii. Sob anie I. Vol. XIX 1830 № 13916, 673), bu i s e ec was a he modes .
By he end o he nine een h cen u y only abou en schools we e ounded (Bessoli syn 2012,
16; see also B i
an
se 2000, 272-288), and only unde Wi e’s leade ship (see below) did
schools o comme ce become mo e widesp ead.
4
No su p isingly, in he 1900s, when ensions be ween employe s and wo ke s we e high,
p o essional whi e-colla unions demanded a ban on he employmen o child en younge han six een
and pu a six-hou wo kday limi on employees unde eigh een (Belin 1906, 30).
5
De ailed conside a ion o how a cle k could become a me chan can be ound in Kseno on
Pole oĭ’s ad ice book (1847, 274-282; see also O khozhie p omysly 1907, 10; Ab am Gud an 1925,
122-123).
Peshko: App en iceships and Fo mal Business Schooling in La e Impe ial Russia
73
men wi h lowe comme cial educa ion … han o hose wi h specialis deg ees” (Bu yshkin
1990, 93). Al hough Bu yshkin concluded ha he highes comme cial educa ion had e y
limi ed impac on he business wo ld, his ema k abou he success o middle-le el candida es
can be ega ded as a es imony o he app ecia ion o basic comme cial aining among
businessowne s.
A emp s o ele a e he s a us o business educa ion con o med wi h a la ge agenda o
es o ing he epu a ion o he comme cial classes in socie y in gene al. In he esea ch on
e ail cul u e in la e Impe ial Russia, Ma jo ie Hil on obse ed a concep ual shi ins iga ed by
ac i is me chan s and allied jou nalis s, who o mula ed an ideal o mode nized comme ce
un by e ined businessmen—komme san y (Hil on 2012, 110-115). A loan wo d om F ench,
i signaled an o ien a ion owa d Wes e n no ms and p ac ices. Komme san y was o en
con as ed wi h Russian wo ds o me chan s (kup
sy, kupeches o), which we e associa ed
wi h he old ways o doing business, whe e chea ing, udeness and au ho i a ianism we e
supposedly commonplace. Discou se on comme cial educa ion con ibu ed o ha shi . The
need o some le el o specialized aining was equen ly men ioned by jou nalis s and
educa ion expe s in he ea ly wen ie h cen u y. As one c i ic in he daily Golos Mosk y no ed:
Some membe s o me chan y [kupeches o] and he p ess conside ...
comme cial educa ion o be a luxu y, unjus i ied by he ci cums ances o ou ade
and indus y; howe e , hey o ge ha an execu i e o la ge en e p ise should be
amilia wi h issues o global signi icance … [ hey o ge ha ] con empo a y
me chan [komme san ] needs he knowledge ha nei he ci y schools, no
app en iceship can p o ide.
15
Simila ly, ano he c i ic a gued ha special aining in comme ce had become
indispensable o success in business, as wo ld ade became mo e globalized and comme ce
ope a ions mo e complex. To him, he adi ional lea ning h ough p ac ice was obsole e: “ he
me chan (komme san ) o he u u e will no longe lea n he necessa y skills a he cashie ’s
o cle k’s desk, no a he coun e o his own ade house” (Kechedzhi-Shapo alo 1905, 4).
Conside ing he accessibili y o comme cial educa ion, his discou se may seem gende
neu al. A close look a discussions a ound comme cial educa ion and i s applica ion e eals
a signi ican gende ed di e ence.
Undoub edly, educa ed whi e-colla specialis s we e mo e immedia e p oduc s o he
comme cial school sys em han en ep eneu s. Ne e heless, discu si ely comme cial
educa ion o boys held a simila p omise o ele a ion o posi ions o au ho i y as ade
app en iceship. One commen a o ema ked: “when [boys] mo e om he coun yside in o he
ci y o be app en iced, unde a o able ci cums ances hey could ise [abo e he c owd] and
become independen [business] owne s. A ending a ade school is one o hese
ci cums ances”.
16
An occupa ional su ey conduc ed by a male comme cial school alumni
o ganiza ion in 1913 e eals ha a ound 20 pe cen o esponden s o e saw hei own
businesses, no ha a behind ci il se ice and comme cial whi e-colla wo k, which
comp ised a ound 30 pe cen each (see Table 6). E en in he g oup ha g adua ed less han
a decade ea lie , he sha e o businessowne s was as high as 16 pe cen . This gi es eason
o belie e ha comme cial schools we e no only in ended o bu indeed p oduced
p o essional businessmen, he komme san .
