Circular Economy Realities: Critical Perspectives on Sustainability

Deu z, Pauline (Ed.); Ve meulen, Wal e J.V. (Ed.); Baumga ne , Rupe J. (Ed.);
Ramos, Tomás B. (Ed.); Raggi, And ea (Ed.)
Book
Ci cula Economy Reali ies: C i ical Pe spec i es on
Sus ainabili y
Rou ledge/ISDRS Se ies in Sus ainable De elopmen Resea ch
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Taylo & F ancis G oup
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Deu z, Pauline (Ed.); Ve meulen, Wal e J.V. (Ed.); Baumga ne , Rupe J.
(Ed.); Ramos, Tomás B. (Ed.); Raggi, And ea (Ed.) (2025) : Ci cula Economy Reali ies: C i ical
Pe spec i es on Sus ainabili y, Rou ledge/ISDRS Se ies in Sus ainable De elopmen Resea ch, ISBN
978-1-040-10133-9, Rou ledge, Ox o d,
h ps://doi.o g/10.4324/9781003295631
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This book add esses he eali ies o he ci cula economy, a esou ce e iciency concep
ha has isen o global p ominence in academic, policy and business ci cles o e he las
decade. Conside ed an app oach o sus ainable g ow h, he olume c i ically analyses
how sus ainable eme ging applica ions o a ci cula economy a e in p ac ice.
The book s ems om an in e na ional, in e disciplina y p ojec explo ing he
discou ses, policies, implemen a ion and impac s o he ci cula economy ac oss public,
p i a e and hi d sec o accoun s. I d aws on a wide ange o case s udies, om he
UK, Po ugal, Aus ia, I aly, he Ne he lands, F ance, Chile, China, Nige ia, Taiwan and
Vie nam, highligh ing how expe iences bo h shaped and we e shaped by he places in
which hey we e happening. I p o ides a guide o esea ching a complex phenomenon
such as a ci cula economy, which in ol es bo h collabo a ion and compe i ion be ween
mul iple s akeholde s ac oss di e en sec o s and places. Syn hesising he mul iple
pe spec i es employed in he p ojec , he book makes ecommenda ions o ci cula
economy implemen a ion in di e en con ex s, including he assessmen o sus ainabili y
implica ions, whils indica ing he limi ed po en ial o ci cula economy ac i i y o
b ing social and economic bene i s wi hou explici mo i a ion o hose o happen.
Bene i ing om ex ensi e empi ical esea ch, his c i ical assessmen o sus ain abili y
in he con ex o he ci cula economy will appeal o a b oad eade ship o academics,
uppe -le el s uden s, p ac i ione s and policy-make s in sus ainable de elopmen ,
business, economics, geog aphy, sociology and en i onmen al enginee ing.
Pauline Deu z is P o esso o Ci cula Economy and Sus ainabili y in he School o
En i onmen al Sciences a he Uni e si y o Hull, UK.
Wal e J.V. Ve meulen is Associa e P o esso in he Cope nicus Ins i u e o Sus ain-
able De elopmen a U ech Uni e si y, he Ne he lands.
Rupe J. Baumga ne is P o esso o Sus ainabili y Managemen in he Depa men
o En i onmen al Sys ems Sciences a he Uni e si y o G az, Aus ia.
Tomás B. Ramos is P o esso o Sus ainabili y Assessmen and Planning in he Depa -
men o En i onmen al Sciences and Enginee ing a he NOVA School o Science and
Technology, NOVA Uni e si y Lisbon, Po ugal.
And ea Raggi is Full P o esso o Indus ial Ecology and ela ed issues in he Depa -
men o Economic S udies a ‘G. d’Annunzio’ Uni e si y o Chie i–Pesca a, I aly.
CIRCULAR ECONOMY REALITIES
Rou ledge/ISDRS Se ies in Sus ainable De elopmen
Resea ch
Se ies Edi o s: Pe e Dobe s (p [email p o ec ed]) and Gyula Zilahy
([email p o ec ed]g)
The Rou ledge/ISDRS Se ies in Sus ainable De elopmen Resea ch is he pub-
lishing pla o m o he wide communi y o 2500+ esea che s engaged in mul i-,
in e - and ansdisciplina y esea ch on he need o and expe iences wi h he ans-
o ma ion o a sus ainable socie y. The In e na ional Sus ainable De elopmen
Resea ch Socie y aims o dissemina e knowledge on sus ainable de elopmen
p ac ices in all sphe es o socie y which enables he accele a ion o sus ainabili y
ini ia i es: ci ies, communi ies, p oduc ion, inno a ion, consump ion, biodi e si y
and ecosys em se ices, ag icul u e, clima e, enewable ene gy.
This se ies welcomes submissions o high-le el cu ing-edge esea ch books
ha push hinking abou sus ainabili y in new di ec ions by challenging cu en
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men a y eading in cou ses in sus ainabili y science, en i onmen and sus ainabili y,
de elopmen s udies, planning, and a wide ange o academic disciplines.
Good Go e nance and he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals in Sou heas Asia
Edi ed by Rasyikah Md Khalid and Ainul Ja ia Maidin
Gende and he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
In as uc u e, Empowe men and Educa ion
Edi ed by As id Skje en and Mau een Fo dham
Ci cula Economy Reali ies
C i ical Pe spec i es on Sus ainabili y
Edi ed by Pauline Deu z, Wal e J.V. Ve meulen, Rupe J. Baumga ne ,
Tomás B. Ramos, and And ea Raggi
Fo mo e in o ma ion abou his se ies, please isi : www. ou ledge.com/Rou ledgeISDRS-Se ies-in-
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CIRCULAR ECONOMY
REALITIES
C i ical Pe spec i es on Sus ainabili y
Edi ed by Pauline Deu z, Wal e J.V. Ve meulen,
Rupe J. Baumga ne , Tomás B. Ramos, and
And ea Raggi

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Names: Deu z, Pauline, edi o .
Ti le: Ci cula economy eali ies : c i ical pe spec i es on sus ainabili y /
edi ed by Pauline Deu z, Wal e J.V. Ve meulen, Rupe J. Baumga ne ,
Tomás B. Ramos, and And ea Raggi.
Desc ip ion: Abingdon, Oxon ; New Yo k, NY : Rou ledge, 2024. |
Se ies: Rou ledge/ISDRS se ies in sus ainable de elopmen esea ch |
Includes bibliog aphical e e ences and index.
Iden i ie s: LCCN 2024016479 (p in ) | LCCN 2024016480 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032281841 (ha dback) | ISBN 9781032281810 (pape back) |
ISBN 9781003295631 (ebook)
Subjec s: LCSH: Ci cula economy. | Sus ainable de elopmen .
Classi ica ion: LCC HC79.E5 C5375 2024 (p in ) |
LCC HC79.E5 (ebook) | DDC 338.9/27--dc23/eng/20240503
LC eco d a ailable a h ps://lccn.loc.go /2024016479
LC ebook eco d a ailable a h ps://lccn.loc.go /2024016480
ISBN: 978-1-032-28184-1 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-28181-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-29563-1 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003295631
Typese in Times New Roman
by KnowledgeWo ks Global L d.
Lis o igu es ii
Lis o ables ix
Lis o con ibu o s x
Fo ewo d x i
Acknowledgemen s x iii
1 In oduc ion: Explo ing he sus ainabili y implica ions o a
ci cula economy 1
Pauline Deu z, Wal e J.V. Ve meulen, Rupe J. Baumga ne ,
Tomás B. Ramos and And ea Raggi
2 App oaches o ci cula economy esea ch 13
Pauline Deu z, Sand a Caei o, E ik Roos Lindg een,
Kaus ubh Thapa, Anna M. Walke and Małgo za a Pusz
3 Na iga ing di e se unde s andings o a ci cula economy 45
Wal e J.V. Ve meulen, Ma in Calis o F ian ,
Kie an Campbell-Johns on and Na acha Klein
4 Explo ing he ole o companies in ansi ioning o a
sus ainable and ci cula u u e: Insigh s and e lec ions 64
Rupe J. Baumga ne , Pauline Deu z, Es ephania Delgadillo,
Tomas San a-Ma ia, Anna M. Walke and Ta iana Reyes
CONTENTS
Anna Diaz, Aodhan Newsholme, E ik Roos Lindg een,
i Con en s
5 Assessmen app oaches and me hods o a ci cula economy 96
And ea Raggi, Hin ika D oege, Ka elin Op e kuch,
E ik Roos Lindg een, Anna M. Walke , Sand a Caei o,
Tomás B. Ramos and Robe a Salomone
6 Socio-spa ial dimensions o a ci cula economy 123
Pauline Deu z, And ew E.G. Jonas, Sab ina B ullo ,
Ma in Calis o F ian , Małgo za a Pusz, Aodhan Newsholme,
San iago Pe ez, Hea he A. Roge s and Kaus ubh Thapa
7 Eme ging indica ions o employmen in a ci cula
economy: A syn hesis o Eu opean case s udies 149
Na acha Klein, Ka elin Op e kuch, Aodhan Newsholme,
And ew E.G. Jonas and Tomás B. Ramos
8 Policy conside a ions o a ci cula economy 173
Wal e J.V. Ve meulen, Ma in Calis o F ian ,
Kie an Campbell-Johns on, Pauline Deu z,
Aodhan Newsholme, Małgo za a Pusz, Na acha Klein,
9 Conclusions: Eme ging unde s andings o ci cula
economy eali ies 203
Pauline Deu z, Wal e J.V. Ve meulen, Rupe J. Baumga ne ,
Tomás B. Ramos and And ea Raggi
Index 214
Pauline Deu z, Hea he A. Roge s, Anna Diaz,
Tomás B. Ramos, Anna Diaz and Kaus ubh Thapa
1.1 O ganisa ions and he ci cula economy 10
1.2 Place and policy in a ci cula economy 10
2.1 S akeholde engagemen in he esea ch p ocess o enable eam
building and p oblem explo a ion, sys em unde s anding and
co-c ea ion o solu ions, and applica ion o knowledge 29
3.1 Hie a chy o alue e en ion op ions: The 10 R’s 46
3.2 Findings o he ‘Global Ci cula Economy Pe cep ion Su ey’
showing he mos and leas p e e ed isions o ci cula i y, n = 932 56
4.1 CE p ac ices implemen ed o planned by esponden s, n = 141 67
4.2 Company goals o be achie ed h ough CE p ac ices, anked
and weigh ed, n = 134 68
4.3 Socie y goals o be achie ed h ough CE p ac ices, anked and
weigh ed, n = 134 69
4.4 Responden s’ pe cei ed impo ance o CE d i e s o esponden s,
on a scale o 1 (no a all impo an ) o 5 (ex emely impo an ),
‘I don’ know’ esponses we e excluded, n = 105 70
4.5 Responden s’ pe cei ed impo ance o CE ba ie s o esponden s,
on a scale o 1 (no a all impo an ) o 5 (ex emely impo an ),
‘I don’ know’ esponses we e excluded, n = 105 70
4.6 Da a s uc u a ion and analysis p ocess, ollowing he Gioia
me hod, which allowed he esea che s o g oup he 26 iden i ied
bes p ac ices o CBMI in o 12 mic o ounda ions o dynamic
capabili y, and he h ee main dynamic capabili y ca ego ies 72
4.7 The Ci cula Sp in amewo k. The igu e con ains he p ocess
phases, i s 12 ac i i ies and a p oposed ime ame, which could
be adap ed acco ding o he use case 74
FIGURES
xi Con ibu o s
including indica o s and epo ing, ci cula economy, impac assessmen , s ake-
holde engagemen and ansdisciplina y collabo a i e app oaches. He is Execu-
i e Edi o o he Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion and Edi o -in-Chie o he jou nal
Cleane P oduc ion Le e s.
Ta iana Reyes is P o esso a he A s e Mé ie s and co-leade o he Ins i u e o
Chambé y, ollowing he ime a he Uni e si y o Technology o T oyes. In ad-
di ion, she has coo dina ed se e al esea ch p ojec s. Ou side he ac i i ies in he
uni e si y, she is in ol ed in na ional (G.I.S Sma and Eco-design o Sys ems o
Sus ainable De elopmen ne wo k) and in e na ional esea ch ne wo ks (Sus ain-
able design SIG – Design Socie y). She has been a isi ing p o esso a he Fede al
Uni e si y o Rio de Janei o (A gen ina). In e ms o esea ch in e es s, she wo ks
on he in eg a ion o sus ainable c i e ia on he design p ocess, he e olu ion o
sus ainable knowledge and alues in indus ial sys em, low- ech app oaches, and
he e olu ion o pedagogical me hods o in eg a e sus ainabili y in he enginee ing
cu iculum.
Hea he A. Roge s is a esea ch ellow pu suing he inal s ages o he PhD a he
Uni e si y o Hull. He esea ch explo es aspec s o employmen in he ci cula
economy, wi h a ocus on he epai se ice sec o . Hea he holds an MA in S a-
egic Leade ship owa ds Sus ainabili y om he Blekinge Ins i u e o Technology
(Sweden), and a BA in Regional and U ban Planning om he Uni e si y o Sas-
ka chewan (Canada). He p e ious wo k has included indus y esea ch in sus ain-
able u ban ag icul u e and ci cula economy o he o ganic was e indus y.
E ik Roos Lindg een, PhD, is a sus ainabili y esea che om he Ne he lands. His
key in e es lies in how o balance scien i ic comple eness and p ac ical easibil-
i y when designing sus ainabili y measu emen me hods. He p e iously wo ked
as an LCA consul an a CE Del . He hen spen ou yea s in I aly, whe e he
ob ained his PhD a he Uni e si y o Messina as pa o he H2020 EU- unded
p ojec C es ing. Cu en ly, he wo ks independen ly o esea ch ins i u es such as
he Cope nicus Ins i u e (U ech Uni e si y), NGOs such as Foo p in s A ica and
he p i a e sec o o be e unde s and how sus ainabili y measu emen could be
made mo e accessible, while emaining scien i ically sound.
Robe a Salomone is Full P o esso o Commodi y Science a he Depa men
o Economics, Uni e si y o Messina (I aly). She pa icipa es in a ious esea ch
g oups, also as a na ional coo dina o and she is he au ho o mo e han 190 pub-
lica ions including na ional and in e na ional scien i ic jou nals, books and con e -
ence p oceedings. He main esea ch hemes a e ela ed o sus ainabili y, ci cula
economy, indus ial ecology and indus ial symbiosis, and en i onmen al manage-
men and assessmen , wi h e e ence o Li e Cycle Thinking me hods.

Con ibu o s x
Tomas San a-Ma ia is Assis an P o esso a he Business Sus ainabili y Cen e
o he Facul y o Economics and Business a Uni e si y o Desa ollo (Chile). He
ob ained a PhD in Sus ainabili y and Inno a ion Managemen om he Uni e si y
o G az whe e he explo ed p ocesses o business model inno a ion o he ci cula
economy. His cu en esea ch deals wi h sus ainabili y-o ien ed co po a e-s a up
s a egic alliances, egene a i e o ganisa ions and da a-d i en ci cula business
models.
Kaus ubh Thapa’s cu en ansdisciplina y esea ch a Radboud Uni e si y
(Ne he lands) ocuses on achie ing high-in eg i y olun a y clima e ac ion. Fo
his PhD a U ech Uni e si y, he in es iga ed sus ainable and ci cula go e nance
o Eu opean plas ic was e and second-hand elec onic and elec ical equipmen
ade o Nige ia, China and Vie nam. He has an MA in en i onmen al science,
policy, and managemen om Cen al Eu opean Uni e si y (Hunga y) and a BA
in philosophy, economics and poli ical science om Wes mins e College (USA).
Wal e J.V. Ve meulen is based a he Cope nicus Ins i u e o Sus ainable De elop-
men o U ech Uni e si y. Wal e ocuses on analysing p og ess in implemen ing
sus ainabili y p ac ices in business in many di e en coun ies, bo h inside compa-
nies and in hei socio-economic ne wo ks. He ocuses in pa icula on p i a e go -
e nance in (in e na ional) supply chains and on p ac ices o ci cula economy, bo h
in Eu ope as well as in supplie coun ies wo ldwide. Assessing he pe o mance
o hese o ms o alue chain collabo a ion is enabled wi h he Oiconomy P icing
app oach, e ealing he hidden cos s o unsus ainabili y. He is o me P esiden o
he In e na ional Sus ainable De elopmen Resea ch Socie y.
Anna M. Walke is a P ojec O ice in he Fai and Sus ainable Economy Uni
a he Join Resea ch Cen e o he Eu opean Commission in Se ille (Spain). He
applied esea ch o policy inpu e ol es a ound he en i onmen al and social
impac o ci cula economy p ac ices in Eu opean indus ies. She ob ained he PhD
a he ‘G. d’Annunzio’ Uni e si y o Chie i–Pesca a, whe e she analysed di e -
en me hodologies o assessing he impac o ci cula business p ac ices on sus-
ainabili y ac o s. She holds a BA in In e na ional A ai s om he Uni e si y o
S . Gallen (Swi ze land) and an MA in S anda diza ion, Social Regula ion, and
Sus ainable De elopmen om he Uni e si y o Gene a.
The concep o he ci cula economy (CE), which ad oca es o esou ce e iciency,
has gained global p ominence as a policy ini ia i e aimed a os e ing sus ainable
g ow h wi hin he business sphe e, and as a way o ge away om an unsus ain-
able linea g ow h. En i ies anging om mul ina ional co po a ions o in e na-
ional o ganisa ions like he Uni ed Na ions o local municipali ies and educa ional
ins i u ions such as uni e si y campuses a e eage o adop hei own CE ame-
wo ks. The e exis s an assump ion ha he p inciples and ou comes o ci cula i y
align inhe en ly wi h hose o sus ainabili y. Howe e , gi en he con en ious na u e
o each concep , he po en ial syne gies esul ing om hei in eg a ion wa an a
mo e comp ehensi e analysis han has been p e iously p esen ed. This book is an
impo an con ibu ion o a mo e comp ehensi e analysis o he unde pinnings and
po en ial o a CE.
This book consolida es indings om a unique, in e na ional, in e disciplina y
endea ou known as he C es ing p ojec (Ci cula Economy: Sus ainabili y Im-
plica ions and Guiding P og ess, based on unding om he Eu opean Union’s
Ho izon 2020 esea ch and inno a ion p og amme unde he Ma ie Skłodowska-
Cu ie g an ag eemen No 765198). The C es ing ini ia i e enlis ed 15 ea ly s age
esea che s wi h he objec i e o p o iding hem wi h ad anced aining in sys em-
a ic analysis and me hodologies pe aining o CE- ela ed endea ou s and ini ia-
i es ac oss di e se geog aphic and economic con ex s. The o e a ching goal was
o acili a e he ansla ion o c i ical assessmen s in o ac ionable insigh s aimed a
guiding he managemen o he ansi ion owa ds a CE.
This impo an wo k ep esen s a no el and igo ous endea ou in sc u inising
he eme gen ci cula economy pa adigm wi hin i s social and spa ial con ex s,
emphasising he alue o combining di e en pe spec i es. The ex highligh s he
u gency o en i onmen al bene i s om CE p ac ices in achie ing ne ze o ca bon
FOREWORD
Fo ewo d x ii
emissions, con as ing his wi h he cu en slow pace o ans o ma ion owa ds
a CE. I emphasises he need o enhanced policy ambi ion o d i e a mo e holis-
ic app oach owa ds he implemen a ion o a CE, acknowledging he cons ain s
posed by economic p io i ies and logis ical complexi ies wi hin he global econ-
omy. While he social aspec s o a CE emain elusi e, he book is an impo an
i s s ep in highligh ing he need o de ine and explo e indi idual expe iences, he
cul u al, gende , age and class in luences o a CE, and o conside he pe spec i es
o ci izens, ac i is s and o e s alongside consume s in CE esea ch, including in-
he en changes ha may come wi h such pe spec i es. Fu he mo e, i unde sco es
he ans o ma i e socie al implica ions o a ully ealised CE, sugges ing ha
achie ing widesp ead adop ion o p ac ices like epai and euse equi es poli ical-
economic shi s and g ea e social ambi ion, pa icula ly among academics and
indi iduals.
Pe e Dobe s, Sjo s Wi jes and Gyula Zilahy
Book Se ies Edi o s
This book is he culmina ion o a numbe o yea s wo k d awing on he suppo and
inpu o a numbe o g oups and indi iduals. We canno lis e e yone by name, bu
he ollowing gi es an indica ion o he le el o collabo a ion in ol ed in a p ojec
on his scale. E e yone’s inpu is much app ecia ed.
We a e g a e ul o he Eu opean Commission o unding o his p ojec (Ma ie
Skłodowska-Cu ie g an ag eemen No 765198) and he suppo o ou p ojec
o ice s om he Resea ch Execu i e Agency Ma ie Skłodowska-Cu ie Inno a i e
T aining Ne wo ks eam.
P ojec pa ne s we e indispensable in hos ing secondmen s, co-designing/
dis ibu ing su eys, p o iding access o da a and/o making s a a ailable o
in e iews and/o wo kshops: APTAR I alia SpA, Ecoinno azione s l, En i on-
men al and Managemen Solu ions L d, he Gene al Sec e a y o he Po uguese
Minis y o he En i onmen , Idée Alsace, iPoin -sys ems GmbH, Kings on upon
Hull Ci y Council, Mangia o ella SpA, Rijkswa e s aa (Du ch Minis y o In a-
s uc u e and he En i onmen ), P o esso Zengwei Yuan, Nanjing Uni e si y,
China, O ice o he Go e nmen o S y ia, Was e Managemen and Sus ainabili y
sec ion, Saube mache Diens leis ungs AG, Taiwan Ci cula Economy Ne wo k,
D . Olawale Olayide o he Uni e si y o Ibadan, Nige ia, and WRAP (Was e Re-
sou ces Ac ion P og amme).
The ad iso y boa d membe s we e e y gene ous wi h hei ime, insigh s and
suppo o he ea ly s age esea che s and hei esea ch: Ca men Jaca, Uni e si y
o Na a a, Spain, Ch is oph Scha , who has held a numbe o posi ions in he
was e indus y and is cu en ly an ex e nal lec u e o he Vienna Technical Uni-
e si y, Wal e S ahel, ounde -di ec o o he P oduc -Li e Ins i u e, Swi ze land,
and And ew Woodend, UK Depa men o En i onmen , Food and Ru al A ai s.
Many hanks o colleagues who ha e con ibu ed hei ime and expe ise o
esea ch supe ision: Julia A olde bach, Albe o Simboli, Nguyễn Hồng Quân and
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Acknowledgemen s xix
Olawale Olayide, E ns Wo ell and Sjo s Wi jes. Resea ch, inance eams and de-
pa men heads om ou ins i u ions a e g a e ully hanked.
Thanks o all he speake s and o he pa icipan s a ou wo kshops and con e -
ence who p o ided aining, led wo kshops, ga e alks, hos ed si e isi s and ook
pa in discussions. We a e g a e ul o he Royal Geog aphical Socie y-IBG and he
In e na ional Sus ainable De elopmen Resea ch Socie y which suppo ed ou end
o p ojec con e ence. Thanks oo o S éphanie Heckman and Bianca Gainus, ou
digi al eco de s, whose wo k you can see in his olume. Thanks o he panellis s
o he discussion sessions on day one o he con e ence. Fiona Cha nley, Wal e
S ahel, Nancy Bocken, Hans-Ch is ian Ebe l and Zengwei Yuan esponded o ou
p esen a ions on o ganisa ions. Adam Read, Pa ick Sch ode , Ke s y Hobson and
Olawale Olayide esponded o p esen a ions on place and policy.
Many o he people pa icipa ed as su ey esponden s, in e iewees and ocus
g oup o wo kshop pa icipan s. We a e e y g a e ul o all hese people o sha ing
hei ime and gene ously p o iding hei iews on he ci cula economy.
A special hank you o Clai e Lea, ou p ojec manage , o he calm p o ession-
alism and chee ul iendliness h oughou .
We hank Ma hew Shobb ook, Aimée C ickmo e and hei eams a Rou ledge
o hei suppo and pa ience ega ding he book. We o e ou app ecia ion oo o
he In e na ional Sus ainable De elopmen Resea ch Socie y, which was he con-
ex in which his ne wo k was c ea ed, expanded and nu u ed, as well as o ac-
cep ing ou con ibu ion o his book se ies.
The suppo and o bea ance o amily is also much app ecia ed. This has been
a long oad, one which s a ed back in 2016.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003295631-1
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license.
1
INTRODUCTION
Explo ing he sus ainabili y implica ions
o aci cula economy
Pauline Deu z, Wal e J.V. Ve meulen,
Rupe J. Baumga ne , Tomás B. Ramos
and And ea Raggi
1.1 In oduc ion
Since he passage o he Eu opean Union’s (EU) Ci cula Economy Ac ion Plan in
2015, he concep o a ci cula economy (CE) has aken hold in an ex ao dina y
way as a policy o esou ce managemen (wi h some social expec a ions) and in a
uly phenomenal way as an objec o academic esea ch. Since 2018, he C es ing
p ojec (Ci cula Economy: Sus ainabili y Implica ions and Guiding P og ess) has
been esea ching he p og ess o he CE in a ange o se ings, as well as looking
a he wide e ec s and de eloping s a egies and p ac ices o implemen a ion
he eo . The up ake o he ield a he unde sco es he need o de o e some c i ical
ene gy o conside ing he implica ions o wha is happening, o wha i is hoped
may be happening – a challenge ha o he s ha e also aken up du ing his ime.
The same ime pe iod has also seen a global pandemic, wa s and an ex ao dina y
up ick in he numbe o people aking he sea ch o sus ainabili y in o hei own
hands a he han wai ing o i o come o hem. Clima e change has eached a
poin o in luencing wea he pa e ns on a scale di icul o miss, al hough i oni-
cally his has no consolida ed public opinion in a ou o ac ion.
In o his maels om we o e he p esen olume as a c i ical app aisal o he
p og ess and po en ial o a concep ha o e s sus ainabili y bene i s (e.g. educ-
ions in ca bon emissions, esou ce secu i y, economic compe i i eness, job c ea-
ion). Membe s o he p ojec eam ha e been p oduc i e wi h hei con ibu ions
o academic publica ions and policy ecommenda ions. The p esen olume d aws
on ou body o in e ela ed wo k o iden i y and explo e a bigge and mo e holis ic
pic u e o he eali y o de eloping a CE, and he implica ions he eo , han can be
accomplished h ough indi idual esea ch s udies ha by necessi y ocus solely on
a speci ic aspec .
2 P. Deu z, W. J. V. Ve meulen, R. J. Baumga ne e al.
In his chap e , we ou line ou de ini ions o a CE and sus ainabili y, p o ide a
b ie o e iew o hei de elopmen and ou line he p ojec behind he esea ch. We
also p o ide a summa y o he chap e s ha ollow.
1.2 Wha is a ci cula economy?
The meaning, o meanings, o a (o he) ci cula economy(ies) and i s ela ionship(s)
wi h ac ually exis ing implemen a ion(s) was one o he majo esea ch ques ions
o he p ojec and will be a ecu ing heme h oughou he book. We need o es ab-
lish a common unde s anding, o on ology, o he opic o discussion, howe e , o
decide wha is i ha we deem should be included in o ele an o he discussion.
Fo his, we a ou Geissdoe e e al.’s (2017) de ini ion o a CE as a ‘ egene a i e
sys em in which esou ce inpu and was e, emission, and ene gy leakage a e mini-
mised by slowing, closing, and na owing ma e ial and ene gy loops’ (p. 757). This
de ini ion cap u es he in en ions and p ac icali ies o he policy app oach which
was es ablished by he EU Ac ion Plan. The e minology o loop closing is an anal-
ogy o nu ien cycling in biological ecosys ems. A loop can be c ea ed by di e ing
some was e om disposal (e.g. land ill, incine a ion) back in o p oduc ion h ough
a p ocess o ecycling. These loops can occu a di e en spa ial and empo al
scales – wi h sho e , slowe loops being mo e a ou able (assuming ha less en-
e gy is needed, and o he pollu ion a oided, o keep an i em in use o longe han i
would be ake in o de o collec , p ocess and manu ac u e i in o some hing else).
Simila ly, al hough he spa ial elemen o CE ac i i y is o en o e looked, he local
scale has been p oposed by S ahel (2013), o example, as en i onmen ally a-
ou able and also o e ing po en ial bene i s such as widely dispe sed job c ea ion.
The s a egies o loop closing p ominen ly comp ise he 10 Rs (Re use, Reduce,
Reuse/Resell, Repai , Re u bish, Remanu ac u e, Repu pose, Recycle ma e ials,
Reco e ene gy, Re-mine) (Reike e al., 2018). These R s a egies a e a combina-
ion o ac i i ies ha in some cases long p e-da e en i onmen al ini ia i es (such as
Repai o Reuse), bu a e now enjoying a sha e o policy and public a en ion; hey
ha e inc eased in p ominence as a esul o en i onmen al and economic d i e s in
ecen decades (such as ecycling, ene gy eco e y and emanu ac u ing).
Two impo an e ms no di ec ly included on he lis a e sha ing and design.
Design is a signi ican elemen in he CE as i signals a i m’s shi om he ‘end o
pipe’ solu ions (i.e. idying up he en i onmen al consequences o p oduc ion and
consump ion). Ra he , CE is abou in en ionally a oiding some o he associa ed en-
i onmen al impac s. Sha ing is a means o ‘ e use’ o pu chase o a ou e o max-
imising he use o an i em and b ings a conno a ion o a di e en app oach o op ing
ou o consume ism – o possibly jus changing i s o m (Hobson and Lynch, 2016).
How a policymake s ha e g appled wi h he po en ial consequences o policies
like he Righ o Repai , and how he public migh espond, emain unce ain.
A esou ce- ocused de ini ion o a CE is neu al as ega ds he social ou comes
o implemen a ions he eo , which is la gely e lec ed in he app oach o he ea ly
In oduc ion 3
academic wo k esponding o he Eu opean up ake o he CE (Ki chhe e al.,
2017). Howe e , wi h he apid g ow h o he ield o e all, by 2023 he e had been
a no able inc ease in unde s andings o CE inco po a ing an expec a ion o , o aspi-
a ion o , social bene i s (Ki chhe e al., 2023). Desi able as hey may be, we a e
no s a ing ou wi h he assump ion ha hey would ollow om he implemen a-
ion o a CE, o indeed ha hey a e necessa ily he in en ion o , o unde s ood by,
hose implemen ing a CE. De e mining he social and economic dis ibu ion o
bene i s om en i onmen al policies, e en his o ic ones, is no easy; i canno be
assumed ha any bene i s will be e enly dis ibu ed ei he socially (e.g. Ja e, 1995;
Fulle on, 2011) o geog aphically. The spa ial dis ibu ion o bene i s is likely o
a ou some places mo e han o he s; new a eas o en i onmen al in es men in-
oduce new aspec s o compe i ion be ween places, subjec o he cons ain s o
capi alism (Deu z, 2014) including he in luences o ma ke -o ien ed ela ionships
(Side ius and Zink, 2022). Who migh bene i om a CE (bo h socially and spa-
ially) is e y much an empi ical ques ion o he esea ch – as, u he mo e, is he
ques ion o who is doing he implemen ing (o wha exac ly)? We also conside he
ela ionship(s) be ween heo e ical, aspi a ional and policy de ini ions and he eal-
i y o implemen a ions eme ging.
In esea ch e ms many p e-exis ing ields o endea ou ha e been inco po a ed
wi hin he CE (e.g. Liede and Rashid, 2016). P ominen among hose a e indus-
ial ecology, which i sel is a b oad e m inco po a ing indus ial symbiosis, eco-
design, dema e ialisa ion and app oaches such as li e cycle hinking. These ields
all had hei own ange o app oaches inco po a ing mo e echnical, modelling o
social science esea ch such as egional de elopmen o social ne wo k analysis
(see Deu z and Ioppolo, 2015). O he ields o esea ch e-ene gised by he CE
include sus ainable business models and conside a ions o co po a e social espon-
sibili y, supply chain managemen , en i onmen al (including was e) go e nance
and sus ainabili y app aisals. Mos membe s o he eam ini ia ing he C es ing
p ojec we e e e ans o ea lie s udies ele an o he ield, wi h he al eady mul i-
disciplina y eam widened o include o he s wi h backg ounds ele an o eme ging
issues (such as he u ban con ex o CE op ions d awing on ‘al e na i e’ economic
app oaches).
This poin s o he key ques ion ega ding he idea o he CE which was d i ing
ou p ojec . To wha ex en , and unde wha ci cums ances, can he CE con ibu e
o sus ainabili y?
1.3 Sus ainabili y and sus ainable de elopmen
Ou app oach o he CE is ha i s alue lies in i being a means o he end o sus ain-
abili y. Being ci cula in some espec is no desi able i , o example, mo e emis-
sions, o abusi e employmen p ac ices, a e gene a ed by a p ocess o eco e y
han would ha e been needed o make an al e na i e. This aises many unce ain-
ies, o cou se, no leas a ound he geog aphies o p oduc ion and consump ion.
10 P. Deu z, W. J. V. Ve meulen, R. J. Baumga ne e al.
Hull, UK, and he Po o S asbou g, F ance. The policy discussion included an in-
e na ional mul i-s akeholde s udy o ex ended p oduce esponsibili y implemen-
a ion. I conside ed bo h how o d i e compliance beyond ‘end o pipe’ app oaches
and o add ess he implica ions o policies beyond hei geog aphic ju isdic ion.
FIGURE 1.1 O ganisa ions and he ci cula economy
Sou ce: Digi al eco de : S éphanie Heckman, www.s ephanieheckman.com, 15 Decembe 2021.
FIGURE 1.2 Place and policy in a ci cula economy
Sou ce: Digi al eco de : S éphanie Heckman, www.s ephanieheckman.com, 15 Decembe 2021.

