Zaidan, Esma ; Ehsan, Muhammad Mubashi
A icle
Explo ing educa ional ends and challenges in he MENA
egion amids a global c isis: An empi ical analysis o he
pandemic's impac on SDG4
Resea ch in Globaliza ion
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Zaidan, Esma ; Ehsan, Muhammad Mubashi (2024) : Explo ing educa ional
ends and challenges in he MENA egion amids a global c isis: An empi ical analysis o he
pandemic's impac on SDG4, Resea ch in Globaliza ion, ISSN 2590-051X, Else ie , Ams e dam, Vol.
8, pp. 1-13,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. esglo.2024.100225
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Explo ing educa ional ends and challenges in he MENA egion amids a
global c isis: An empi ical analysis o he pandemic’s impac on SDG4
Esma Zaidan
a
,
*
, Muhammad Mubashi Ehsan
b
a
College o Public Policy, Hamad Bin Khali a Uni e si y, Doha, Qa a
b
Mas e o Social Policy and P og am E alua ion, College o Public Policy, Hamad Bin Khali a Uni e si y, Doha, Qa a
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Adap abili y
COVID-19 Pandemic
Ex e nal shocks
Go e nmen expendi u e
Income inequali y
MENA egion
Quali y o educa ion
ABSTRACT
The pape p esen s a c oss-coun y analysis o se en coun ies in he MENA egion and explo es he e ec s o
COVID-19 on educa ional policymaking. The pape uses a quasi- hema ic li e a u e e iew o highligh he
eme ging hemes ela ed o he quali y o educa ion du ing he pandemic. The pape in es iga es he educa ional
ends in se en MENA egion coun ies and p o ides desc ip i e analysis o unde s and i he e we e changes
om 2016 o 2020. In o de o in es iga e hese ends, he s udy uses he concep ualiza ion o Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals (SDG 4) “Quali y o educa ion.” The analysis is based on he da a om he Wo ld Bank
De elopmen indica o s. The pape ’s e idence iden i ies a di e ence in he le el o go e nmen expendi u e on
educa ion wi hin he MENA egion. P e and du ing COVID-19 p o ides c ucial insigh s such as all coun ies
inc eased hei go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion excep Egyp and Bah ain. The pape u he add esses he
con ibu ing ac o s o he educa ional gaps in he egion, such as digi al exclusion, inequali y (income and
gende ), and he go e nmen ’s budge cons ain s du ing he pandemic. This s udy p esen s ecommenda ions o
b idge hese iden i ied gaps in he pos -pandemic e a.
1. In oduc ion
The COVID-19 pandemic ou b eak had a mul i-sec o ial impac and
in luenced go e nmen policy p io i iza ion. The pandemic in luenced
social and economic ac o s bo h wi hin coun ies and globally.
Rega ding global esponses, he c ises may de ail a ge s such as he
Uni ed Na ions’ Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs). The p e-
exis ing mac o and mic o-le el inequali ies we e exposed, u he
exace ba ing he condi ions o low-income coun ies and indi iduals
wi h lowe incomes (UN DESA, 2022). Mo eo e , coun ies al eady
acing inancial cons ain s and esponding o he immedia e COVID-19
ela ed expenses could no a ionalize unds o ensu e he SDG a ge s.
Gi en he cu en ci cums ances, i is essen ial o conside and un-
de s and he impac o COVID-19 on Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
(SDGs). The li e a u e in he con ex o he SDGs illus a es ha speci ic
goals ha e become mo e p essing, such as Chapman and Tsuji (2020),
who a gue ha Reduced Inequali y (SDG 10), Clima e Ac ion (SDG 13),
and Pa ne ships (SDG 17) a e essen ial o a success ul ansi ion o-
wa ds sus ainabili y. Howe e , some s udies a e c i ical o he SDGs in
he pos -pandemic e a, such as Heggen, Sandse , and Engeb e sen
(2020).
The COVID-19 pandemic has p o oundly impac ed he educa ion
sys em globally, wi h lockdowns and school closu es posing a signi ican
h ea o he educa ional goals se by he Uni ed Na ions’ Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals (SDGs) (Shulla e al., 2021). The pandemic has led o
a deepening o he global lea ning c isis, wi h millions o child en
wo ldwide unable o access in-pe son educa ion and many s uden s
po en ially no e u ning o lea ning ins i u ions (Magomedo e al.,
2020). The impac o he pandemic on he deli e y and achie emen o
lea ning ou comes has been se e e, wi h signi ican challenges aced in
ansi ioning o digi al pla o ms o emo e lea ning (Vinichenko,
2021).
One o he mos signi ican impac s o he pandemic on educa ion has
been he widesp ead closu es o schools and uni e si ies (Ku i, 2020). As
coun ies sc ambled o con ain he sp ead o he i us, go e nmen s
wo ldwide o de ed lockdowns and educa ional ins i u ion closu es, wi h
some coun ies closing schools o mon hs a a ime (Ku i, 2020); his has
had a signi ican impac on child en’s access o educa ion, wi h millions
o s uden s a ound he wo ld unable o a end school in pe son. Ac-
co ding o UNESCO, an es ima ed 147 million child en could no access
in-pe son educa ion du ing he pandemic, and an addi ional 24 million
s uden s om p ima y o uni e si y le el may no e u n o lea ning
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (E. Zaidan).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Resea ch in Globaliza ion
jou nal homepage: www.sciencedi ec .com/jou nal/ esea ch-in-globaliza ion
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. esglo.2024.100225
Recei ed 3 Feb ua y 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 9 May 2024; Accep ed 12 May 2024
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100225
2
ins i u ions; his ep esen s a signi ican se back o SDG 4, which aims
o ensu e inclusi e and equi able quali y educa ion o all (UNSD, 2022).