15
G. 1908. “To go ye muzei.” [“T ade Museums.”] Golos Mosk y, Ma ch 21.
16
Ki
un
sel’ V. 1910. “Raz i ie nashego komme cheskogo ob azo anii
a.” [“De elopmen o Ou
Comme cial Educa ion.”] P omyshlennos ’ i To go li
a, Augus 15. Emphasis in he o iginal.
Essays in Economic & Business His o y 42 (1) 2024
74
Table 6
Occupa ions o Sain Pe e sbu g Impe ial Comme cial School g adua es in 1913
Occupa ional g oup
To al
g adua es
since 1850
Sec o
Sha e
(%)
G adua ed
since 1903
Sec o Sha e
(%)
S a e se ice
432
30.95
87
22.72
P i a e sec o
420
30.09
100
26.11
P op ie o s
274
19.63
61
15.93
Public se ice
62
4.44
10
2.61
Libe al p o essions
61
4.37
7
1.83
Con inuing educa ion
114
8.17
108
28.2
Mili a y se ice
9
0.64
9
2.35
No occupa ion
24
1.72
1
0.26
To al
1396
100
383
100
Occupa ion no speci ied
136
Did no espond
457
Dead
629
G and o al
2618
Sou ces: Alumni su ey esul s (Pami
a nai
a knizhka ospi anniko Impe a o skogo S.-
Pe e bu gskogo komme cheskogo uchilishcha, okonchi shikh ku s 1850-1913 gg 1913,
193-194).
Comme cial Educa ion o Women: Fu u e Millionai es o Ideal Employees?
Be o e he in oduc ion o women’s comme cial schools in he la e 1890s, op ions o ob ain
specialized aining o women we e limi ed. Mos echnical skills we e mean o be s udied
only by men. Women’s echnical educa ion in he o m o app en iceships and classes a
special schools p ima ily consis ed o sewing and needlewo k. This limi a ion was c i icized
om di e en posi ions. Educa ional specialis s we e conce ned wi h seams esses’ low pay
and a gued ha women could and should ea n a be e li ing doing o he jobs (Ia. T
Mikhailo skiĭ 1890, 2). O he s ema ked on he lack o oppo uni ies o women o highe
s a uses. One specialis no ed ha “ he e a e plen y o young women who will no be con en
being a seams ess e en o a decen pay, as hey ecognize hei es a e s a us [soslo nos ’]
and ha e p ide” (V.I. S ezne skiĭ 1890, 229). A he same ime, conse a i e c i ics we e
wo ied ha lack o p o essional schools open o gi ls, would lead o o e sa u a ion o
gymnasia—seconda y schools aimed a he nobili y and in elligen sia—wi h s uden s o lowe
es a es.
17
Gymnasium cu icula o gi ls we e sho e han o boys and did no include subjec s
necessa y o con inue on o highe educa ion. Women we e no allowed o en e Russian
uni e si ies, bu o pu sue a libe al p o ession hey could ob ain quali ica ions a special
uni e si y-le el cou ses o women o ab oad. Finding employmen p esen ed ano he se o
di icul ies. A gymnasium diploma was su icien , howe e , o become a p ima y school eache
o a go e ness, bu o highe le els o eaching a special cou se in pedagogy was equi ed.
Conse a i es emphasized he di icul ies emale g adua es aced in secu ing eaching
17
Conse a i es had e en bigge conce ns abou he p esence o lowe -class boys and Jews in
eli e schools. See, o example, Rus’. 1884. “Mosk a, 15 a gus a”. [“Moscow, Augus 15.”] Augus 15.
Peshko: App en iceships and Fo mal Business Schooling in La e Impe ial Russia
75
posi ions as well as he aliena ion om hei pa en s ha educa ed women om lowe es a es
we e belie ed o expe ience.
18
These conse a i e a gumen s inspi ed possibly he i s p ojec o a women’s echnical
school wi h a comme cial componen . In 1880 Paulina Pio owska, a well-known ac i is o
women’s p o essional educa ion,
19
published a p ojec o a school cha e , accompanied by a
long essay elabo a ing he ision o he school and he o e all aim o echnical educa ion o
women. He p oposal is a aluable insigh in o he eli e’s concep ion o he middle-es a e
wo king woman. Simila ly o o he conse a i e c i ics, she lamen ed he inc easing demand
o gymnasia schooling among middle-es a e amilies, s essing he di icul y in inding
employmen and gene al uselessness o such educa ion o “common women in need o wo k”
(Pio owska 1880, 4, 31). In Pio owska’s opinion, he mos desi able ca ee o hem lay in
ade and indus y as adminis a i e employees, such as cashie s and bookkeepe s, bu also
as businessowne s. Special quali ies like “excep ional alen in comme ce, quick- hinking,
p ecision, a i hme ic, a en ion o de ail, diligence and abili y o comp omise” ga e women
pa icula ad an ages o e men (Pio owska 1880, 8).