In oduc ion 11
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s43615-021-00021-4
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Dicken, P. (2011) Global Shi : Mapping he Changing Con ou s o he Wo ld (6 h edn).
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Eu opean Commission (2015) Closing he Loop: An EU Ac ion Plan o he Ci cula Econ-
omy. B ussels: Eu opean Commission, p. 614.
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923–929.
Geissdoe e , M., Sa age , P., Bocken, N.M.P. and Hul ink, E.J. (2017) The Ci cula Econ-
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G a , H.J. (2015) Undisciplining Knowledge: In e disciplina i y in he Twen ie h Cen u y.
Bal imo e, MD: Johns Hopkins Uni e si y P ess.
Hobson, K. and Lynch, N. (2016) Di e si ying and de-g owing he ci cula economy: Radi-
cal social ans o ma ion in a esou ce-sca ce wo ld. Fu u es, 82: 15–25.
Ja e, A.B., Pe e son, S.R., Po ney, P.R. and S a ins, R.N. (1995) En i onmen al egula ion
and he compe i i eness o US manu ac u ing: Wha does he e idence ell us? Jou nal
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analysis o 114 de ini ions. Resou ces, Conse a ion and Recycling, 127: 221–232.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. escon ec.2017.09.005
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sou ces, Conse a ion and Recycling, 194: 107001. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. escon ec.
2023.107001
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economy h ough a ocus on his o y and esou ce alue e en ion op ions. Resou ces
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h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/jiec.12732
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Economy and Sus ainabili y, 1–27. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s43615-022-00196-4
So i opoulou, I. and Deu z, P. (2022) Unde s anding he bioeconomy: A new sus ainabili y
economy in B i ish and Eu opean public discou se. Bio-based and Applied Economics,
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S ahel, W.R. (2013) Policy o ma e ial e iciency: Sus ainable axa ion as a depa u e om
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Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003295631-2
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license.
2
APPROACHES TO CIRCULAR ECONOMY
RESEARCH
Pauline Deu z, Sand a Caei o, E ik Roos Lindg een,
Kaus ubh Thapa, Anna M. Walke and Małgo za a Pusz
2.1 In oduc ion
This book comp ises a con ibu ion o unde s anding he cu en s a e o p og ess
owa ds ci cula i y and he ex en o which ou comes a e indeed en i onmen ally
and socially sus ainable. In his chap e we p esen he assump ions behind, and
he app oaches used in, ou esea ch bo h o enable eade s o assess he indings
p esen ed in he ollowing chap e s, and as a guide o u u e ci cula economy
(CE) esea ch.
Fo a CE o ul il i s po en ial, he p inciples o ci cula i y need o be ho -
oughly eng ained ac oss socie y, in ol ing new collabo a ions, di e en p ac ices
and o ms o assessmen , as will be shown in he ollowing chap e s (see also
Cowan e al., 2023; Schul z e al., 2023). To suppo his p og ess, da a a e needed
on p oduc s, p ocesses, en i onmen al/social impac s, cos s, isks and beha iou
ela ing o all ypes o companies and o he o ganisa ions. Businesses o all sizes,
public sec o bodies and go e nmen al agencies, non-go e nmen al and non-p o i
o ganisa ions will need da a o be able o ela e o hemsel es and each o he in
o de o p og ess collabo a ion. A i udes o he public, consume s and ci izens a e
likewise ele an . Some o hose indi iduals and o ganisa ions (e.g. ci y admin-
is a ions, local b anches o companies o cha i ies) will ha e a ocus on pa icu-
la places, while o he s will no . These g oups will ha e e y di e en in e es s,
besides po en ially wan ing o p io i ise di e en aspec s o a CE ( hey migh be
ying o minimise cos s, maximise g ow h, o p o ide, o indeed limi , public se -
ices). Sus ainabili y challenges ha e been cha ac e ised as ‘wicked’ p oblems,
i.e. hey do no ha e a clea de ini ion, no a e he e any simple in e en ions o
demons ably igh o w ong solu ions – only hose ha a e mo e o less p e e -
able depending on one’s pa icula pe spec i e (B own e al., 2010). The e a e also
14 P. Deu z, S. Caei o, E. R. Lindg een e al.
powe disc epancies be ween o ganisa ions, i.e. hey ha e di e en le els o abil-
i y o implemen hei plans and/o o in luence o he s. Resea ch canno o e come
di e en p io i ies o powe dynamics bu i can a leas con ibu e o an in o med
comp omise.
When di e en o ganisa ions and indi iduals a e discussing he CE, i is el-
e an o ask wha hey unde s and by ha and include in he con e sa ion wha hey
ecognise as being ele an in o ma ion (o indeed assume o be ele an ) on which
o base decisions. Academics e e o hese issues espec i ely as ‘on ology’ (wha
is ele an ) and as ‘epis emology’ (how can I lea n abou i ). The e is, howe e ,
no one academic esponse. The answe s o ‘wha ’ and ‘how’ a y conside ably
be ween di e en disciplines, many o which a e al eady in ol ed in CE- ela ed e-
sea ch, while o he s a e likely o become in ol ed in i in u u e. In his chap e we
a e delibe a ely limi ing he use o academic e minology, bu he ideas con ained
he ein a e immensely impo an o ensu e ha deba es on de eloping a CE, as well
as he ac ual de elopmen he eo , a e based on a sha able e idence base.
Resea ch undamen ally in ol es he collec ion, o gene a ion, o da a o add ess
speci ic ques ions. In social science esea ch he in en ion is o s udy he iews
and/o p ac ices o social ac o s and o he s akeholde s (indi iduals and o ganisa-
ions wi h a ole and/o in e es in he phenomenon o in e es ). Based on p e i-
ous esea ch expe ience ela ed o CE, c i ical ealism was selec ed as a sui able
amewo k o C es ing p ojec . C i ical ealism was o mula ed as a comp omise
be ween majo schools o hough in social science (Bhaska , 1975). Making no
disciplina y assump ions, i is a sui able amewo k o in e disciplina y esea ch
(Dickens, 2003). By seeking he causal ac o s unde lying obse a ions, c i ical
ealism p o ides a ounda ion no only o unde s anding he p esen , bu also o
b inging abou change (Saye , 1982; Schoppek, 2021). C i ical ealism acknowl-
edges ha academia does no ha e a monopoly on he gene a ion o knowledge
and inco po a ing o he knowledges can add signi ican ly o he alue and u ili y
o indings (Saye , 1982). An impo an choice wi hin he esea ch, he e o e, is
how o engage wi h he ele an social ac o s. One o he ichly de eloped o ms
o inco po a ing non-academic iews conce ns ansdisciplina y esea ch, whe ein
s akeholde s a e in ol ed in he co-design o he p ojec and he co-c ea ion o da a
(Wi jes and Ve meulen, 2021). While c i ical ealism does no p osc ibe me hods
o s akeholde engagemen , he selec ion needs o be well conside ed o add ess
any ques ions a hand ha a e jus i ied by he ci cums ances. The in ol emen o
non-academic pa ne s was impo an o C es ing o unde pin he ele ance o he
esea ch. Di e en p ojec s buil on hese connec ions in di e en ways; mos ly
no in a ansdisciplina y manne in he s ic es sense o co-designing he esea ch,
bu in some cases by co-p oducing solu ions o speci ic p oblems (whe he p oduc
o policy design, assessmen amewo ks), o in o he cases by collec ing da a o
examine pe spec i es on a pa icula opic.
In his chap e we i s ou line c i ical ealism and explain i s use ulness o CE
esea ch. Nex , we ou line he ange o app oaches o s akeholde engagemen used
App oaches o ci cula economy esea ch 15
by he C es ing p ojec . We hen p esen he s akeholde engagemen and me hods
o ou p ojec s. Finally we o e some conclusions.
2.2 C i ical ealism as a philosophy o CE esea ch
Wo king ac oss and be ween di e en academic disciplines is impo an , i no es-
sen ial, o CE esea ch. This does no simply b oaden he ange o opics ha can
be knowledgeably add essed, bu b ings assump ions abou he na u e o eali y
(on ology) and wha cons i u es a alid app oach o gaining knowledge ela ing o
ha eali y (epis emology) (c. . Schmid , 2007). C i ical ealism was o mula ed as
a comp omise be ween majo schools o hough in he social sciences which a e
o he wise di icul o econcile (A che e al., 1998). Fo a mo e specialised discus-
sion o c i ical ealism, eade s should consul Saye (1982 o 2000) and A che
e al. (1998). P e ious applica ions o c i ical ealism o CE- ela ed esea ch (e.g.
Deu z and Gibbs, 2008; Deu z e al., 2013; Deu z, 2014) p o ide examples o he
ollowing sec ion.
C i ical ealism seeks o explain he causal mechanisms and ela ionships un-
de lying obse ed e en s and pa e ns; i in ol es conside a ion o which ac o s
migh be necessa y o a ce ain ou come, as well as hose ac o s ha migh be
help ul, hinde ances o i ele an con ingen upon ci cums ances (Saye , 1982).
This may sound use ul wi hou being excep ional, bu he unde lying assump ions
a e dis inguishing. While c i ical ealism is a uned o he in o ma ion and insigh s
om empi ical indings, i con ends ha hey do no p esen a comple e pic u e o
eali y (Bhaska , 1975). Help ully exp essed as an ‘icebe g’ by Fle che (2017),
only a small pa o eali y is obse able o empi ical e o (Bhaska ’s ‘domain
o he empi ical’). Explana ions d awing solely on ha domain migh appea o
be ‘common sense’ bu can be deeply lawed (Saye , 1982). Below he p o e bial
wa e line, howe e , a e he ac ual and eal le els. The domain o he ac ual com-
p ises expe iences as well as e en s, which a e happening whe he we a e awa e o
hem (le alone s udying hem) o no . Ou knowledge is no pe ec : esea ch, and
indeed expe ience o li ing, will ha e cap u ed ce ain pa e ns and pe spec i es
bu we know he e may be ele an in o ma ion o ideas ha a e missing (pe haps
e lec ing a gap in he da a collec ion, biases in pe spec i es o pa icipan s, o
jus he impossibili y o cap u ing e e y salien poin ). Finally, he e is he do-
main o he eal, which includes mechanisms o change as well as e en s and ex-
pe iences. Mechanisms (some imes ‘causal mechanisms’) a e he ac o s causing
e en s o happen, whe he o no hose e en s a e expe ienced (Schoppek, 2021).
The mechanisms hemsel es a e social p oduc s and can also be he objec s o
esea ch (Fle che , 2017). Fo example, he ou comes o a emp ed eco-indus ial
pa k p ojec s in he US e lec ed local ci cums ances (e.g. access o unding o
pollu ion clean-up o o me mili a y bases). A he eal le el, hough, a s ong in-
luence on hei success was he o e all a ac i eness o he loca ion o companies,
which we e only ma ginally in luenced in loca ion decisions by en i onmen al

16 P. Deu z, S. Caei o, E. R. Lindg een e al.
conside a ions (Deu z and Gibbs, 2008). A di e en imes, and in di e en places,
he combina ion o mechanisms in ope a ion and hei ela i e signi icance can be
highly a iable; none heless, he e is mo e in common be ween di e se examples
han migh appea a i s sigh .
A dis inc ion can be d awn be ween wha is necessa y o suppo an ou come
and wha is con ingen on ci cums ances (Saye , 2000). Recogni ion ha ci cum-
s ances ha appea pa icula o unique (whe he ela ing o a ce ain place, p oduc
o p ocess) a e none heless esponding o wide in luences enables c i ical ealism
o make connec ions and gene alisa ions no open o o he app oaches, he eby
emphasising i s unique cha ac e is ics. C i ical ealism is he e o e be e sui ed
o iden i ying app oaches o CE bo h o speci ic ci cums ances and o wide el-
e ance. A pe inen example o his is indus ial symbiosis (a s a egy o CE us-
ing esidues om one en i y as inpu s o ano he ) (Che ow, 2000). De ini ions
o indus ial symbiosis can include an assump ion o a local scale. Howe e , he
spa ial scale o exchanges is be e hough o as a con ingen ci cums ance han a
de ini ional cha ac e is ic, e en hough i ma ches some expe iences o indus ial
symbiosis (Deu z, 2014). P oximi y can help o achie e a syne gy bu openness o
a angemen s on a la ge scale inc eases oppo uni y (S e and O , 2004). Addi-
ionally, discussions abou indus ial symbiosis e e somewha in e changeably o
was e and by-p oduc s. Howe e , hese e ms ha e spa ially a iable legal de ini-
ions, which a e also liable o change o e ime. We can in e ha egula ions will
in luence indus ial symbiosis ou comes, bu wha happens in a ce ain place will
be con ingen on he p e ailing egula ions (which a e na ional a he han local in
scope) and o he local ci cums ances. Fu he mo e, ac o s such as he p ice and
a ailabili y o aw ma e ials, which ollow global cons ain s, may be a limi ing
ac o a some imes o an encou aging ac o a o he s and will be in luen ial o di -
e en deg ees in di e en places acco ding o he pa icula condi ions ( e lec ing,
o example, he mix o indus y p esen locally o na ional incen i es o di e en
ma e ials/ echnologies).
A u he signi ican aspec o c i ical ealism is he combina ion o he eal-
is (objec i e) on ology wi h a ela i e epis emology (acknowledging subjec i i y)
(A che e al., 1998). The ealis on ology ela es o he assump ion cha ac e is ic
o he na u al sciences ( ollowing a so-called posi i is me hodology) ha he e
is a eali y o s udy ha is independen o he obse e (no so i ial a poin as
migh be imagined; see Collie , 1994). Posi i is , o objec i is , app oaches o he
social sciences a e seeking o main ain he na u al science goal o objec i i y in
esea ch (so ha a di e en obse e would achie e he same esul s). Resea che s
in his school would acknowledge ha humans may be less consis en o p edic -
able in hei beha iou han o he objec s o esea ch, bu seek o minimise he
impac o ha human a iabili y h ough he use o la ge da a se s o su eys wi h
enough esponden s o be ep esen a i e o a wide popula ion (albei ha quali a-
i e da a migh also be used in so a as objec i i y can be asse ed, o as a p elude
o quan i a i e co obo a ion) (C o y, 1998). Objec i is s a e looking o s a is ical
App oaches o ci cula economy esea ch 17
egula i ies and gene alisa ions as a guide o explana ions which ideally app oach
he gene ali y o he ‘laws’ o na u al science. This is in con as o he spec um
o ‘cons uc ionis ’, o ela ional app oaches (in e p e i ism, social cons uc ion-
ism, subjec i ism) (C o y, 1998) acco ding o which ou knowledge o ‘ eali y’ is
socially cons uc ed, i.e. i e ie ably in luenced by human pe cep ions and biases
so ha an objec i e assessmen is simply no possible (in ex eme app oaches he
idea o ‘ eali y’ i sel migh be ques ioned). E hnog aphic esea ch (in-dep h s ud-
ies o jus a ew subjec s) would be he no m; li le o in e es a ound he human
expe ience would be expec ed o come om ying o educe complex pe cep ions/
beha iou o numbe s. Gi en he indi iduali y o expe ience and ci cums ances,
gene alisa ion is di icul and no o alue. Such s udies isk appea ing hopelessly
biased o ‘anecdo al’ o objec i is s, po en ially o some in e es bu no yielding
insigh s easily ex apola able in o policy o p ac ice. C i ical ealis s concu wi h
he p inciple ha ou knowledge o he wo ld is il e ed h ough expe ience and
in e p e a ion, i.e. ha knowledge is socially cons uc ed, can con ain e o s o be
swayed by one’s heo e ical o poli ical assump ions (Schoppek, 2021). Impo -
an ly, hough, some knowledge, o social explana ions, a e close o he objec i e
eali y han o he s, and we e u n o his poin below.
The e is no philosophical bias o di e en ypes o da a o c i ical ealis e-
sea ch. Types o da a, ways o in e p e ing hem and me hods o da a collec ion
(in ensi e/ex ensi e) a e selec ed on he basis o hei abili y o bes answe he
ques ions a hand (Saye , 1982). C i ical ealism g an s ha ou knowledge o he
social wo ld is de i ed h ough he subjec i i y o esponden s, o he pe spec i es/
assump ions behind documen s (images, ex s, sounds) and is in luenced by he
esea che ’s own posi ionali y. Posi i is s migh ques ion he eliabili y o an in e -
iew as a sou ce o da a, as ep esen ing one pe son’s opinions. Bu in e iewees
a e no seen as sou ces o ac s, so much as hey a e alued o hei in e p e a ion
o a si ua ion. Wha a company ep esen a i e says abou eco-design, o example,
is no necessa ily a guide o bes p ac ice, bu i does indica e wha a company
hinks abou he ield and wha migh be in luencing hei app oach (Deu z e al.,
2013). Quan i a i e da a is use ul o p o ide a desc ip ion o ci cums ances and o
indica ing a eas o in e es o u he analysis, which migh be appa en ends/
co ela ions, o hey migh be he ou lie s o excep ions (Saye , 1982). E en his
kind o da a comes wi h assump ions, hough. To gi e a CE- ela ed example, a li e
cycle assessmen (LCA), is an objec i is app oach – an e o o quan i y (and
necessa ily simpli y), a la ge olume o in o ma ion as a decision-making ool o
a oid unin ended consequences om en i onmen ally mo i a ed changes. B oad-
ening he scope o include o he aspec s mo e di icul o quan i y (e.g. implica ions
o expe ience o quali y o li e) is no jus a echnical challenge bu a po en ially
con en ious mo e o educing he objec i i y. A c i ical ealis would concu ha a
LCA is no uly objec i e as decisions a e equi ed as o wha o include and he
desi ed da a may no be a ailable (Mie inen and Hämäläinen, 1997); he e is no
undamen al objec ion o inco po a ing explici ly subjec i e c i e ia which migh
18 P. Deu z, S. Caei o, E. R. Lindg een e al.
con ibu e o a be e unde s anding o po en ial impac s. B oadening o he LCA
me hodology o inco po a e social and economic aspec s may inc ease he subjec-
i i ies in ol ed. One migh also ques ion who has he decision-making powe s
and wha hei p io i ies a e.
As men ioned abo e, while accep ing he subjec i i y o knowledge ela ing
o socie y, c i ical ealism’s adhe ence o bo h independen and laye ed eali y
dis inguishes i om o he subjec i e app oaches. As no ed, a c i ical ealis ap-
p oach lends i sel o he iden i ica ion o causal mechanisms which may be sha ed
be ween di e en ci cums ances, despi e di e ing con ingen ou comes. The in-
dependen eali y u he implies ha while he e may be many in e p e a ions o
obse a ions and expe iences, some will mo e closely ma ch he objec i e eali y
han o he s (Saye , 1982). The ad an age o his is ha esea ch can build unde -
s anding and explana ions o he p esen ha p o ide a ounda ion o planning
change – his does no p eclude di e ences o opinion, o poli ically mo i a ed
p e e ences, bu concu s ha he e is a eali y ha we can s i e o bo h explain
and change. This is as opposed o acing a ange o seemingly disconnec ed ci -
cums ances each o which migh ha e many in e p e a ions and po en ially a iew
ha compa ing and choosing a e no e en easonable s eps o ake. The c i ical
ealis can y o disen angle con as ing iews o be e explain wha is p oducing
obse ed pa e ns and ela ionships and a guably o e insigh o he likely u u e
success o di e en CE app oaches (Schoppek, 2021). C i ical ealis s e e o he
‘ a ional judgemen ’ alongside he ealis on ology and ela ional epis emology
(A che e al., 1998).
P og essing om he philosophical assump ions o c i ical ealism o a speci ic
app oach o esea ch in ol es making decisions. Me hods may be selec ed o bes
add ess he ques ions o be asked, bu aming he ques ions in ol es de ining some
aspec o eali y o s udy. The a che ypal labo a o y scien is can cons uc con-
olled expe imen s o isola e he e ec s o speci ic a iables wi hin sys ems de-
signed and con olled o be closed. Tha is, he componen s o he sys em can be
p ecisely iden i ied, hei impac s on each o he isola ed and s udied. Depending
on he na u e o he sys em, he e may be ex e nal e ec s, bu hese a e consid-
e ed dis inc om he sys em i sel . Social sys ems, howe e , a e no closed; he
de ini ion o a sys em is a bi a y. So, o example, he global-le el in luences on
indus ial symbiosis men ioned abo e a e no ex e nal o local condi ions. They
a e ope a ing on a di e en spa ial scale o o he mechanisms bu a e pa o he
same eali y. The e o e, while a ‘sys em’, o case s udy (which could be a p ocess,
o p oduc , o policy, o place, o o ganisa ion, o scale, o a CE s a egy – o a
possible combina ion o all o hese), needs o be de ined o es ablish he empi ical
scope o he esea ch, i mus be emembe ed ha he case s udy bounda ies a e
s ic ly concep ual – hey do no apply a he ac ual o eal le els. The choice o
case s udy, howe e , will in luence wha is obse ed, cas ing o he aspec s o he
‘ac ual’ (happening bu no expe ienced) le el and in luencing he abili y o disce n
causal mechanism a he eal le el (Ollman, 2003). In his way, o example, a
App oaches o ci cula economy esea ch 19
ocus on a speci ic spa ial scale (e.g. egional, na ional) may gi e an undue signi i-
cance o ha scale in he in e p e a ions (Jessop e al., 2008). To ake he a gumen
one s age u he , c i ical ealism is conce ned wi h he ela ionships be ween ‘ob-
jec s’ o wha e e kind (Saye , 1982; Collie , 1994). Wha happens in one place is
no independen o wha happens elsewhe e (Pie ce e al., 2011). Fo example, he
de elopmen o en i onmen al indus ies in Eu ope om 2022 canno be unde -
s ood wi hou conside ing he in luence o he US In la ion Reduc ion Ac which
c ea es inancial incen i es o en i onmen al echnology companies o ( e)loca e
in he US; consume s imply p oduce s, and ice e sa; a gi en s a egy o he CE
is de ined as an al e na i e o disposal and is only iable i ce ain condi ions a e
in place, which a e in luenced by mul iple ela ionships ha can be global in scale.
O cou se, e e y hing canno be s udied all a once, especially on he 3–4-yea
imescale o , o example, a PhD. The ask is o jus i y he choice and be awa e o
he in luences and ela ionships ex ending beyond he case s udy.
Finally, as he objec s o s udy o social science a e people and o ganisa ions
comp ising people and he ela ionships be ween hem, he e is a possibili y (e en
p obabili y) o a wo-way exchange o knowledge be ween esea che and e-
sea ched ha may no be a ailable o o he ields (Saye , 1982). Resea che s can
choose he le el o engagemen wi h hei esea ch objec s, which migh a y om
a eliance on seconda y da a collec ed by o he s (e.g. p o ided o a egula o y o
indus y body) o publicly accessible documen s, o a close ela ionship whe e he
academic and he s akeholde (s) a e wo king oge he o ‘co-c ea e’ he da a o
e en he design o he p ojec i sel (i.e. ansdisciplina i y). These op ions a e e-
iewed in he ollowing sec ion.
2.3 S akeholde engagemen
S akeholde s can be de ined as indi iduals o o ganisa ions which ha e a di ec
in luence on he ma e o in e es (F eeman and Reed, 1983), and mo e inclu-
si ely can also include hose who may be impac ed by he ma e e en i hey
ha e no in luence (B yson e al., 2002). The exp ession ‘s akeholde ’ comes om
he managemen li e a u e, whe e i is used om he poin o iew o how migh
his di e se g oup be managed o achie e a company’s objec i es (e.g. Acke man
and Eden, 2011). S akeholde s o a CE ansi ion would include a la ge and di-
e se g oup edesigning business p ac ice, coope a ion (o coe cion) ac oss supply
chains; planning public in as uc u e; collabo a ion in speci ic e i o ies; poli-
cymake s seeking o in luence beha iou and ou comes; o ganisa ions changing
hei own beha iou ; he public modi ying hei beha iou ei he p oac i ely o in
esponse o a ailable op ions). The lis is educed o a somewha mo e manageable
numbe h ough he choice o case s udy. The e m ‘s akeholde ’ has become a
sho hand exp ession o he popula ion o po en ial esea ch pa icipan s o a so-
cial science s udy as he ele an collec ion o indi iduals and o ganisa ions whose
pe spec i es a e conside ed o in e es (e.g. Ho e al., 2023).
26 P. Deu z, S. Caei o, E. R. Lindg een e al.
E ik Roos
Lindg een
CE measu emen ;
sus ainabili y
measu emen ;
p i a e sec o ;
LCA.
Case s udy;
su ey and
semi-s uc u ed
in e iews;
expe panel
su ey and ocus
g oups.
CE businesses (end-use s),
CE measu emen expe s
om academia and
consul ancies, businesses.
Expe s om academia and sus ainabili y/
CE consul ancies p o ided eedback o
he p oposed amewo k, end-use s (CE
businesses) alida ed he applica ion in
ocus g oups.
Di e en in e p e a ions o
CE lead o a a ie y o
unde s andings o wha CE
measu emen should be;
a ailable impac assessmen
me hods (such as LCA)
a e o en conside ed as
complex while simple
me hods (CE me ics) do
no cap u e an accu a e
es ima ion o all impac s.
Anna Walke Unde s anding
company
app oaches o
CE as a guide
o he design
o assessmen
app oaches; he
Ne he lands and
I aly.
Online su ey,
semi-s uc u ed
in e iews.
Companies om CE
ne wo ks, CE ne wo k
coo dina o s in coun ies
whe e collabo a ing
esea che s a e based.
Wo ked wi h ne wo k coo dina o s on
ques ionnai e design; su ey dis ibu ed
by ne wo ks; online in e iews ca ied
ou wi h olun ee companies om he
su ey.
Ci cula ed upda es and a icles.
Response a e helped
by engagemen wi h
ne wo ks – buil up
a connec ion wi h
he coo dina o s and
subsequen ly wi h he
in e iewees.
Linguis ic abili ies o
he eam used o bes
ad an age (Du ch, English
and I alian).
Ka elin
Op e kuch
De elopmen o
a amewo k
o co po a e
disclosu e o
ci cula CE.
Online su ey,
semi-s uc u ed
in e iews, ocus
g oups.
Companies om CE
ne wo ks.
S akeholde s help o de elop
ecommenda ions ha suppo he
in eg a ion o CE wi hin co po a e
sus ainabili y epo s.
Su ey was no conduc ed in
Taiwan and Po ugal due o
he COVID-19 pandemic
and di icul ies wi h
con ac ing companies.
TABLE 2.1 (Con inued)
Resea che Focus Me hods S akeholde s Engagemen Issues