The closu e o schools has also signi ican ly impac ed he deli e y o
educa ion and he achie emen o lea ning ou comes (Vinichenko,
2021). Wi h s uden s unable o a end school in pe son, many coun ies
ha e u ned o emo e lea ning as a solu ion. Howe e , his ansi ion
has no been wi hou i s challenges. Remo e lea ning equi es access o
echnology and he In e ne , which many s uden s in low-income
coun ies do no ha e (Meinck e al., 2022). In addi ion, emo e
lea ning equi es a signi ican le el o sel -mo i a ion and discipline,
which many s uden s may no ha e (Ku i, 2020); his has led o signi -
ican dispa i ies in he deli e y and achie emen o lea ning ou comes,
wi h s uden s om low-income households and u al a eas pa icula ly
a ec ed o ensu e inclusi e, equi able, and high-quali y educa ion o
all, including in he Middle Eas and No h A ica (MENA) egion. This
goal encompasses p o iding access o educa ion ega dless o gende ,
e hnici y, o socioeconomic s a us, os e ing inclusi e lea ning en i-
onmen s, enhancing he quali y and ele ance o educa ion, p omo ing
li elong lea ning oppo uni ies, and nu u ing global ci izenship edu-
ca ion. Howe e , he MENA egion aces unique challenges in achie ing
hese objec i es, such as dispa i ies in access o educa ion be ween
u ban and u al a eas, gende inequali ies in educa ional a ainmen ,
and he impac o con lic s and displacemen on he educa ion sys em.
Fo ins ance, in he case o he MENA egion, 37 million child en
we e no able o each emo e lea ning oppo uni ies. (UNESCO e al.,
2021). The s udy ocuses on he MENA egion and explo es how
di e en coun ies’ educa ional expe iences du ing he pandemic.
T adi ionally, s udies in he MENA egion ha e ocused on he quali y o
educa ion om he pe spec i e o egula ion and go e nance aspec s. A
s udy by Heyneman (1997) iden i ied ha conce n in he MENA egion
is no ela ed o inancial esou ces bu o he ine iciencies on he
implemen a ion side. Howe e , o e he decades, he educa ional
landscape. The ecen ends om he las decade illus a e issues
ega ding highe a es o unemploymen amongs he you h in com-
pa ison o he global ends. A s udy by Fa zanegan and Gholipou
(2021) p o ided analysis o explo e a ia ion amongs he MENA
coun ies h ough he lens o he quali y o educa ion’s impac on
employabili y amongs he you h.
This explo a i e s udy ocuses on SDG4 o unde s and educa ional
indica o s and policy ends and pa e ns based on he a ailable quan-
i a i e da a; his allows he s udy o del e in o he egion’s pe o mance
ega ding global a ge s. Fi s ly, he s udy concep ualizes he quali y o
educa ion h ough he lens o academic li e a u e and he de ini ion o
he de elopmen o he concep by in e na ional o ganiza ions. Sec-
ondly, he pape highligh s he me hodology used in he pape and he
desc ip ion o he da a sou ces. Thi dly, he pape p o ides a li e a u e
e iew based on iden i ied hemes om he p elimina y esea ch.
Fou hly, he pape p o ides a desc ip i e analysis based on he a ail-
able da a and a compa a i e analysis o SDG 4 and educa ion-speci ic
indica o s. Las ly, he pape p o ides a sec ion on policy ecommenda-
ions and a conclusion.
1.1. Resea ch objec i e
In he backg ound o he con ex o he pandemic, he aim o
educa ional policies has ocused on he p o ision o lea ning in he
se ing o COVID-19 lockdown and social dis ancing es ic ions. The
policymake s ha e explo ed emo e lea ning op ions, including online
and o line mediums. The pape explo es he educa ional ends in he
MENA egion du ing he pandemic. The a ionale o selec ing he
MENA egion was o explo e how he inequali y o esou ces amongs
he coun ies in he same egion impac ed he educa ional expe ience
du ing he pandemic. To unde s and his e idence, he indica o s om
SDG 4, “Quali y o Educa ion,” in o m e idence ac oss hese coun ies.
This pape is a aluable addi ion o he li e a u e as i explo es he
ends and changes in he SDG 4 indica o s be o e and du ing he ini ial
phases o he pandemic. Hence, he s udy uses da a om he pandemic
da a om 2021.
1.2. Concep ualiza ion o quali y in educa ion
The ea lies concep ualiza ion o he quali y o educa ion was
au ho ed by C.E Beeby, who de eloped a model o unde s and he
quali y o educa ion based on h ee le els: class oom quali y, ensu ing
he lo e o he coun y (pa io ism), and based he judgmen o b oade
social c i e ia (Beeby, 1966). The subsequen mos p ominen concep-
ualiza ion in li e a u e was by Hawes and S ephens (1990); he
app oach was based on he humanis s ance o de elopmen and edu-
ca ion. The au ho s poin ed ou h ee key e iciency aspec s in achie ing
he se goals: ele ance-based needs and condi ions o humans and he
en i onmen , and las ly, wo king owa ds excellence and human
be e men (Hawes & S ephens, 1990).
In 1996, he Delo s epo was launched and was in luen ial in
de eloping he Daka F amewo k o Ac ion, which included concep s
ela ed o li e skills. The unde s anding o li e skills in he amewo k
was b oade han he ea lie de ini ions, encompassing ac o s ela ed o
basic knowledge, oca ional skills, and p ac ical skills. This se s he one
o unde s anding he po en ial o child en o be economic con ibu o s
when hey join he labo ma ke .
The wo mo e ecen unde s andings o he quali y o educa ion
include he elemen s o c i ical hinking, di e si y, and inno a ion,
along wi h he de ini ion o quali y o educa ion (UNESCO, 2022). The
mos inclusi e ep esen a ion o he concep o he quali y o educa ion
is embedded in SDG 4, which s a es, “Ensu e inclusi e and equi able
quali y educa ion and p omo e li elong lea ning oppo uni ies o all”
(U.N., 2020) (See Appendix A o SDG 4 Ta ge ). Howe e , his concep-
ualiza ion in he backg ound o a pandemic is complex o measu e and
ack, conside ing he le el o dis up ions and lea ning losses du ing he
pandemic.
In he backg ound o his concep ualiza ion, he s udy uses aming
o he indica o s ela ed o SDG 4 as he main a ea o explo a ion. The
s udy iden i ies ele an a iables de eloped wi hin he SDG 4 con ex
and illus a es a desc ip i e analysis.
2. Me hodology
Two me hods we e used in he pape o de elop he s udy. Fi s ly, a
quasi- hema ic li e a u e e iew is conduc ed o unde s and embedded
hemes ela ed o he quali y o educa ion and eme ging li e a u e on he
impac o COVID-19 on he quali y o educa ion. Secondly, he pape
p esen s and illus a es a desc ip i e using he quali y o educa ion
a iables o in es iga e he ends in he MENA egion om 2016 o
2020. The e idence p o ides insigh s ega ding h ee key in luen ial
ac o s ( echnology, inequali y (income and gende ), and budge con-
s ain s) ela ed o access o quali y educa ion du ing he pandemic.