20
Bu a he han a po en ial o inancial
independence, Pio owska iewed hem as homemake s’ i ues. Re e ing o a success ul
Ge man example, she belie ed ha app op ia e schooling should include household
managemen skills, such as cooking, cleaning, sewing, e c. These skills combined wi h aining
in accoun ing, business co espondence, knowledge o commodi ies, cu encies and o eign
language would allow any woman o succeed in business, Pio owska (1880, 23-28) a gued;
businesses wi h he mos po en ial o women co espond o adi ional eminine segmen s,
o example, hospi ali y, ood and d essmaking. Among posi i e examples o emale
en ep eneu ship Pio owska (1880, 46-49) e e ed o he success o Finnish dai y
manu ac u e s and a noblewoman who es ablished a glo e ac o y.
No less impo an ly, hese schools we e supposed o educa e young women abou he
bes p ac ices o mo he hood. In line wi h he idea o pedagogical mo he hood, Pio owska
(1880, 35) claimed ha aising child en is women’s essen ial “ci ic du y” and women need
adequa e knowledge o succeed in i . Pio owska (1880, 24) conside ed mo he hood o be a
ull- ime job and ega ded business skills as a kind o insu ance in case a woman s ays
unma ied o becomes a widow. Thus, Pio owska (1880, 21) p oposed he no ion o sma ,
ele a ed domes ici y, which p io i ized mo he hood, bu whe e pu sui o inancial gains was
ega ded as an app op ia e channel o agency and ambi ion: “[i male] indus ialis s and
me chan s [komme san y] ea n millions, why shouldn’ women y imp o ing hei o unes in
he same way…”.
I Is di icul o say how widely Pio owska’s pamphle was ci cula ed, bu she popula ized
he ideas on women’s p o essional educa ion in a se ies o public lec u es held in a ious
owns ac oss he Russian Empi e.
21
Fu he mo e, simila in e p e a ions o middle-es a e
18
See, o example, M. Ka ko 1884. “K op osu o zhenskom ob azo anii. P ogimnazii ili
ukodel’nye shkoly.” [“On he Ques ion o Women’s Educa ion. P o-gymnasia o A isanal Schools.”]
Mosko skie edomos i. Ap il 7. See also M. U. 1884. “Zhenskoe slo o o ospi anii zhenshchin.” [“A
Woman’s Wo d on Women’s Upb inging.”] Rus’. Ap il 15.
19
Also known as Paulina Ko win-Pio owska. See Pio owska’s sho biog aphy wi h desc ip ion
o he accomplishmen s in p omo ing women’s p o essional educa ion in Penzenskie gube nskie
edomos i. 1892. “P.K. Ko in-Pio o skai
a.” Oc obe 21.
20
This belie in women’s p ac ical minds had p obably s emmed om J.S. Mill, whose wo k The
Subjec ion o Women was well-known in Russia.
21
See epo s abou he lec u es gi en in Moscow, Kazan, Penza, Pe m and Kha ki in
Penzenskie gube nskie edomos i. 1892. “P.K. Ko in-Pio o skai
a.” Oc obe 21; Penzenskie
gube nskie edomos i. 1892. “Lek
sii
a P.K. Ko in-Pio o skoĭ.” [“Lec u e by P.K. Ko win-Pio owska.”]
Oc obe 25; Pe mskie gube nskie edomos i. 1892. “Kh onika.” [“Ch onicle.”] Decembe 2; I
Uzhnyĭ k aĭ.
1895. “Lek
sii
a g-zhi Ko in-Pio o skoĭ.” [“Lec u e by M s. P.K. Ko win-Pio owska.”] No embe 21.
Essays in Economic & Business His o y 42 (1) 2024
76
domes ici y gained p ominence a he ime. Fo ins ance, new popula ad ice li e a u e on
consump ion and household managemen was add essed p ima ily o women (Ca iona Kelly
2001, 160-166, 171-172). Almos wo decades a e Pio owska’s publica ion, ano he
pamphle en i led Family and Women’s Labo (1897) echoed he a gumen s. The au ho —L.