App oaches o ci cula economy esea ch 27
be hijacked by he powe ul pa ies o he esea ch. The esea che needs o na i-
ga e hese challenges ai ly while balancing academic oles, being accoun able o
he esea ch unde , and managing s akeholde s’ expec a ions, all while cons an ly
checking one’s biases in o de o s ay c i ical (Thapa e al., 2022a). Wi hin C es -
ing, Thapa’s esea ch (see Table 2.1 and sec ion 2.4.1 below) employed a ansdis-
ciplina y app oach.
I esea ch is no ansdisciplina y, he e is s ill a ange o possible le els o
s akeholde engagemen . Di e en ypes o s akeholde s allow di e en possibili-
ies. A one ex eme, go e nmen al bodies and o he in e es g oups p oduce copi-
ous documen s ha can be s udied o a ep esen a ion o hei iews wi hou any
di ec con ac wi h he au ho s. La ge companies and business o ganisa ions can
ha e a signi ican online p esence which can be a use ul guide o how hey wan o
be seen. Quan i a i e da a can be accessed om da abases p o iding a numbe o
esponden s and/o a imese ies a beyond he p ac icali ies o esea ch de ined by
he du a ion (o budge ) o o example a PhD (i.e. seconda y da a). Public docu-
men s and da a se s yield in o ma ion wi hou he complexi ies o di ec ly engaging
wi h s akeholde s, bu can none heless p o ide ich insigh s om he analysis and
compa ison o in e es o he s akeholde s as well as he esea che s (Calis o F ian ,
2021, 2023; Newsholme e al., 2022; Op e kuch e al., 2022; see Chap e 3 in pa -
icula and also Chap e s 5 and 6 in his olume), and can be a guide o subsequen
p ima y da a collec ion.
Some ypes o s akeholde s ha e a much smalle digi al oo p in , so he e-
sea che will need o collec he da a di ec ly (i.e. p ima y da a) o cap u e hei
iews and expe ience. In any case, collec ing p ima y da a allows he esea che
o cus omise he esea ch ques ions and o solici opinions om s akeholde s who
may be happie o sha e anonymously han hey a e o epo in public documen s
(e.g. why ce ain ac ions we e unde aken, wha we e he challenges, wha migh
hey ha e ied ha was no success ul). Mos C es ing ESRs used a combina-
ion o me hods including in e iews (p ima ily semi-s uc u ed) as a da a sou ce
(Table 2.1). Se e al esea che s addi ionally, o al e na i ely, used a o m o wo k-
shop o ocus g oup as a means o ei he co-c ea ing da a o es ing CE assess-
men o ac ion on po en ial use s (Table 2.1 and discussed below). In all hese
app oaches he e is a di ec mee ing o esea che and esea ch pa icipan (in
some cases online because o public heal h es ic ions). An in e media e le el o
engagemen comes wi h ques ionnai e su eys, whe e indi idual esponden s a e
awa e o he esea ch bu gene ally a e no in di ec communica ion wi h he e-
sea che s. In some cases, pa ne s acili a ed he dis ibu ion o online su eys e.g.
o go e nmen al colleagues o , a he o he end o he powe scale, o membe s o
he public. Su eys can be a ga eway o a close le el o communica ion, e.g. wi h
he possibili y o olun ee o be in e iewed o o ecei e ollow-up in o ma ion.
The COVID-19 pandemic had no able e ec on he esea ch. The go e nmen -
en o ced lockdowns in 2020–2021 conside ably educed engagemen , especially
ace o ace. Secondmen s and o he pa icipa o y expe iences we e educed along
28 P. Deu z, S. Caei o, E. R. Lindg een e al.
wi h use o ace- o- ace wo kshops ha could ha e been excellen occasions o
pe sonal ne wo k building o all in ol ed. Con e sely, he swi ch o online ac-
i i ies, especially o ocus g oup ac i i y, b oadened pa icipa ion allowing pa -
icipa ion om di e en egions and loca ions. Howe e , while la ge o ganisa ions
(public and p i a e sec o ) emained accessible o in e iews, small o ganisa ions
and indi iduals we e mo e di icul o each han migh ha e been he case in pe -
son. This does impac on he balance o pe spec i es ob ained. We y o make
some allowance o he impac in ou analysis, bu equally we endea ou o a oid
o e -in e p e ing he mino i y pe spec i es ob ained.
The ollowing sec ion p o ides an insigh o he me hods and s akeholde en-
gagemen o ou p ojec s. Fo ull de ails o he me hods employed by he a ious
p ojec s, publica ions and/o heses can be consul ed. Table 2.1 p o ides a sum-
ma y o all he app oaches used ac oss C es ing. Each chap e b ie ly indica es he
me hods used o he ele an wo k.
2.4 Examples o s akeholde engagemen and da a collec ion
2.4.1 The case o jus and ci cula managemen o he EU’s
expo ed e-was e in Nige ia
This esea ch aimed o unde s and he p ac ices and challenges posed by used
elec onic and elec ic equipmen (UEEE) impo ed o Nige ia om he Eu opean
Union. ‘Reuse’ is a ci cula alue e en ion op ion ha o e s majo en i onmen al
bene i s h ough minimal p ocessing and ex ends he unc ionali y and, hus, he
du abili y and li espan o p oduc s (Reike e al., 2018). The esea ch aimed o as-
sess he ex en o which hese bene i s apply when i ems o euse a e being ans-
e ed o a di e en spa ial con ex and o unde s and he en i onmen al and social
implica ions o such in e na ional-scale ade o euse. Toge he wi h s akeholde s,
esea che s explo ed his UEEE alue chain and mapped ac o s and policies o ge
an o e iew o i s go e nance.
The s udy used a ansdisciplina y app oach o in eg a e in e disciplina y sci-
en i ic knowledge wi h he knowledge o he socie al ac o s o co-c ea e solu ions
(B own e al., 2010; Ve meulen and Wi jes, 2020; Thapa e al., 2022a), which could
be use ul o na iga ing sus ainabili y challenges (B own e al., 2010; Ve meu-
len and Wi jes, 2020; Thapa e al., 2022a), in addi ion o change-making (Gib-
bons e al., 1994; Lea y, 2011). Va ious ansdisciplina y p inciples (Wi jes and
Ve meulen, 2021) and insigh s om he ansbounda y was e mo emen li e a u e
(Thapa e al., 2023a) guided he esea ch. Using he eme gen ansdisciplina y
p ocess, we elied on hunches o adap he esea ch o con ex ual needs and chal-
lenges whene e necessa y ( an B eda and Swilling, 2018, Thapa e al., 2022a).
Hunches a e a culmina ion o esea che s’ in ui ion and posi ionali y, pas knowl-
edge and expe iences, heo e ical knowledge and embeddedness in he esea ch
con ex ha guides he esea ch o wa d – equi alen o e oduc ion in c i ical
App oaches o ci cula economy esea ch 29
ealis e minology (see Fle che , 2017 o an example). Resea che s ook on mul-
iple oles as he need a ose, including acili a o , coo dina o , media o , co-lea ne
and esea che . Ra he han imposing non-con ex ual solu ions, his ai ness-d i en
esea ch aimed o os e a sa e space o collabo a i e engagemen , lea ning and
collec i ely en isioning a ci cula and jus u u e wi hin he speci ic con ex .
The esea ch can be di ided in o ou phases (see Figu e 2.1). The ision and
s a egy phase, w i ing and secu ing a g an o s a he C es ing p ojec and hi ing a
PhD, enabled o he phases. Phase 2 in ol ed a mon h-long explo a o y ield isi o
Nige ia in Augus 2019 o imme se in he esea ch con ex and o iden i y s akehold-
e s and build ela ionships. This consis ed o in e ac ions wi h go e nmen , busi-
nesses, o mal and in o mal ecycling cen es and academic ins i u ions in Ibadan,
Abuja and Lagos and a sho in e nship wi h he Basel Con en ion Coo dina ing
Cen e o he A ican Region esponsible o e-was e managemen in Wes A ica.
Phase 3 las ed om June 2020 o Decembe 2022, du ing which ime he
COVID-19 pandemic ende ed i impossible o e u n o Nige ia o unde ake he
o iginally planned ieldwo k. Thus, we adap ed he esea ch online o engage wi h
s akeholde s. Th ee Delphi (Dalkey and Helme , 1963) ounds (n = 24) and h ee
A o Hos ing guided wo kshops (n = 16, 8, 5) acili a ed mul iple consul a ions
and con i ma ion ounds. In addi ion o academic knowledge c ea ion, his esea ch
phase was designed o os e consensus among s akeholde s, aiming o gene a e
bo h social and scien i ic legi imacy. Guided by hese legi imacies, Phase 4 o he
esea ch in ol ed aking he co-c ea ed knowledge and solu ions o socie y o he
gene a ion o ac ionable measu es. This ook he o m o (a) a pe i ion co-w i en
wi h s akeholde s o ecommend and demand necessa y changes (Thapa e al.,
2021), (b) a policy b ie o policymake s ad oca ing change (Thapa e al., 2022b),
and (c) a YouTube ideo (U ech Uni e si y, 2021), a p ess elease (U ech Uni-
e si y, 2022), and a icles and in e iews o in o m a wide audience abou he
esea ch, i s indings and he implica ions he eo .
Looking back, his ai ness-d i en ansdisciplina y app oach enabled us o ad-
d ess an unequal ade scena io whe e in luen ial ac o s exploi s uc u al inequali ies.
FIGURE 2.1 S akeholde engagemen in he esea ch p ocess o enable eam building
and p oblem explo a ion, sys em unde s anding and co-c ea ion o solu-
ions, and applica ion o knowledge
Sou ce: Figu e 1 in Thapa e al. (2023b: 35) used unde CC 4.0.
30 P. Deu z, S. Caei o, E. R. Lindg een e al.
In his case, Nige ia’s eliance on UEEE impo s o digi alisa ion esul s in he ex-
e nalisa ion o oxic e-was e om he Global No h o a less equal coun y al eady
s uggling wi h domes ic was e managemen . Despi e Eu opean p oduce s being e-
sponsible o hei was e h ough Ex ended P oduce Responsibili y (EPR) policy,
abou one- hi d o all EU-shipped UEEE is e-was e in disguise, and he es becomes
e-was e a e a ela i ely sho li espan, disp opo iona ely a ec ing poo and ma -
ginalised wo ke s in he in o mal was e sec o and causing socio-ecological ha m in
Nige ia. In his con ex , ansdisciplina y esea ch enabled us o in eg a e in e dis-
ciplina y pe spec i es o jus ice and equi y in o he CE ansi ion esea ch h ough
acili a ed collabo a ion wi h a ious alue chain s akeholde s globally o change-
making, and he eby being guided by local social, cul u al, economic and poli ical
con ex s. This con ex ual and nuanced unde s anding wi h scien i ic and social le-
gi imacy guided he co-c ea ion o ecommenda ions such as ensu ing ha he EU
exclusi ely ades unc ional and du able UEEE; in eg a ing ci cula oppo uni ies
like epai , euse and e u bishmen ac oss he alue chain; holding Eu opean p o-
duce s accoun able o hei UEEE expo s h ough ci cula and e hical policy, as
discussed in Ul ima e P oduce Responsibili y (UPR); and inco po a ing conside a-
ion o global socio-ecological impac s o he EU’s ci cula economy ansi ion in
discou se, policies and p ac ices. UPR and i s aspec s a e inco po a ed in uni e si y
lec u es, UN epo s, poli icians’ and policymake s’ discussions, and go e nmen and
non-go e nmen al ac o s’ p og ammes. Wi hou he ansdisciplina y e hos which
emphasises he socie al impac o academic esea ch, i is likely ha he esea ch
ou pu would be limi ed o he hesis chap e and academic publica ions. Implemen a-
ion, howe e , equi es up ake by he Global No h pa ies a leas implici ly bene i -
ing om he cu en a angemen s.
Rela ionship building including us is undamen al o engagemen wi h s ake-
holde s o co-c ea ion. In ou case, we had o na iga e di e en cul u al and socio-
poli ical con ex s i s . Fo his, we pa ne ed wi h he Uni e si y o Ibadan in Nige ia
o he esea ch collabo a ion, which hos ed us and helped us o build legi imacy
and us . Adap ing he esea ch online enabled wide pa icipa ion and lexibili y.
Howe e , he embeddedness o he esea che in he esea ch con ex was i ual,
which comp omised enabling quali ies o ansdisciplina y esea ch like us build-
ing and using abduc i e easoning. The esea che s conside in-pe son mon h-long
ield isi s essen ial o he co-c ea ed solu ions (see Thapa e al., 2023) and doub
ha he esea ch would be ich and socially legi ima e wi hou he ela ionship buil
du ing he mon h-long ield isi . The ou pu could ha e been mo e obus i some
o he s akeholde s we e in he in o mal sec o , o whom some o Eu opean was e
managemen esponsibili ies a e shi ed un ai ly. E en wi h an explici ocus on
ai ness, ou esea ch ailed o inco po a e he ma ginalised in o mal sec o . Since
mos o he esea ch wo k was adap ed online du ing he COVID-19 pandemic, i
posed a challenge o inco po a e in o mal sec o wo ke s, who ha e limi ed access
o echnology. Wi hou a physical p esence, building ela ionships and us online
seemed impossible. E en hough some s akeholde s who closely wo ked wi h he
App oaches o ci cula economy esea ch 31
in o mal sec o ep esen ed hei oices, he esea ch lacked hei ac i e pa icipa-
ion. See Chap e 6 o u he conside a ion o he indings om his esea ch.
Fo he bene i o ellow ansdisciplina y esea che s, we ou line six in e con-
nec ed challenges and lessons lea ned om his esea ch. These encompass build-
ing us , adap ing o he esea ch p ocess, na iga ing ins i u ional and academic
epis emic cul u es, balancing he esea che ’s ole, and moni o ing p og ess and
legi imacy (Thapa e al. 2022a).
2.4.2 The case o Du ch and I alian companies om ci cula ne wo ks
A majo ask o he C es ing p ojec was es ablishing and selec ing he mos sui -
able assessmen p ocedu es o ci cula in e - i m ne wo ks. The e o e, a li e a u e
e iew o he a ailable app oaches was conduc ed i s (Walke e al., 2021c), ea-
u ing assessmen app oaches ha we e de eloped in he ields o ci cula supply
chain managemen and indus ial ecology, due o he concep ual p oximi y o he
ields. In pa allel, a su ey was de eloped o cap u e he assessmen app oaches
o companies in CE ne wo ks in I aly and he Ne he lands. The aim was he eby
o jux apose academic p oposi ions wi h ac ual p ac ice. This esea ch has a no -
ma i e mo i a ion which is o acili a e he assessmen p ocesses in companies.
Companies he e o e had he ole no only o p o iding he in o ma ion o help o
de elop he assessmen p ocess, bu also o unde s and how hey would app oach
using i . As pa o his esea ch p ocess, companies we e su eyed o hei unde -
s anding o CE and i s ela ionship o sus ainabili y, which p o ides a mo e gene al
insigh o hei a i udes and cons ain s ha can be use ul o con ibu e o ou
unde s anding o he causal mechanisms in luencing hem (i.e. an analy ical goal
alongside he no ma i e one). This le el and o m o s akeholde engagemen is no
a ansdisciplina y app oach as he e was no join se ing o ques ions o analysis
(Ve meulen and Wi jes, 2021), albei ha such engagemen can be a use ul p elimi-
na y o a mo e collabo a i e phase o esea ch. When in e ac ing wi h companies,
special a en ion was a ibu ed o he s yle o communica ion (bi-di ec ional o
unidi ec ional/ o mal and in o mal) as p oposed by Jolibe and Wesselink (2012).
Below, he s akeholde s as well as he ways o in e ac ing wi h hem a e p esen ed.
The esea ch combined bo h quan i a i e and quali a i e app oaches: a semi-
quan i a i e su ey and semi-s uc u ed in e iews. The ques ionnai e su ey
gauged how companies pe cei e he ela ionship be ween CE and sus ainabili y;
how hey assessed hese wo concep s in hei ope a ions and p oduc s; and wha
ba ie s and d i e s o CE hey obse ed. Pu posi e sampling was used o iden-
i y companies ac i ely engaged wi h CE p ac ices in I aly and he Ne he lands
(Hibbe s e al., 2012). Thus, only companies ha we e membe s o exis ing na-
ional and in e na ional CE ne wo ks we e included, as i was assumed ha hese
companies engaged wi h CE. Web-based su eys dis ibu ed ia p e-de ined lis s
ha e been shown o ha e he highes esponden a es, as ollowing up wi h e-
minde s is acili a ed and in i a ions can be pe sonalised (Loza Man eda e al.,