2.1. Li e a u e e iew
The p ima y eason o using a hema ic li e a u e e iew in he
s udy is o explo e di e en in e ac ions be ween he quali y o educa-
ion and o he economic and policy a iables. As he s udy is es ab-
lishing a imeline wi hin he las ew decades, i is c ucial o explo e
de elopmen in he subjec ma e a eas. Secondly, in es iga ion on he
impac o COVID-19 is s ill new in he eme ging li e a u e, so his s udy
explo es academic publica ions ocusing on educa ion quali y and policy
esponse om he li e a u e. Howe e , g ey li e a u e is also u ilized o
se he backg ound o concep ualizing educa ion.
The pape uses ou hema ic a eas: Income inequali y and quali y o
educa ion, he concep ualiza ion o quali y o educa ion, quali y o ed-
uca ion and policy ins umen s, and he impac o quali y o educa ion
du ing he pandemic. These hema ic a eas we e highligh ed in he
p elimina y esea ch conduc ed using keywo ds such as quali y o
E. Zaidan and M.M. Ehsan
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100225
3
educa ion, COVID-19, and educa ion quali y; he ini ial esea ch
included explo ing li e a u e om Google Schola . Table 1 highligh s
he keywo ds used o he o e all esea ch.
The p ocess o he li e a u e included he ollowing: (i) de ining he
sea ch wo ds ha would be used in he li e a u e, (ii) selec ion o he
lib a y o sou ces, whe e he mos p ominen li e a u e is a ailable, (iii)
ex ac ion o da a om he s udies ha a e ele an o he o e a ching
esea ch ques ion (i ) epo ing he key ele an indings o answe he
esea ch ques ion.
This was no an ex ensi e li e a u e e iew o a sys ema ic e iew;
he li e a u e add essed in he s udy e lec s he build-up owa ds he
policy discussion ega ding he quali y o educa ion. Limi a ions: As his
li e a u e e iew was no comp ehensi e, some componen s, such as
gene a ing he keywo ds, did no ollow sys ema ic p o ocols such as
PICO (Popula ion, In e en ion, Compa ison, and Ou come). The key-
wo ds used o de elop hema ic li e a u e we e based on p elimina y
esea ch.
2.2. Empi ical analysis
The pape p o ides a desc ip i e analysis o illus a e he end o
educa ional a iables om 2016 o 2021. The analysis aims o in es i-
ga e he changes in ends be o e and du ing he pandemic on he
selec ed educa ional a iables. In o de o explo e his end, seconda y
da a was used, i.e., he esea ch uses a combina ion o h ee da a sou -
ces: he Wo ld Bank de elopmen indica o s, he SDGs da a, and he
Wo ld Inequali y da abase. To p o ide a comp ehensi e analysis, he
s udy has sou ced economic a iables such as go e nmen expendi u e
on educa ion as a pe cen age o o al go e nmen expendi u e and
go e nmen expendi u e as a pe cen age o GDP om he Wo ld Bank
De elopmen Indica o s (WDI). The esea ch also d aws da a on ou -o -
school child en and he comple ion o p ima y SDG da a, speci ically
ocusing on 4.1 and 4.2. Las ly, he income inequali y da a is aken om
he Wo ld Inequali y Da abase. The esea ch has been conduc ed o e a
ime ame o 2016–2020. Table 2 illus a es he a iables and hei
desc ip ion.
In his s udy, he concep ualiza ion o he quali y o educa ion o-
cuses on he a iable acking om he SDG 4 ele an a iable. The e is
an acknowledgmen ha he quali y o educa ion is measu ed h ough
di e en indica o s o unde s and he le el o in elligence o he s uden s
h ough PISA, TIMMS, o any s anda dized es ing. Howe e , his pape
ocuses on he a iables ela ed o he le el o access o educa ion, and
he p ima y le el s uden s can comple e ha le el o educa ion. The
pu pose o he s udy is no o see he impac o educa ion on economic
p oduc i i y; a he , he ocus is o explo e i inequali y and go e nmen
expendi u e co ela e o he quali y o educa ion a iables concep ual-
ized in his s udy.
The s udy uses se en coun ies om he MENA egion. The a ionale
o selec ing hese coun ies was based on consis en da a a ailabili y
ac oss he included a iable in he s udy. Table 3 illus a es he selec ed
coun ies in he s udy. Coun ies o h ee sub- egions ha e been
included o keep he balance and cap u e su icien e idence. Coun ies
such as he UAE, I an, and Kuwai we e no included due o a lack o
consis ency in e ms o he da a. In addi ion, he analysis conside ed he
da a o he pe iod be ween 2016 and 2020; again, his was limi ed due
o he lack o consis en da a o yea s om 2020 onwa ds. Fo ins ance,
he e is da a a ailable o he go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion and
Table 1
Keywo ds o esea ch.
S # Keywo ds
1 Quali y o educa ion
2 Co id-19 and quali y o educa ion
3 Inequali y and educa ion
4 Educa ion in pandemic
Table 2
Summa y indica o s wi h desc ip ions used in he s udy.
Indica o Name Desc ip ion Da abase
P ima y comple ion a e,
o al (% o ele an age
g oup)
The p ima y comple ion a e,
o g oss in ake a io o he las
g ade o p ima y educa ion, is
he numbe o new en an s
(en ollmen s minus epea e s)
in he las g ade o p ima y
educa ion, ega dless o age,
di ided by he popula ion a
he en ance age o he las
g ade o p ima y educa ion.
SDG Da abase
(Wo ld Bank)
Child en ou o school (%
o p ima y school age)
Child en ou o school a e he
pe cen age o p ima y-school-
age child en who a e no
en olled in p ima y o
seconda y school. Child en in
he o icial p ima y age g oup
in p ep ima y educa ion
should be conside ed ou o
school.
SDG Da abase
(Wo ld Bank)
Child en ou o school,
emale (% o emale
p ima y school age)
Child en ou o school a e he
pe cen age o p ima y-school-
age child en who a e no
en olled in p ima y o
seconda y school. Child en in
he o icial p ima y age g oup
in p ep ima y educa ion
should be conside ed ou o
school.