A. Zolo a e —disapp o ed o ma ied women wo king, e e ing o i s de imen al impac on
household, amily li e and happiness. En ep eneu ship, on he o he hand, was ega ded
he e as an app op ia e channel o women’s “c ea i i y”, which could “bene i ou indus y”
(Zolo a e 1897, 55). The au ho ga e wo posi i e examples: he i s , a woman who
de eloped a p oduc ion o a i icial lowe s, a e s udying he c a in Pa is; he second, a
woman who lea ned o d y ui s and ege ables and o ganized he manu ac u ing o hese
goods (ibid.). Thus, women’s en ep eneu ial success is illus a ed by businesses associa ed
wi h a homemake ’s asks like deco a ion o ood p ese a ion.
When he e o m o comme cial educa ion began in he ea ly 1890s, schools o women
also ecei ed mo e a en ion in public discou se and ose in p es ige. While Pio owska
conside ed he school o be sui able o women o lowe es a es, in he 1890s educa ional
specialis s a gued ha highe comme cial educa ion was needed o p o ide espec able
ea ning oppo uni ies o women o mo e p i ileged backg ounds. A cong ess o specialis s
in echnical educa ion ea u ed a p esen a ion by Aleksand S annoli
ubskiĭ, p o esso o
ma hema ics and a s aunch ad oca e o women’s educa ion, who se ed in a ious posi ions
a se e al schools o women.
22
This p esen a ion ou lined his iew on uppe -seconda y
p o essional educa ion sui able o “women o he in elligen sia”. While mos space in his
speech was de o ed o eaching, he sui abili y o comme cial whi e-colla wo k o women
was also discussed. Simila ly o Pio owska, he s essed inhe en emale quali ies ha ga e
women an ad an age o e men in hese occupa ions: “conscien iousness, ho oughness and
in pa icula … lack o neglec and uancy” (S annoli
ubskiĭ 1890, 224-225). Howe e , in
con as o Pio owska, who en isioned women’s success as en ep eneu s, S annoli
ubskiĭ
conside ed women only as employees: cashie s, bookkeepe s, and cle ks. To s eng hen his
a gumen , he poin ed owa d app ecia ion o hese emale specialis s, exp essed by “a
espec able and well-known Russian businessman [komme cheskiĭ dei
a el’]” who said ha
women we e be e employees han men because hey “do no d ink no pa y [ne ku i
a ]”
(S annoli
ubskiĭ 1890, 224). S annoli
ubskiĭ conside ed p o essional skills and employmen
no only as insu ance o non-ma iageable women, bu as a necessa y s ep be o e ma iage.
In his iew, p o essional li e allowed women o ma u e in ellec ually and physically and, when
ma ied, inc eased he chances o a ha monious union be ween spouses (S annoli
ubskiĭ
1890, 204). This iew also p esc ibed he app op ia e age— om la e eens o mid- wen ies—
o emale cle ical wo k. Thus, o S annoli
ubskiĭ women’s en y in o he labo ma ke was a
empo a y occupa ion, and no a ca ee ha implied upwa d mobili y.
O e all, i he dominan issues in ea ly deba es on he “woman ques ion” e ol ed
a ound women’s igh o spi i ual and in ellec ual g ow h and abili y o succeed in ce ain
p o essions, in he ea ly wen ie h cen u y he ocus shi ed mo e s ongly o employmen .
23
As one commen a o pu i , he old ques ion “can women ha e jobs?” was eplaced by “should
women compe e wi h men o hei jobs?”
24
One o he mos ocal suppo e s o women’s
in eg a ion in o he labo ma ke was comme cial school eache Mikhail Kechedzhi-
Shapo alo , who published ex ensi ely on comme cial educa ion, economics and women’s
22
See biog aphical ske ch on S annoli
ubskiĭ in Ob azo anie. 1893. “Aleksand Nikolae ich
S annoli
ubskiĭ.” № 7-8.
23
One au ho who a gued in he ea ly 1860s ha women’s libe a ion is impossible wi hou
inancial independence was economis Ma ii
a Ve nadskaia (Ve nadskai
a 1862).
24
I.M. S emo skiĭ 1903. “Zhenskiĭ ud.” [“Women’s Labo .”] No os i, Ma ch 24. This essay
p o oked nume ous eac ions, which we e published in he ollowing issues.
Peshko: App en iceships and Fo mal Business Schooling in La e Impe ial Russia
77
libe a ion.
25
He poin ed owa d economic easons d i ing women o he labo ma ke .