32 P. Deu z, S. Caei o, E. R. Lindg een e al.
2008). D awing on he language capabili ies o he eam, he su ey was deli -
e ed in English, I alian and Du ch h ough he online su ey ool Su eyMonkey
(2021), wi h pe sonalised email in i a ions and was open o h ee mon hs in 2019.
To dis ibu e he su ey, con ac was es ablished wi h he coo dina o s o he CE
ne wo ks. A o al o 155 alid esponses we e ecei ed, a esponse a e o 19%.
Ce ain ea u es we e added o make he online su ey mo e accessible: an o icial
le e o in i a ion, signed by wo p o esso s, and a b ie in oduc ion, s uc u ed
in sho pa ag aphs, unde lining he main aims o he su ey, he in o ma ion e-
qui ed om he esponden s as well as da a con iden iali y, complemen ed wi h a
da a p i acy o m (Manzo and Bu ke, 2012). In keeping wi h he e hical guide-
lines ha C es ing ollowed, esponden s could skip any ques ions ha hey did no
wish o answe , which u he mo e educed he chances o people p e-emp i ely
abandoning he su ey (ibid.). I is likely ha he o e all and indi idual ques ion
esponse a es we e suppo ed by he ele ance o he su ey o he a ge g oup
(Albaum and Smi h, 2012); au oma ised eminde s sen wo weeks la e also elic-
i ed u he esponses. A he end o he su ey, esponden s had he op ion o s ay
in o med abou he esul s o he esea ch (i.e. including insigh s om hei busi-
ness pee s) which p obably p o ided a u he incen i e o pa icipa ion (And ews
e al., 2003), as well as comp ising a s ep owa ds di ec engagemen be ween he
s akeholde s and he esea che s.
The quali a i e esea ch comp ised in e iews wi h su ey esponden s who
olun ee ed ia he su ey. This phase o he esea ch p o ided insigh o he
su ey esponses, which helped o iden i y he unde lying easons o esponses
(Flick, 2009). I was impo an o unde s and how companies pe cei ed he ela-
ionship be ween CE and sus ainabili y, how hey assessed hese wo concep s in
hei ope a ions and p oduc s, and wha ba ie s o and d i e s o CE hey obse ed.
The in e iew sample (n = 43) consis ed o a subse o he su ey esponden s, i.e.
all hose who, a he end o he su ey, op ed in o an in e iew. These in e iews
we e conduc ed du ing a wo-mon h pe iod in 2020 h ough ideo calls. D awing
on he language s eng hs o he esea ch eam, in e iews we e held in English,
Du ch and I alian. Loube e’s (2017) Sys ema ic and Re lexi e In e iewing and
Repo ing me hod was he e o e applied. This me hod equi es schola s o hold
equen mee ings o discuss he indings and imp essions o he indi idual in-
e iews, ins ead o w i ing and analysing ull ansc ip s. To a oid in e iewe -
ela ed e o s, he in e iew eco dings we e hen e isi ed, and he no es e ised,
i necessa y, and ansla ed in o English. The ea e , he no es we e join ly analysed
and coded induc i ely, while quo es which encapsula ed he majo hemes eme g-
ing we e selec ed. These ad e ba im quo es we e hen e i ied wi h he in e iew-
ees, c ea ing ano he poin o in e ac ion h ough email.
This esea ch p ocess p o ides a good example o wo-way exchange wi h e-
sea ch subjec s (Saye , 1982) The su ey p o ided he p e ex o he esea che s
o ge in con ac wi h CE ne wo k coo dina o s as well as hei membe s, build-
ing ela ionships h ough p elimina y mee ings and o e ing he su ey espond-
en s upda es on he p og ess o he esea ch. Du ing he in e iews esea che s
App oaches o ci cula economy esea ch 33
we e able o o m close ela ionships wi h he companies. Many companies we e
in e es ed in he inal esea ch esul s and ei e a ed hei wish o s ay in o med.
The e o e, he su ey has es ablished a communica ion channel o di ec ly p o ide
he companies wi h upda es on CE and sus ainabili y assessmen esea ch. Some
esponden s ha e also become pe sonal con ac s on LinkedIn. They a e in o med
pe iodically when a new esea ch ou pu becomes a ailable, such as an in e im
su ey epo , a blogpos on CE companies and COVID-19, as well as scien i ic
a icles (Roos Lindg een e al., 2022; Walke e al., 2021b, 2021a). This esea ch
has also enla ged he pool o po en ial case s udy companies o he nex esea ch
s eps o membe s o ocus g oups as discussed in he ollowing sec ion. Chap e 4
in his olume includes a discussion o he esul s.
2.4.3 The case s udy CE assessmen amewo k: SCEIA
One o he C es ing p ojec s (see Roos Lindg een in Table 2.1) unde ook o design
and alida e an assessmen amewo k ha guides companies wi h he measu e-
men o hei CE impac s. The basis o he S a egic Ci cula Economy Impac As-
sessmen (SCEIA) amewo k was es ablished h ough a c i ical li e a u e e iew
on he links be ween CE and sus ainabili y, also u ilising s a egic decision-making
li e a u e. A se o i e amewo k objec i es we e o mula ed, and app op ia e
me hods selec ed ha made i possible o ul il hese objec i es. These i e objec-
i es we e (1) o acili a e a holis ic (mul idimensional) assessmen ; (2) o p e en
bu den shi ing o o he pa s o he supply chain o li e cycle (li e cycle pe spec-
i e); (3) o p o ide lexibili y in e ms o (a) scale and (b) sus ainabili y ma u i y;
(4) o build on exis ing assessmen ools such as LCA; and (5) o assis in s a egic
decision-making p ocesses. Fo his s age o he esea ch, a mo e ac i e kind o
s akeholde engagemen was needed.
A undamen al aspec o he design o he amewo k was, as is e lec ed in
he amewo k’s objec i es, o gua an ee me hodological soundness and p ac ical
easibili y. In o he wo ds, he challenge was o balance he ension be ween gi ing
an accu a e pic u e o sus ainabili y impac s, while emaining usable o compa-
nies. We aimed o inco po a e hese p inciples h ough alida ing he p elimina y
amewo k h ough wo o ms o collec ing quali a i e da a on i s p ac ical use ul-
ness h ough dual iangula ion, he eby enhancing i s e ec i eness (Co nwall and
Jewkes, 1995): an expe panel su ey and ocus g oups.
A su ey was designed o collec eedback om a speci ic g oup o knowledge-
able pa icipan s: an expe panel o p i a e sec o and academic expe s in CE
assessmen a co po a e le el (Blessing, 2002; K a chenko e al., 2021). The ou
p i a e sec o expe s had expe ience o designing and applying CE assessmen
amewo ks o consul ancy companies, while he se en uni e si y expe s had
been in ol ed wi h building he scien i ic ounda ion o CE and sus ainabili y as-
sessmen h ough he publica ion o scien i ic a icles.
The eedback p ocess ocused on he me hodological se -up o he amewo k,
and was s uc u ed acco ding o he expe panel alida ion s eps as desc ibed in
34 P. Deu z, S. Caei o, E. R. Lindg een e al.
Beecham e al. (2005): (1) de ining he objec i es o he assessmen amewo k;
(2) designing he alida ion ins umen , namely a w i en su ey ha p esen ed
he amewo k and allowed he pa icipan s o p o ide eedback; (3) composing
a ele an expe panel; (4) p o iding he pa icipan s wi h he su ey and an ‘in-
o ma ion package’; (5) collec ing and analysing he esponses; (6) in e p e ing
he expe su ey esul s o gain an imp ession o he s eng hs and weaknesses o
he amewo k, and adjus ing he amewo k acco dingly. The expe su ey i sel
consis ed o h ee pa s. Fi s , a co e ing le e explained he esea ch objec i e o
he p ojec and he expec ed ole o he expe su ey pa icipan s. Then, he CE
assessmen amewo k i sel was de ailed in a PDF o he ‘in o ma ion package’.
The su ey was p esen ed in Mic oso Excel and sen by email. I con ained open
ields o collec expe ’s commen s o amendmen p oposals ela ed o he p oposed
me hodology o each o he applica ion s eps. The closing pa o he su ey was
designed o collec eedback on he i e objec i es o he amewo k. All he col-
lec ed eedback was e alua ed, and sugges ions we e inco po a ed when indica ed
by a majo i y (>50%) o pa icipan s.
In he second iangula ion s ep, he e ised amewo k was alida ed using
eedback om i s en isioned end-use s h ough ocus g oups: a selec ion o i e
companies mo i a ed o assess hei CE impac s. They deli e ed hei conside a-
ions o he di e en pa s o he amewo k h ough a ious online ocus g oup
sessions (Nyumba e al., 2018). This me hod comp ises a o m o ‘consul a i e
pa icipa ion’, as p ac i ione s a e asked o hei opinions and a e consul ed by
esea che s be o e in e en ions a e made (Co nwall and Jewkes, 1995). The ocus
g oup app oach was concei ed as a s a egy o b idge scien i ic esea ch and ‘local’
knowledge, wi h local e e ing o companies ha migh be in e es ed in applying
he amewo k (Nyumba e al., 2018). The companies ha we e selec ed a e bo h
Eu opean (I aly and F ance) and A ican (Tanzania, Ghana). They consis ed o a
mix o limi ed and wide expe ience wi h CE and sus ainabili y assessmen . Fo
p ac ical easons, he online ocus g oups we e di ided o e di e en sessions,
each wi h 1–2 pa icipa ing companies. Be o e each ocus g oup, 30- o 60-minu e
in e iews we e held wi h each company o be e unde s and hei business con-
ex and assessmen expe ience. The ocus g oup consis ed o he ollowing pa s:
(1) 15-minu e in oduc ion and con ex ; (2) 5-minu e explana ion o he objec i es
o he amewo k; (3) 20-minu e ou line o he amewo k’s applica ion s eps and
es case example; (4) 15-minu e cla i ica ion ques ions; (5) 15-minu e discussion
o he objec i es o he amewo k; (6) discussion o he amewo k’s easibili y;
and (7) ound-up and conclusion.
The sessions we e eco ded and iewed a e wa ds o complemen he coding
no es aken du ing he ocus g oups. The esul s we e ob ained by applying he-
ma ic analysis on wo le els (Gues e al., 2014; Massey, 2011): using (i) a icula ed
da a and (ii) eme gen da a. The i s le el o da a was acqui ed by asking he pa -
icipan s di ec ques ions ela ed o he amewo k. These ques ions ocused on he
amewo k’s cla i y, i s abili y o espond o he se objec i es, and he company’s
App oaches o ci cula economy esea ch 35
ba ie s o applica ion o he amewo k – and o CE and sus ainabili y assess-
men in gene al. The answe s o hese ques ions we e add essed di ec ly and hen
coded o analysis. The second le el o da a, eme gen da a, was acqui ed h ough
analysing and in e p e ing he in o ma ion p o ided by he companies ‘in be ween’
he di ec ques ions ha we e asked – h ough, o example, s o ies and anecdo es.
Eme gen da a he e o e cap u e hemes ha a e impo an o he pa icipan s, bu
ha a e in isible p io o he s udy (Massey, 2011). Chap e 4 in his olume in-
cludes u he discussion o he amewo k.
As s a ed abo e, he alida ion exe cise was unde aken wi h companies which
had a leas limi ed (in some cases ex ensi e) expe ience o assessmen and a p io
in e es in CE. While ha was impo an in e ining he amewo k, u he wo k
is needed conside suppo o inexpe ienced companies and o p oduce a sel -
assessmen p ocess o assis companies in unde s anding which capabili ies hey
need o de elop u he .
2.4.4 Con ibu ion o social en e p ises o he CE
This p ojec sough o examine he ac ual and po en ial con ibu ion o social
en e p ises o CE ac i i y using he ci y o Hull, UK, as he case s udy loca ion
(Pusz, 2023).
2.4.4.1 Social Ne wo k Analysis
Social Ne wo k Analysis (SNA) seeks o iden i y and s udy, bo h quali a i ely and
quan i a i ely, complex ela ionships among o ganisa ions (Wasse man and Faus ,
1994). Complemen a y o he c i ical ealis app oach, SNA can enable esea ch-
e s be e o in es iga e ( h ough a combina ion o ex ensi e and in ensi e me h-
ods) causal ela ionships and powe s uc u es unde pinning ne wo ks o he CE,
knowledge o which can esul in mo e in o med policymaking. Following Saye
(1982), ex ensi e me hods seek o iden i y pa e ns and p ope ies ( ypically d aw-
ing on quan i a i e app oaches, p o iding concise da a on mul iple examples). In-
ensi e esea ch seeks add esses ‘how’ and ‘why’ ques ions, o which quali a i e
me hods a e p e e ed as hey p o ide g ea e in-dep h insigh om ypically ewe
examples han ex ensi e esea ch. Whe eas ex ensi e esea ch enabled Pusz e al.
(2023) o iden i y gene al pa e ns and cha ac e is ics o he mapped social ci cula
en e p ise ecosys em landscape in Hull, in ensi e esea ch enabled hem o iden i y
causal ela ionships behind pa icula a ibu es o o ganisa ions in ha ecosys em.
In ensi e esea ch also enabled hem o unco e he con ingen condi ions p omp -
ing hose o ganisa ions o unde ake ac i i ies aimed a os e ing local de elop-
men o he CE. SNA hence p o ides an addi ional ou e o engage s akeholde s
in esea ch ela ing o he applica ion o CE p inciples in pa icula o ganisa ions.
In Pusz (2023) and Pusz e al. (2023) SNA in ol ed a combina ion o semi-
s uc u ed in e iews wi h a isual me hod o mapping in e -o ganisa ional lows
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DOI: 10.4324/9781003295631-3
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license.
3
NAVIGATING DIVERSE
UNDERSTANDINGS OF
ACIRCULARECONOMY
Wal e J.V. Ve meulen, Ma in Calis o F ian ,
Kie an Campbell-Johns on and Na acha Klein
3.1 In oduc ion
The meaning o he ci cula economy (CE) has ecen ly become an impo an ace
o he sus ainabili y deba e. I p oposes a new economic model, in which ma e-
ial esou ces a e ci cula ed wi h a ious aims and in en ions o hose in ol ed,
including ecological balance, economic p ospe i y and social ai ness. Howe e ,
he CE concep is no a new one, as we will elabo a e in sec ion 2. Ins ead, he CE
is o be unde s ood as an e olu iona y concep . Va ious au ho s ha e desc ibed a
leas h ee his o ical pe iods wi h speci ic in e p e a ions o he concep (Blomsma
and B ennan, 2017; Reike e al., 2018; Schöggl e al., 2020). The cu en amings
o he CE build on a ious in e ela ed aspec s o was e managemen and p oduc
policy o e he pas 30–40 yea s. These amings also a y in ela ion o hei
p ac ical mani es a ion o he CE a he mac o, mic o and meso le el (Ghisellini
e al., 2016). Commonly a dis inc ion is made be ween he mac o-le el CE, e.g.
a ci y, p o ince, egion o na ion, whe e we see ze o was e p og ammes, munici-
pal and na ional solid was e s a egies, among o he s; he meso-le el CE, e.g. he
in e play be ween mul iple i ms in a de ined geog aphical loca ion o e i o y,
o en h ough indus ial symbiosis exchanges, e.g. ene gy, was e and wa e in eco-
indus ial pa ks; and he mic o-le el CE, wi h a ocus on p oduc s, he p oducing
companies and consume s, wi h opics like ci cula eco-design and cleane p o-
duc ion p ac ices, c adle- o-c adle design, and consume beha iou s. One can ask
whe he his dis inc ion is adequa e o no ; o example, whe e speci ically do we
pu he global lows o was e and o-be- ecycled ma e ials and p oduc s om he
global-scale me abolism? Bu he key poin he e is ha an unde s anding o wha
he CE is depends on (i) whe e one looks in he complex socio-economic ecologi-
cal sys em and (ii) which disciplina y pe spec i e one akes (Reike e al., 2018).
46 W. J. V. Ve meulen, M. C. F ian , K. Campbell-Johns on e al.
These a e he key hemes o his chap e (Chap e 6 in his olume add esses he
ele ance o places and in pa icula he complexi ies o scale d awing on in e ac-
ions wi h a ange o s akeholde s).
E o s ha e been made o syn hesise he iews on he wide ange o p ac ices
now conside ed o comp ise he CE. In hei e iew, Reike e al. (2018) combined
he di e se p ac ices om a ious ela ed disciplines in o he hie a chy o he 10 Rs
(Re use, Reduce, Reuse/Resell, Repai , Re u bish, Remanu ac u e, Repu pose, Re-
cycle ma e ials, Reco e ene gy, Re-mine), en s a egies o po en ial ac ion by
p oduce s and consume s (see Figu e 3.1). Concep ualising he CE as comp ising
hese di e se ac i i ies, which p e iously we e seldom conside ed o be closely
ela ed, helps o p og ess he ansi ion o a CE by acknowledging i s oo s. One o
hei main obse a ions is ha a en ion so a has been ocused on mass ma e ial
ecycling, o en in he o m o downcycling (R7, R8), and ha mo e a en ion on
he sho e and slowe loops is needed (R0, R1, R2, R3). We add ess his u he
below, and discuss he amewo k c ea ed o he C es ing p ojec in sec ion 3.2.
The di e si y in his o ical, con ex ual and on ological s a ing poin s in CE anal-
ysis u he explains he ex ensi e di e si y in he de ini ions o a CE. Acco ding o
Ki chhe e al. (2017, 2023), cu en ly he e a e 221 de ini ions. One can say ha
he concep is con using, ague and/o con es ed. This does no help companies and
go e nmen s o ake subs an ial s eps in he igh di ec ion and o de elop cohe en
s a egies and p ac ices (a simila p oblem exis s wi h compa able concep s, such
as sus ainable de elopmen ; see Ve meulen, 2018, p. 60). One o he mos well-
known de ini ions o a CE s ems om he con ex o ad ising he business wo ld
R0 = Re use
R1 = Reduce
R2 = Resell, euse
R3 = Repai
Sho loops
Long loops
Hie a chy o CE op ions o consume s and business
R0 R9:
Middle-long loops
R4 = Re u bish
R5 = Remanu ac u e
R6 = Re-pu pose
R7 = Recycle ma e ials
R8 = Reco e ene gy
R9 = Re-mine
FIGURE 3.1 Hie a chy o alue e en ion op ions: The 10 R’s
Sou ce: Reike e al. (2018).
Na iga ing di e se unde s andings o a ci cula economy 47
(Ellen MacA hu Founda ion, 2013). This de ini ion ocuses on ma e ial cycles,
emphasising he closing, slowing and na owing o ma e ial and ene gy loops and
he po en ial economic gains (Geissdoe e e al., 2017). O he de ini ions, o en
om academic communi ies, mo e explici ly connec he CE o sus ainabili y, in-
cluding economic, social and en i onmen al conside a ions (Ki chhe e al., 2017;
Ko honen e al., 2018; Leipold e al., 2023; Mu ay e al., 2015; P ie o-Sando al
e al., 2018).
This connec ion be ween sus ainable de elopmen and he CE has been ex-
amined widely, wi h esea che s a guing ha bo h concep s emphasise no ions
o in a- and in e gene a ional equi y as a consequence o en i onmen al haza ds
(Geno ese and Panse a, 2021; Padilla-Ri e a e al., 2020; Thapa e al., 2023, 2024;
Velen u and Pu nell, 2021). Views on bo h sus ainable de elopmen and he CE
emphasise he ole o egula ion and p i a e ac o s as essen ial o d i ing change.
Bu dominan CE discou ses ha e ocused on closing esou ce and ma e ial loops
in alue chains (R4–R9), a he isk o neglec ing he b oade goals o sus ainable
de elopmen . The bene i s o mains eam CE app oaches a e amed in a na a-
i e o economic and en i onmen al ‘win-wins’, while sus ainable de elopmen
is inhe en ly mo e holis ic ega ding i s h ee social, en i onmen al and mac o-
economic pilla s (Geissdoe e e al., 2017). Consequen ly, hese app oaches ha e
been c i icised o ailing o explo e he basic assump ions, alues, socie al s uc-
u es, cul u es and unde lying wo ld iews ha unde pinned he discu si e and
p ac ical mani es a ions ha call hemsel es he CE (Ko honen e al., 2018). This
has led o he s o ocus on he social and ins i u ional con ex s ha shape CE p ac-
ices (Mo eau e al., 2017).
In his chap e , we p esen ecen de elopmen s on unde s anding he CE in his
b oade con ex based on a discou se analysis o documen s ep esen ing na ional-
and ci y-scale public and p i a e sec o pe spec i es. We also epo on a global
su ey o public opinion on he CE. The discussion connec s he CE discou se o
b oade sus ainabili y issues and issues o social jus ice.
3.2 The ou main iews o he ci cula economy
In he in oduc ion o his chap e we claimed ha he no ion o he CE is no new.
One can indeed s a e ha o he la ge pa o humani y’s p esence on Ea h we
ha e li ed in ci cula socie ies, whe e ma e ial and ene gy lows ci cula ed sus ain-
ably, in ha mony wi h he na u al cycles o he Ea h. I was only du ing he Indus-
ial Re olu ion, and mo e in ensely a e he Second Wo ld Wa , ha his balance
was b oken h ough he c ea ion o g ow h-dependen economic s uc u es and he
inc easing use o ossil uels.
Sho ly a e he end o he Second Wo ld Wa , schola s s a ed o in es iga e
he consequences o indus ial capi alism on he Ea h and i s human and na u al
ecosys ems. This is when he mode n p ecu so s o he CE concep eme ged, wi h

48 W. J. V. Ve meulen, M. C. F ian , K. Campbell-Johns on e al.
key publica ions such as Economy o Pe manence (Kuma appa, 1945), The Limi s
o G ow h (Meadows e al., 1972), Small is Beau i ul (Schumache , 1973), Pos -
sca ci y Ana chism (Bookchin, 1971) and Tools o Con i iali y (Illich, 1973). Ba y
Commone ’s The Closing Ci cle (1971) is pe haps he i s book in which he idea
o a ci cle is used o illus a e a sus ainable socie y, one whe e ma e ial and esou ce
lows ci cula e in an en i onmen ally sus ainable and socially equi able way.
Ano he key his o ical pe iod o he de elopmen o he CE was he 1990s,
especially wi h he eme gence o he ield o indus ial ecology (F osch and
Gallopoulos, 1989). Du ing his pe iod new concep s we e es ablished, such as
indus ial symbiosis (Che ow, 2000), biomimic y (Benyus, 1998), p oduc -se ice
sys em (Goedkoop e al., 1999), e e se logis ics (Roge s and Tibben-Lembke,
1998), and ex ended p oduce esponsibili y (Lindhq is , 2000). This li e a u e
eme ged a he same ime as neolibe al economic hinking, he e o e mos o hese
concep s connec ed o ma ke -d i en app oaches and ga e li le a en ion o key so-
cial jus ice and equi y conside a ions. None heless, hey b ough impo an insigh s
in o new echnologies and inno a ions o eco e indus ial and household was e
and o imp o e he en i onmen al pe o mance o p oduc s and se ices.
Du ing he 2000s many new CE concep s eme ged, wi h a mo e holis ic and
socially inclusi e app oach o consump ion and p oduc ion such as he na u-
al s ep (Robè , 2002), pe o mance economy (S ahel, 2010), c adle o c adle
(McDonough and B aunga , 2002), deg ow h (La ouche, 2009), pe maci cula
economy (A nspe ge and Bou g, 2017), symbio ic economy (Delannoy, 2017),
simple li ing (Alexande , 2015), buen i i (Gudynas and Acos a, 2011), eco-
logical swa aj (Ko ha i e al., 2014) and doughnu economics (Rawo h, 2017).
Conside ing he abo e his o y and di e si y, he CE can be bes unde s ood as an
umb ella concep , which combines and emb aces many key elemen s o sus ain-
abili y hinking.
To help na iga e his plu ali y in CE hinking, Calis o F ian e al. (2020) de el-
oped a 2×2 ypology o ci cula i y discou ses (see Table 3.1).
This ypology di ides ci cula i y discou ses in wo main c i e ia. Fi s , i dis-
inguishes segmen ed discou ses, which ocus on he echnical and business com-
ponen s o ci cula i y, om holis ic discou ses, which include social jus ice and
poli ical empowe men . Second, i di ides op imis ic and scep ical pe spec i es
ega ding he possibili y o decoupling en i onmen al deg ada ion om economic
g ow h (eco-economic decoupling). Di e en combina ions o hese wo c i e ia
lead o ou main ci cula i y discou se ypes:
• Re o mis Ci cula Socie y (RCS) (op imis ic and holis ic) discou ses such as
c adle o c adle (McDonough and B aunga , 2002), he blue economy (Pauli,
2010), na u al capi alism (Hawken e al., 1999) and doughnu economics
(Rawo h, 2017), which seek o c ea e an inclusi e and sus ainable ci cula u-
u e h ough a combina ion o inno a i e business models, social policies and
echnological b eak h oughs.
Na iga ing di e se unde s andings o a ci cula economy 49
TABLE 3.1 Ci cula i y discou se ypology
Technological
inno a ion
and ecological
collapse
App oach o social, economic, en i onmen al and go e nance conside a ions
Holis ic Segmen ed
Op imis Re o mis Ci cula Socie y (RCS)
• Assump ions: eco-economic decoupling is possible and social
jus ice and democ acy is key o a ci cula i y ansi ion.
• Goals: human p ospe i y and wellbeing wi hin he biophysical
bounda ies o he Ea h.
• Means: Technological b eak h oughs and social policies ha
bene i humani y and na u al ecosys ems.
• Examples o concep s: na u al capi alism, c adle o c adle,
he pe o mance economy, he na u al s ep, he blue economy,
egene a i e design.
• P oponen s: In e na ional o ganisa ions, la ge ounda ions and
some go e nmen s.
Technocen ic Ci cula Economy (TCE)
• Assump ions: eco-economic decoupling is possible and social
jus ice and democ acy a e no key o a ci cula i y ansi ion.
• Goals: economic p ospe i y and de elopmen wi hou nega i e
en i onmen al ex e nali ies.
• Means: economic inno a ions, new business models and
unp eceden ed b eak h oughs in CE echnologies.
• Examples o concep s: indus ial ecology, e e se logis ics,
biomimic y, indus ial symbiosis, cleane p oduc ion,
bioeconomy.
• P oponen s: co po a ions, some na ional and ci y go e nmen s,
and in e na ional o ganisa ions.
Scep ical T ans o ma ional Ci cula Socie y (TCS)
• Assump ions: eco-economic decoupling is impossible and
social jus ice and democ acy a e key o a ci cula i y ansi ion.
• Goals: a wo ld o con i iali y and ugal abundance o all,
while ai ly dis ibu ing he biophysical esou ces o he Ea h.
• Means: comple e econ igu a ion o he cu en socio-poli ical
sys em and a shi away om p oduc i is and an h opocen ic
wo ld iews.
• Examples o concep s: con i iali y, s eady-s a e economics,
pe maci cula economy, deg ow h, social ecology, Buddhis
economics, Buen i i , Ubun u.
• P oponen s: social mo emen s, bo om-up ci cula ini ia i es
and indigenous mo emen s.
Fo ess Ci cula Economy (FCE)
• Assump ions: eco-economic decoupling is impossible and social
jus ice and democ acy a e no key o a ci cula i y ansi ion.
• Goals: main ain geos a egic esou ce secu i y in global
condi ions whe e widesp ead esou ce sca ci y and human
o e popula ion canno p o ide o all.
• Means: inno a i e echnologies and business models combined
wi h a ionalised esou ce use and mig a ion and popula ion
con ols.
• Examples o concep s: he agedy o he commons, he
popula ion bomb, o e shoo , disas e capi alism, capi alis
ca as ophism.
• P oponen s: geos a egic hink anks and s a e policies.
Sou ce: adap ed om Calis o F ian e al. (2020) unde C ea i e Commons CC-BY license.
50 W. J. V. Ve meulen, M. C. F ian , K. Campbell-Johns on e al.
• Technocen ic Ci cula Economy (TCE) (op imis ic and segmen ed) discou ses
such as cleane p oduc ion (Baas, 1995), e e se logis ics (Roge s and Tibben-
Lembke, 1998) and indus ial ecology (F osch and Gallopoulos, 1989), which
seek o econcile economic de elopmen wi h ecological sus ainabili y h ough
inno a i e business models and echnologies.
• T ans o ma ional Ci cula Socie y (TCS) (scep ical and holis ic) discou ses
such as deg ow h (La ouche, 2009), buen i i (Gudynas and Acos a, 2011) and
s eady-s a e economics (Daly, 1977), which seek o e-localise, democ a ise and
edis ibu e powe , weal h and knowledge o c ea e a sus ainable pos -capi alis
u u e, in which humani y and na u e coexis in mu ual ha mony.
• Fo ess Ci cula Economy (FCE) (scep ical and segmen ed) discou ses such
as he agedy o he commons (Ha din, 1968), he popula ion bomb (Eh lich,
1968) and o e shoo (Ca on, 1980), which seek o ensu e biophysical s abili y
and geos a egic esou ce secu i y h ough op-down mig a ion con ol, echno-
logical inno a ions and economic a ionalism.
This ypology has p o ed o be use ul in analysing discou ses on he CE in a i-
ous ields (A ai e al., 2023; Melles, 2021a; Palm e al., 2022).
3.3 An analysis o he way he ci cula economy is pe cei ed
inspeci ic con ex s
In his sec ion we p esen he main indings om a ious CE case s udies o exam-
ine which ci cula i y discou se ypes and alue e en ion op ions ( he 10 Rs) a e
p e alen in hese con ex s. In some s udies he ypology has been applied explic-
i ly, while o he s udies can be e iewed e ospec i ely, iden i ying he dominan
iews o he ac o s in hese s udies. We applied his o a ious con ex s, namely
Eu opean and na ional go e nmen s, indus y and he gene al public.
3.3.1 Ci cula economy pe cep ions in (in e )na ional con ex s
3.3.1.1 The Eu opean Union
We i s discuss policies adop ed by he Eu opean Union (EU). The EU has aken
many ac ions on he CE since he implemen a ion o i s CE ac ion plan in 2015
(Eu opean Commission, 2015). The Juncke Commission (2014–2019) enac ed en
communica ions, se en di ec i es and eigh egula ions on he CE, making he EU
a global on unne on he opic. A e iew o he con en and CE ision po ayed
by hese policies e eals ha he Juncke Commission has a a he holis ic dis-
cou se on he CE wi h some social elemen s in i s language ega ding a jus , collab-
o a i e and inclusi e ci cula i y ansi ion (Calis o F ian e al., 2021). Howe e ,
i s conc e e CE policy measu es, di ec i es and egula ions lack social componen s
and ins ead ocus on segmen ed echnological solu ions and esou ce e iciency.
Na iga ing di e se unde s andings o a ci cula economy 51
The e is hus a dicho omy be ween he EU’s discou se and ac ions on he CE. The
CE discou se and ac ions o he EU a e also cha ac e ised by a s ong ocus on
decoupling economic g ow h om en i onmen al deg ada ion hanks o new CE
echnologies and inno a ions. The Juncke Commission’s discou se on he CE is
hus clea ly op imis ic and holis ic ega ding g ow h, he eby alling in he RCS
discou se ype, while he EU’s ac ions a e op imis ic and segmen ed, which places
hem in he TCE discou se ype.
A second EU CE Ac ion Plan was enac ed in 2020 by he Von de Leyen Com-
mission, as a key componen o he Eu opean G een Deal (Eu opean Commission,
2020). The new ac ion plan akes a mo e holis ic and in eg a ed app oach han i s
p edecesso , by including many biodi e si y conse a ion, social jus ice, consume
empowe men and clima e neu ali y p oposals. On he o he hand, i emains
s ongly g ow h op imis ic as i s ill seeks o decouple economic g ow h om en i-
onmen al deg ada ion and ocuses s ongly on gene a ing g ea e compe i i eness
o EU businesses. I s ision and language hus seem o i well wi h a RCS dis-
cou se ype. Howe e , so a e y ew CE- ela ed di ec i es and egula ions ha e
been implemen ed by he Von de Leyen Commission. Thus, i is oo ea ly o judge
he ac ual policy di ec ion aken by he new ac ion plan.
3.3.1.2 The Ne he lands
The Ne he lands is o en seen an ea ly mo e in ea lie e sions o he CE, wi h
he in oduc ion o ini ia i es such as land ill p e en ion and ecycling p ac ices
om he 1970s and he de elopmen o was e p e en ion p og ammes (Ve meulen,
2002) and ex ended p oduce esponsibili y policies in he 1990s (Ve meulen and
We e ings, 1997). The Du ch na ional go e nmen adop ed he e m CE in 2016
and ou lined a go e nmen -wide p og amme en i led ‘A Ci cula Economy: The
Ne he lands by 2050’ (Minis y o In as uc u e and En i onmen and Minis y o
Economic A ai s, 2016). This s a egy connec ed a ious opics o he necessi y o
a CE, linking i o educing ca bon dioxide emissions, educing dependency on aw
ma e ials om o he coun ies and he b oade issue o a global inc ease in ma e-
ial consump ion and, inally, he economic oppo uni ies p esen ed by a CE. The
bene i s ha e been displayed in e ms o job c ea ion, clima e policy, and s a -up
oppo uni ies o ac o s in ol ed in CE ac i i ies. The Du ch CE app oach p io i-
ises i e speci ic sec o s: biomass and ood; plas ics; manu ac u ing; he cons uc-
ion sec o ; and consume goods. An in e im objec i e o a 50% educ ion in he
use o p ima y aw ma e ials (mine als, ossil uels and me als) by 2030 has been
es ablished. Wi h his objec i e o he use o aw ma e ials, he Ne he lands will
aise i s ambi ions o one o he highes le els o all coun ies. This policy is e alu-
a ed egula ly. In he mos ecen assessmen o ma e ial esou ce use, i s e ec s
and he ansi ion ocus, he Du ch En i onmen Assessmen Agency obse ed ha
many CE ac i i ies ocus on ecycling, wi h li le ocus on socio-economic e o m
o make p oduc ion and consump ions chains ci cula , and wi h limi ed a en ion
58 W. J. V. Ve meulen, M. C. F ian , K. Campbell-Johns on e al.
educ ions in humani y’s socio-ecological oo p in in a socially ai and equi able
manne (Zwie s e al., 2020).
E o s o con inue inc easing ci cula li e acy a e hugely impo an , conside -
ing he ising impac s o clima e b eakdown and biodi e si y collapse caused by
he o e -consump ion o plane a y esou ces by he weal hies inhabi an s o he
Ea h (Chancel e al., 2022). Mo e sys emic, edis ibu i e and pos -g ow h ci cula
isions a e hus impe a i e o ensu e he wellbeing o cu en and u u e gene a-
ions and o p e en he collapse o he biosphe e. Ou indings sugges ha mo e
democ a ic delibe a ions abou he CE and g ea e pa icipa ion o ci izens and
scien is s in he cons uc ion and implemen a ion o CE policies could lead o mo e
ans o ma i e ac ions han hose ha a e cu en ly being implemen ed. Indeed,
plu alism and di e si y in he CE deba e is la gely lacking and his is hampe ing a
democ a ic and ee discussion abou he shape o he CE ansi ion.
3.6 Conclusions
In his chap e we examined discou ses abou he meaning o he concep o he
CE. The CE has been concep ualised in academic and policy discou ses, a bo h he
na ional and in e na ional le el. These discou ses ini ially ocused on he ma e ial
esou ce inpu s o p oduc s, se ices, egions and businesses. Mo e ecen ly, hey
ha e expanded o pay mo e a en ion o he wide con ex s in which hese esou ce
use p ocesses ake place (Campbell-Johns on e al., 2020) and b oade socie al dis-
cussions conce ning jus ice, equi y and ai ness (Calis o F ian e al., 2020).
Cap u ing he co e poin s o ag eemen and disag eemen on he meaning o
a CE equi es a sys ema ic analysis o he academic and public deba e. Va ious
amewo ks ha e been de eloped o his. In his chap e we ha e aken he ame-
wo k de eloped by Calis o F ian e al. as a s a ing poin and looked o wha ex en
he ou discou se ypes could be ecognised in o he esea ch unde aken by he
C es ing p ojec . We see a dominance o he TCE iews and o a lesse ex en o
he RCS app oach. In sec ion 3.1 we obse ed ha his was pa icula ly he case
o he EU’s Juncke Commission, showing a dominance o he TCE iews while
he mo e ecen on de Leyen Commission includes mo e elemen s and policies o
he RCS ision. We also saw his mix u e in he ecen Du ch policies and p ac ices
applying ex ended p oduce esponsibili y. In sec ion 3.2 esea ch on pe cep ions
among he Po uguese public sec o also showed a a he echnocen ic iew o he
CE, wi h smalle elemen s o a RCS. Re iewing some o he s udies in indus y in
sec ion 3.4, he analysis showed o his ac o g oup a s onge dominance o he
TCE iews in discou ses and p ac ices conce ning plas ic packaging and he ecy-
cling o passenge ca y es.
Ano he i al sou ce o in o ma ion has been a global su ey o public opinion.
The esul s o his a e mo e nuanced. The dominance o he TCE iew was no
so e iden , as people showed a sligh p e e ence o socially inclusi e discou ses
such as o TCS and RCS app oaches compa ed o echnocen ic discou ses. This