SDG Da abase
(Wo ld Bank)
Child en ou o school,
male (% o male p ima y
school age)
Child en ou o school a e he
pe cen age o p ima y-school-
age child en who a e no
en olled in p ima y o
seconda y school. Child en in
he o icial p ima y age g oup
in p ep ima y educa ion
should be conside ed ou o
school.
SDG Da abase
(Wo ld Bank)
P ima y comple ion a e,
emale (% o ele an
age g oup)
The p ima y comple ion a e,
o g oss in ake a io o he las
g ade o p ima y educa ion, is
he numbe o new en an s
(en ollmen s minus epea e s)
in he las g ade o p ima y
educa ion, ega dless o age,
di ided by he popula ion a
he en ance age o he las
g ade o p ima y educa ion.
SDG Da abase
(Wo ld Bank)
P ima y comple ion a e,
male (% o ele an age
g oup)
The p ima y comple ion a e,
o g oss in ake a io o he las
g ade o p ima y educa ion, is
he numbe o new en an s
(en ollmen s minus epea e s)
in he las g ade o p ima y
educa ion, ega dless o age,
di ided by he popula ion a
he en ance age o he las
g ade o p ima y educa ion.
Da a limi a ions p eclude
adjus ing o s uden s who
d op ou du ing he inal yea
o p ima y educa ion.
SDG Da abase
(Wo ld Bank)
Go e nmen expendi u e
on educa ion, o al (% o
go e nmen
expendi u e)
Gene al go e nmen
expendi u e on educa ion
(cu en , capi al, and
ans e s) is a pe cen age o
o al gene al go e nmen
expendi u e on all sec o s
(including heal h, educa ion,
social se ices, e c.). I
includes expendi u e unded
by ans e s om
in e na ional sou ces o
go e nmen . Gene al
go e nmen usually e e s o
Wo ld De elopmen
Indica o s (wo ld
bank)
(con inued on nex page)
E. Zaidan and M.M. Ehsan
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100225
4
yea s o compulso y yea s. Howe e , he e is inconsis ency in he da a
ega ding comple ion a es and school child en ac oss he coun ies
wi hin he egion. This is he key a ionale o selec ing he imeline
om 2016 o 2020.
3. Li e a u e e iew
A signi ican body o economic li e a u e explo es educa ion’s
empi ical and heo e ical e ec s using yea s o schooling and economic
a iables. Va ious pape s ha e employed a ange o models and e-
g essions. The li e a u e i s examines he ela ionship be ween income
inequali y and educa ion. Secondly, i del es in o he ela ionship be-
ween he quali y o educa ion and go e nmen expendi u e. Addi ion-
ally, he pape highligh s some s udies conduc ed on SDG 4 and
iden i ies esea ch gaps, pa icula ly abou he selec ed egion.
3.1. Income inequali y and educa ion
Income inequali y and educa ional a ainmen a e closely ela ed,
wi h he ela ionship going bo h ways (Alesina & Pe o i, 1996). On he
one hand, highe inequali y may inc ease in es o s’ con idence o in es
in educa ion, as hey see i as a way o gain highe e u ns. On he o he
hand, i may cons ain he mobili y o esou ces om he low-income
s a a o he economy, making i mo e di icul o indi iduals om
lowe -income backg ounds o access educa ional oppo uni ies.
Resea ch has shown ha income inequali y posi i ely co ela es wi h
educa ional a ainmen (Alesina & Pe o i, 1996).
Pe o i (1993) conduc ed a s udy o 67 coun ies and ound e idence
ha socie ies wi h a mo e equi able weal h dis ibu ion ha e highe
in es men le els in educa ion. Fac o s ela ed o income dis ibu ion
a e c ucial in unde s anding he ela ionship be ween educa ion and
economic a iables, as i is a complex issue closely linked o in e gen-
e a ional weal h (Du lau , 1996; Checchi, 2006)). Galo and Zei a
(1993) also heo ized ha indi iduals wi h inc edible inhe i ed weal h
a e mo e likely o in es in human capi al. Fu he mo e, as income
inequali y inc eases, so does he popula ion’s educa ional a ainmen ;
his is likely because indi iduals om highe -income backg ounds ha e
g ea e access o educa ional esou ces and oppo uni ies, leading o
highe educa ional a ainmen .
One po en ial eason o his posi i e ela ionship is ha highe in-
come inequali y may inc ease in es o s’ con idence o in es in educa-
ion. As income inequali y inc eases, he e u ns o educa ion also
inc ease, as a college deg ee o ad anced deg ee becomes mo e aluable
in he job ma ke (Alesina & Pe o i, 1996); his may lead o mo e in-
es men in educa ion, bo h by indi iduals and he go e nmen ,
esul ing in highe le els o educa ional a ainmen (Rod íguez-Pose &
Tselios, 2009). Howe e , income inequali y can also cons ain he
mobili y o esou ces om he low-income s a a o he economy,
making i mo e di icul o indi iduals om lowe -income backg ounds
o access educa ional oppo uni ies. As income inequali y inc eases, he
gap in esou ces and oppo uni ies be ween high- and low-income in-
di iduals also inc eases (Magomedo e al., 2020), making i ha de o
hose om lowe -income backg ounds o a o d a college educa ion o
o he o ms o pos -seconda y aining.
Fu he mo e, esea ch sugges s ha he ela ionship be ween income
inequali y and educa ional a ainmen is one-sided and in e ac ional
(Gold ick-Rab, 2016); his means ha he ela ionship be ween he wo
a iables depends on income inequali y and he policies and sys ems in
place o suppo educa ional a ainmen . Fo example, a ge ed inancial
aid p og ams and o he policies o inc ease access o educa ion can help
mi iga e income inequali y’s ad e se e ec s on educa ional a ainmen
Gold ick-Rab, 2016. In summa y, he ela ionship be ween income
inequali y and educa ional a ainmen is complex, wi h posi i e and
nega i e e ec s. Income inequali y can inc ease in es o s’ con idence in
in es ing in educa ion and cons ain he mobili y o esou ces om he
low-income s a a o he economy. Howe e , he ela ionship be ween
he wo is no jus one-sided bu also in e ac ional and depends on
policies and sys ems in place o suppo educa ional a ainmen .