Acco ding o Kechedzhi-Shapo alo , he de elopmen o indus ial means o p oduc ion had
ende ed women’s ole in domes ic p oduc ion “economically absu d”. In o he wo ds, he
w o e, women ceased being p oduce s and became consume s.
26
Kechedzhi-Shapo alo ’s
assessmen con adic ed popula ad ice by he likes o Pio owska and Zolo a e , who saw
business po en ial in emale domes ic labo and p esen ed i as a gua an ee o women’s
inancial secu i y. Ins ead, he encou aged p o essional educa ion leading o employmen ,
including schools o comme ce. Like S annoli
ubskiĭ, when discussing he bene i s o
comme cial educa ion o women, he men ioned he p aise emale adminis a i e employees
ecei e: “Moscow me chan s [komme san y] ha e spoken s ongly abou p e e ing emale
cle ks o hei male coun e pa s, as he o me a e mo e ho ough and ca e ul in hei wo k”
(Kechedzhi-Shapo alo 1902, 149).
Ano he eache , Joseph Golds ein, also men ioned employmen oppo uni ies as a
majo bene i o s udying economics o women.
27
E en so, he desc ibed eaching gi ls as a
us a ing ask. In a public lec u e he lamen ed passi i y o his s uden s, he cause o which
he saw in upb inging ( ospi anie): “Do no do his o ha , you a e no a boy! This is he ph ase
which de ines he upb inging o con empo a y women. [Such upb inging] des oys all
o iginali y, sel - eliance and ini ia i e [ini
sia i a]”.
28
He hen complained ha emale s uden s,
albei ha dwo king and me iculous, a e p one o memo izing ex books ins ead o ac ually
unde s anding o he opic.
29
Such complain s abou women’s shallow lea ning s yle we e a
common ope among conse a i e w i e s, and we e mean o unde mine he women’s
s uggle o equal igh s o educa ion.
30
He e, howe e , Golds ein implici ly sugges s ha
possessing he quali ies ha make women ideal candida es o cle ical jobs means lacking he
quali ies associa ed wi h en ep eneu ship, like ini ia i e and o iginali y, and asse s he
masculine na u e o he la e .
31
One mo e eason why educa ed women had a ha d ime claiming manage ial au ho i y
is ela ed o he espec abili y o emale cle ical wo k. To be ai , he image o male cle ks in
popula media was a om pe ec . Like kupe
s me chan s, old- ashioned cle ks we e
desc ibed as igno an , un us wo hy, and despo ic.
32
S ill, he epu a ion o emale cle ks was
25
Kichedzhi-Shapo alo ecei ed he deg ee o candida e o comme ce om Riga Poly echnical
Ins i u e. He augh a highe comme cial, ade and indus y, and accoun ing cou ses in Sain
Pe e sbu g (Kechedzhi-Shapo alo 1911).
26
M. Kechedzhi-Shapo alo 1901. “Is o icheskie sud’by zhenshchiny”. [“Woman’s His o ical
Fa e.”] Sank -Pe e bu gskie Vedomos i, No embe 11.
27
Golds ein augh poli ical economy and led semina s a Moscow Uni e si y, Moscow
Comme cial Ins i u e and Highe Cou ses o Women.
28
Golos Mosk y. 1909. “O zhenshchine”. [“Abou a Woman.”] Ma ch 6.
29
Pe haps no su p isingly, acco ding o he Golos Mosk y epo e , women in he audience we e
no imp essed by Golds ein’s speech: “A s uden , Ms Gu e ich, sugges ed ha he opinion leade s
should e-educa e hemsel es i s , abandon his condescending a i ude owa ds women pu suing
educa ion … and only hen demand ini ia i e and some ‘ci ic cou age’ (g azhdanskoe muzhes o)”
(ibid.).
30
See M. Pogodin 1868. “Emansipa sii
a zhenshchiny.” [“Women’s Emancipa ion.”] Russkiĭ,
No embe 12; Russkie Vedomos i. 1898. “Zhenskiĭ op os na s’’ezde ge manskikh acheĭ”. [“Woman’s
Ques ion a he Mee ing o Ge man Physicians.”] June 26.
31
Quali ies like c ea i i y, isk- aking and p o i -seeking came o be associa ed wi h
en ep eneu ship and p i a e ini ia i e in Russian economic discou se as ea ly as he mid-nine een h
cen u y (Albe o Masoe o 1994).
32
On he ep esen a ion o cle ks in Russian classical li e a u e see Kapluno skiy 2006, 390-396.