Na iga ing di e se unde s andings o a ci cula economy 59
sugges s ha he iews o indi iduals a e somewha ou o s ep wi h he p e e -
ences o policymake s.
Ou esea ch wo k shows ha he ypology o CE discou ses is e y help ul
when analysing and compa ing he CE discou ses in policy and in economic p ac-
ices. I has enabled us o iden i y he dominance o a TCE iew in policy and
ma ke ini ia i es. We also see social jus ice conside a ions discussed h ough
RCS discou ses, bu hey a e usually no ho oughly implemen ed and ollowed
h ough (as in he EU, Ams e dam and Glasgow). Mo eo e , he e is a clea ocus
on g ow h-p omo ing app oaches o he CE such as TCE and RCS discou ses. This
eliance on g ow h can be p oblema ic, and i has been posi ed ha decoupling
economic g ow h om en i onmen al deg ada ion is ealis ic and would occu
on a scale su icien o e e se he s ong ecological decay (Habe l e al., 2020;
Wiedenho e e al., 2020).
One o he key challenges is whe he and how CE ini ia i es will be mo e p ac i-
cally connec ed o he sus ainable de elopmen agenda wi h i s clea social ai ness
and sha ed p ospe i y aspi a ions, (exp essed in he 17 UN Sus ainable De elop-
men Goals), as many schola s ha e sugges ed, o i i will emain a na owe ,
mainly economic and en i onmen al concep . In many ways, he con es ed and
di e se na u e o CE discou ses means ha hey can easily be ins umen alised by
public and p i a e ac o s o mean wha e e i s hei social, poli ical and economic
goals. This is why u he esea ch on CE p ac ices and policy ac ions in he p i a e
and public sphe e is impo an o unmask he eal sus ainabili y implica ions o
di e en CE discou ses and p ac ices. In his chap e we p esen ed he ypology o
CE discou ses which has p o ed o be e y sui able o ex pos as well as ex an e
c i ical e alua ions o CE policies a all le els and can guide schola s na iga ing
he discou ses a ound he concep o a CE.
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DOI: 10.4324/9781003295631-4
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license.
4
EXPLORING THE ROLE OF COMPANIES
IN TRANSITIONING TO A SUSTAINABLE
AND CIRCULAR FUTURE
Insigh s and Re lec ions
Rupe J. Baumga ne , Pauline Deu z,
Es ephania Delgadillo, Anna Diaz Tena,
Aodhan Newsholme, E ik Roos Lindg een,
Tomas San a-Ma ia, Anna M. Walke
and Ta iana Reyes
4.1 In oduc ion: companies as con ibu o s o a CE
In ecen yea s, he ci cula economy (CE) has eme ged as a p omising a enue o
sus ainable de elopmen (Geissdoe e e al., 2017; Sch oede e al., 2019). Com-
panies a e a special o m o social sys em wi h he goal o p oduce economic alue
by ans o ming angible and in angible inpu s o ou pu s o which cus ome s will
pay. Recen decades ha e seen he eme gence o he ‘ iple bo om line’ (Elking on,
1998) and o he concep ualisa ions sugges ing ha companies also ha e social and
en i onmen al esponsibili ies (Baumga ne , 2014) (i.e. as pa o a sus ainabili y
agenda and mo e ecen ly speci ically o help socie y o each ne ze o). Na ional
and Eu opean Union (EU) policies se he egula o y con ex o companies, i.e.
de e mining he minimum h eshold o social and en i onmen al s anda ds hey
need o mee (see Chap e 9 in his olume o a discussion o CE policy). Com-
panies may excep ionally ake olun a y measu es ha exceed equi emen s, e en
o hei own inancial disad an age (albei po en ially o se by epu a ional ben-
e i s) (Baumga ne , 2014). A u he app oach o implemen ing CE by companies,
which has ecei ed much esea ch a en ion, is how CE s a egies can be inco po-
a ed wi h he co e economic unc ion o companies (Lüdeke-F eund e al., 2019),
i.e. as pa o he alue gene a ing p oposi ion h ough which he company gene -
a es i s p o i s. While he p i a e sec o has shown in e es , he implemen a ion o
sus ainable and ci cula app oaches emains ela i ely low (C is oni and Tonelli,
2018; OECD, 2019). Hence, i is s ill necessa y o unde s and he ac o s ha a-
cili a e and hinde a wide adop ion o a CE.
Companies ansi ioning o a sus ainable and ci cula u u e 65
The co e elemen o a company is i s business model. A business model is a
cohe en cons uc ha syn hesises wha a i m does and o whom ( alue p opo-
si ion), how i does i ( alue c ea ion and deli e y), and why i does i ( alue
cap u e) (Os e walde and Pigneu , 2010; Teece, 2010). Ci cula business models
ollow he p inciples o he CE, inco po a ing elemen s ha slow, na ow o close
he loop o esou ces, so ha he esou ce inpu in o he company and i s alue
ne wo k is dec eased and he esul ing was e is minimised (Bocken e al., 2016).
One o he main s eng hs o ci cula business models (CBM) is hei po en ial
o educe dependence on ini e esou ces and os e ing inno a ion (Kennedy and
Linnenluecke, 2022). Ne e heless, he ini ial in es men s ha a e o en equi ed
(Bauwens 2021), he un amilia i y o exis ing cus ome s wi h new business
models and he logis ical complexi y o hei implemen a ion o en limi hei
applicabili y.
P oduc se ice sys ems (PSS) a e one speci ic ype o ci cula business model
consis ing o alue p oposi ions o ien ed owa ds sa is ying use s h ough he de-
li e y o unc ions o pe o mance ins ead o p oduc s (Ceschin and Gaziulusoy,
2016). Since manu ac u e s main ain he owne ship o he p oduc s and only o e
he pe o mance o cus ome s, hey ha e an economic mo i a ion o enhance hei
esou ce u ilisa ion. Examples o exis ing PSS in ol e he p o ision o mobili y
solu ions ins ead o indi idual ehicles o ligh ing sys ems ins ead o ligh bulbs
(Ceschin and Gaziuluso , 2016). Consequen ly, complemen ing exis ing p oduc s
wi h new se ices has d as ic implica ions o he p ocesses in ol ed in design-
ing he p oduc s in he i s place, namely he p oduc de elopmen p ocess. In
pa icula , he selec ion o new ma e ials and design p inciples in ol ed in he ex-
ension o p oduc li espans necessi a es di e en e enue models and exchanges
o in o ma ion among new ac o s. As a esul , some o he decisions in ol ed in
de eloping p oduc s o ci cula i y a e o a s ong s a egic na u e, sugges ing he
need o addi ional insigh s in o how design p ocesses a e eshaped (Baldassa e
e al., 2020).
Besides he inco po a ion o CE elemen s in o co e company ac i i ies (i.e.
alue gene a ion), success ul implemen a ion also equi es addi ional ac i i ies
o be de eloped. E idence o he en i onmen al and social impac s o such s a -
egies mus be p o en. The newly p oposed SCEIA (S a egic Ci cula Economy
Impac Assessmen ) amewo k is designed o guide companies h oughou he
p ocess o measu ing hei impac s. We desc ibe he amewo k’s objec i es and
i s alida ion p ocedu e in Sec ion 4.3.4. A u he conside a ion a ising om
CE app oaches is he need o coope a ion beyond he scale o he company
(Deu z, 2009), and in pa icula in e i o ially de ined app oaches (e.g. when a
public body such as a local au ho i y is a emp ing o implemen a CE wi hin i s
ju isdic ion (see Chap e 6 in his olume), o i a company seeks o inco po a e
p io i ies based on i s loca ion (i.e. e i o ial pe spec i es), hen u he s ake-
holde s such as go e nmen al bodies become ele an . These conside a ions
66 R. J. Baumga ne , P. Deu z, E. Delgadillo e al.
p esen addi ional obs acles o he e ec i e implemen a ion o CE app oaches,
which we conside below.
This chap e syn hesises indings om esea ch p ojec s add essing speci ic as-
pec s o he ole o companies in he sus ainable and ci cula ansi ion (encom-
passing co po a e implemen a ion o he CE, CBM, PSS, p oduc de elopmen ,
CE assessmen and in eg a ion o e i o ial pe spec i es) in o de o add ess he
ollowing ques ions: (1) wha d i e s and ba ie s do companies ace ega ding
he implemen a ion o CE app oaches; (2) which app oaches can be used by com-
panies o inno a e hei business models and hei p oduc s and se ices o a CE
and o assess he en i onmen al and social impac s o co po a e CE ac i i ies; and
(3) wha is he ela ionship be ween companies and e i o y a he egional le el?
In he ollowing sec ion me hods a e p esen ed, as well as he esul s o six e-
sea ch con ibu ions. A discussion o hese esul s and inal conclusions p o ides
implica ions o heo y and p ac ice.
4.2 Me hods
This chap e builds on he esul s o six PhD p ojec s ca ied ou by ea ly s age
esea che s (ESRs) wi hin he C es ing p ojec , each add essing speci ic aspec s o
he ole o companies in he sus ainable and ci cula ansi ion. Quan i a i e and
quali a i e me hods we e used and included case s udy esea ch wi h companies,
in e iews, su eys, ( ocus g oup) wo kshops, sys ema ic li e a u e e iews, expe
eedback and ac ion design esea ch (see Table 4.1).
TABLE 4.1 Resea ch con ibu ions and me hods employed in he s udy o companies’
app oaches o he CE
Loca ion Pe spec i e and ocus Me hods
I aly, he
Ne he lands
Company: ba ie s o and
d i e s o he CE
Su ey (n = 155) in h ee di e en
languages wi h companies om
di e en sec o s
Aus ia and he
Ne he lands
Company: business model
inno a ion
Mul iple case s udy (n = 10),
ac ion design esea ch
Aus ia Company: p oduc and
se ice design
In e iews, pa icipan
obse a ion, con en analysis,
mo phological analysis
I aly Company: CE assessmen Expe panel su ey, ocus g oup
wo kshops
F ance, Swi ze land,
Taiwan
Company and egion:
e i o ial business models
In e iews, pa icipa o y social
ne wo k analysis
The Uni ed
Kingdom, Aus ia
Company and egion:
s akeholde and
embeddedness
In e iews, discou se analysis,
obse a ion, su ey
Companies ansi ioning o a sus ainable and ci cula u u e 67
4.3 Cases add essing he business pe spec i es o a CE
The esul s o he six esea ch con ibu ions a e p esen ed in his sec ion. Fi s d i -
e s o and ba ie s o co po a e CE p ac ices a e p esen ed. Based on his gene al
iew o co po a e CE p ac ices he ocus is on inno a ion a he company le el,
wi h i s ci cula business model inno a ion (CBMI) and second p oduc and se -
ice design o a CE. The ou h con ibu ion add esses he assessmen o CE pe -
o mance a he company le el. Finally, he i h and six h con ibu ions add ess
he embeddedness o companies in la ge sys ems using he example o e i o ial
business models and a egional pe spec i e o companies in a CE.
4.3.1 Co po a e CE p ac ices: d i e s and ba ie s
While esea ching d i e s o and ba ie s o he implemen a ion o a CE an in-dep h
analysis o CE p ac ices (s a egies, solu ions o business models) in companies
ac oss sec o s loca ed in I aly and he Ne he lands was ca ied ou in mid-2019. In
a su ey dis ibu ed in h ee languages 155 esponden s om companies engaged
wi h CE p ac ices answe ed, among o he s, ques ions ega ding hei exac CE
p ac ices, he goal o pu suing hese, as well as he d i e s o and ba ie s o he
implemen a ion o a CE.
Rega ding he planned and implemen ed CE p ac ices, he esponden s we e
p esen ed wi h a lis o 15 CE p ac ices iden i ied by Kalmyko a e al. (2018) om
which hey could selec mul iple answe s. As depic ed in Figu e 4.1, he mos com-
monly applied CE p ac ice is he eco e y o p oduc s, ma e ials o ene gy om
was e. This is ollowed by 4Rs o inc ease ene gy and ma e ial e iciency, which
could be a ibu ed o p ocess op imisa ion. The leas applied CE p ac ice in he
sample is p o iding a sha ing pla o m o consume goods, ailing behind epai -
ing p oduc s, emanu ac u ing o e u bishing goods as well as PSS models.
9
20
24
26
30
35
38
41
43
44
51
59
62
71
77
0102030405060708090
P o iding a sha ing pla o m o consume goods
Repai ing p oduc s
Remanu ac u e o e u bish
P oduc se ice sys em
Ac i e in ol emen o use communi y
P oduc labelling
Indus ial symbiosis
Buying used ma e ials o p oduc ion o goods
Modula design
Selling only ci cula p oduc s
Re e se logis ics
Eco-design
Applica ion o g een p ocu emen equi emen s
4Rs o inc ease ene gy and ma e ial e iciency
Reco e y o p oduc s, ma e ials o ene gy om was e
Numbe o companies implemen ing p ac ice
FIGURE 4.1 CE p ac ices implemen ed o planned by esponden s, n = 141
74 R. J. Baumga ne , P. Deu z, E. Delgadillo e al.
FIGURE 4.7 The Ci cula Sp in amewo k. The igu e con ains he p ocess phases, i s 12 ac i i ies and a p oposed ime ame, which could
be adap ed acco ding o he use case
Sou ce: San a-Ma ia e al. (2022b) used unde CC BY license 4.0.

Companies ansi ioning o a sus ainable and ci cula u u e 75
was only easible once he p oduc design had been comple ed, since only hen did
he p oduc e alua ion in o ma ion become a ailable. This issue has been p e iously
epo ed and acknowledged as he eco-design pa adox (Le ne e al., 2021). The e-
sul o hese SPD p ac ices p e en s p oduc planne s om discussing sys emic sus-
ainabili y conce ns o econside ing alue p oposi ions, which could be deli e ed
in some ins ances h ough an al e na i e owne ship model a angemen o wi hou
he use o a physical p oduc . S a ing he con e sa ions la e in he design p ocess
esul s in only mino imp o emen s owa ds sus ainabili y. Second, while he CE
li e a u e has de eloped many indica o s, i was ound ha hese we e no applied in
p oduc e alua ion ou ines. Indica o s a e impo an me ics o moni o i he ci cu-
la economy design ai s a e e ec i ely enginee ed in o p oduc designs. The lack
o indica o in eg a ion was pa ly agg a a ed by a concomi an lack o indus ial
s anda ds on CE assessmen in he con ex o manu ac u ing companies a he ime
he esea ch was conduc ed. Thus, a bes , p ac i ione -de eloped indica o s such
as he Ma e ial Ci cula i y Indica o (MCI) (Ellen Maca hu Founda ion, 2015) o
he Ci cula T ansi ion Indica o (CTI) (Wo ld Business Council o Sus ainable
De elopmen , 2021) we e seldomly used in niche design p ojec s. Thi d, a s ong
p e alence o c adle- o-ga e li ecycle hinking was ound when i comes o moni-
o ing he sus ainabili y impac o p oduc s. In p ac ice, i was possible o ind ela-
i ely ma u e in o ma ion exchanges wi h ac o s belonging ups eam in he alue
chain (such as supplie s o manu ac u e s o pa s) and insu icien o non-exis en
FIGURE 4.8 The ou lenses o sus ainable inno a ion
Sou ce: au ho s’ elabo a ion, inspi ed by B own (2008) and Shapi a e al. (2017), in San a-Ma ia e al.
(2022a) and used unde CC BY license 4.0.
76 R. J. Baumga ne , P. Deu z, E. Delgadillo e al.
exchanges wi h ac o s belonging o he use phase o he end-o -li e phase. This hin-
de s he sus ainabili y assessmen o ci cula inno a ions due o he subsequen lack
o anspa ency o assump ions and eliabili y o da a in sus ainabili y assessmen
e o s (Peña e al., 2020). The ou h and he i h sho alls a e o an in e pe sonal
na u e. T ans o ma i e ci cula design s a egies conside mo e han jus ma e ial
and a chi ec u e – hey o en inno a e a he se ice o ecosys em le el. Thus, SPD
p ocesses also need o in ol e in e -o ganisa ional ac o s (supplie s, use s, end-o -
li e manage s, ou sou ced se ice p o ide s, and so on). Simila ly, managemen ac-
o s need o be u he engaged as well, due o he need o econ igu e elemen s
pe aining o he co po a e s a egy such as a p oduc ’s e enue model. These new
exchanges imply he use o a wide ange o communica ion s yles, backg ound ex-
pe ise o be deployed in new c oss- unc ional dialogues and in e -o ganisa ional e-
la ionships. Exchanges wi h o he ma ke pa icipan s o ques ions abou consume s’
linea expec a ions necessi a e no only changes in he p ocesses o he s uc u e, bu
also a shi in o ganisa ional a i ude. Thus, a s ong equi emen o hese exchanges
o ake place is o align o ganisa ional cul u es wi h new p ocesses.
In he second phase o esea ch, i was in es iga ed how companies we e imple-
men ing a CE. Fo his, 24 ins ances o alue e en ion s a egy implemen a ions we e
analysed o examine implemen a ion pa e ns (Diaz e al., 2022). An o e iew o an
agg ega ed implemen a ion p ocess can be ound in Figu e 4.9 (Diaz e al., 2022).
An ea ly obse a ion poin s o he ac ha de eloping p oduc s o a CE s a s
be o e p oduc de elopmen and design, i.e. du ing p oduc planning. In his e-
ga d, alue e en ion s a egies we e ound o play a wo- old ole. Du ing planning
p ocesses, hey a e pa o he co po a e compe i i e and sus ainabili y s a egies
FIGURE 4.9 O e iew o managemen ac o s in luencing ci cula p oduc design
eme ging a di e en s ages o p oduc planning and de elopmen and
main in e ac ions be ween hem
Sou ce: Diaz e al. (2022) used unde CC BY license 4.0.
Companies ansi ioning o a sus ainable and ci cula u u e 77
and hus need o deli e on co po a e sus ainabili y goals. This is an impo an
s ep, since he in eg a ion o ci cula i y will no always be economically a o a-
ble (Bauwens, 2021) and hus a balance be ween s a egic ade-o s needs o be
decided upon. A second obse a ion is he ac ha alue e en ion s a egies de-
e mine he s akeholde ecosys em su ounding he p oduc . On he one hand, his
includes s akeholde s who di ec ly in e ac wi h he physical p oduc a i ac (e.g.
dis ibu ion, cus ome s, end-o -li e manage s, e c.) and whose in e en ions and
decisions la gely de e mine he sus ainabili y implica ions o ci cula unc ionali-
ies embedded in p oduc s. The di ec in ol emen o many o hese li ecycle ac-
o s du ing p oduc planning and de elopmen was obse ed, e.g. he cus ome s.
On he o he hand, he in ol emen o a wide se o s akeholde s is needed o
secu e a ce ain deg ee o socie al embeddedness o a dis up i e ci cula p oduc
inno a ion (e.g. cul u al ac o s, poli ical ac o s, egula o y ac o s and ma ke ac-
o s). Managing hese wide ne wo ks equi es he in ol emen o a a ied ange
o company unc ions (e.g. ma ke ing, communica ions, managemen ) and hus a
s ong elemen o c oss- unc ional coo dina ion.
The main managemen ac o s and condi ions needed o implemen a CE du -
ing SPD p ocesses we e sys ema ised in a managemen amewo k (Table 4.2). In
addi ion, he amewo k was applied as a ca ego isa ion p inciple o explo e alue
e en ion s a egy implemen a ion pa e ns ac oss o ganisa ions, again con i ming
a s ong co ela ion be ween sus ainabili y s a egies and he implemen a ion o
alue e en ion s a egies.
In sum, alue e en ion s a egies need o be managed and in eg a ed in o p od-
uc designs by o mula ing alue e en ion-based unc ional equi emen s. These
hen need o be ansla ed in o design ai s and wo king p inciples. To e i y he
e ec i eness o a ci cula design s a egy, p oduc e alua ion ou ines need o as-
sess he ex en o which he ci cula p oduc can pe o m he unc ions o which i
was i s idea ed (p oduc quali y) so ha he o ganisa ion emains compe i i e in
he ma ke . To e i y ha co po a e sus ainabili y goals a e me , sus ainabili y as-
sessmen s a e pa o p oduc e alua ions as well. I is he e o e c ucial o conduc
ho ough p oduc e alua ions aligned wi h ci cula design p inciples and sus ain-
abili y assessmen s o ensu e he p oduc ’s compe i i e edge and also o e i y he
o ganisa ion’s alignmen wi h long- e m sus ainabili y goals.
4.3.4 Measu ing ci cula i y a he co po a e le el
Companies a e inc easingly adop ing CE p ac ices o align wi h in e na ional sus ain-
abili y agendas such as he Uni ed Na ions Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs)
(Op e kuch e al., 2021). Howe e , a common h ead is ha he ela ionship be ween
CE s a egies and hei sus ainabili y impac s is qui e ambiguous (Walke e al., 2021).
The la es In e go e nmen al Panel on Clima e Change (IPCC) epo has co obo-
a ed his poin , s a ing ha ‘claims on he bene i s o he ci cula economy o sus ain-
abili y and clima e change mi iga ion ha e limi ed e idence’ (IPCC, 2021).
78 R. J. Baumga ne , P. Deu z, E. Delgadillo e al.
TABLE 4.2 Managemen amewo k o he in eg a ion o alue e en ion op ions du ing SPD p ocesses. The op ow shows he numbe o manage ial
ac o s enabling he implemen a ion o alue e en ion s a egies. The columns display he co esponding ange o ac o condi ions
obse ed.
Sus ainabili y alues Value e en ion
s a egy
D X guideline
ocus
Quali y
comp omises
Sys em s akeholde s Ex ended eam
Meaning-making Re use Socio- echnical
sys em
Pe o mance Policymake s, media,
non-p o i , esea ch
Communica ion
Impa iali y Reduce P oduc ecosys em Fea u es Ma ke playe s S a egic managemen
Compe ence Resell/Reuse Re enue model Reliabili y Supplie s P ocu emen
In luence Repai Re enue model Con o mance Dis ibu ion ne wo k De elopmen and
p oduc ion
Heal h Re u bish Se ice Du abili y Cus ome s Logis ics
Biosphe e physical
deg ada ion
Remanu ac u e A chi ec u e Se iceabili y Local depo s, epai
se ices
Ma ke ing and sales
An h opogenic subs ance
accumula ion
Repu pose Ma e ial Aes he ics Local was e
manage s
A e sales
Ea h c us subs ance
deple ion
Recycle P ocess Pe cei ed
quali y
Reco e ene gy
Re-mine
Sou ce: Diaz e al. (2022) used unde CC BY licence 4.0.
Companies ansi ioning o a sus ainable and ci cula u u e 79
The eali y o pe sis ing global en i onmen al and social c ises has p omp ed
an inc eased assessmen o he sus ainabili y impac s o CE s a egies by compa-
nies (Co ona e al., 2019). Such assessmen s will o e addi ional bene i s in e ms
o bo h communica ion and in e nal impac imp o emen s (Roos Lindg een e al.,
2022). Howe e , CE assessmen s seem o be applied ela i ely in equen ly (Das
e al., 2022; S ump e al., 2021). Two easons o his a e a lack o unde s anding o
company needs and capabili ies o assessmen , and he complexi y o he cu en ly
a ailable me hods (Das e al., 2022). To add ess hese issues, one esea ch aim was o
design a new CE assessmen amewo k o assis wi h he s a egic decision-making
p ocess o selec ing he op imal CE solu ion. This amewo k is called he S a e-
gic Ci cula Economy Impac Assessmen (SCEIA). He e we summa ise i s design,
alida ion and con en . The applied esea ch me hodology consis ed o h ee phases:
(1) se ing he objec i es o he amewo k, de e mining i s me hodological con en
and i s applica ion ou ine; (2) alida ing he amewo k using an expe panel su ey
and a se ies o ocus g oup sessions wi h p ac i ione s; and (3) applying he ame-
wo k in p ac ice. See Roos Lindg een (2022) o a de ailed desc ip ion o each phase.
Following a c i ical assessmen o he a ailable li e a u e on CE assessmen ,
i e objec i es o he amewo k we e o mula ed:
• Enable a holis ic (mul idimensional) assessmen : he CE is in e p e ed as a ool-
box o esou ce-e iciency s a egies o achie e posi i e impac s on he h ee
dimensions o sus ainable de elopmen .
• P e en bu den shi ing o o he pa s o he supply chain o li ecycle (li ecycle
pe spec i e): o a oid bu den shi ing o o he pa s o he supply chain, a li e-
cycle iew o co po a e sus ainabili y is p omo ed.
• P o ide lexibili y in e ms o scale and sus ainabili y ma u i y: he scale on
which he amewo k can be applied is lexible and depends on he goal o he
assessmen (Ceschin and Gaziulusoy, 2016). The amewo k in ends be easible
o companies wi h di e en le els o knowledge abou assessmen by being
modula and adjus able o he sus ainabili y ma u i y o he applying i m.
• Build on exis ing assessmen ools: he use o me hods such as Ma e ial Flow
Analysis and Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) o assess he CE, as ecommended
by se e al au ho s, is p omo ed in he amewo k.
• Assis s a egic decision-making p ocesses: s a egic decision-making in i ms
is cha ac e ised by high s akes and long- e m epe cussions (Bushan and Rai,
2004). The s a egic le el o decision-making is conside ed he e o be pa icu-
la ly ele an due o u gency o mo e away om business-as-usual pa e ns o
p oduc ion and consump ion.
A e de ining he objec i es and deciding on a p elimina y applica ion ou ine, he
esul ing p elimina y amewo k was alida ed. Ex ensi e s akeholde engagemen , ex-
plained in Chap e 2 in his olume, in ol ed bo h an expe panel su ey (K a chenko
e al., 2021) and quali a i e p ac i ione ocus g oups (Nyumba e al., 2018).