The po e y index is a commonly used measu e o unde s and he
economic well-being o a communi y o popula ion (Do e & Klasen,
2017). I is calcula ed by aking he numbe o indi iduals li ing below
he po e y line, as de e mined by he go e nmen and exp essing i as a
pe cen age o he o al popula ion. This index can also be used o un-
de s and a communi y’s educa ional a ainmen (Do e & Klasen,
2017).
Resea ch has consis en ly shown a co ela ion be ween po e y and
lowe educa ional a ainmen (Kena e al., 2016). A Na ional Cen e o
Educa ion S a is ics (NCES) s udy ound ha child en om low-income
amilies a e less likely o g adua e om high school and a end college
(NCES, 2016). Simila ly, a s udy by Le y and associa es (2016) ound
ha child en li ing in po e y a e h ee imes mo e likely o d op ou o
high school han hei non-poo pee s (Casey Founda ion, 2016). One
eason o his co ela ion is ha po e y can limi access o esou ces
necessa y o academic success. Child en li ing in po e y a e mo e
likely o a end unde unded schools wi h ewe esou ces, such as
ad anced classes and ex acu icula ac i i ies (Kena e al., 2016).
Addi ionally, po e y can lead o ins abili y in a child’s home li e,
including equen mo es and lack o access o necessi ies, which can
nega i ely impac hei educa ional pe o mance (Casey Founda ion,
2016).
I is also impo an o no e ha educa ional a ainmen and po e y
a e no only co ela ed bu also cyclical: low educa ional a ainmen can
lead o po e y, and po e y can lead o low educa ional a ainmen .
Table 2 (con inued)
Indica o Name Desc ip ion Da abase
local, egional, and cen al
go e nmen s.
Go e nmen expendi u e
on educa ion, o al (% o
GDP)
Gene al go e nmen
expendi u e on educa ion
(cu en , capi al, and
ans e s) is exp essed as a
pe cen age o GDP. I includes
expendi u e unded by
ans e s om in e na ional
sou ces o go e nmen .
Gene al go e nmen usually
e e s o local, egional and
cen al go e nmen s.
Wo ld De elopmen
Indica o s (wo ld
bank)
GINI Coe icien P e- ax na ional income o he
o al popula ion. The
measu emen o he
coe icien is be ween 0 and 1.
Close o ze o indica es a
lowe le el o inequali y, and
close o 1 ep esen s a highe
le el o inequali y
Wo ld Inequali y
Da abase
No e: The desc ip ions a e ex ac ed om long de ini ions men ioned in Wo ld
Bank da abases.
Table 3
A ea o S udy
S.R. # Sub egion Coun y
1 A abian Peninsula Bah ain
Qa a
Saudi A abia
2 No h A ica Egyp , A ab Rep
Mo occo
3 Middle Eas Jo dan
Wes Bank and Gaza
Sou ce: U.N.,2020
E. Zaidan and M.M. Ehsan
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100225
5
Child en who do no g adua e om high school a e mo e likely o li e in
po e y as adul s (Kena e al., 2016). The e o e, add essing po e y and
inc easing educa ional a ainmen in a communi y o popula ion can
posi i ely impac b eaking he cycle o po e y. In summa y, he po e y
index can be used o unde s and he economic well-being o a commu-
ni y o popula ion, and esea ch has consis en ly shown a co ela ion
be ween po e y and lowe educa ional a ainmen . Add essing po e y
and inc easing educa ional a ainmen in a communi y o popula ion
can posi i ely impac b eaking he cycle o po e y.
Ano he s udy ha p o ides e idence ega ding he impac o in-
come inequali y on educa ion is by Checchi (2003), which p o ides a
nega i e ela ionship be ween income equali y and seconda y educa-
ion; his means ha highe income inequali y educes access o edu-
ca ion o low-income s a a. This s udy emphasizes ha he co ela ion
be ween educa ion and economic a iables is pa icula ly obus o
women’s access o educa ion ac oss all le els. Fu he mo e, ecen
esea ch has begun o del e in o a ious dimensions o educa ion, such
as expanding educa ion. A wo king pape by Coady and Dizioli (2017)
del es in o he ela ionship be ween income inequali y and he expan-
sion o educa ion. The s udy esul s e eal a posi i e co ela ion be ween
income inequali y and a e age yea s o schooling, which is consis en
wi h he idea o cons an o inc easing e u ns o addi ional yea s o
schooling.
3.2. Co id-19 and quali y o educa ion
In he exis ing li e a u e in he pandemic con ex , educa ion quali y
has been s udied h ough a di e en lens. In he eme ging li e a u e on
his subjec a ea, he s udies ha e mainly ocused on al e na i e lea ning
en i onmen s du ing he pandemic. Mos s udies ha e e lec ed on he
eaching and lea ning expe iences o he s akeholde s in ol ed in his
lea ning en i onmen .
Few s udies ha e explici ly wo ked on SDG 4
′
s concep ualiza ion as a
basis o unde s anding he quali y o educa ion. A s udy conduc ed in
Sou h A ica in es iga es he limi a ions o a aining SDG 4, highligh ing
he need o imp o e human esou ce p o iding educa ion. (Nakidien
e al., 2021). Sa i i and associa es (2021) p esen an Indonesian case
s udy ha shows ha he pandemic has in luenced bo h social and
economic pilla s o SDGs and discusses iscal measu es and issues ela ed
o implemen ing he iscal s imulus. Wang and Huang (2021) explo ed
he impac o COVID-19 on SDGs. One o he ele an indings o hei
pape is ha de eloping coun ies ha e paid mo e a en ion o he
economic ac o s ela ed o s abili y due o COVID-19; howe e , he
go e nmen s o he de eloped economies ha e ocused on educa ion
s abili y. These esul s allow a u he in es iga ion in o go e nmen
p io i ies du ing he pandemic, especially in low-income coun ies.
Mo eo e , income inequali y has an impac on educa ion du ing he
pandemic.