Essays in Economic & Business His o y 42 (1) 2024
78
a guably wo se: hei wo k was associa ed wi h immo al beha io and p os i u ion.
33
The
associa ion was so s ong ha some obse e s belie ed cle ks o be he dominan ca ego y
among sex wo ke s (Gud an 1925, 141), al hough con empo a y s a is ics did no suppo his
no ion.
34
A e he e olu ion o 1905, when whi e-colla comme cial wo ke s began o ganizing
and oicing hei poli ical demands (see Vic o ia Bonnell 1983), ulne abili y o sexual
p eda o s became one o he main issues aised in ela ion o emale cle ks.
35
The mos
equen ly ci ed eason behind supposedly high a es o emale cle ks among sex wo ke s was
low pay and he necessi y o seek ex a income. Women wo king in e ail epo ed ha hei
mon hly wages we e hal o hose ecei ed by hei male coun e pa s, despi e he same hou s
(13-15 hou s pe day) and o en pe o ming he same asks as men (i no mo e). Acco ding
o one emale cle k, in he capi al in he ea ly 1910s male cle ks’ mon hly sala y on a e age
was 35-40 ubles, whe eas emale cle ks ea ned 20-25 ubles, and in smalle shops as li le
as 6-18 ubles.
36
On op o ha , acco ding o mul iple es imonies, shopkeepe s equi ed
women o d ess well and main ain a ac i e looks, which pu an ex a s ain on hei budge .
37
Mo eo e , emale e ail cle ks equen ly complained abou sexual abuse and ha assmen
om hei clien s and supe io s.
38
Female o ice cle ks, who we e mo e likely o ge specialized aining, we e in a be e
posi ion han e ail cle ks, ecei ing on a e age a highe sala y and wo king sho e hou s.
39
S ill, hey oo epo ed he h ea o sexual abuse and p os i u ion. One o ice cle k unde he
pen name R.O. B- e w o e: “you could a ely ind a decen , well-paid job a a bank, wi hou
b ibing he di ec o o o he supe io wi h in kind con ibu ion. I could name a dozen young
women who made b illian ca ee s, only hanks o being ag eeable”.
40
B- e did no elabo a e
33
See, o example, sa i ical ex s whe e i is implied ha emale cle ks g an sexual a o s.
Ma kiz de T ubaku . 1880. “Vygodnai
a o go li
a.” [“P o i able T ade.”] Shu , Augus 27; Bazil’. 1891.
“Negodo anie.” [“Indigna ion.”] Shu , July 13.
34
Acco ding o he Impe ial S a is ical O ice and esea ch conduc ed in Sain Pe e sbu g by
Obozenko he la ges occupa ional g oup among sex wo ke s we e domes ic se an s (45 and 37.5
pe cen espec i ely), while cle ks comp ised only a ound 1 pe cen ( And eĭ Dub o skiĭ 1887, XXXIII;
Pe Obozenko 1896, 22-23).
35
See sec ion P ikazschichiĭ op os [Cle ks’ Ques ion] in No ai
a Rus’: P oda shchi
sa.
[Saleswoman] 1908. “Zhenskiy ud.” [“Women’s Labo .”] No ai
a Rus’, No embe 7; P oda shchi
sa A.
[Saleswoman A.] 1908. “V No o-Aleksand o skom ynke.” [“A he No o-Aleksand o skii Ma ke .”]
No ai
a Rus’, No embe 18; P oda shchi
sa Gos inago d o a F. [Saleswoman F. om Gos iny D o ]
1906. “Obshchiĭ li soi
uz dli
a zhenshchin ili spe sial’no zhenskiĭ?” [“A Join o a Women-only Union?”]
No ai
a Rus’, No embe 23; R.O. B- e 1908. “Zhenkiĭ ud libe al’nykh p o essii
akh.” [“Women’s
Labo in he Libe al P o essions.”] No ai
a Rus’, No embe 28; No ai
a Rus’. 1908. “T ud zhenshchin
o go le.” [“Women’s Labo in T ade.”] Decembe 16; No ai
a Rus’. 1908. “Zhenskiĭ ud o go le.”
[“Women’s Labo in T ade.”] Decembe 31; some o hese es imonies also ci ed by Gud an (1925, 136-
141). See also epo by L. Ozinskaya on emale cle ks in Odesa deli e ed on he i s Women’s
Cong ess (1909, 340-343).
36
Ves nik P ikazchika. 1912. “Zhenshchiny-p oda shchi
sy.” [“Saleswomen.”] Sep embe 25.