80 R. J. Baumga ne , P. Deu z, E. Delgadillo e al.
Nex , a b ie o e iew o each o he di e en s eps ha o m he SCEIA ame-
wo k is p esen ed, oge he wi h a isualisa ion o he amewo k (Figu e 4.10).
S ep 1: poin o depa u e. The company decides ha a decision on CE mus be
made, and ha assessmen will play a ole in his. The company o mula es i s
(b oad) sus ainabili y goals and de e mines i s s a ing poin , ollowing om i s
p e ious expe ience wi h assessmen .
S ep 2: Iden i ica ion. The company se s he scope o he assessmen and iden i-
ies ele an s akeholde s ha play a pa in collec ing da a and de e mining he
included dimensions. Nex he company collec s da a on esou ce and ene gy
lows ele an o he se scope. Op ionally, he company iden i ies impac a eas
impo an o i s s akeholde s h ough a ma e iali y assessmen .
S ep 3: Diagnosis. In he diagnosis s ep, he baseline assessmen is unde aken. I
can include an assessmen o he en i onmen al, social o economic impac s o
he p e iously selec ed sys em. The diagnosis s ep will iden i y impac ho spo s
wi hin he selec ed sys em’s alue chain. The ecommended me hods a e LCA,
Li e Cycle Cos ing and Social Li e Cycle Assessmen .
S ep 4: De elopmen . In he de elopmen s ep, a CE s a egy will be selec ed o a ge
he p e iously iden i ied impac ho spo (s). This can be done using an ex ensi e
lis o a ailable CE s a egies, a ailable as pa o he amewo k. The app op ia e-
ness o a ce ain CE s a egy is highly dependen on he company’s con ex .
S ep 5: Selec ion. In he op ional selec ion s ep, a choice is made on which o he
p e iously e alua ed CE s a egies is mos p e e ed in e ms o easibili y and
impac .
FIGURE 4.10 O e iew o he SCEIA amewo k
Sou ce: de eloped by he au ho s based on Roos Lindg een (2022).
Companies ansi ioning o a sus ainable and ci cula u u e 81
Finally, he amewo k was applied in a eal-wo ld se ing, in collabo a ion wi h
a company wi h he ambi ion o lowe i s en i onmen al impac s h ough he imple-
men a ion o CE s a egies. Due o he modula na u e o he p e iously designed
and alida ed amewo k and easibili y, he p ima y ocus o he applica ion was
he use o LCA in assessing he en i onmen al impac s o o-be-in oduced CE
s a egies. These scena ios we e based on ma ke condi ions and mee ings wi h he
company’s managemen eam. While he p ocess o assessmen is s ill challenged
by he complexi y o he a ailable me hods, he assessmen o he sus ainabili y
impac s o he selec ed scena ios using he SCEIA amewo k p o ided he com-
pany wi h insigh s ha suppo ed i s decision-making p ocess. In a nex phase o
his wo k, he amewo k was used wi h a selec ion o CE companies in di e en
A ican coun ies o u he op imise i s design and applica ion.
4.3.5 Te i o ial ci cula business models
Companies can design inno a ions o sus ainabili y a di e en le els. Recen
s udies show how he inno a ions o sus ainabili y ha e e ol ed om na ow
echnical p oduc and p ocess-cen ic p ocesses owa ds la ge-scale sys em-le el
changes (Adams e al., 2016; B eze , 1997; Ceschin and Gaziulusoy, 2016). Cu -
en ly, sus ainabili y and CE inno a ions in companies ha e ocused exclusi ely
on a limi ed ange o inno a ion ypes (p oduc s and echnologies), p edominan ly
on en i onmen al challenges (Adams e al., 2016). The e o e, o con ibu e o sus-
ainabili y and CE ansi ions companies need o adop a highe le el o sys ems
inno a ion, including de eloping PSS design s a egies, sus ainable o ganisa ion
design s a egies and sus ainable collabo a ion design s a egies (Baldassa e
e al., 2020).
PSS a e in eg a ed o e ings o p oduc s and se ices which can ha e inno a i e
po en ial, secu ing compe i i eness while a he same ime allowing companies o
add ess en i onmen al conce ns (Anna elli e al., 2020). PSS a e alue p oposi-
ions o ien ed owa ds sa is ying use s by deli e ing unc ions o pe o mance in-
s ead o p oduc s (Ceschin and Gaziulusoy, 2016), e.g. om selling ca s o selling
mobili y solu ions, om selling ligh bulbs o selling ligh ing solu ions. Since man-
u ac u e s e ain he owne ship o he p oduc s and deli e pe o mance o hei
cus ome s, hey a e economically incen i ised o op imise hei esou ce u ilisa ion
h ough imp o ing esou ce e iciency, inc easing p oduc li e ime, o educing he
o al numbe o p oduc s needed o p o ide ha pe o mance (Tukke , 2004, 2015;
Vezzoli e al., 2015).
Despi e he sus ainabili y po en ial o PSS, ecen s udies highligh ha hese
o e ings a e no always sus ainable (Bouche e al., 2016; Doualle e al., 2016;
Pigosso and McAloone, 2016) no con ibu e o he CE. Companies migh adop
he business model o hei economic in e es s wi hou in e nalising en i onmen-
al o social conce ns. Thus, o PSS o con ibu e o he ansi ion owa ds sus ain-
abili y, hey need o be ca e ully designed, de eloped and deli e ed o his pu pose
(Be oni, 2019; Bouche e al., 2016; Ceschin, 2013).
82 R. J. Baumga ne , P. Deu z, E. Delgadillo e al.
While gains in esou ce p oduc i i y a e essen ial in designing a sus ainable
PSS o e ing, sus ainable PSS design should in eg a e a sys emic app oach o a ain
a ange o en i onmen al and social pe o mances (K is ensen and Remmen, 2019;
Reim e al., 2015; Vezzoli e al., 2015). The e o e, he pe o mance and po en ial
alue o he PSS should be unde s ood om speci ic con ex s, such as he socio-
echnical sys ems and he e i o ies and mul iple s akeholde s pe spec i es in e-
g a ing cus ome s, supplie s, employees and socie y (Cos a Fe nandes e al., 2020;
Pezzo a e al., 2018; Yang and E ans, 2019). Howe e , he cu en app oaches
o mul i-s akeholde ela ions in PSS o sus ainabili y and he CE s udies do no
explo e hei con ex ualisa ion, which poses obs acles o he design and implemen-
a ion o PSSs as he en i onmen al and social ou comes o hese s akeholde s’
ela ions a e a ma e o local in e p e a ion (Cook, 2018, 2014). Mo eo e , sus-
ainabili y does no all e enly ac oss space (Cas ee, 2005). Thus, success ul PSS
design and implemen a ion need o conside s akeholde ela ions si ua ed in space.
Fo companies o de elop PSS o sus ainabili y, hey mus ques ion whe he hei
ope a ions con ibu e o e i o ial esilience (Bucle , 2014). The e o e, i is i al o
companies when de eloping a PSS no o ocus solely on de eloping new PSS bu
also on unde s anding he con ex ual condi ions ha may a ou o hinde he socie al
embedding o he PSS hemsel es (Ceschin, 2013; Cook, 2018). Wi hou con ex u-
alising PSS solu ions as pa o he wide economic sys ems hei sus ainabili y po-
en ial emains unclea and jeopa dised. In his s udy, e i o ies a e no only ‘neu al’
loca ions whe e economic ac i i ies a e de eloped; hey a e also conside ed PSS co-
cons uc o s and esou ce p o ide s (Allais and Gobe , 2019). The e i o y is an
o ganisa ion insc ibed in space and is socially cons uc ed (Pecqueu , 2014).
In o de o ensu e he e i o ial ancho ing o he solu ion, PSS mus p o ide
in eg a i e capabili ies o companies mo ing owa ds in eg a ed o e ings o p od-
uc s and se ices while unde s anding use s’ and socie y’s needs in a gi en con ex
(Joo e and B eze , 2015). Thus, he esea ch iden i ied h ee main le e age poin s
o p ac ically suppo ing he in eg a ion o he e i o ial dimension in PSS designs
o sus ainabili y:
1 Suppo he unde s anding o complex sys ems o o ganisa ions and hei pa icula
PSS. PSS designs o e i o ial sus ainabili y equi e a mul i-le el app oach, in
which companies need o iden i y and unde s and he socio- echnical and e i o ial
sys ems hei PSS ac i i ies belong (Joo e and B eze , 2015; Pe eno and Ba be o,
2020). Wi hou an unde s anding o hese la ge sys ems, companies migh lack a
clea unde s anding o hei socie al unc ion (socio- echnical sys em), and hei
in e ela ions wi h o he sys ems in he e i o y, i.e. a bike-sha ing o e ing needs
o conside how his o e ing complemen s he local mobili y (socie al unc ion)
and wellbeing o ci izens in a speci ic ci y o egion ( e i o ial sys em). Iden i ying
highe sys em le els is i al o iden i ying speci ic e i o ial needs and challenges
conce ning socie al unc ion, key e i o ial ac o s and local capabili ies.
2 Suppo he unde s anding o how he PSS can c ea e socie al and en i on-
men al alues a he o ganisa ional, ne wo k and e i o ial le el. The cu en
Companies ansi ioning o a sus ainable and ci cula u u e 83
na a i es o he alue o PSS in design a e ela ed o esou ce e iciency (Cook,
2018, 2014). This migh ein o ce PSS inno a ion design p ac ices ocused on
echnological ixes and insula inno a ion (Cook, 2018, 2014). This obs uc s
he e lec ion p ocess o companies on how companies can inno a e o ans-
o ma ions a highe sys em le els wi h hei PSS o e ings (Joo e and B eze ,
2015). Thus, suppo ing companies in unde s anding he sus ainable alue op-
po uni ies and ou comes in PSS mus be unde s ood om mul idimensional
(economic, social and en i onmen al) and mul i-le el (o ganisa ional, ne wo k
and e i o ial) pe spec i es (Delgadillo e al., 2021). The use o imma e ial
capi als and e i o ial capi als acili a es an unde s anding o a b oade ange o
alue bene i s o PSS (Allais and Gobe , 2016; Delgadillo e al., 2021), esul -
ing in compelling na a i es o he inno a ion bene i s o s akeholde engage-
men and concep design discussions and assessmen .
3 De elop concep s ha ackle cus ome and e i o ial needs. The coupling o
cus ome /use - ocused (zooming in) and he sys emic pe spec i e o he e -
i o ial app oach (zooming ou ) is an essen ial p ac ice o enhancing he sus-
ainabili y o business models (Ho mann and Jaege -E ben, 2020). This p ocess
ensu es ha he business o e ings a e desi able, easible, iable and co espond
o he local sus ainabili y challenges.
The design and de elopmen o e i o ial PSS imply companies make e o s o
hink beyond hei p oduc s and se ices as well as ede ining hei pu pose in e ms
o how hey unc ion om an economic and ope a ional s andpoin . In addi ion, com-
panies need o de elop collabo a ions wi h di e en e i o ial ac o s om he p i-
a e, public and ci il sphe es o iden i y local sus ainabili y challenges and business
oppo uni ies. The e o e, he design and implemen a ion p ocesses need op-down
policy changes and bo om-up ini ia i es (companies and ci izens o he e i o ies)
and mo e democ a ic and pa icipa o y app oaches. The ole o go e nmen s is c i i-
cal o de eloping local, egional and na ional p og ammes ocused on de eloping
pla o ms and esou ces o PSS adop ion. Go e nmen s can enhance he c ea ion
o ins i u ional en i onmen s in which local go e nmen s, businesses, academia and
ci il socie y ac o s come oge he o de elop a PSS o hei e i o y. Pa icula ly o
designe s, i means adop ing a sys emic posi ion ha is also mo e c i ical. They mus
be able o engage wi h socio-poli ical ques ions and amewo ks o c ea e he condi-
ions o o ming ne wo ks a ound sus ainabili y issues (Fo lano, 2016).
4.3.6 Business and he CE: a spa ially de ined app oach
As discussed in Chap e 6 in his olume, he ela ionship be ween companies and
he places whe e hey ope a e is a ely conside ed in a CE con ex . Focusing on a
speci ic place, e.g. he e i o y o a ci y o egion, in oduces addi ional s akehold-
e s, including local go e nmen and o he public agencies, which equi es collabo-
a ion be ween businesses and policymake s o ansi ion o a egional CE. This
esea ch examined he pe spec i es o la ge companies on a po en ial egionally
90 R. J. Baumga ne , P. Deu z, E. Delgadillo e al.
No es
1 R0: Re use, R1: Reduce, R2: Reuse, R3: Repai , R4: Re u bish, R5: Remanu ac u e, R6:
Repu pose, R7: Recycle, R8: Reco e , R9: Re-mine.
2 See Chap e 6 in his olume o u he in o ma ion on he case s udy a eas.
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DOI: 10.4324/9781003295631-5
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license.
5
ASSESSMENT APPROACHES AND
METHODS FOR A CIRCULAR ECONOMY
And ea Raggi, Hin ika D oege, Ka elin Op e kuch,
E ik Roos Lindg een, Anna M. Walke , Sand a Caei o,
Tomás B. Ramos and Robe a Salomone
5.1 In oduc ion
Bo h p i a e and public sec o o ganisa ions play a key ole in he global up ake o
he ci cula economy (CE). Businesses om many sec o s a e expe imen ing wi h
CE business models, and one eason o his g owing in e es is p obably connec ed
o he concep ’s p omise o a ious inancial bene i s h ough inno a ion (Ellen
MacA hu Founda ion, 2013). Beyond such inancial e u ns, esea ch has amed
a wide se o ad an ages o CE ac i i ies o companies based on h ee domains o
sus ainable de elopmen , o he ‘ iple bo om line’, namely plane , people, p o i
o p ospe i y (PPP). These include lowe ing en i onmen al impac s and ealising
social imp o emen s and he p e iously men ioned economic bene i s, such as
cos sa ings and he de elopmen o new ma ke s (Laubsche and Ma inelli, 2014;
Ko honen e al., 2018). Acco ding o his ame, he po en ial o CE s a egies lies
in educing nega i e sus ainabili y impac s wi hou jeopa dising g ow h and p os-
pe i y (Fe asso e al., 2020).
Howe e , he ac ual sus ainabili y implica ions o he CE ha e mos ly been
assumed a he han ca e ully assessed (Blum e al., 2020; Ha is e al., 2021).
Indeed, i is c ucial o assess o wha ex en CE s a egies ac ually con ibu e o
sol ing global c ises, such as clima e change, biodi e si y loss and economic in-
equali y, while also aking in o accoun po en ial e ec s a he egional and local
le el, such as acidi ica ion, eu ophica ion, ecosys em oxici y and local employ-
men . Likewise, i is essen ial o imp o e he unde s anding o how o assess he
po en ial impac s o he CE. Howe e , doing so is a p esen beyond he scope o
he cu en impac measu emen and epo ing me hodologies.
To e idence his p omised educ ion in sus ainabili y impac s, esea ch poin s o
an inc easing need o CE indica o s and o he assessmen me hods o business. Such
Assessmen app oaches and me hods o a ci cula economy 97
app oaches can help o ganisa ions o e alua e hei p og ess in he implemen a ion
o CE p ac ices and he ac ual ealisa ion o he expec ed en i onmen al, social and
economic bene i s (K is ensen and Mosgaa d, 2020). Ge ing da a on such impac s
is qui e c ucial, since o many CE s a egies i is unclea whe he , o o wha ex en ,
hey ac ually lead o mo e sus ainable ou comes ac oss all he dimensions and as-
pec s o sus ainabili y (K a chenko e al., 2019). Well-in ended CE s a egies migh
ac ually lead o inc eased impac s and/o bu den shi ing (Lonca e al., 2018; Co ona
e al., 2019; Walzbe g e al., 2021). This chap e esponds o his impo an gap in
unde s anding by analysing he needs and challenges o p i a e and public sec o
o ganisa ions seeking o assess he ci cula i y and sus ainabili y o hei ac i i ies.
A key equi emen o companies o engage wi h assessing hei sus ainabili y im-
pac s is he a ailabili y o he igh me hods and ools o he pu pose. Indeed, as e-
ga ds he me ics o CE assessmen , he e a e mul iple app oaches and indica o s o
choose om, wi h a la ge numbe o e iew a icles in en o ying such CE assessmen
app oaches o businesses (e.g. Co ona e al., 2019; K is ensen and Mosgaa d, 2020).
Many o he exis ing assessmen app oaches a e in en o ied and ca ego ised, mainly
ocusing on hei connec ion o di e en sus ainabili y dimensions and speci ic CE
s a egies. Resea ch has ound equen inclusion o he en i onmen al and economic
domains, wi h less a en ion being gi en o social aspec s (Oli ei a e al., 2021).
O e all, exis ing assessmen app oaches a e ex emely di e se. This migh be
caused by he complex na u e – and limi ed unde s anding – o he ela ionship be-
ween he CE and sus ainabili y (Geissdoe e e al., 2017; Sch oede e al., 2019.
The e seems o be a lack o consensus on whe he he CE and sus ainabili y assess-
men a e di e en o he same and whe he one o ms pa o he o he (Vinan e
e al., 2021; Walzbe g e al., 2021). Hence, he need o b ing o de o he as mul-
i ude o app oaches and indica o s a ailable and o del e deepe in o he ela ion-
ships be ween ci cula i y and sus ainabili y and he ela ed assessmen p ocesses,
which we e iden i ied as objec i es o his esea ch.
No ably, companies and o he o ganisa ions do no exis in isola ion bu a e pa
o ne wo ks (some imes o mally cons i u ed, o he s less so). CE p ac ices mos ly
ake place wi hin a ne wo k o companies (Ba is a e al., 2018), hus going beyond
single i ms. While bo h p i a e sec o and academic li e a u e is eme ging on how
o assess he ci cula i y o a company (Elia e al., 2017; Wo ld Business Council o
Sus ainable De elopmen , 2018; Vinan e e al., 2021) and i s impac on sus ainabil-
i y (K a chenko e al., 2019; K is ensen and Mosgaa d, 2020), limi ed li e a u e
has looked a he in e - i m le el. Hence, he objec i e o c ea e an o e iew o
sus ainabili y assessmen app oaches in ci cula in e - i m ne wo ks and o iden i y
c i e ia o sound sus ainabili y assessmen in a CE con ex , while explo ing hei
applica ion in academia and p ac ice. Addi ionally, he esea ch sough o analyse
he po en ial syne gies be ween, as well as complemen a y ea u es o , he CE and
sus ainabili y assessmen app oaches applicable o geog aphical con ex s.
A u he a ea conside ed by he esea ch was he need o de elop com-
munica ions o CE p ac ices. CE assessmen me ics, in ac , could be used o
98 A. Raggi, H. D oege, K. Op e kuch e al.
anspa en ly and eliably communica e o a ious s akeholde s h ough sus ain-
abili y epo ing he ci cula i y and sus ainabili y p og ess in companies (Di le -
Simonsen and Mid un, 2010; Lock and Seele, 2016; EC, 2021). I , in gene al, he
ange o epo ing app oaches a ailable is qui e wide (Thijssens e al., 2016), he e
is an ex ensi e discussion on hei abili y o con ibu e o anspa en and quali y
non- inancial disclosu es (Melloni e al., 2017; Co esi and Vena, 2019; de Villie s
and Sha ma, 2020). Mo e speci ically, a lack o cla i y and a need o u he in-
es iga ion eme ged on how ci cula i y should be communica ed in sus ainabili y
epo s and on wha he bene i s and challenges ela ed o CE epo ing a e, also
in ligh o he e ol ing ele an egula ion. The e o e, he e is a g owing need o
guiding p inciples o he inclusion o CE- ela ed in o ma ion in sus ainabili y e-
po s. F om his a ose he objec i e o examining he amewo ks sugges ed in he
li e a u e and he exis ing app oaches in o de o guide companies in CE sus ain-
abili y epo ing.
Bo h p i a e and public sec o o ganisa ions a e conside ed key ac o s in he
ansi ion owa ds a CE (Ki chhe e al., 2017; Pa chomenko e al., 2019). Public
sec o o ganisa ions a e de ined by he O ganisa ion o Economic Co-ope a ion
and De elopmen (OECD, 2019) as any o ganisa ion unde go e nmen con ol ha
de elops public goods o se ices. Thei poli ical na u e dis inguishes hem om
he ma ke -d i en p i a e sec o (Domingues e al., 2017). Public sec o o ganisa-
ions a e o en cha ac e ised as bu eauc acies wi h non-compe i i e (impe sonal)
hie a chies, ule-based managemen , unc ional speciali y, di ision o labou and
ocused missions (Webe , 2008). Au ho s highligh ha he di e en cha ac e is ics
be ween p i a e and public sec o o ganisa ions need o be acknowledged in he
de elopmen , implemen a ion and execu ion o CE assessmen app oaches (e.g.
K is ensen and Mosgaa d, 2020).
The public sec o con ibu es signi ican ly o he socio-economic sys em, o
example as a egula o and policymake , a ole model o a signi ican consume and
pu chasing powe . Many go e nmen s ha e de eloped and implemen ed CE s a e-
gies and ac i i ies al eady (Klein e al., 2020). These ac i i ies can se e as a ole
model o o he public sec o o ganisa ions, non-go e nmen al o ganisa ions, he
p i a e sec o , as well as ci izens (Domingues e al., 2017). Public sec o o ganisa-
ions can impac sus ainabili y, especially in a eas such as p ocu emen , in e nal
ope a ions (e.g. ma e ial consump ion) and hei owne ship o many buildings,
among o he s (B amme and Walke , 2011). F om an economic iewpoin , in he
Eu opean Union (EU), o example, public sec o expendi u e accoun s o 51.5%
o g oss domes ic p oduc (Eu os a , 2021).
To u he exploi he po en ial o he CE in he public sec o , i is app op ia e
o public o ganisa ions o implemen a CE assessmen in hei p ocesses (Klein
e al., 2020). Nume ous public sec o o ganisa ions ha e decla ed hei suppo
o CE pe o mance e alua ion; ne e heless, i s implemen a ion does no appea
o be widesp ead (Ghisellini e al., 2016). The e o e, a u he objec i e o his
p ojec was o analyse which ac o s hinde he implemen a ion o CE assessmen s
Assessmen app oaches and me hods o a ci cula economy 99
in public sec o o ganisa ions and o iden i y how o o e come hese challenges,
as well as o p o ide public o ganisa ions wi h a concep ual amewo k o assess-
ing and epo ing CE pe o mance. S a ing om he abo e-men ioned gaps and
objec i es, C es ing’s esea ch in es iga ed he opic o assessing he sus ainabili y
o he CE by unde s anding he main ela ed me hodological issues o bo h he p i-
a e and public sec o s. The esul s o he p ojec wo k packages con ain lessons on
he ools, me hods and indica o s use ul o measu ing bo h he ex en and e ec s
o a CE owa ds sus ainabili y, a di e en sec o al con ex s and scales. Th oughou
he esea ch, a dual pe spec i e including heo e ical con ibu ions and end-use
poin o iews (i.e. companies, p ac i ione s and public sec o o ganisa ions) was
conside ed.
The le els o analysis a e summa ised in Figu e 5.1, in o de o hei appea -
ance in he chap e : he i m le el, he ci cula in e - i m ne wo ks (CIFN) le el,
he epo ing and disclosu e le el and he le el o public sec o o ganisa ions. The
do ed line indica es he bounda ies o he p i a e sec o . The di ec ion o epo -
ing and disclosu e akes place om he p i a e sec o o socie y and public sec-
o o ganisa ions, while i ms also communica e CE me ics be ween hemsel es.
Measu emen - ela ed in e ac ions be ween public sec o o ganisa ions a e summa-
ised as p ocu emen and policy in e ac ions: his is explained in mo e de ail la e
in he chap e .
The nex sec ion s a s by highligh ing he main aims o businesses o assess
ci cula i y; hen, he ou comes o a sys ema ic analysis o key expe iences o sus-
ainabili y assessmen o he CE a e p esen ed and b ie ly discussed, iden i ying
he implemen ed me hods and ools o di e en indus y sec o s, company dimen-
sions, sus ainabili y pe spec i es (en i onmen al, economic, social), and key was e
s eams. In sec ion 5.3 he u gen opic o s eng hening in e - i m connec ions by
applying bo h CE and sus ainabili y assessmen is p esen ed. Sec ion 5.4 is cen ed
a ound he indings ela ed o he use o assessmen app oaches o acili a ing
FIGURE 5.1 Di e en analysis le els o CE assessmen applied in his chap e
106 A. Raggi, H. D oege, K. Op e kuch e al.
Zinck e al., 2018) and hei local con ex s. One o he op ions is o use he epis e-
mological lens o Ac o Ne wo k Theo y (ANT) o model end-o -li e scena ios o
a LCA and o con ex ualise i s esul s. In his way, he assessmen is iewed in i s
ole as a calcula i e de ice and can be seen as pe o ma i e, i.e. a ool o ad oca e
o he implemen a ion o one CE solu ion o e he o he , o example (Nie o e al.,
2021). Conduc ing mo e LCT-based assessmen s suppo ed by sociological analy-
ses is essen ial in a sus ainable de elopmen con ex , because he esul s can di ec
companies owa ds po en ial le e s o ac ion (Baumann and Lindk is , 2022). Be-
sides he need o embed he LCA in o a ce ain con ex , i is essen ial o unde s and
he limi a ions o his calcula i e de ice, gi en i can only p o ide a pa ial (limi ed
se o impac ca ego ies) and unidimensional ( ocusing on en i onmen ) pic u e o
a sys em’s sus ainabili y (Gaspa a os and Scolobig, 2012; Nie o e al., 2021). In
addi ion, LCAs a e being used and in e p e ed by o he ac o s such as he compa-
nies commissioning he LCAs o decision-making and ex e nal communica ion
(P yshlaki sky and Sea cy, 2021) and should hus no be iewed as a neu al me h-
odology. In a simila ein, i is an assessmen app oach ha mi o s he wo ld iew
o LCA p ac i ione s h ough hei modelling choices (Gaspa a os, 2010). While
a ce ain deg ee o subjec i i y is una oidable, and acco ding o F eidbe g (2018)
e en desi able, LCA p ac i ione s should be anspa en abou hese alues. This
is especially ele an gi en he s a us ha LCA has acqui ed as a bes p ac ice as-
sessmen me hodology in he CE con ex , which is bound o inc ease i s applica ion
subs an ially (ISO, 2020; Roos Lindg een, 2022).
5.4 CE assessmen wi hin sus ainabili y disclosu e
andex e nalcommunica ion
As al eady men ioned, mul iple assessmen app oaches o he CE ha e been p o-
posed and e iewed bo h by academics (e.g. Saidani e al., 2019; K is ensen and
Mosgaa d, 2020), as well as by p i a e ini ia i es (e.g. Ellen MacA hu Founda-
ion, 2020; WBCSD, 2022). Howe e , hese app oaches a e gene ally designed o
p oduce esul s/da a o in e nal use, o e ing companies he oppo uni y o u ilise
assessmen esul s o in e nal imp o emen and CE s a egy op imisa ion. As e-
ga ds ex e nal communica ion, gi en he sca ci y o indica ions in he li e a u e
on CE da a o be disclosed ex e nally, as well as on he connec ions be ween CE
assessmen and co po a e sus ainabili y epo ing, companies ha e o decide inde-
penden ly how and wha o epo in e ms o ci cula i y (Op e kuch e al., 2021,
2022). This, as Pauliuk (2018) sugges s, could lead o companies epo ing in-
dica o s o CE which bes sui hei na a i e and hus open hemsel es up o
claims o g eenwashing. Howe e , he ecen ly accep ed d a Eu opean Sus ain-
abili y Repo ing S anda ds, speci ically he s anda d Resou ce Use and Ci cula
Economy, will now guide companies o disclosing compa able CE da a wi hin hei
manda o y co po a e sus ainabili y epo s (EFRAG, 2022). To comply wi h hese
epo ing equi emen s, CE assessmen s will p o ide companies wi h su icien and