In addi ion o gene al s udies on he ela ionship be ween income
inequali y and educa ion, coun y-speci ic s udies in es iga e speci ic
issues ela ed o access o educa ion mo e deeply. Fo example, Fau a-
Ma ínez e al. (2022) examined he impac o inclusi e educa ion and
he use o echnology on access o educa ion. This s udy is pa icula ly
ele an o he Uni ed Na ions Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 4 (SDG 4),
which highligh s he po en ial challenges and oppo uni ies o inclusi e
educa ion in he con ex o echnology and suppo esou ces and aims
o ensu e inclusi e and equi able quali y educa ion o all. The s udy
ound ha while echnology can inc ease inclusi i y in educa ion, i can
also ha e an exclusiona y e ec on s uden s who do no ha e access o
high-quali y in e ne . These indings a e essen ial o conside when
discussing he challenges aced by ulne able and low-income pop-
ula ions in di e en coun ies, and hey also highligh he need o
examine he impac o esou ce inequali y on educa ion ou comes.
Ano he c ucial a ea when discussing he quali y o educa ion in he
SDG 4 con ex is he deli e y o educa ion, speci ically he s a , i.e., he
eache s’ expe ience deli e ing lessons du ing COVID-19. The pandemic
has hu he quali y o educa ion, wi h many eache s lacking he abili y
and capaci y o deli e digi al lessons e ec i ely; his has led o a decline
in he quali y o educa ion and highligh ed exis ing inequali ies in he
educa ion sys em. Acco ding o Vinichenko (2021), he shi o emo e
lea ning has highligh ed he need o digi al li e acy and access o
echnology o bo h s uden s and eache s. Many eache s ha e lacked
he abili y and capaci y o deli e digi al lessons, leading o a decline in
he quali y o educa ion. The pandemic has also exposed exis ing in-
equali ies in he educa ion sys em, wi h disad an aged s uden s acing
mo e signi ican challenges in accessing emo e lea ning. Go e nmen s
and educa ional ins i u ions mus p o ide suppo and esou ces o
eache s o imp o e hei digi al skills and abili y o deli e online les-
sons e ec i ely. Besides, e o s mus add ess he digi al di ide and
ensu e all s uden s can access he echnology hey need o pa icipa e in
emo e lea ning.
A quali a i e s udy in Alge ia ound ha eache s lacked he com-
pe encies and esou ces o deli e digi al lessons e ec i ely. The
esea ch also unco e ed ha s a aced in e ne connec i i y and access
challenges (Hadje is, 2022). Simila ly, s udies in Indonesia ha e
e ealed a mixed impac o online eaching, wi h eache s epo ing
posi i e expe iences bu s uden s acing simila challenges, as ou lined
by Fau a-Ma inez e al. (2022) in hei s udy. Nume ous s udies ha e
ocused on e-lea ning o add ess issues ela ed o he quali y o educa-
ion and s uden sa is ac ion. (El-Sayad e al., 2021; Yahiaoui e al.,
2022; Li e al., 2022). A ecu ing heme in hese s udies is he chal-
lenges ela ed o implemen a ion, connec i i y access, and con en de-
li e y. Despi e he e o s made by educa ional ins i u ions du ing he
pandemic, i has exposed se e al s uc u al issues; his highligh s he
need o a mo e dynamic model o pedagogy, such as he blended model
app oach, which p o ides a combina ion o in-class and online expe i-
ences o s uden s.
In a speci ic con ex , limi ed s udies ha e explo ed SDG 4 speci -
ically. Howe e , some s udies ha e conduc ed an analysis using he
Sus ainabili y De elopmen Index. Fo ins ance, a s udy by (Dhaoui,
2019), illus a es an analysis s a ing he p esence o inequali y among all
he componen s o he social indica o s ac oss coun es in he egion.
Mo eo e , a ew s udies ha e ocused on he go e nance and policy
aspec s, highligh ing he p og ess o he SDG Agenda 2030 (Ben Hassein
& El Bilali, 2022).
In addi ion, some coun y-speci ic s udies, such as Al-Thani e al.
(2021), p esen Qa a ’s case h ough he lens o educa ion, highligh ing
eache s’ de elopmen pe spec i e. O he s udies in Qa a highligh s he
go e nmen ’s commi men o in eg a ing he SDGs and iden i ies
coun y-speci ic cha ac e is ics (Se e & Tok, 2023; Zaidan, e al., 2023;
2024). These s udies p o ide con ex and unde s anding o a ious
coun y- ela ed nuances o educa ion o sus ainable de elopmen .
A pape in he con ex o Egyp analyzes SDGs ocusing on G ea e
Ca io; he indings demons a ed signi ican ad ancemen s made in he
ou lying municipali ies o G ea e Ca io, especially in in as uc u e and
educa ion me ics. Howe e , he e has been a decline in economic and
en i onmen al indica o s, no ably ollowing he ci ic e olu ion o 2011
(Salem e al., 2020).
Fu he mo e, he e is li e a u e ega ding challenges in he MENA
egion ela ed o he quali y o educa ion. Joachim Schni zle and Heise
(2021) illus a e he challenges aced by he educa ion sec o in Jo dan
and Oman. The key highligh ed ac o s men ioned in he s udy a e
ela ed o cogni i e skills and eaching me hods. In he case o Oman, o
Jo dan, he e a e complex ac o s ela ed o he in lux o e ugees om
Sy ia ha ha e pu a s ain on he inancial and human capi al esou ces.
Based on he limi ed li e a u e explo ing he indica o s a he coun y
le el, his pape aims o p o ide a desc ip i e analysis ela ed o SDG 4,
explo ing coun y expe iences be o e and du ing he pandemic. Due o
he limi ed na u e o wo k illus a ed in he egion, especially a
compa a i e analysis based on he SDG 4 indica o s, his s udy is a
aluable addi ion o he li e a u e on SDGs in he MENA egion.
E. Zaidan and M.M. Ehsan
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100225
6
3.3. Educa ional policy ins umen s
The ocus on uni e sal educa ion has been discussed in in e na ional
policy sphe es o he las ew decades. F om he 1960s o 1970s, he U.
S. and he Eu opean coun ies had cons an ly ocused on de eloping
legisla ion o ensu e p ima y educa ion; he in ui ion behind i was o
ha e uni e sal educa ion a ha le el. Low-income coun ies now ocus
on hese policies o ensu e a s uden ’s ansi ion om p ima y o sec-
onda y educa ion. I is impo an o unde s and ha Wes e n coun ies’
challenges di e om wha he Global Sou h may ace. Some s udies
ha e explo ed how he e a e highe chances o young indi iduals joining
he in o mal labo ma ke in coun ies wi h weak labo egula ions. I is
essen ial o unde s and he cul u al ac o s ha may play a c ucial ole in
he beha io o indi iduals in he global sou h.