37
P oda shchi sa. 1908. “Zhenskiĭ ud.” [“Women’s Labo .”] No ai
a Rus’, No embe 7;
Gos inod o ka. 1913. “K p oda shchi
sam.” [“To Saleswomen.”] Ves nik P ikazchika, № 7. See also
Gud an 1905, 92; Ozinskaya 1909, 342.
38
A. P oda shchi
sa 1908. “V No o-Aleksand o skom ynke.” [“A he No o-Aleksand o skii
Ma ke .”] No ai
a Rus’, No embe 18; Ves nik P ikazchika. 1912. “Zhenshchiny-p oda shchi
sy.”
[“Saleswomen.”] Sep embe 25. See also Ozinskaya 1909, 342.
39
R.O. B- e 1908. “Zhenkiĭ ud libe al’nykh p o essii
akh.” [“Women’s Labo in he Libe al
P o essions.”] No aia Rus’, No embe 28. See also epo by P.P. Radushina deli e ed o he i s
Women’s Cong ess (Radushina 1909, 396-397).
40
R.O. B- e 1908. “Zhenkiĭ ud libe al’nykh p o essii
akh.” [“Women’s Labo in he Libe al
P o essions.”] No ai
a Rus’, No embe 28.
Peshko: App en iceships and Fo mal Business Schooling in La e Impe ial Russia
79
wha a “b illian ca ee ” mean o cle ks like he , bu she made i clea ha p o essional me i
played a a less impo an ole in p omo ions o women han o men.
The eali ies o emale cle ks we e also di e en om he image sugges ed by ad oca es
o emale comme cial educa ion. No ably, ade unions o cle ical wo ke s esis ed he
ca ego iza ion o whi e-colla wo k as a empo a y occupa ion o young women and
consis en ly included ma e ni y lea e in hei demands (A. Belin 1906, 11, 31). Female cle ks
also lamen ed he age disc imina ion ha made i ha de o women in hei hi ies o ge a
job, as employe s belie ed hem o be “ oo old”.
41
While he likes o S annoli
ubskiĭ and
Kechedzhi-Shapo alo ci ed anonymous businessmen p aising emale cle ks o diligence
and discipline, om he poin o iew o emale wo ke s hey we e d i en by o he mo i es. As
one saleswoman pu i on he pages o he cle ical union pape , “capi alis s” hi e women
because hey cos less and a e easie o con ol.
42
All in all, conside ing de alua ion and
commodi ica ion o hei labo , lack o espec and an ex emely subjuga ed posi ion e iden
in es imonies om women in whi e-colla comme cial jobs, i becomes clea ha he idea o
hem climbing he social ladde by means o hei quali ica ions and expe ience as male cle ks
aspi ed o was ha dly plausible in he minds o con empo a y men.
Discussion and Concluding Commen s
In his a icle, I in es iga ed how he in oduc ion o o mal comme cial schools impac ed
women’s oppo uni ies o ecei e specialized aining as well as how hei quali ies we e
pe cei ed and alued. I show ha exclusion om ade app en iceships did no p e en women
om becoming p o icien in business ma e s, bu hei access was mos ly limi ed o women
om me chan backg ounds. These women could claim hei au ho i y in simila ways o hei
male coun e pa s h ough legi imacy o hei owne ship unde pinned by pa e nalis ic ideology
as well as expe ise, bu he o me had a much highe signi icance o women. Meanwhile,
exclusion o women om app en iceships did es ic social mobili y o women om he
peasan y and u ban poo and de ined g adual me i oc a ic ise o business owne ship as a
male p e oga i e.
Gi ls a ely became ade app en ices, so he es ablishmen o comme cial schools a
di e en le els b oadened hei access o specialized knowledge. This change co esponds o
he g owing p opo ions o women in whi e-colla comme cial jobs and hei highe sha es in
mo e skilled posi ions. Wi h new comme cial schools, men and women had access o la gely
simila aining, bu imagined ou comes o each we e di e en . The p ocess o o mula ing
hese ou comes also unde wen change. An ea ly plan o a comme cial school o women
made by Pio owska in he ea ly 1880s, albei emphasizing wo k as a second choice a e
mo he hood, p esen ed an empowe ing idea ha domes ic skills could be ans o med in o a
luc a i e en e p ise. Ye , by he end o he cen u y, when comme cial schools o women
became he eali y, whi e-colla wo k eplaced en ep eneu ship as an end goal. Legi imacy o
comme cial educa ion was i mly linked o he no ion o expe masculini y and a me i oc a ic
ca ee . Whe eas comme cial educa ion p omised men a ca ee , o women en y in o
comme cial wo k was conside ed empo a y and hus did no allow hei g ow h in o highe
posi ions. Mo eo e , in he wo kplace emale expe ise was de alued h ough lowe pay as
well as commodi ica ion and sexualiza ion o hei wo k.