Assessmen app oaches and me hods o a ci cula economy 107
ele an CE da a o inc ease he anspa ency o hei business ac i i ies and educe
po en ial claims o g eenwashing (Op e kuch e al., 2022). Addi ionally, he use
o CE assessmen esul s can assis companies wi h he iden i ica ion o ele an
CE-speci ic isks and oppo uni ies, as is equi ed by hei in es o s and ex e nal
s akeholde s. O e all, CE assessmen s can ga he da a ele an o inclusion wi hin
co po a e disclosu es; hus, he assessmen s hemsel es can help o acili a e and
imp o e exis ing co po a e sus ainabili y epo ing p ocesses.
5.4.1 The need o businesses o epo hei p og ess owa ds ci cula i y
The e a e nume ous easons why companies should include CE con en (including
he esul s o any CE assessmen s) wi hin hei co po a e sus ainabili y epo s.
A a Eu opean le el, he con ex o CE disclosu e is apidly mo ing om olun-
a y o manda o y disclosu e. Following he publica ion o he EU’s G een Deal
(EC, 2020), which cemen ed he CE as a p io i y app oach o add ess a numbe
o en i onmen al issues, he CE has been included as a key en i onmen al objec-
i e wi hin ele an sus ainable inance egula ions, namely he Co po a e Sus ain-
abili y Repo ing Di ec i e (CSRD) (EC, 2021) and he EU Taxonomy Regula ion
(EC, 2020). Wha his means is ha in he coming yea s he e will be an inc easing
demand o (1) CE da a wi hin co po a e sus ainabili y epo s and (2) he numbe
o in es men s made o companies engaging wi h and epo ing CE da a. Compa-
nies ha a e al eady olun a ily conduc ing CE assessmen s and communica ing
his ype o da a will be a a clea ad an age compa ed o hose ha will only do
so when i becomes manda o y. In addi ion o his e ol ing clima e o CE disclo-
su e, ea ly e idence sugges s ha companies a e expe iencing a numbe o bene i s
when ex e nally communica ing hei CE ac i i ies (Op e kuch e al., 2023).
Using semi-s uc u ed in e iews, a sample o 43 companies engaged wi h he
CE and ope a ing in ei he I aly o he Ne he lands we e asked wha bene i s hey
expe ienced when hey ex e nally communica ed hei CE ac i i ies. Gene ally,
companies had eco ded a numbe o bene i s. Fi s , he CE is a powe ul s o y-
elling ool. Companies explained ha aming he desc ip ions o hei business
ac i i ies using a li e cycle app oach enabled hem o de elop in o ma i e na a-
i es which explain he li e cycle o he ma e ials being used and he p oduc s hey
p oduce. This in u n, helps consume s o unde s and exac ly how he company’s
p oduc s a e being made and wha he company’s alues a e. Second, companies
desc ibed he CE as an impo an ool o p omo e sus ainabili y educa ion. A ma-
jo challenge o companies in ending o ex e nally communica e CE da a was a
pe cei ed low ma ke awa eness and consume accep ance o ‘ci cula p oduc s’
(Op e kuch e al., 2023). These esul s show he di icul ies companies ha e in
selec ing wha CE con en (bo h quali a i e and quan i a i e) o ex e nally com-
munica e when hei audience does no unde s and he ad an ages o CE s a e-
gies compa ed wi h exis ing linea s a egies. Thi d, by ex e nally communica ing
CE ac i i ies and he esul s o CE assessmen s, companies el ha hey we e
108 A. Raggi, H. D oege, K. Op e kuch e al.
imp o ing hei own epu a ions and enabling eligibili y o CE-speci ic inancial
incen i es. Following on om he publica ion o he EU Taxonomy (EC, 2020) a
numbe o inancial ins i u ions and go e nmen al o ganisa ions ha e de eloped
a a ie y o inancial ins umen s ela ed o he CE, e.g. p i a e and public equi y
unds, en u e capi al, as well as CE-speci ic adap a ions o cu en bank lending,
insu ance and p ojec inancing p ocedu es (Ellen MacA hu Founda ion, 2020).
The e o e, companies ha a e conduc ing CE assessmen s and disclosing he e-
sul s can po en ially ecei e necessa y in es men s in o de o con inue and ad-
ance hei CE implemen a ion.
5.4.2 Disclosing CE assessmen s in he p i a e sec o
Looking o wa d, he e a e se e al ac o s ha companies should keep in mind
when selec ing da a om hei CE assessmen s o be included wi hin hei co po-
a e sus ainabili y epo s. Ea ly e idence o a CE wi hin co po a e sus ainabili y
epo s indica es ha companies mos o en quali a i ely desc ibe hei CE ac i i-
ies wi h an implici connec ion o sus ainabili y aspec s and o en unquan i ied
indica o s (S ewa and Nie o, 2018; Op e kuch e al., 2022). The e o e, as p o-
posed in Op e kuch e al. (2023), companies mus ind a balance be ween quali a-
i e and quan i a i e CE da a, angible and in angible CE con en , and sho - and
long- e m CE isions. Th ough a con en analysis o he sus ainabili y epo s o
94 sus ainably anked Eu opean companies, nume ous sho comings o cu en CE
disclosu e p ac ices we e iden i ied (Op e kuch e al., 2022). Mos o en, compa-
nies we e ound o be epo ing a ge s o he implemen a ion o a CE ha add ess
highe - anking CE s a egies (as p esen ed in Po ing e al., 2017) such as a ge s
which aim o elimina e and/o eplace non- enewable esou ces wi hin packaging.
Howe e , companies we e a ely ound o also epo app op ia e indica o s which
measu e hei p og ess owa ds achie ing hese a ge s. Mos equen ly, compa-
nies a e epo ing CE indica o s which measu e e e ences o he linea economy,
e.g. indica o s showing he olume o was e being sen o land ill. The e o e, i
is ecommended ha companies u ilise he 10R-hie a chy, o iginally p oposed by
Po ing e al. (2017) o de elop a ge s and indica o s o indi idual CE s a egies,
wi h he aim o disclosing highe - anking s a egies (whe e applicable).
Finally, companies should pay close a en ion o he a ious ongoing de elop-
men s in egula ions and policies ele an o co po a e sus ainabili y epo ing and
communica ion, namely he CSRD (EC, 2021), he EU Taxonomy Regula ion (EC,
2021, 2020) and he ecen G een Claims Di ec i e (GCD) (EC, 2023). In pa icula ,
he la e de elopmen which aims o educe ins ances o g eenwashing wi hin bo h
p oduc and o ganisa ional le el en i onmen al claims, including hose conce ned
wi h CE a ibu es. Wi hin he GCD, he EC will equi e companies o mee a lis o
p ede e mined c i e ia be o e ex e nally communica ing any sus ainabili y claims.
These c i e ia ocus on ac o s such as subs an ia ion, scien i ic igou and compa a-
bili y, o name bu a ew (EC, 2023). This egula ion will undoub edly in luence he
Assessmen app oaches and me hods o a ci cula economy 109
choice o assessmen app oaches companies can use o collec , measu e and e i y
he da a needed o en i onmen al claims in o de o comply wi h his egula ion.
Al hough hese egula ions a e imposed a a Eu opean le el, hey will lay he oun-
da ions o in eg a ing a CE, and o he sus ainabili y issues, wi hin na ional-le el
sus ainable inance egula ions in coun ies a ound he wo ld. Fo example, he in-
eg a ion o a CE as a key ma e ial disclosu e opic can be seen in coun ies such as
Sou h A ica, h ough he ‘Na ional G een Finance Taxonomy’ (Na ional T easu y
o he Republic o Sou h A ica, 2021) and he People’s Republic o China, wi hin
he ‘G een Bond Endo sed P ojec Ca alogue’ (People’s Bank o China e al., 2021).
5.5 CE assessmen in he public sec o
To be able o design and p io i ise ci cula policies and solu ions ha can con ibu e
o sus ainable de elopmen based on ac ual e idence, public sec o o ganisa ions
a e s a ing o implemen CE assessmen ini ia i es and he opic is gaining a en-
ion in he li e a u e (Co ona e al., 2019; D oege e al., 2021a). The public sec o
assesses CE ac i i ies a di e en le els. A he mac o le el i assesses he p og ess
and impac o CE policies. A he meso le el, assessmen ini ia i es eme ge in ci -
cula supply chain managemen and ci cula public p ocu emen (Xu e al., 2022).
A he mic o le el, in e nal CE s a egies and p ac ices a e assessed (D oege e al.,
2021a). Due o he lack o a sha ed unde s anding and a s anda dised amewo k, a
a ie y o CE measu emen app oaches exis in he public sec o oo, and he li e a-
u e and p ac ice a e only s a ing o gain a deepe unde s anding o CE assessmen .
5.5.1 Assessing he impac o CE egula ions and policies
CE egula ions and policies in end o add ess he mul i ace ed issue o esou ce
a ailabili y conce ns and sus ainable de elopmen a he mac o le el. The com-
plexi y o sus ainabili y and ci cula i y issues ca ies he isk o leading o CE poli-
cies ha a e no e ec i e o e en desi able. Measu ing he impac o egula ions
and policies is a i s s ep o make ou comes and po en ial epe cussions anspa en
and o ensu e ha s a egies and ac i i ies ollow he in en ions o he policymake /
egula o .
The e is a signi ican body o li e a u e on CE policies and policy assessmen in
China and Eu ope (e.g. Geng e al., 2012, McDowall e al., 2017). China was one
o he i s coun ies o elease an indica o amewo k o ack he p og ess o i s
‘Ci cula Economy P omo ion Law’ (Geng e al., 2012). The Chinese go e nmen
in oduced a a ge esponsibili y sys em which ies indi idual pe o mance o ci il
se an s agains a ge s de i ed o he i e-yea -plan. In addi ion, he Chinese go -
e nmen assesses se e al CE pilo p og ammes o measu e and compa e p og ess
o he di e en pilo s (McDowall e al., 2017). A icles analysing CE assessmen
implemen a ion in China ha e been subjec o mul iple publica ions (e.g. Geng
e al. 2012, 2013).
110 A. Raggi, H. D oege, K. Op e kuch e al.
In Eu ope, indica o s a e used o in o m he policy deba e and a ge s a e se o
he EU membe s a es (McDowall e al., 2017). The i s CE Ac ion Plan d awn up
in 2015 (EC, 2015) e e s o exis ing indica o se s such as he Resou ce E iciency
Sco eboa d and he Raw Ma e ials Sco eboa d (McDowall e al., 2017). La e ,
he EU eleased i s own assessmen amewo ks and ou pu s such as ‘EU Ci cula
Economy Indica o s’ o he ‘impac assessmen o ci cula economy policies on he
labou ma ke s’ (Eu os a , 2019). These CE assessmen s in use a e acing c i icism
in he li e a u e because hey ail o g asp he complexi y o he mul i ace ed CE
concep ; some o hem lack speci ic goals and benchma ks and a e no anspa en
in hei me hodology (e.g. Geng e al., 2012; MacDowell e al., 2017). Resea che s
ha e also highligh ed ha he assessmen o en i onmen al and economic opics,
pa icula ly hose ha a e he ocus o he p i a e sec o , is challenging (e.g. Pauliuk,
2018; Roos Lindg een e al., 2021). Howe e , he assessmen o CE policies o en
excludes he social dimension, which, as al eady men ioned, is e en mo e complex
and o en is mo e subjec i e han he en i onmen al and economic aspec s.
5.5.2 Assessing ci cula public p ocu emen
Public p ocu emen is a as -g owing esea ch ield in he con ex o he CE. P o-
cu emen can help o ganisa ions and go e nmen s o achie e CE- ela ed objec i es
connec ed o buying goods and se ices (Alhola e al., 2019. The Uni ed Na ions
En i onmen P og amme (UNEP) s a es ha
Ci cula p ocu emen occu s when he buye pu chases p oduc s o se ices ha
ollow he p inciples o he ci cula economy, suppo ing he assessmen o de-
signing, making, selling, eusing and ecycling p oduc s o de e mine how o ge
he maximum alue om hem, bo h in use and a he end o hei li e
(UNEP, 2021)
Collabo a ion and anspa ency a e key p inciples in public p ocu emen ac-
i i ies as mul iple pa ies a e in ol ed in he p ocu emen p ocedu es. Thus, CE
assessmen s can play a cen al ole by p o iding a s anda dised language o all
pa ies in ol ed leading o a mo e success ul CE pa ne ship (Ghisellini e al.,
2020), while he lack o anspa ency and in o ma ion is conside ed a key ba -
ie o CE implemen a ion (Ki chhe e al., 2018; D oege e al., 2021b). In a sys-
ema ic e iew o he public p ocu emen li e a u e, Xu e al. (2022) ound ha a
a ie y o assessmen me hodologies a e adop ed. LCA and eco-labels a e widely
implemen ed, and, o example, he EU p ocu emen Di ec i e 2014/24/EU is buil
upon i (Alhola e al., 2019). The e a e also p ocu emen guidelines o emissions,
packaging, en i onmen al managemen sys ems and legal sou cing p o ided by
public sec o o ganisa ions a he sup a-na ional, na ional, egional and local le el
(K is ensen e al., 2021).
Assessmen app oaches and me hods o a ci cula economy 111
5.5.3 Assessing CE in in e nal ope a ions
Exis ing CE assessmen s o o ganisa ions ocus on he p i a e sec o and li le
p og ess has been made owa ds CE assessmen s add essing public sec o o gani-
sa ions. D oege e al. (2021c) co-de eloped a CE assessmen amewo k o public
sec o o ganisa ions. In a pa icipa o y case s udy wi h Po uguese public sec o o -
ganisa ions, hey de eloped a CE assessmen amewo k ha co e s he ollowing
componen s: (i) a sys em de ini ion; (ii) a de ini ion o CE assessmen elemen s;
(iii) CE assessmen a ge s; and (i ) CE indica o s. The sys em de ini ion included
public p ocu emen , esou ces, p ocesses and ope a ions, as well as employee-
ela ed ac i i ies as impo an a eas o CE assessmen in public sec o o ganisa-
ions. These a eas we e b oken down u he in o 35 CE elemen s which we e hen
de ailed by alloca ing CE p inciples, a a ge as well as an indica o o assess he
CE p og ess o each elemen .
The au ho s showed ha public sec o o ganisa ions encoun e di icul ies
when conside ing non-sec o -speci ic amewo ks, as hey include indica o s ha
a e no ele an o CE assessmen o a se ice-based o ganisa ion and/o equi e
e y complex assessmen me hods ha a e no easible o be execu ed by mos
public sec o p o essionals (D oege e al., 2021c). I also highligh s he impo -
ance o s akeholde in ol emen o ge sec o speci ic insigh s, inco po a e use -
iendliness and he equi emen o con inuous de elopmen o CE assessmen s
(D oege e al., 2021c). Thus, he de eloped amewo k gi es hese o ganisa ions
speci ic guidance on how o assess hei speci ic CE p og ess.
5.6 Key lea nings o CE assessmen in bo h he p i a e
andpublic sec o s
CE assessmen s need o be ailo ed o hei con ex . Wha ‘CE pe o mance’ is
and how i should be add essed di e s ac oss sec o s and o ganisa ions. Howe e ,
c oss-sec o lea ning is e y impo an o unde s and he expe iences and inno a-
i e ideas which he public and p i a e sec o s can exchange wi h each o he (Xu
e al., 2022).
Fi s , as ci cula i y is a complex mul i ace ed issue, i is aluable o include
expe s and s akeholde s in he de elopmen and execu ion o CE assessmen s.
Fo example, depending on he hema ic ocus o he public sec o o ganisa ion, i
migh lack echnical and specialised s a wi h expe knowledge o he CE. Thus,
including expe s and s akeholde s can b idge his knowledge gap. While his chal-
lenge migh no apply o big p i a e co po a ions o mo e echnical o ganisa ions,
small and medium-sized en e p ises migh encoun e simila di icul ies as hey
po en ially also lack ained s a and he inancial esou ces o implemen complex
assessmen s (D oege e al., 2023).
In addi ion, CE assessmen in he p i a e and public sec o s s ill aces im-
plemen a ion challenges ha need o be o e come. B idging he indings om

112 A. Raggi, H. D oege, K. Op e kuch e al.
he academic and g ey li e a u e wi h insigh s om p ac i ione s can help o
de elop assessmen app oaches wi h low ba ie s o implemen a ion. I can
suppo he educ ion o complexi y and inc ease use -cen ici y, which im-
p o es use expe ience o CE assessmen s as he in ended audience is di ec ly
add essed (D oege e al., 2023). Inc eased a en ion on sha ed lea ning be ween
businesses, he public sec o and academia will u he imp o e he gene al un-
de s anding o needs and capabili ies o assessmen . Th ough such collabo a-
ions, assessmen app oaches ha ma ch business eali ies can be ealised (Roos
Lindg een e al., 2022).
Cu en ly, CE assessmen is no ye widesp ead and esea ch iden i ied mul iple
challenges ha p e en implemen a ion. In he public sec o , D oege e al. (2021b)
iden i ied challenges ac oss ou main ac o s (cul u al, s uc u al, inancial and
echnical) ha a e in e ela ed and pa ly d i e each o he . The mos p essing ba -
ie s o CE assessmen implemen a ion in he public sec o a e cul u al ac o s, a
lack o public and poli ical p essu e and a esis ance o change. Cul u al challenges
d i e s uc u al ones such as a lack o leade ship commi men , he olun a y na u e
and lack o go e nance o CE assessmen . Technical and inancial challenges,
con a y o p e ious indings o he li e a u e, a e no p io i ised and a e seen as a
esul o he cul u al and s uc u al challenges.
Fo he p i a e sec o , ba ie s o CE assessmen can be di ided in o in e nal and
ex e nal ba ie s (Roos Lindg een e al., 2022). The o me include ac o s such as
small company size, unclea use o CE assessmen s and he necessa y acquisi ion
o new skills by a business’s employees. The la e con ains ba ie s such as a lack
o de ini ion o wha a CE means, complexi y o he supply chain unde assessmen
and a lack o s anda disa ion o CE measu emen .
5.7 Fu u e esea ch a enues
In line wi h hese lea nings, se e al sugges ions o u u e esea ch can be p o-
posed. On he one hand, u u e esea ch should ocus on u he adap ing assess-
men app oaches o a a ie y o di e en con ex s, while on he o he hand i should
c ea e knowledge o suppo companies in CIFNs and public sec o o ganisa ions
o ac ually implemen hese app oaches.
I is ecommended ha he academic sec o inc eases i s ocus on building
knowledge ha suppo s o ganisa ions on hei pa hway owa ds sus ainabili y,
acknowledging ha assessing ci cula i y in i sel does no necessa ily lead o in-
sigh s in o an o ganisa ion’s sus ainabili y impac s. This knowledge c ea ion – and
awa eness – will s eng hen he assessmen capabili ies o o ganisa ions o design
assessmen app oaches ha ma ch company capabili ies, while limi ing he in o-
duc ion o new me hods o educe so-called assessmen a igue. The design and
applica ion o assessmen me hods should be cen ed a ound bo h co e as well as
ailo -made indica o s, he eby acili a ing he compa abili y o pe o mance and
lexibili y o con ex -speci ic aspec s.
Assessmen app oaches and me hods o a ci cula economy 113
O e all, many o ganisa ions ha e al eady s a ed o assess hei ci cula i y and
sus ainabili y impac s. Illumina ing such bes p ac ices and sha ing hei lessons
among o ganisa ions can demons a e he e icacy o CE assessmen and epo ing
p ac ices, while also highligh ing common pi alls. Exchanging such in o ma ion
can acili a e he up ake o assessmen me hods, p omo ing he s a egic change in
o ganisa ions necessa y o comba cu en sus ainabili y challenges.
I is s ongly ecommended o inco po a e bo h he en i onmen al as well as so-
cial dimensions o sus ainabili y when assessing CE impac s. A a me hodological
le el, in compa ison o en i onmen al LCA, i is expec ed ha S-LCA is inhe en ly
mo e socially embedded due o he in eg al alue discussions ha need o ake
place du ing he assessmen (Kühnen and Hahn, 2018). Ye , gi en ha se e al CE
p ac ices a e no el, u u e esea ch should explo e hei social implica ions in he
sec o s whe e hese ci cula inno a ions a e mos p e alen . Mo eo e , schola s
should aim o also include he ‘use phase’ o he p oduc o se ice, which is mos ly
omi ed om he social assessmen scope (UNEP, 2020). Special a en ion should
be a ibu ed o he ac ha o ganisa ions mus no become mo e ci cula a he
expense o ad e se social impac s, gi en he ela i e simplici y o ci cula i y as-
sessmen s. This key insigh is in con as wi h he ecen GCD, which pe ains only
o p oduc and o ganisa ional claims o en i onmen al pe o mance, excluding any
conside a ions o social sus ainabili y impac s (EC, 2023). This p o ides an oppo -
uni y o academia o collec e idence which can ad oca e o he de elopmen o
he necessa y social-speci ic c i e ia wi hin he GCD, no only o educe ins ances
o g eenwashing wi hin social- ela ed claims bu o ac ually encou age i ms o
communica e subs an ia ed claims o social sus ainabili y.
As he CE is being inc easingly in eg a ed wi hin Eu opean and in e na ional
sus ainable inance policies (EC, 2020), s udies should in es iga e he implica ions
o CE implemen a ion on exis ing isk iden i ica ion and managemen p ocesses.
In pa icula , hese implica ions should be connec ed o s eams o esea ch on sus-
ainabili y ade-o s and due diligence p ocesses. This will help o p o ide cla i y
on he assump ion ha ci cula p ac ices a e always sus ainable.
Ano he po en ial esea ch s and could ocus on he ole o s a egic pa ne s
o implemen ing assessmen me hods in CIFNs, including pa ne s wi hin he ne -
wo k and ex e nal knowledge pa ne s, o be e unde s and he p ocess o o gani-
sa ional lea ning.
Finally, he ole o LCT-based assessmen app oaches i sel can be mo e ho -
oughly analysed om a sociological pe spec i e. Se e al schola s (e.g. Bai z e al.,
2013; F eidbe g, 2018; Nie o e al., 2021; P yshlaki sky and Sea cy, 2021) ha e
s a ed o iew he assessmen s as mo e han me e ools, and in ac as calcula i e
de ices wi h he powe o con ince o he ac o s o he e idence-based supe io i y
o a po en ial s a egy. LCT assessmen app oaches ha e igh ly been called he
bes me hodologies a ailable o e alua e sus ainabili y aspec s in a CE con ex . Ye
o ensu e hei con inued e ec i eness and alidi y, i is c ucial o also pay a en-
ion o how hey a e applied and alked abou by p ac i ione s.
114 A. Raggi, H. D oege, K. Op e kuch e al.
5.8 Conclusions
The pa h owa ds ci cula p ocesses and sys ems has ecen ly aken on an inc eas-
ingly impo an ole, bo h o p i a e sec o companies and public o ganisa ions,
and is o en equa ed wi h a pa h owa ds sus ainabili y. Howe e , i has been high-
ligh ed ha ci cula p ac ices migh no ansla e in o imp o emen s in all aspec s
o he a ious dimensions o sus ainabili y (economic, social, en i onmen al and
ins i u ional/go e nance). Hence, he e is a need o adop ing ad hoc assessmen s
o he sus ainabili y o each speci ic ci cula sys em be o e p omo ing i s di usion.
The e o e, alongside he app oaches o measu ing ci cula i y as such, o en
based on echnical indica o s o e iciency o use and eco e y o ma e ials, i is
necessa y o adop sus ainabili y assessmen me hods ha a e based on he LCT,
such as LCA and ela ed me hods. These a e ecognised as adop ing holis ic and
mul i-c i e ia app oaches ha allow use s o a oid p oblem shi ing om one as-
pec o sus ainabili y o ano he , om one ype o impac o ano he , and om one
phase o he li e cycle o a p oduc o p ocess o ano he .
These eliable and accu a e me hods a e consolida ed and a e also well sui ed
o he e alua ion o ci cula sys ems in he con ex o in e - i m ne wo ks, as also
e ealed h ough a su ey conduc ed among a sample o I alian and Du ch com-
panies a he cu ing edge o he implemen a ion o ci cula p ac ices. F om his
su ey, i also eme ged ha social assessmen is less widesp ead because o a lack
o expe ise and s anda ds.
The adop ion o LCT assessmen app oaches is also acili a ed by he exis ence
o ela ionships o mu ual us and collabo a ion be ween o ganisa ions in a sup-
ply chain o ci cula ne wo k. Al hough, on he one hand, hese me hods gene ally
mee he a ious c i e ia iden i ied o sound sus ainabili y assessmen , on he o he
hand hey a e pa icula ly esou ce- equi ing, and he e o e a e no always wi hin
he each o any o ganisa ion. P ecisely o encou age companies o adop e alua-
ion app oaches o hei CE s a egies, a speci ic holis ic and mul idimensional
SCEIA amewo k was de eloped (see Chap e 4 in his olume).
LCT assessmen should be embedded in local con ex s by suppo ing hem
wi h sociological analyses, e.g. using he ANT o model end-o -li e scena ios. Fu -
he mo e, LCT-based me hods should be acknowledged as calcula ion de ices in
decision-making p ocesses. I is essen ial o be anspa en abou hei limi a ions,
including he ac ha hey conside a p ede ined, albei ela i ely b oad, ange o
impac ca ego ies and he ac ha hey p esen elemen s o subjec i i y linked o
he modelling choices o p ac i ione s.
Mos o he p oposed ci cula i y assessmen app oaches a e o ien ed owa ds
in e nal uses in o ganisa ions, such as s a egic imp o emen . Rega ding he ex-
e nal communica ion o hese esul s, he connec ion be ween CE assessmen and
co po a e sus ainabili y epo ing is less s udied. Recen ly he e has been an e ol -
ing clima e o CE disclosu e due o inc easing egula ion in his a ea, especially a
he Eu opean le el. Fu he mo e, ea ly e idence sugges s ha companies a e expe-
iencing a numbe o bene i s when ex e nally communica ing hei CE ac i i ies.
Assessmen app oaches and me hods o a ci cula economy 115
Howe e , companies disclosing hei CE ac i i ies in sus ainabili y epo s mos
o en desc ibe hem quali a i ely and do no make clea connec ions wi h sus ain-
abili y. In o he wo ds, CE is o en only implici ly linked o sus ainabili y aspec s,
e ealing an oppo uni y o epo ing ends o imp o e. In addi ion, he e is a
need o educa e consume s abou he ad an ages and impo ance o he CE wi hin
an o ganisa ion’s p oduc s and ope a ions.
Alongside he p i a e sec o , he assessmen o CE ac i i ies is also becoming
inc easingly popula in he public sec o , whe e i can ake place a he mac o, meso
and mic o le el. Speci ically, as ega ds he mic o le el, unlike wha happens in
p i a e companies, he e a e s ill oo ew ools o suppo public o ganisa ions. To
o e come his gap, a speci ic and easy- o-implemen e alua ion amewo k has
been de eloped by he C es ing p ojec h ough a pa icipa o y app oach. Tha
amewo k, which conside s a ious componen s, including he de ini ion o he
e alua ion sys em and elemen s, he iden i ica ion o CE a ge s and ela ed indica-
o s, can suppo public adminis a ion o ganisa ions on hei jou ney owa ds ci -
cula i y. Howe e , e en in his a ea, he e is s ill a need o e i y he sus ainabili y
o he ci cula solu ions adop ed, as well as he need o unde s and he ela ion-
ship be ween CE assessmen and sus ainabili y assessmen . Addi ionally, in ol ing
s akeholde s o ob ain a sec o -speci ic pe spec i e o CE assessmen and add ess-
ing hei iews, knowledge and needs will con ibu e o a use - iendly and accep -
able assessmen . This collabo a i e in ol emen should be a undamen al pilla o
he assessmen ini ia i es.
Wha e e he e e ence sec o , ci cula sys ems a e complex and highly con ex -
dependen sys ems, which in ol e di e en ac o s and o ganisa ions. Fu he mo e,
hei ela ionship o sus ainabili y aspec s is no always ob ious and clea ly de-
ined. We he e o e need sui able app oaches and me hods o cap u e such com-
plexi y while assessing ci cula i y and i s impac s on sus ainabili y. Those me hods
should, on he one hand, gua an ee eliabili y and accu acy; howe e , on he o he
hand, hey may equi e echnical skills, human and inancial esou ces, as well as
an adequa e cul u al a i ude, ha a e no always p esen in o ganisa ions.
I is he e o e desi able o de elop syne gies, h ough collabo a ion among
s akeholde s, o demons a e he e ec i eness o hese assessmen and epo ing
p ac ices, p omo ing hei unde s anding, as well as o he de elopmen o simpli-
ied ools, while main aining an adequa e deg ee o eliabili y.
Re e ences
Alghababsheh, M. and Gallea , D. (2020) Socially sus ainable supply chain managemen
and supplie s’ social pe o mance: The ole o social capi al. Jou nal o Business E hics.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10551-020-04525-1
Alhola, K., Ryding, S.O., Salmenpe ä, H. and Busch, N.J. (2019) Exploi ing he po en ial o
public p ocu emen : oppo uni ies o ci cula economy. Jou nal o Indus ial Ecology,
23(1), 96–109. h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/jiec.12770
Bai z, M., Alb ech , S., B aune , E., B oadben , C., Cas ellan, G., Con a h, P., Fa a, J.,
Finkbeine , M., Fische , M., Fullana i Palme , P., K inke, S., Le oy, C., Loebel, O.,
122 A. Raggi, H. D oege, K. Op e kuch e al.
Wo ld Business Council o Sus ainable De elopmen (WBCSD) (2018) Ci cula Me ics -
Landscape Analysis. h ps://www.wbcsd.o g/P og ams/Ci cula -Economy/Me ics-
Measu emen /Resou ces/Landscape-analysis
Wo ld Business Council o Sus ainable De elopmen (WBCSD) (2019) Repo ing Ma e s.
h ps://www.wbcsd.o g/ esou ces/ epo ing-ma e s-2019/ (Accessed 7 July 2024)
Webe , M. (2008) Economy and Socie y: An Ou line o In e p e i e Sociology, ol. 2. Wiley,
pp. 24–37.
Xu, L., Jia, F., Yan, F. and Chen, L. (2022) Ci cula p ocu emen : A sys ema ic li e a u e
e iew. Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion, 365, 132845. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jclep o.
2022.132845
Zinck, S., Ayed, A.-C., Nie o, M., Head, M., Wellme , F.-W., Scholz, R.W. and Mo el, S.
(2018) Li e cycle managemen app oaches o suppo ci cula economy. In E. Bene o, K.
Ge icke and M. Gui on (eds), Designing Sus ainable Technologies, P oduc s and Poli-
cies: F om Science o Inno a ion. Sp inge In e na ional Publishing, pp. 3–9. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1007/978-3-319-66981-6_1