Ano he c i ical a ea is unde s anding he go e nmen ’s p io i iza-
ion owa ds achie ing educa ion- ela ed a ge s and goals. The p io i-
iza ion can be iewed as he le el o educa ional e o ms in oduced by
he go e nmen . Mo eo e , a measu e o gauge his could be he le el o
go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion. Fig. 1 illus a es he di e en
go e nmen expendi u es on educa ion by income le el.
The in o ma ion p esen ed in Fig. 1 o e s a glimpse in o how
coun ies a a ious income le els alloca e hei unds owa d educa ion.
A s aigh o wa d analysis o he igu e sugges s ha highe -income
coun ies end o spend mo e on educa ion. I is c ucial o no e ha
be o e he pandemic, low-income coun ies we e spending a highe
pe cen age o educa ion compa ed o 2020 when he e was a sligh
dec ease om 3.2 % o 3 %. On he o he hand, middle-income and high-
income coun ies saw he opposi e end, wi h inc eased go e nmen
expendi u e on educa ion. These ends demons a e ha he COVID-19
c isis has led coun ies o make di e en educa ional spending decisions
based on esou ce cons ain s, p io i ies, and he abili y o inc ease
go e nmen expendi u e.
The li e a u e has widely discussed he ela ionship be ween public
expendi u e on educa ion and economic g ow h. S udies (Zibe i e al.,
2020; Ca pen ie , 2006). A posi i e co ela ion was ound be ween
No h Macedonia and he USA. In es men in educa ion is posi i ely
associa ed wi h economic g ow h. Public expendi u e on educa ion can
inc ease he quali y and quan i y o human capi al, boos ing p oduc-
i i y and economic g ow h (Ca pen ie , 2006). S udies, such as he one
by Mohamad and associa es (2021), ha e ound ha educa ion is i al
o de eloping coun ies, as i can help o educe po e y and p omo e
income equali y.
In MENA egions, li e a u e has ocused on public expendi u e and
educa ional a ainmen . A s udy Iqbal and Kiend ebeogo (2015) illus-
a e an analysis o ou decades om 1970 o 2010; he indings show
ha he egion had he highes public spending on educa ion amongs
de eloping coun ies bu had li le con ibu ion owa ds he quali y o
educa ion. Fu he mo e, a mo e ecen s udy has explo ed go e nmen
spending pa e ns in he MENA egion. The pape alks abou he s eady
na u e o go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion om he 1970s o he
2000s, bu i declined a e ha . (Khey e s & Audah, 2019). Mo eo e ,
ano he s udy highligh s he signi ican e iciency o public expendi u e
and he ole o public powe in he MENA egion. (M i aoui & Lassoued,
2019).
4. Desc ip i e analysis
This sec ion illus a es a desc ip i e isualiza ion o 7 coun ies om
he MENA egion, as shown in Table 3. Two coun ies a e selec ed om
No h A ica and he Middle Eas , and h ee a e selec ed om he
A abian Peninsula. A o al o 5 a iables a e used in he s udy, bu
gende ed da a is used o a ew a iables. Table 4 summa izes he s a-
is ics o he used a iables in his s udy.
Fig. 1. Go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion, o al (% o GDP).
Sou ce: UNESCO Ins i u e o S a is ics (UIS)
Table 4
Desc ip i e s a is ics.
Va iable Obse a ion Mean S d.
De .
Min Max
Go e nmen expendi u e
on educa ion, o al (% o
go e nmen
expendi u e)
29 13.70 4.432 8 25
Go e nmen expendi u e
on educa ion, o al (% o
GDP)
29 4.42 1.957 2 9
P ima y comple ion a e,
o al (% o ele an age
g oup)
32 94.35 8.695 71 105
Child en ou o school (%
o p ima y school age)
29 5.12 7.137 0 23
Compulso y educa ion,
du a ion (yea s)
35 9.71 1.045 9 12
GINI Coe icien 35 0.6214 0.03474 0.57 0.66
E. Zaidan and M.M. Ehsan
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100225
7
Based on he able, he pe cen mean go e nmen expendi u e on
educa ion is 13.70 o he o al pe cen age o go e nmen expendi u e.
Mo eo e , he mean p ima y comple ion a e is 94.35 %, wi h a s an-
da d de ia ion o 8.69. In addi ion, he mean pe cen age o child en ou
o school is 5.12. Las ly, he Gini coe icien illus a es he leas a ia-
ion, 0.0347, wi h a mean alue o 0.62. Table 5 shows u he in es i-
ga ion o unde s and he di e ence be ween he sub- egions in he
MENA. The able illus a es he Ano a es and i s signi icance.
Fi s ly, he mean pe cen age o go e nmen expendi u e on educa-
ion in he Middle Eas is highe han ha o he A abian Peninsula and
No h A ica. Howe e , he di e ence is no signi ican . Secondly, he
p ima y comple ion a e is highe in he A abian Peninsula han in he
Middle Eas and No h A ica; he di e ence is signi ican . Mo eo e , he
mean pe cen age o child en ou o school is highe in he Middle Eas
and o he sub egions. Simila ly, he Gini Coe icien is highe in he case
o he A abian Peninsula, wi h signi icance.
4.1. P e and pos pandemic desc ip i e analysis
Pe cen age o ou o schools a p ima y le el
The o e all mean pe cen age o s uden s who wen ou o p ima y
school was 4.71. The pe cen age o ou -o -school child en a he p ima y
le el a ied be ween 0.21 % o 23.13 %. On a e age, he Pe cen age o
ou -o -school child en ac oss coun ies a his le el was be ween 0.61 %
o 20.15 %. The Pe cen age o s uden s who we e ou o school a he
p ima y le el a ied wi hin a ange o 3.07 % o 7.69 %. Fig. 2 illus a es
his end ac oss coun ies.
The igu e illus a es ha Saudi A abia has he highes pe cen age o
child en ou o school and he lowes Pe cen age o s uden s ou o
school in he case o Qa a in 2016 and 2017; howe e , Egyp has he
lowes Pe cen age in 2018 and 2019.
As epo ed in he li e a u e, COVID-19 has impac ed he educa ion
sec o nega i ely due o lockdowns and social dis ancing p o ocols.