In many ways he gende ed di ision o educa ion and labo wi hin business
o ganiza ions in Russia ollows he ajec o y obse ed in Wes e n de eloped coun ies.
Female cle ical wo k in B i ain, F ance, Ge many, Aus ia-Hunga y and he US was associa ed
41
Ves nik P ikazchika. 1912. “Zhenshchiny-p oda shchi
sy.” [“Saleswomen.”] Sep embe 25.
See also P oda shchi
sa. 1908. “Zhenskiy ud.” [“Women’s Labo .”] No ai
a Rus’, No embe 7.
42
Ves nik P ikazchika. 1912. “Zhenshchiny-p oda shchi
sy.” [“Saleswomen.”] Sep embe 25.
Essays in Economic & Business His o y 42 (1) 2024
80
wi h “dead-end” posi ions o young women, who we e paid less han men (Ca ole Adams
1988; Rena e B iden hal 1973; Susanne Doh n 1989; Má yás E délyi 2019; Kwolek-Folland
1994, ch. 2; Simon on 1998, ch. 11). G ea simila i ies can also be seen be ween
concep ualiza ions o emale cle ical wo k in la e Impe ial Russia and Mexico in he 1920s,
whe e he en y o women in o whi e-colla public sec o jobs was also associa ed wi h bo h
objec i ica ion and conce ns o e sexual ulne abili y (Susie Po e 2023). A he same ime,
p o essionals seeking o c ea e o p ese e he p es ige o hei quali ica ions ( e)de ined hem
in masculine e ms, con as ing hemsel es wi h less quali ied women (Linda Ki kham and
Anne Lo 1993; Kwolek-Folland 1994, ch. 3; La sen 2011). Ca ego iza ions o disciplines and
schools as mo e o less app op ia e o a gi en social class in he Russian Empi e esembled
he F ench sys em. In bo h coun ies, oo, comme cial educa ion had less p es ige (La sen
2011, 27-28; Godelie 2020, 221-222). A i udes o women’s educa ion we e also s ikingly
simila : “o e ”-educa ed women we e pe cei ed as a h ea o he social o de , so women’s
access o eli e ins i u ions was ei he es ic ed o p ohibi ed and women’s educa ion o e all
ended o ha e in e io quali y (La sen 2011, 31; see also F ançoise Mayeu 1977; Julie e
Rennes 2011). Despi e hese simila i ies, comme cial educa ion o women de eloped
di e en ly. In F ance, inclusion o women in o he amewo k o highe comme cial schools
was augh , as hese ins i u ions emula ed and compe ed wi h enginee ing and poly echnical
schools o a ac male s uden s om bou geois eli es (La sen 2011). In Ge many and Aus ia-
Hunga y, campaigns o emale cle ks o equali y in male and emale comme cial p og ams
we e me wi h opposi ion om p o essional associa ions and eluc ance om o icials o e o m
he sys em (Adams 1988, ch. 9; E délyi 2019, 42-52).
In con as , in Russia women’s access o comme cial educa ion was no an issue o he
s a e, conse a i e eli es o business. Wi e’s Minis y o Finance made de elopmen o
p o essional educa ion i s explici policy and p io i ized he need o inc ease he domes ic
supply o indus y and comme ce specialis s. Conse a i es pushed comme cial educa ion as
a sa e al e na i e o women, which could gi e hem desi ed in ellec ual g ow h and digni ied
li ing, wi hou he h ea o adicaliza ion. While he business communi y was no unanimous
abou he need o o mal educa ion, i unde s ood he bene i s o he emale wo k o ce, so i
did no con es he inclusion o women. In hese ci cums ances comme cial educa ion in
Russia assumed a mo e u ili a ian aim.
Acknowledgemen s
I would like o hank my ad iso s Ja i Elo an a and Lau a Ekholm o hei in aluable suppo
o his wo k. In addi ion, I would like o exp ess my g a i ude o he pa icipan s a he 2023
YSI Doc o al Wo kshop, 2023 Economic and Business His o y Socie y annual mee ing, and
he anonymous e iewe s, whose insigh ul ques ions and commen s enhanced he quali y
and igo o his piece.
Peshko: App en iceships and Fo mal Business Schooling in La e Impe ial Russia
81
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