DOI: 10.4324/9781003295631-6
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license.
6
SOCIO-SPATIAL DIMENSIONS
OFACIRCULAR ECONOMY
Pauline Deu z, And ew E.G. Jonas, Sab ina B ullo ,
Ma in Calis o F ian , Małgo za a Pusz,
Aodhan Newsholme, San iago Pe ez,
Hea he A. Roge s and Kaus ubh Thapa
6.1 In oduc ion
In e es in he ans o ma i e po en ial o a ci cula economy (CE) has emphasised
economic and en i onmen al bene i s wi h ela i ely li le a en ion paid o how he
changes an icipa ed migh be dis ibu ed ei he spa ially o socially. Gi en ha eco-
nomic ac i i y is socially cons uc ed in and ac oss space – in speci ic places and
egions as well as globally – i ollows ha ac i i ies con ibu ing o a CE always
ope a e wi hin, and a e shaped by, di e en socio-spa ial con ex s. Ye he di e -
ence ha place and space make o he de elopmen o a CE a ely ecei es explici
a en ion in he li e a u e. The e a e calls o ensu ing a egionally ‘jus ’ ansi ion
(S e is and Felli, 2020), e.g. om he Eu opean Commission (2019), wi h assu -
ances which imply ecogni ion o socio-spa ial inequali ies. The e has also been
g owing in e es in he ole o he CE in global de elopmen (e.g. de Souza Campos
e al., 2023), bu likewise la gely wi hou an explici ly geog aphic ocus.
The social dimensions o he CE ha e s a ed o ecei e signi ican heo e ical
a en ion (Mies and Gold, 2021; Valencia e al., 2023), bu so a he e is a lack o
signi ican empi ically based esea ch o suppo he inc easing associa ion o he
CE wi h social ambi ion in academic de ini ions (Ki chhe e al., 2023). En i on-
men al policies can indeed b ing social and economic bene i s, bu wi h unce -
ain edis ibu i e impac s – e ec s on di e en social g oups will a y (Fulle on,
2011). Fu he mo e, he e a e une en socio-spa ial ou comes, wi h an eme ging
economic ocus (such as CE o bioeconomy) gene a ing a new a ea o compe i ion
be ween places while ep oducing a he han emo ing he con adic o y in e es s
be ween employe s and employees cha ac e is ic o he global capi alis economy
(Deu z, 2014). Mo eo e , while academics may ha e social aspi a ions o a CE,
his is no necessa ily he ocus o policymake s (see Chap e 3 in his olume).
124 P. Deu z, A. E. G. Jonas, S. B ullo e al.
Fu he mo e, he impac s o na ional-scale policies need o be examined a smalle
scales (Bou din e al., 2022); mo e a en ion is needed o unde s and he e ec s
o and ela ionships wi h CE policies a a la ge scale (G egson e al., 2015). The
complexi y o socio-spa ial e ec s, including c oss-scala in luences, ela ing CE
policies and p ac ices has been neglec ed in CE esea ch, which ends o be ou ed
in speci ic e i o ies. He e we coun e ac ha sho coming by d awing on a num-
be o C es ing s udies.
This chap e desc ibes and examines examples o CE policies and p ac ices in
pa icula places and hei ela ionship o he wide egional, na ional and global
poli ical economy. We he eby seek o unco e how local o place-speci ic ac-
o s a e in luencing, o a e in luenced by, he CE; how in u n hose ac o s may
be in luenced by p ocesses a wo k a wide scales; and o assess socio-spa ial
edis ibu ion ac oss and be ween scales. The chap e d aws on p ojec case s ud-
ies o plans and p oposals o he implemen a ion o a CE in di e se places and
egional se ings. In so doing, he chap e add esses ou spa ial scales ela ing o
he di e en con ex s: neighbou hood-scale sho -loop CE p ac ices (Hull, Uni ed
Kingdom, G az, Aus ia, and San iago, Chile); ci y-scale policies o he CE (com-
pa ing Ams e dam, Copenhagen, Glasgow); egional policies o long-loop CE
and indus ial engagemen ( he UK, F ance, Aus ia); and global-scale impac s o
Eu opean-scale ex ended p oduce esponsibili y policies (Nige ia and Vie nam).
6.2 Space, place and he ci cula economy
Fo geog aphe s, places o en ha e ma e ial signi icance and meaning ex ending
well beyond hei immedia e e i o ial bounda ies. Place and e i o y ha e a com-
plica ed ela ionship wi h each o he inso a as he esiden s o a place will ha e
ma e ial and meaning ul a achmen s e lec ing he expe ience bo h o li ing he e
and hei connec ions wi h o he places (Massey, 1991; C esswell, 2014). Busi-
nesses and o ganisa ions, including e i o ially de ined o ganisa ions such as lo-
cal go e nmen bodies, likewise ha e complex in e es s in, and pe spec i es on,
places. These e lec iews o hei di e en b anches and o hei employees as
well as hose ela ing o ins i u ional memo y and simila ‘un aded in e dependen-
cies’ (S o pe , 1995). Pe spec i es may in u n e lec connec ions ac oss space and
scale (Cox and Mai , 1998; Coe e al., 2008). E en he physical bounda ies o a
place can a y acco ding o di e en local and egional unc ions (Wa naby, 2009).
Places a e hus simul aneously in luenced by socie al (and na u al) p ocesses bo h
wi hin and ex ending beyond hei immedia e e i o y, including s a e policies a
di e en scales (Jonas, 2024). When conside ed oge he , place, e i o y and scale
a e disc e e ye o e lapping concep s ha a e o en used in e changeably o de-
sc ibe he complexi y o socie al p ocesses ope a ing wi hin, a ound and h ough
space (Jessop e al., 2008).
While he speci ic combina ion o mo e o less global socie al p ocesses and
ci cums ances seldom maps uni o mly on o di e en speci ic places, e i o ies and
Socio-spa ial dimensions o a ci cula economy 125
scales (especially a he global scale), he unde lying socie al issues, condi ions and
cons ain s can be simila – and hese in u n can be illumina ed by a de ailed s udy
o pa icula places (Cox, 2021). Spa ial con ex in luences socio-en i onmen al
ou comes no wi hs anding hei echnical simila i ies (e.g. Deu z e al., 2015). Spa-
ial analyses o CE end o ocus on he e i o y o scale o he place in ques ion
as delimi ed by ju isdic ional bounda ies (be hese u ban, egional o po en ially
na ional o sup ana ional in he case o he Eu opean Union – EU; see, o exam-
ple, Colombo e al., 2019; Johansson and Hen iksson, 2020; Williams, 2023). This
app oach, howe e , unde plays he mul i-scala ope a ion o socie al p ocesses as
add essed in he geog aphic li e a u e on place, e i o y and scale (Jonas, 2024),
hus con ibu ing o he p oblem o ‘me hodological e i o ialism’ (Jessop e al.,
2008) whe ein one scale (e.g. he local) is analy ically p i ileged a he expense o
knowledge o he wo kings o ano he (e.g. he global). G egson e al. (2015), o
example, conside how EU policy o he CE has implica ions beyond he Union
gi en in e na ional was e lows ha he policies seek o end by p omo ing loop
closing wi hin he bloc. Likewise, CE li e a u e (e.g. S ahel, 2013) ha idealises
he local scale o closing loops ends o unde play he ole o wide (e.g. egional)
collabo a i e ne wo ks o achie ing such a ansi ion. Con e sely, ocusing on a
gi en scale (especially na ional o abo e) can o e look spa ial a ia ions a smalle
scales. This calls in o ques ion he p ospec s o implemen ing a mo e socially and
spa ially encompassing ‘jus ansi ion’ o a CE.
Wi hin he ield o CE esea ch he e is eme ging in e es in app oaches o-
cused on ci ies and/o egions. Schola s ha e highligh ed he impo an ole ha
ci ies and u ban planning and go e nance can play in de eloping CE ini ia i es
and adap ing o clima e change (Pe i -Boix and Leipold, 2018; Campbell-Johns on
e al., 2019). Much o his wo k examines he po en ial challenges and ba ie s
ha ci ies (u ban adminis a ions) and hei s akeholde s ace when ansi ioning
o a CE. No ably, ci y CE policies end o ocus on he ypes o ini ia i es ela ing
o exis ing unc ions o ci ies (such as was e managemen , public heal h and sup-
po i e o company- acing economic de elopmen ) (Pe i -Boix and Leipold, 2018;
F a ini e al., 2019). Simila ly, egionally ocused wo k is also eme ging (Tapia
e al., 2021; Bou din e al., 2022) ha examines challenges acing policymake s,
such as ec ui ing companies o pa icipa e in indus ial symbiosis (exchange o
p e-consume esidues be ween di e en en i ies (Che ow, 2000; Rincón-Mo eno
e al., 2022). The scala ocus o his wo k e lec s he limi ed scope o di ec ly im-
pac app oaches beyond he spa ial scale o he e i o y, bu also exhibi s limi ed
e lec ion on unin en ional impac s.
Ci y- ocused as well as egional CE esea ch ends o concen a e on wha can
be e med op-down app oaches. These consis o ins i u ional change, such as
s a egy and policy decisions om public bodies ocused on p ojec s conce ned
wi h de eloping and acili a ing ma ke ini ia i es (Ghisellini e al., 2016; Liede
and Rashid, 2016). Con e sely, bo om-up change desc ibes company collabo a-
ions wi hin supply chains and also social mo emen s such as sha ing schemes
126 P. Deu z, A. E. G. Jonas, S. B ullo e al.
(Hobson and Lynch, 2016). The sho e -loop esou ce eco e y op ions such as e-
pai , euse and sha ing op ions (S ahel, 2013) a e commonly o e looked, o unde -
emphasised, in ci y- egional app oaches o he CE (e.g. Pe i -Boix and Leipold,
2018). Ne e heless, hese s a egies a e s a ing o a ac esea ch a en ion, some-
imes unde he heading o ‘di e se’ (no inancially d i en) economic app oaches
(Gibson- G aham, 2008; see, o example, Hobson and Lynch, 2016; Lekan and
Roge s, 2020) a he han in mains eam u ban o egional analyses.
This chap e epo s on aspec s o he C es ing p ojec ha ha e sough o ana-
lyse he socio-spa ial dimensions o he CE. The in en ion is ha by ca ying ou
spa ially si ua ed analyses o he local and egional de elopmen o di e en as-
pec s o he CE we can unco e he s uc u es, mechanisms and con ingen condi-
ions ha would, o could, be o mo e gene al applicabili y o knowledge o he
de elopmen o he CE a wide scales including he global.
6.3 Me hods
In his chap e we d aw on C es ing esea ch conduc ed unde bo h ‘place’ and
‘policy’ headings ha u ilise a ange o p ima ily quali a i e me hods including
documen analysis, s akeholde in e iews, wo kshops and he Delphi me hod.
Following a c i ical ealis philosophy, we seek o sepa a e he unde lying causal
mechanisms and con ingen condi ions ( hose ha a e place-speci ic as well as
hose ha ope a e ac oss mul iple scales; Saye , 2000). Using his app oach we can
s i e o unde s and gene al pa e ns om he expe iences o speci ic places and
egions; i sel a well-es ablished app oach in geog aphical esea ch (Cox, 2021).
Fu he mo e, wo king wi h mul iple scales enables us o gain an unde s anding
o hei in e ela ionships wi hou p ejudice o one o e ano he (Ollman, 2003;
Jessop e al., 2008).
Some compa isons a e made be ween case s udies conduc ed by he same pe -
son, while o he s d aw on case s udies conduc ed as sepa a e esea ch s udies.
Table 6.1 shows he di e en aspec s o he CE, along wi h hei scales, places and
e i o ies o ope a ion, which a e included in he s udies conside ed in his chap e .
The e is no space he e o p o ide de ails abou he me hods used so e e ences a e
p o ided ins ead. Gi en he la ge numbe o di e en places in ol ed, con ex ual
in o ma ion is p o ided in sec ion 6.4 alongside a discussion o he indings.
6.4 Findings and discussion
These a e p esen ed in e ms o he ou scales o he CE conside ed, which b oadly
co espond o he scales o policymaking and he unde lying gene a i e condi ions
(neighbou hood scale, u ban scale, egional policies, and global implica ions o
na ional/sup ana ional policies) wi h mul iple examples compa ed a each scale.
Al hough each scale p o ides a disc e e analy ical en y poin in o he CE, he ex-
amples also explo e in e -scala connec ions.
Socio-spa ial dimensions o a ci cula economy 127
6.4.1 Neighbou hood-scale: communi y-embedded
sho -loopCEs a egies
This sec ion examines ‘ac ually exis ing’ CE ini ia i es, which, in con as o he
policies discussed below, a e no necessa ily sel -de ined as CE ini ia i es. They
end o eme ge om al eady exis ing neighbou hood-based p ojec s, o ganisa ions
and/o social en e p ises embedded in hei communi ies. Wha he o ganisa ions in
his sec ion ha e in common is ha hey a e engaging wi h sho -loop CE s a egies
( epai , euse, epu pose – and o some ex en ecycling). Some o hese o ganisa-
ions engaging in CE ac i i ies a e no independen o local go e nmen in luence,
as will be shown, bu hey a e engaging in CE p ac ices because hey sui he o -
ganisa ions’ pu poses and capaci ies, a he han esponding o a ci y plan (i.e. hey
comp ise bo om-up ini ia i es). The ci ies used o his aspec o he esea ch a e
Hull, UK, G az, Aus ia and San iago, Chile.
Bo h G az and Hull a e manu ac u ing ci ies su ounded by a u al ag icul u al
economy. Hull (popula ion 267,010 in 2021; Hull Ci y Council, 2022), is a ma i ime
po ci y wi h an indus ial he i age linked o wa e as a means o impo , expo
and dispose o was e. While G az (es ima ed popula ion 305,404; Wo ld Popula-
ion Re iew, 2023a) is he capi al o he egion o S y ia, Hull is a s andalone local
au ho i y as he UK does no ha e a egional scale o go e nance. The hi d ci y,
San iago, was selec ed as a con as . I is he na ional capi al o Chile wi h a much
TABLE 6.1 Scales and app oaches o he CE p esen ed in his chap e , wi h me hods used
and e e ences o u he in o ma ion
CE aspec and
scale
Places and
e i o ies
Me hods Re e ence
Communi y-
embedded sho -
loop app oaches
( epai , euse,
epu posing)
Hull, UK, G az,
Aus ia, San iago,
Chile
In e iews Pusz, 2023
Roge s e al., 2024
U ban-scale CE
policies
Ams e dam,
Ne he lands,
Copenhagen,
Denma k,
Glasgow, UK
Policy analysis
Seconda y da a
o cha ac e ise
he ci ies
Calis o F ian
e al., 2023
Regional-scale
collabo a ions
o CE
de elopmen
No h Humbe side,
UK, S y ia,
Aus ia,
S asbou g, F ance
Documen
analysis, semi-
s uc u ed
in e iews
Newsholme, 2023;
Pe ez e al.,
2020
Global-scale
ma e ial lows
Vie nam, Nige ia Documen s,
in e iews,
wo kshops,
obse a ions
Thapa e al., 2023;
2024

128 P. Deu z, A. E. G. Jonas, S. B ullo e al.
la ge popula ion han he o he wo ci ies (es ima ed popula ion 6,903,392; Wo ld
Popula ion Re iew, 2023b) and is he dominan u ban cen e wi hin he Chilean
economy. Hull no ably includes some o he mos dep i ed neighbou hoods in he
UK, wi h a h i ing olun a y and communi y sec o . By con as , G az bene i s
om he g ea e social p o ec ions in Aus ia (sco ing 13.3% compa ed o he UK’s
18.6% po e y a e; Wo ld Popula ion Re iew, 2023c), and is missing he ex ensi e
and embedded po e y ound in Hull, whe e he e a e amilies wi h mul iple gen-
e a ions o wo klessness. The o e all le el o p ospe i y in Aus ia may con ibu e
o he ela i ely high pe capi a p oduc ion o was e o he EU. Howe e , i does
no indica e an absence o unde p i ileged esiden s, albei ha hey may be com-
pa a i ely hidden and po en ially he e o e missing ou on suppo o which hey
may be en i led (Eis eld and Seebaue , 2022). Al hough a high-income coun y
since 2012 by Wo ld Bank de ini ions, Chile has a much lowe pe capi a income
han he UK o Aus ia and a highe Gini co-e icien indica ing he social sho -
comings o appa en economic de elopmen in ecen yea s1 (Wo ld Bank, 2023).
The ci y is s ongly seg ega ed along class o income lines, wi h some neighbou -
hoods exhibi ing deep and i mly en enched po e y e-en o ced by ins i u ional
a angemen s (Dockemdo e al., 2000). F us a ions wi h his spa ially une en
de elopmen esul ed in an ou b eak o social un es ac oss Chile known as he
‘Es allido Social’ (Laing e al., 2019).
6.4.1.1 Ins i u ional a angemen s o communi y o ganisa ions/
socialen e p ises
Many, hough no all, o he o ganisa ions conside ed in his sec ion b oadly all
in o he ca ego y o social en e p ises (SEs). This e m encompasses a ange
o legal a angemen s and o ganisa ional o ms in di e en coun ies, which
ha e de eloped since he ea ly 2000s as a new o m o o ganisa ion along-
side mo e adi ional cha i ies. We adop he academic de ini ion o a SE as a
mission-d i en o ganisa ion ha may ha e a ‘business a m’ o he gene a ion
o income, bu which in es s ha income in a social and/o en i onmen al cause
o bene i o local communi ies (Longhu s e al., 2016). In exchange o hei
in es men o he common good, o ganisa ions may enjoy ax p i ileges and
o he simpli ica ions o he ba ie s o business in compa ison o egula com-
panies. In Chile and Aus ia, he e ha e been delibe a e ini ia i es o encou age
en i onmen ally d i en SEs; by con as in he UK he e a e ax incen i es o
egula (i.e. p o i -d i en) companies o in es in o ganisa ions deli e ing social
bene i s (Pusz, 2023).
O he o ganisa ions, no ably he small-scale epai companies in Hull, do no
necessa ily ha e he mo i a ion o communi y o en i onmen al bene i , hough
hese may be p esen (Roge s e al., 2024); none heless, hey a e embedded in
neighbou hoods ac oss he ci y. O ganisa ions s udied in Chile a e p ima ily led
by en ep eneu s ying o launch businesses d awing on CE s a egies, such as
Socio-spa ial dimensions o a ci cula economy 129
upcycling. These o ganisa ions a e p o ec ed by he s a us o SE unde Chilean
e ms (i.e. o hei en i onmen al bene i s). They a e no se ing ou wi h al uis ic
mo i es, albei ha hey may ha e in en ions o add essing social issues in he
u u e. C ucially, while he e a e many examples o mo e ‘al uis ic’ SEs in Chile,
he esea che s p ima ily engaged wi h hose Chilean SEs ha a ge inancially
p i ileged consume s, wi h he aim o c oss- e ilising ideas ac oss di e en socio-
spa ial con ex s (e.g. p oposing new business ideas/ci cula ac i i ies o be imple-
men ed by SEs in Hull; Pusz, 2023).
6.4.1.2 Ci cula ac i i ies
An o e iew o spaces whe e ci cula ac i i ies a e aking place, ci cula ing ma-
e ials and (co)p oduce s) o each ci y is shown in Figu e 6.1. This demons a es
he wide ange o neighbou hood and social con ex s in ol ed, anging om indi-
iduals’ homes o ins i u ional se ings such as p isons and schools, allo men s and
communi y spaces. Some o hese a e p o iding public se ices; o he s a e com-
muni y d i en (albei ha hey a e sanc ioned by local au ho i y policy, as in he
case o allo men s). Likewise, he indi iduals pa icipa ing ep esen a wide ange
o social g oupings – some a e explici ly disad an aged (p isone s, ex-o ende s,
he men ally disad an aged, he homeless), o he s a e de ined by cha ac e is ics
ha migh imply a le el o need depending on hei ci cums ances ( he elde ly,
e hnic mino i ies, women) and s ill o he s who a e appa en ly in ce ain ca ego ies
by choice (a isans, s uden s). Finally, a wide ange o ma e ials a e eused, con-
se ed o eco e ed by hese g oups. Some imes hese ac i i ies (a s and c a s)
a e unde aken o hei own sake, some imes o suppo , o o p o ide local cos
op ions (such as ood).
In G az, a de ailed case s udy was made o heidenspass – a p ojec un by an
associa ion es ablished o p o ide wo k o unemployed you h. A ange o CE ac-
i i ies a e unde aken, including he p epa a ion o meals o s a and cus ome s
om he unsold su plus o a la ge e aile , o epu posing/upcycling a ange o
ma e ials (including ehicle pa s, clo hes and u ni u e) in o goods wi h aes he ic
and economic alue (Lekan e al., 2021). In addi ion o he en i onmen al bene i s
o p e en ing ma e ials om going o land ill, he SE p o ides wo k expe ience
and skills o disad an aged you h. No ably, he la e comp ise a low-cos wo k-
o ce, which alongside he ac ha many o he inpu s a e dona ed, help o keep
heidenspass inancially iable. No all o he esou ces/cus ome s a e local – many
o i s e ie ed/ emade/ esold goods a e p oduc s o global p oduc ion sys ems.
The SE’s ela ionship o he ci y o G az is ia social se ices, i.e. wi h espec
o he wo k o ce. Rela ionships su ounding ma e ial supplies la gely occu wi h
companies (o he goods being dona ed). Those companies a e also he key cus om-
e s (in line wi h he ambi ions o Chilean en ep eneu s), paying, on a business-
o-business basis, p ime p ices o he image o en i onmen al and social ca e
con eyed in emanu ac u ed/upcycled goods.
130 P. Deu z, A. E. G. Jonas, S. B ullo e al.
FIGURE 6.1 An o e iew o ci cula spaces o ( e- and co-)p oduc ion, ci cula ing ma e ials and (co-)p oduce s, and gene a ed i ems in he
con ex o case s udy SEs in Hull (UK), G az (Aus ia) and San iago (Chile)
Sou ce: Designed by co-au ho (Pusz, 2023, p. 128).
Socio-spa ial dimensions o a ci cula economy 131
By way o compa ison, in Hull 31 pa icipa ing o ganisa ions we e s udied
anging om locally p edominan SEs ope a ing mul iple e ail ou le s (i.e. cha i y
shops in UK e minology) o hose ha a e hea ily dependen on a key indi idual.
The SEs ypically unc ion in mo e han one ield, bu a iously ocus on ood (six);
u ni u e ( i e); clo hing and o he ex iles ( i e); a s and c a s ( ou ); hygiene
(one); elec onics ( wo); cons uc ion/housing (six); mixed ( wo) sec o s (Pusz
e al., 2023). O hese, wo o he a s and c a s o ganisa ions a e de ined p ima ily
by hei a ge bene icia ies (i.e. he elde ly and au is ic people). These o ganisa-
ions wo k wi h a wide ange o social g oups, some imes mo e han one, namely
he elde ly, he disabled, he men ally s uggling, he homeless, ex-o ende s, p is-
one s, ulne able you h, e ugees and asylum seeke s. As wi h heidenspass, he e
a e SEs wi h close ela ionships o la ge co po a ions. In he case o Hull, his
also includes a la ge comme cial was e managemen company enabling one SE o
cap u e eusable i ems om a was e ecycling cen e, and local au ho i ies. While
companies ac as sou ces o unwan ed p oduc s ( a he han as cus ome s), local
au ho i ies o e SEs con ac s o p o ide a se ice (al hough many a e illing in
gaps in se ice deli e y o hei own acco d, possibly wi h inancial suppo ). The e
is a le el o compe i i eness and dis us be ween o ganisa ions, which a e p o ec-
i e o bo h hei geog aphic space in he own and hei emi . The CE is ypically a
means o an end (e.g. p o iding a o dable ood o consume goods, cheap ma e i-
als o c a o simila ac i i ies, o aising money o social ends by selling o he
public). SEs in Hull may also deli e social-ci cula alue ac oss he ci y h ough
concessiona y leases o ‘liabili y ans e s’, whe eby local au ho i ies en hei
p emises (i.e. su plus public sec o asse s) o mission-d i en SEs o a peppe co n
en p o ided ha hose p ope ies a e no used o p o i . None heless, such p op-
e ies in Hull a e o en in poo condi ion, en ailing high main enance and epai
cos s. P ope y leasing om companies hus seems o be a mo e iable al e na i e
o inancially cons ained SEs, especially in case hose companies can co e any
epai / e u bishing cos s.
A u he g oup o i e sel -employed epai e s we e in e iewed in Hull (Roge s
e al., 2024). Ha ing been wo king in hei espec i e ields o up o 25 yea s, hese
indi iduals we e no mo i a ed by he concep o he CE, bu we e none heless p o-
iding a se ice ha is a guably he ideal o a CE (S ahel, 2013), namely ex end-
ing p oduc li e and no jus keeping he p oduc s in use bu wi h he same owne
(minimising bo h ene gy and ansac ion cos s) and keeping bo h he p oduc and
he economic oppo uni y a ising om he CE in he same locali y. No ably, how-
e e , hese indi iduals al eady had he possibili y o aking on mo e business han
hey could manage, bu none heless we e ope a ing a he edges o inancial iabil-
i y and we e ei he oo busy o oo a emo ed om hei skill se o con empla e
aking on s a o expand hei business. This is in con as o c ea i e and usually
young en ep eneu s om San iago, albei ha hey we e engaged in sec o s o he
han epai , who we e looking o de elop hei businesses.