Al e na i e o ms o lea ning, such as e-lea ning, we e in oduced du -
ing his ime, bu hese had limi a ions ega ding accessibili y and
a ailabili y. While seconda y and e ia y educa ion le el lea ne s and
eache s could adap o hese echnologies, i was di icul o p ima y
and young lea ne s o es ablish an inclusi e and conduci e lea ning
en i onmen . Fig. 3 compa es p e- and pos -COVID-19 es ima es o ou -
o -school child en.
The igu e shows he highes inc ease in he pe cen age o child en
ou o school in Jo dan, om 1.85 (2016–2019 on a e age) o 5.18
pe cen in 2020. A simila end wi h a smalle magni ude was obse ed
in he Wes Bank and Gaza. Qa a had an inc ease o 0.39 % o s uden s
ou o school du ing he pandemic, while Bah ain and Mo occo’s la es
s a is ics a e ye o be published. I is essen ial o unde s and ha some
coun ies in he egion do no ha e upda ed da a. I is essen ial o
highligh ha educa ional ins i u es ansi ioned o home-based
lea ning du ing he pandemic. In he MENA egion, mos o he coun-
ies adop ed s a egies o ensu e con inued home-based lea ning du ing
he pandemic; howe e , he coun ies he e we e a leas nine coun ies
ha had a lowe le el o in e ne pene a ion (UNICEF, 2020; ITU S a-
is ics, 2021).
Pe cen age o emale s uden s a schools a p ima y le el
The o e all mean pe cen age o emales ou o p ima y schools is
6.44. This pe cen age o emale s uden s ou o p ima y school le els
a ied be ween 0.34 and 23.6. The a e age emale Pe cen age ou o
school ac oss he coun ies was be ween 1.50 and 20.75 pe cen . The
Pe cen age o emale s uden s ou o school a he p ima y le el a ied
“wi hin” 5.02 o 9.32. Fig. 4 illus a es a simila end ac oss coun ies.
This igu e displays a simila end o Saudi A abia. I is impo an o
no e ha his a iable’s da a was una ailable o ce ain coun ies
du ing he selec ed pe iods. Howe e , he o e all end demons a es
he same pa e n as he o al pe cen age o child en ou o p ima y
school illus a ed in Fig. 2.
Some s udies ha e poin ed owa d he gende inequali y impac o
COVID-19 on wo king women. The p ima y schools and p e-schools
we e he mos a ec ed by he sudden closu e o schools, as bo h
inc eased he household bu den on women and childca e e-
sponsibili ies (Yildi im & Eslen-Ziya, 2020). Wo king women who
ansi ioned o wo king om home inc eased hei ca egi e du ies
du ing he pandemic. (Wang & Inoue, 2020). Howe e , he e is limi ed
li e a u e on COVID-19 and ou -o -school p ima y school gi ls. This
s udy p o ides e idence om h ee coun ies om he MENA egion and
compa es he be o e and du ing he COVID-19 pe iods. Fig. 5 illus a es
he compa ison. Simila o he end o he o e all ou -o -school, Jo -
dan, Wes Bank, and Gaza illus a e an inc ease in he pe cen age o
s uden s ou o p ima y school.
Pe cen age o go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion
The a e age pe cen age o go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion
ac oss he coun ies in he sample was 4.38 %. This expendi u e a ied
be ween 2.09 % o 8.51 %. On a e age, he expendi u e on educa ion by
he go e nmen ac oss he coun ies in he sample was be ween 2.14 %
and 7.601 %. Addi ionally, each coun y had a ia ion “wi hin” anging
om 3.58 % o 5.29 %. Fig. 6 illus a es he changes in go e nmen
expendi u e on educa ion ac oss he coun ies in he sample.
The e has been a decline in go e nmen expendi u e in Saudi A abia
om 8.5 % o 6.8 % o e he ou yea s. Simila ends a e obse ed o
mos o he coun ies in he sample. Howe e , coun ies like he Wes
Bank, Gaza, and Mo occo ha e seen inc eased go e nmen expendi u e
on educa ion.
Co id-19, an unp eceden ed pandemic, cons ained esou ce allo-
ca ion and mobiliza ion. Acco ding o Wo ld Bank Public Expendi u e
and Financial Accoun abili y (PEFA), using da a om 2010 o 2021 o
152 coun ies, p o ided indings ha “jus o e hal show less han a 5 %
de ia ion in budge execu ion, a hi d de ia e wi hin a ange o 5–10 %,
and he emaining one- i h show de ia ions beyond 10 %.” (Gu azada
e al., 2022). In he case o he MENA egion, he da a om he 12
coun ies illus a ed ha only h ee coun ies show mo e han 10 %
de ia ions in budge execu ion. Fig. 7 ep esen s he numbe o coun-
ies in he MENA egion acco ding o he budge de ia ion ca ego y.
In his con ex , analyzing he impac o COVID-19 on go e nmen
expendi u e on educa ion enables us o unde s and changes om he
p e-pandemic pe iod o he ime du ing he pandemic. The da a om he
MENA egion, as illus a ed in Fig. 8 shows an inc ease in educa ion
expendi u e by he go e nmen o Mo occo, om 5.47 % o 6.75 %.
Jo dan, Saudi A abia, and Qa a also expe ienced an inc ease in
Table 5
ANOVA es esul s.
Va iable Mean
A abian
Peninsula &
I an
Mean
Middle
Eas
Mean
No h
A ica
ANOVA
F-
s a is ic
Sig
Go e nmen
expendi u e on
educa ion, o al (% o
go e nmen
expendi u e)
13.32 13.77 13.41 0.019 0.981
Go e nmen
expendi u e on
educa ion, o al (% o
GDP)
4.54 3.92 4.72 0.366 0.697
P ima y comple ion
a e, o al (% o
ele an age g oup)
97.98 87.11 97.58 6.992 0.003
Child en ou o school
(% o p ima y school
age)
2.01 11.80 1.14 12.007 0.000
Compulso y educa ion,
du a ion (yea s)
9 10 10.50 10.413 0.000
GINI Coe icien 0.658 0.599 0.587 175.529 0.000
E. Zaidan and M.M. Ehsan
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100225
8
Fig. 2. Pe cen age o child en ou o p ima y schools (2016–2019).
Fig. 3. Compa ison o he pe cen age o s uden s ou o school a he p ima y le el.
E. Zaidan and M.M. Ehsan
